PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in Latin, as in English:

noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, preposition, interjection.
1. A NOUN is a word used to express the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
regina queen
fabula story

charta paper, map

Europa Europe

Nouns have gender:

number:
case:

insula island
sapientia wisdom

Masculine, Feminine, or Neuter

Singular or Plural
Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Ablative

2. A PRONOUN is a word used in the place of a noun.

is
ea
id
eam
eum

he
she
it
her
him

tu
ego
vos
nos
ei

you (sing.)
I
you (pl.)
we
they

The personal pronoun is not expressed if it is clear from the

context who is the subject of the
verb, since the verb ending indicates
the subject.

3. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to describe a noun.

amicus bonus
a good friend

puella pulchra
a beautiful girl

magnum templum
a large temple

4. A VERB is a word used to express action or state of being.

amant
sunt
vocamus

they love, they are loving, they do love

they are
we call, we are calling, we do call

5. An ADVERB is a word used to describe a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

ita thus
celeriter quickly

satis enough
plus more

primum first
tum then

6. A PREPOSITION introduces a phrase which consists of the preposition and its

object.
in silva in the forest

in caelum into the sky

cum amicis with friends

7. A CONJUNCTION is a connecting word used to join words, phrases, clauses or

sentences.
A conjunction can connect equal ideas (coordinate):
pueri et puellae boys and girls
A conjunction can connect unequal parts (subordinate):
Dum lacrimat, Troia ardet, While she weeps, Troy burns.
8. An INTERJECTION is a word showing strong feeling or emotion.
o! oh
eheu! alas
mehercule! by Hercules

P ARTS

OF S PEECH

Latin, as English, has eight parts of speech:

. NOUN
. PRONOUN
. ADJECTIVE
. VERB
. ADVERB
. CONJUNCTION
. PREPOSITION
. INTERJECTION
Noun - the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
. Gender: In English gender has faded for most nouns, except for special uses
(e.g., ships). Latin retains gender distinctions for all nouns, some natural (e.g.,
puella) and some grammatical (terra).
. Nouns are sometimes called substantives because they were once thought to
denote the substantia (essential nature) of a person or thing.
Pronoun - a word used in place of a noun.
. Personal pronoun - I, you, he, she, it, they, etc.
. Reflexive pronoun - refers to subject of sentence (He saw himself).
. Interrogative pronoun - Who, whom, whose, what?
. Demonstrative pronoun - This, that, these, those.
. Relative pronoun - Who, etc. (in subordinate clauses).
. Possessive pronoun - My, your, his, etc.
. Indefinite pronoun - Some(one), some(thing).
Adjective - a word that describes a noun or pronoun.
. Descriptive - terra pulchra (a beautiful land).
. Possessive - mater tua (your mother).
. Interrogative - quae dea . . . ? (what goddess . . . ?)
. Demonstrative - hoc consilium (this plan).
. Indefinite - aliqua spes (some hope).
Verb - a word that expresses an action or condition.
. Transitive verb - takes a direct object to complete its meaning. It necessarily
affects some person or thing or produces some result. Thus, the statements
interficio (I kill) or aedificio (I build) are not complete until it is clear whom I kill or
what I build.
. The person or thing affected or effected by the action of the verb is the
direct object and is always in the accusative case.

. Intransitive verb - does not require a direct object to complete its meaning. The
action of the verb does not "pass over" (transire) to another person or thing.

Thus, sum (I am), sto (I stand), curro (I run), cado (I am falling), sol lucet (the sun
is shining) would all be nonsensical if given a direct object.
. But many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive: I run/I run the
race. I can stand/ I can stand it no longer. As is clear in the last example,
this change from intransitive to transitive often is accomplished by a
change in basic meaning (stand vs. endure, bear) that seldom corresponds
to the Latin usage. Thus, sto means only "I stand" in Latin and is only
intransitive.
. Many verbs which are transitive in English were considered by the
Romans to be intransitive in force. Thus, "I spare" is considered by us
transitive and to require a direct object: "I spare my enemies". To the
Romans, however, the idea was intransitive and the person affected must
take an indirect object in the dative case: parco meis inimicis ("I am sparing
to my enemies").
Adverbs - a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
He fights well.
The fight was very long.
He lost too easily.
Conjunction - a word that joins words, phrases, or clauses.
. Coordinate - connects equal words, phrases, and clauses:
Over land and sea
Good or evil
I see but I don't understand.
. Subordinate - joins dependent clauses to the main idea of a sentence:
Although the night was dark, we found our way.
We found our way until the sun set.
We found our way because there was a full moon.
Preposition - a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and
another word in the sentence (in, on, towards, with, by, etc.).
. In Latin, as in English, prepositions are almost always placed before (praeposita)
the words they define.
. Many prepositions have become pre-fixed to verbs and modify their original
meaning: trans (across) + portare (to carry) = transportare (to carry across).
Often the preposition is modified for ease of pronunciation, as in in +
portare = importare = to carry in. This is known as assimilation.
Interjection - an expression of emotion, thrown in (interiecta) among, but
grammatically independent of, the other words of the sentence.
Alas, poor Yorick, I knew him.
Of the eight parts of speech in Latin, 5 are inflected (noun, pronoun, adjective, verb,
adverb); the other 3 (conjunction, preposition, and interjection) are invariable.

THE USE OF CASES

Cases in Latin have specific grammatical functions, which must be
learned in order to properly understand Latin sentences (which are not
dependent, as English sentences are, on word order). The following case
uses are fundamental:
Nominative:
Subject of a sentence.
Iuppiter circumspectat : Jupiter looks around.
Iuppiter is the subject (i.e., the actor) of this simple sentence and is in the
nominative.

Predicate nominative (with linking verb to be to seem to

appear, etc.).
Iuppiter est deus : Jupiter is a god.

The predicate noun deus further defines the subject and is in the nominative.

Iuppiter erat benignus : Jupiter was kind.

The predicate adjective benignus further describes the subject and is in the
nominative.

Genitive:
Genitive of possession: expresses simple possession.
Regia reginae magna erat : The palace of the queen was large.
Genitive of description: attributes a quality to a noun.
Diana dea magnae sapientiae est : Diana is a goddess of great wisdom.
This genitive is normally accompanied by an adjective.

Genitive with certain adjectives:

dignus, -a, -um + gen. = worthy (of)
Delectamenta sunt pretiosa sed digna pretii : The delights are costly but worth
the price.
N.B. dignus may also govern the ablative case.

plenus, -a, -um + gen. = full (of)

Oppidum olim plenum virorum erat : The town was once full of men.

peritus, -a, -um + gen. = skilled (in), expert (in)

Vir peritus sagittarum est : The man is skilled with arrows.
N.B.: peritus may also govern the accusative and ablative case.

Partitive Genitive (Genitive of the Whole)

A genitive is used to denote the whole to which a part belongs.
Deis partem cibi dederunt : They gave part of the food to the gods.

Dative:
Dative of indirect object.
Dei dona viris dederunt : The gods gave gifts to the men.
Dative of possession:
Nomen mihi Marcus est : My name is Mark.

Unus filius Latonae erat : Latona had one son.

Dative with certain adjectives:
benignus, -a, -um + dat. = kind (to)
Iuppiter erat filio benignus : Jupiter was kind to his son.

carus, -a, -um + dat. = dear (to)

Terra deo cara erat : The land was dear to the god.

gratus, -a, -um + dat. = pleasing (to)

Nymphae deis gratae sunt : Nymphs are pleasing to the gods.

idoneus, -a, -um + dat. = suitable (for)

Tempus idoneum poenis exspectavit : She awaited a suitable time for
punishment.

Dative with certain verbs:

praesto, -are, -stiti, -stitum + dat. = to surpass
Cur Latona mihi praestat : Why does Latona surpass me?

impero, -are + dat. = to command, order

Accusative:
Direct Object:
Poeta fabulas narravit : The poet told stories.
Accusative with prepositions:
ad + acc. = to, toward, near
per + acc. = through
prope + acc. = near, close to
trans. + acc. = across
propter + acc. = on account of, because of
post + acc. = after
inter + acc. = between, among
in + acc. = into
Subject Accusative in Indirect Speech (with Infinitive):
Minerva monstrat se deam esse : Minerva shows that she is a
goddess.
Deos appropinquare video : I see that the gods are approaching.
Ablative:
Ablative of Means:
Phoebus liberos eius sagittis necavit : Phoebus killed her children with
(by means of) arrows.
Ablative with prepositions:
cum + abl. = with
sine + abl. = without
de + abl. = about, concerning
a (ab) + abl. = from, away from, by
pro + abl. = in front of, before
in + abl. = in, on

S UMMARY OF CASE USES

Nominative
1. Subject of a verb
Puer currunt. The boys are running.
2. Predicate Nominative or Subjective Complement
Caesar erat consul. Caesar was consul.
Puer appelltur Mrcus. The boy is called Marcus.
Vocative
1. For direct address
Ven, Lc, ad villam. Come to the farmhouse, Lucius.
Genitive
1. Of possession
Mtrs puellrum adsunt. The girls' mothers are here.
2. Objective
Noster timor bell est magnus. Our fear of the war is great.
3. Partitive
Pars urbis est pulchra. Part of the city is beautiful.
Dative
1. Of the indirect object
Equitibus equs dat. He is giving horses to the horsemen.
Accusative
1. Of the direct object
Exercitum vide. I see an army.
2. Of place to which
Ad oppidum veniunt. They are coming to the town.
3. Predicate Accusative (Objective Complement)
Flium meum vocv Lucium. I have called my son Lucius.
4. Of extent of space
Tria mlia passuum cucurr. I ran three miles.
5. Of duration of time
Dus hors mnsit. He waited two hours.

Ablative
Showing separation:
1. Of place from which
Ab nsul navigmus. We are sailing from the island.
2. Of separation
Cvs timre libervit. He freed the citizens from fear.
3. Of personal agent
Hoc factum est Caesare. This was done by Caesar.
Showing location
1. Of place where
In urbe manet. He is staying in the city.
2. Of time when
Terti hr discessrunt. They left at the third hour.
3. Of time within which
Tribus dibus discdmus. We shall leave within three days.
Showing instrument or circumstances
1. Of means or instrument
Tl vulnertus est. He was wounded by a weapon.
2. Of accompaniment
Vn cum mes amcs. I came with my friends.
3. Of manner
Dnum magn gaudi accpit. He received the gift with great joy.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS
In English, the relationship between words in a sentence depends primarily on word
order. The difference between the god desires the girl and the girl desires the god is
immediately apparent to us. Latin does not depend on word order for basic meaning,
but on inflections (changes in the endings of words) to indicate the function of words
within a sentence.
Thus the god desires the girl can be expressed in Latin deus puellam desiderat, puellam deus
desiderat, or desiderat puellam deus without any change in basic meaning. The accusative
ending of puellam shows that the girl is being acted upon (i.e., is the object of the verb) and
is not the actor (i.e., the subject of the verb). Similarly, the nominative form of deus shows
that the god is the actor (agent) in the sentence, not the object of the verb.

The inflection of nouns is called declension. The individual declensions are called cases,
and together they form the case system. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participles
are declined in six Cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, and vocative and
two Numbers (singular and plural). (The locative, an archaic case, existed in the classical
period only for a few words).
. Nominative

Indicates the subject of a sentence. (The boy loves the book).

. Genitive

Indicates possession. (The boy loves the girls book).

. Dative

Indicates indirect object. (The boy gave the book to the girl).

. Accusative

Indicates direct object. (The boy loves the book).

. Ablative

Answers the questions from where? by what means? how? from what
cause? in what manner? when? or where?

The ablative is used to show separation (from), instrumentality or

means (by, with), accompaniment (with), or locality (at). It is often
used with a preposition: The boy went to the store with the girl.

. Vocative

Used for direct address: Son, pick up the book.

. Locative

Also answers the question where? in what place?

In classical Latin the locative was nearly obsolete, replaced by the

ablative of location, and was confined to cities, small islands, and a
few others words (Romae, at Rome; domi, at home; ruri, in the country;
humi, on the ground).

Because the possible relationships between words far exceed six or seven cases, Latin
uses other devices to vary meaning:
. Prepositions are common with the accusative and ablative cases, with special
meanings (trans flumen, across the river; coram populo, in the presence of the
people).
.The cases themselves serve different functions, the genitive, dative, and ablative
being particularly rich in meaning.
For example, even in English the phrase "man of steel" does not imply literal
possession (i.e., it doesn't mean "the steel's man"), but is a genitive of description.
Similarly puella magnae sapientiae ("a girl of great wisdom") is a genitive of description,
not of possession.

. Verbs sometimes "govern" or require the use of a particular case, often with
idiomatic meaning. These must be learned as they are encountered.

FIRST DECLENSION NOUNS

(-a)
Formation: Nouns of the First Declension are declined thus:
Singular
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

-a
-ae
-ae
-am
-

Plural
-ae
-rum
-s
-s
-s

N.B.: The long - of the ablative singular distinguishes it from the nominative
singular, which has a short -a.
Example:
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

silva (the forest)

silvae (of the forest)
silvae (to the forest)
silvam (the forest)
silv (in or by the forest)

silvae (the forests)

silvrum (of the forests)
silvs (to the forests)
silvs (the forests)
silvs (in or by the forests)

N.B.: Because Latin has no article (the or an), silva may mean the forest, a forest, or simply
forest.

Gender: Nouns of the first declension are overwhelmingly feminine.

A very few nouns in the first declension are masculine:
1) Some natural genders such as agricola (farmer), nauta (sailor), prta (pirate),
pota (poet), scrba (scribe or clerk).
2) Some personal or family names: Catilna, Mrna, Dolbella, Scaevola.
3) And Hadria (the Adriatic).
Even fewer nouns are of common gender: incola (inhabitant) and advena (stranger).
Adjectives, of course, will always agree with gender: prta malus (evil pirate),
pota clrus (famous poet).

Dea and Flia: For the dative and ablative plural of dea (goddess) and flia
(daughter) the endings -bus (debus and flibus) are used to distinguish these
nouns from the second declension nouns deus (god) and flius (son).
Familis: An old genitive in -s is preserved in the word familis (of the family), often with
pater, mater, flius, or flia. Thus, pater familis (father of the family = head of the household).

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION NOUNS

1. First Declension Nouns are declined thus:
Singular
Plural
Nom.
-a
-ae
Gen.
-ae
-rum
Dat.
-ae
-s
Acc.
-am
-s
Abl.
-
-s
2. Second Declension Nouns are declined thus:
Masculine
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Singular

Plural

-us (-er)
-
-
-um
-

-
-rum
-s
-s
-s

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Neuter
Singular

Plural

-um
-
-
-um
-

-a
-rum
-s
-a
-s

Some Second Declension nouns ending in -er will retain the e, such as (puer,
puer). Others will drop the e (ager, agr).
Memorize the following regularities:
1. The Dative and Ablative are always alike in the plural. In the First and
Second Declensions they end in -s.
2. The Accusative singular of all masculine and feminine nouns ends in -m
and the plural in -s.
3. In Neuters of all declensions, the Nominative and Accusative are always
alike, and in the plural end in -a.
4. The Genitive plural of all declensions always ends in -um.
5. The Nominative and Vocative are alike in all declensions, except for the
singular of Second Declension nouns and adjectives ending in -us, which
show -e in the Vocative: Et tu Brute?

THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS

1) Masculine and feminine third declension nouns are declined alike:

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Masculine

pater
patris
patr
patrem
patre

patrs
patrum
patribus
patrs
patribus

Feminine

vox
vcis
vc
vcem
vce

vcs
vcum
vcibus
vcs
vcibus

Third declension nouns have a variety of nominative endings, but the

genitive singular always ends in -is.
2) Neuter nouns differ only in the accusative singular and nominative
and accusative plural.
Neuter

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

nmen
nminis
nmin
nmen
nmine

nmina
nminum
nminibus
nmina
nminibus

3. I-Stems of the Third Declension:

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Masculine

Masculine & Feminine

nox
noctis
noct
noctem
nocte

nocts
noctium
noctibus
nocts
noctibus

Neuter

mare
maris
mar
mare
mar

maria
marium
maribus
maria
maribus

and feminine I-Stems carry the distinctive i in the genitive plural.

I-Stems carry the i in the ablative singular, the nominative, and genitive
accusative plural.

Neuter

I-Stems can be recognized by the following general rules:

1) Parisyllabic nouns (having the same number of syllables in nominative
and genitive singular) with the following exceptions:
Pater,
Sds

mter, frter, senex, iuvenis, canis have the genitive plural in -um.
(seat), mnsis (month), vts (bard) appear with both -um and -ium

2) Monosyllabic nouns (having one syllable in the nominative singular)

with two consonants before the -is of the genitive singlular. (pars,
partis, partium).
3) Neuter nouns in -e, -al, -ar (animal, animlis, animlium) decline like
mare.
Some Common I-Stem Nouns:
cvis, cvis, cvium (m.&f.) citizen
hostis, hostis, hostium (m.) enemy
nvis, nvis, nvium (f.) ship
fnis, fnis, fnium (f.) end;

pl.boundaries, territory
clades, cladis, cladium (f.) defeat
mls, mlis, molium (f.) mass, structure
ars, artis, artium (f.) art, skill
dns, dentis, dentium (m.) tooth

mors, mortis, mortium (f.) death

pars, partis, partium (f.) part, share
urbs, urbis, urbium (f.) city
nox, noctis, noctium (f.) night
arx, arcis, arcium (f.) citadel
mare, maris, marium (n.) sea
animal, animalis, animalium (n.) animal
exemplar, exemplaris, exemplarium (n.) copy

Pure I-Stems show the -i not only in the genitive plural, but also in the accusative
singular, ablative singular, and often in the accusative plural:
Thus: turris (f.) tower
turris
turris
turr
turrim
turr

turrs
turrium
turribus
turrs (or -s)
turribus

vs (f.) force, power

febris (f.) fever

Tiberis (m.) Tiber
puppis (f.) stern (of a ship)
pelvis (f.) basin,
secris (f.) axe
tussis (f.) cough
sitis (f.) thirst
restis (f.) rope

FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD DECLENSION

1. First Declension Nouns are declined thus:
Singular
-a
-ae
-ae
-am
-a

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Plural
-ae
-arum
-is
-as
-is

2. Second Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Masculine

Nom.
Gen. Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Singular

Plural

-us (-er)
-i
-o
-um
-o

-i
-orum
-is
-os
-is

Neuter

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Singular

Plural

-um
-i
-o
-um
-o

-a
-orum
-is
-a
-is

3. Third Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Masculine & Feminine

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Singular

Plural

-----is
-i
-em
-e

-es
-um
-ibus
-es
-ibus

Neuter
Singular
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

------is
-i
------e

Plural
-a
-um
-ibus
-a
-ibus

Remember the Neuter Rule:

The Nominative and the Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a.
Remember:
i) The Accusative singular always ends in -m for masculine and feminine
nouns.
ii) The Ablative singular always ends in a vowel.
ii) The Dative and Ablative plurals are always alike within each declension.

The Fourth Declension

Fourth declension nouns carry a characteristic -u- throughout their declension (except
in the dative and ablative plural) and are identified by the -s in the genitive singular.
Masculine
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Sing.
cursus
curss
cursu ()
cursum
curs

Neuter
Plur.
curss
cursuum
cursibus
curss
cursibus

Sing.
corn
corns
[corn]
corn
corn

Plur.
cornua
cornuum
cornibus
cornua
cornibus

Arcus (bow, arch), tribus (tribe) and quercus (oak) always show -ubus in the dative and ablative
plural. Artus (joint), lacus (lake), partus (birth), ver (spit), gen (knee) and a few others will
occasionally show it.

Gender: Fourth declension nouns are generally masculine, although a few feminines
and even fewer neuters appear. Feminine and masculine nouns are declined alike.
The following are the only common 4th Declension feminine nouns:
acus, -s, needle
anus, -s, old woman
domus, -s, house
ds, -um (plural), the Ides
manus, -s, hand
nurus, -s, daughter-in-law, young girl

pecus, -s (also, -), food, provisions

porticus, -s, colonnade, porch
socrus, -s, mother-in-law
specus, -s, cave
tribus, -s, tribe

The following are the only 4th Declension neuter nouns:

corn, -s, horn
gen, -s, knee
gel, -s, frost, chill

pec, -s, herd, flock

ver, -s, spit, tip of javelin
specus, -s, cave (also masc. and fem.)

Domus (f.), house, shows forms of both the 4th and 2nd declensions (but is always
feminine in gender).

The Fifth Declension

Fifth declension nouns carry a characteristic -e- and are identified by
the -e in the genitive singular.
Singular

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

rs
re
re
rem
r

Plural

rs
rrum
rbus
rs
rbus

Gender: All 5th declension nouns are feminine, except dies, and compounds of
dies, which are masculine. Dies, however, can also be feminine when it refers to a
specific day: constitt di, on the appointed day.
Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined fully. Most lack
plural forms, which are, however, found in the nominative or accusative in acies,
effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes.
The 5th declension noun dies is used to form certain common adverbs and
expressions of time:
hodie, today

pridie, the day before

Note the following common 5th declension nouns:

acis, -e (f), keenness, edge, line of battle
facis, - (f), shape, form, figure, face
effigis, - (f), an image, likeness, effigy
glacis, - (f), ice
fides, -e (f), pledge, trust, faith
sps, spe (f), hope
eluvis, - (f), flowing, discharge, flood
seris, - (f), row, chain, series; descent
specis, - (f), sight, view; shape, form

perendie, day after tomorrow

SUMMARY OF ABLATIVE USES

SHOWING LOCATION
1. Of place where
In urbe manet. He is staying in the city.
2. Of time when
Terti hr discessrunt. They left at the third hour.
3. Of time within which
Tribus dibus discdmus. We shall leave within three days.

SHOWING MEANS OR CIRCUMSTANCES

1. Of means or instrument
Tl vulnertus est. He was wounded by a weapon.
2. Of accompaniment
Vn cum mes amcs. I came with my friends.
3. Of manner
Dnum magn gaudi accpit. He received the gift with great joy.

SHOWING SEPARATION:
1. Of place from which
Ab nsul navigmus. We are sailing from the island.
2. Of separation
Cvs timre libervit. He freed the citizens from fear.
Defendimur a ferocibus Gallis. We are defended from the fierce Gauls.
3. Of personal agent
Hoc factum est Caesare. This was done by Caesar.

MISCELLANEOUS CASE USAGES:

1. Showing Comparison:
Haec via longior ill est. This road is longer than that one.
2. Showing Degree of Difference
Paul post discssit. He left a little later. (afterward by a little bit)
3. Ablative of Specifiction or Respect
Rex nomine erat. He was king in name (only).
4. Ablative of Cause
Hoc fc amre vestr. I did this from (out of, because of) love of you.

SUMMARY OF ABLATIVE USES

With Preposition
Fabulam de deis narrat. He is telling a story about the gods.
Ambulo cum amicis. I am walking with friends.
In urbe manet. He is staying in the city.
Ab insula navigamus. We are sailing from the island.
Place from which (without preposition)
Roma venit. He comes from Rome.
Time when (without a preposition)
Autumno folia de arboribus cadunt. In autumn leaves fall from the trees.
Time within which (without a preposition)
Tribus diebus discedeamus. We shall leave within three days.
Instrument or means (without a preposition)
Marcus pugno Titum pulsat. Marcus hits Titus with his fist.
Manner (sometimes with cum, often without)
Donum magno gaudio accipit. He receives the gift with great joy.
Caesar magna cum laude Romam intrat. Caesar enters Rome with great praise.
Separation (without preposition)
Cives timore liberat. He frees the citizens from fear.
Personal agent (always with a or ab and a passive verb)
Servus verberatur a domino. The slave is beaten by his master.
Comparison (without preposition)
Haec via longior illa est. This road is longer than that one.
Degree of Difference (without preposition)
Paulo post discedit. He leaves a little after. (afterwards by a little bit)
Specification or Respect (without preposition)
Rex nomine est. He is king in name (only).
Cause (without a preposition)
Hoc facio amore patriae. I do this out of (because of) love country.

Ablative Absolute (without preposition)

Urbe capta Aeneas fugit. The city having been captured, Aeneas flees.
Description (Quality) (without preposition)
Est puella eximia forma. She is a girl of exceptional beauty.
Source (Origin) (without preposition)
Dea natus est. He is goddess-born.
Nobili genere ortus est. He is high-born.
Price (without preposition)
Annulum decem sesteriis vendit. He sells the ring for 10 sesterces.
Route (without preposition)
Via Latina it. He is going by way of the Latin Road.

ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE
One of the most common uses of present and perfect participles in Latin is a
construction called the Ablative Absolute.
The ablatives of a participle and a noun (or pronoun) are used to form a
substitute for a subordinate clause defining the circumstances or situation in which
the action of the main verb occurs. The ablatives are only loosely connected
grammatically to the remainder of the sentence, hence its name absolute
(absoltus = free or unconnected).
An Ablative Absolute with a perfect passive participle was widely used in
classical Latin to express the cause or time of an action:
Hs verbs dicts, Caesar descdit. With these word having been said, Caesar departs.
Accepts litters, Caesar descdit. With the letter having been received, Caesar departs.
Lene vs, fminae discessrunt. With the lion having been seen, the women departed.

Equally common was an Ablative Absolute with a present active participle:

Lene adveniente, fmina discssit. With the lion approaching, the woman left.

On occasion, another noun may take the place of the participle in the Ablative
Absolute construction:
Caesare duce vincmus. With Caesar as leader, we shall conquer.

Note: The noun (or pronoun) expressed in the Ablative Absolute is never the subject of
the sentence. If we wish to say When she was departing, the woman saw the lion, we
cannot use the Ablative Absolute, because the subject of each clause (she and
woman) is the same. Instead, a simple participle must be used: Fmina discdns
lenem vdit.

Because the participle in an Ablative Absolute retains its verbal force, it may
govern its own direct object:
Duce milits vocante, hostes fgrunt. With the general calling his soldiers, the enemy fled.

PRONOUNS
Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. Pronouns have special declension forms,
which may vary between substantive and adjectival use. They are divided into seven
classes:
Personal Pronouns: as, ego, I.
Reflexive Pronouns: as, se, himself.
Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my.
Demonstrative Pronouns: as, his, this; ille, that.
Relative Pronouns: as, qui, who.
Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who?
Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.
I. Personal Pronouns:
ego, tu, I, you
II. Reflexive Pronouns:
sui, sibi, se, se, himself, herself, itself
III. Possessive Pronouns:
meus, tuus, suus, my, your, his, her, its
noster, vester, suus, our, your, their
IV. Demonstrative Pronouns:
is, ea, id, he, she, it; this, that
hic, hace, hoc, this
ille, illa, illud, that
ipse, ipsa, ipsum (emphatic), himself, herself, itself
idem, eadem, idem, the same
V. Relative Pronouns:
qui, quae, quod, who, which

VI. Interrogative Pronouns:

quis, quid, who, what?
VII. Indefinite Pronouns:
aliquis, aliqua, aliquid, someone, something
quidam, quaedam, quodam, a certain
quisque, quaeque, quodque, each
quisquam, quaequam, quodquam, anyone, anything
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever
quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, someone, something
uterque, utraque, utrumque, each (of two)
unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquodque, every single one

Personal Pronoun
1. Personal Pronoun is, ea, id (he, she, it):
Singular
Masc.

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Fem.

is
eius
e
eum
e

Plural
Neut.

ea
eius
e
eam
e

id
eius
e
id
e

Masc.

Fem.

e (i)
erum
es (is)
es
es (is)

eae
erum
es (is)
es
es (is)

Neut.

ea
erum
es (is)
ea
es (is)

The form of the personal pronoun is governed by its use in the sentence and will
show number, gender and case, as appropriate:
Puer eam pulsat. The boy beats her.
(Direct Object Accusative)
Puella eum pulsat. The girl beats him. (Direct Object Accusative)
Puella eos pulsat. The girl beats them. (Direct Object Accusative)

Imperative Mood
The imperative mood is used for commands and corresponds to our use of
go!, look!, come!, etc. Like English, the imperative mood does not show person or
(generally) tense; but, unlike English, number is distinguished between singular
and plural.
The singlular imperative is formed by dropping the -re from the infinitive:
vocre, to call
voc, call!

docre, to teach

discdere, to leave

venre, to come

doc, teach!

discde, leave!

ven, come!

The plural is formed as follows (note the third conjugation in particular);

vocte, call!

docte, teach!

discdite, leave!

vente, come!

D EMONSTRATIVE P RONOUNS

AND

ADJECTIVES

I. Hic, haec, hoc (this, these)

Singular (this)

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Plural (these)

Masc.

Fem.

Neut.

Masc.

Fem.

Neut.

hic
huius
huic
hunc
hc

haec
huius
huic
hanc
hc

hoc
huius
huic
hoc
hc

h
hrum
hs
hs
hs

hae
hrum
hs
hs
hs

haec
hrum
hs
haec
hs

II. Ille, illa, illud (that, those)

Singular (that)

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Plural (those)

Masc.

Fem.

Neut.

Masc.

ille
illus
ill
illum
ill

illa
illus
ill
illam
ill

illud
illus
ill
illud
ill

ill
illrum
ills
ills
ills

Fem.
illae
illrum
ills
ills
ills

Neut.
illa
illrum
ills
illa
ills

Demonstrative adjectives will, of course, agree with the noun they modify in
number, case and gender:
Puer has puellas pulsat - The boy beats these girls.
Puellae hos pueros pulsant - The girls beat these boys.
The demonstrative adjective may also act as a pronoun (in substitution for a
noun):
Puer has pulsat - The boy beats them (feminine).
Vir haec dicit - The man says these things (neuter plural).

Relative & Interrogative Pronoun

1. Relative Pronoun qui, quae, quod (who, that, which):
Masc.

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Singular
Fem.

qui
cuius
cui
quem
quo

quae
cuius
cui
quam
qua

Neut.

Masc.

Plural
Fem.

Neut.

quod
cuius
cui
quod
quo

qui
quorum
quibus
quos
quibus

quae
quarum
quibus
quas
quibus

quae
quorum
quibus
quae
quibus

The relative pronoun agrees with some word (its antecedent) expressed or
implied in a preceding clause. It agrees with its antecedent in gender and
number; but its case depends on its use in its own clause:
a) Video puellam quae in regia habitat. (I saw the girl who lives in the palace).

The relative pronoun quae is feminine singular because its antecedent (puellam) is
also feminine singular. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the
relative clause (the girl who lives in the palace).
b) Liber quem puellae dedi bonus est. (The book which I gave the girl is good).
The relative pronoun is masculine singular because its antecedent (liber) is masculine
singular. It is accusative, because it is the direct object in the relative clause. Note
that English often omits the relative pronoun, but it is always expressed in Latin.
c) Puellae quibus libros dedi callidae sunt. (The girls to whom I gave the books are clever).
The relative pronoun is feminine plural because its antecedent (puellae) is feminine
plural. It is dative, because it is the indirect object of dedi in the relative clause.

2. Interrogative Pronoun quis, quid (who?, what?):

Singular
Masc./ Fem. Neut.

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

quis
cuius
cui
quem
quo

quid
cuius
cui
quid
quo

Masc.

Plural
Fem.

Neut.

qui
quorum
quibus
quos
quibus

quae
quarum
quibus
quas
quibus

quae
quorum
quibus
quae
quibus

Most singular and all plural forms are identical to the relative pronoun.
3. Interrogative Adjective (what?)
The interrogative adjective is declined like the relative pronoun qui, quae,
quod. Carefully distinguish the meaning:
Quis es Minerva? Who is Minerva? (Interrogative Pronoun).
Quae dea est auctor amoris? What goddess is the author of love? (Interrogative Adjective)
Quid est consilium hostium? What is the plan of the enemy? (Interrogative Pronoun).
Quod consilium hostes habuerunt? What plan did the enemy have? (Interrogative
Adjective)

Conjugation of Verbs
The inflection of a verb is called a Conjugation. Most verb inflections in English have
disappeared, although we still distinguish between I go, he goes, etc. Latin, however,
retains full inflections for most verbs, the forms of which must be mastered in order to
distinguish meaning.
Through conjugation a verb expresses: Person, Number, Tense, Mood and Voice.
1. PERSON & NUMBER: A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. There
are Three Persons and Two Numbers, arranged thus:
1st person singular (I)
2nd person singular (you)
3rd person singular (he, she it)

1st person plural (we)

2nd person plural (you)
3rd person plural (they)

In English person and number normally cannot be determined without the aid of
pronouns (I, you, we, they, etc.) except in the 3rd pers. sing.: I go, you go, we go, they go;
but he goes.
Latin always distinguishes number and person: amo (I love), amas (you love) amat (he
loves), etc. Because person and number are contained in the endings themselves, the
personal pronouns (I, you, he, etc.) are used mainly for emphasis.
The personal endings in Latin distinguish the person and number of the verb, and must
be mastered early:
1st person singular
2nd person singular
3rd person singular

-o, -m
-s
-t

1st person plural

2nd person plural (you)
3rd person plural (they)

-mus
-tis
-nt

2. TENSE: Latin tenses have the same general meaning as the corresponding English
tenses:
Continued action:
Completed action:

Present:
Imperfect:
Future:
Perfect:
Pluperfect
Future Perfect

I love, I am loving, I do love.

I loved, I was loving, I did love.
I will love.
I have loved, I loved.
I had loved.
I will have loved.

Note that the emphatic (I do love) and the progressive (I am loving) tenses do not exist
as separate forms in Latin.
3. MOOD: Latin has four Moods: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive.
a) Indicative: The Indicative is used for statements and questions: I love that book. Are
you reading that book?

b) Subjunctive: The Subjunctive has many uses, including commands, conditions,

wishes, possibility, and dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English
indicative; frequently by auxiliary verbs indicating uncertainty or wish (may,
might, would, should); sometimes by the (now rare) subjunctive (I wish I were in
Rome); sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative.
c) Imperative: The Imperative is used to express command or exhortation: Go! He
shall be set free!
d) Infinitive: The Infinitive is chiefly used as an indeclinable noun (To err is human) or
as a complementary infinitive to complete the meaning of another verb (I want to
go).
Note that the basic idea of a verb expressed by the Infinitive is not limited
(infinitivus) by person or number (though it is limited by tense and voice).
4. VOICE: Latin has two Voices (Active and Passive) with uses corresponding to
English: I love (Active); I am loved (Passive).
a) The Active Voice expresses what the subject of the verb is or does: I am well. I love.
b) The Passive Voice expresses what is done to the subject of the verb: I am loved.
The subject "I" is no longer the actor in the sentence, but the recipient of the
action.
Note that only transitive verbs can have a full passive voice. A little thought
will show that such forms as "I live" or "we persevere" can have no meaning
in the passive voice. But meaning can attach to 3rd person singular forms of
some intransitive verbs: His life was lived well.
The Verb to Be: The verb "to be" is irregular in English and Latin. Learn the forms for
the Present Indicative:
sum
es
est

sumus
estis
sunt

Principal Parts: The complete conjugation of a verb can be obtained from its Principal
Parts, which must be memorized when a verb is first encountered. The Four Principal
Parts are:
1) Present Indicative, 1st pers. sing.
2) Infinitive
3) Perfect Indicative, 1st pers. sing.
4) Perfect Passive Participle.
Thus: amo (I love)
amare (to love)
amavi (I loved)
amatus (loved)

PERSONAL ENDINGS FOR V ERBS

Verbs in English take their meaning from the personal pronouns attached to
them: I walk and they walk mean different things. In Latin the personal
pronouns are not necessary to complete the meaning of the verb. Instead, the
meaning is determined by the endings attached to the verb stem. These
personal endings are used in virtually all tenses and must be memorized.
I. Learn the personal endings of Active Verbs:
Person

Singular

Plural

1st

-o (-m) (I)

-mus

(we)

2nd

-s

(you)

-tis

(you)

3rd

-t

(he, she it)

-nt

(they)

The only exception to this pattern is in the Perfect Tense, which has the
following personal endings:
-i
-isti
-it

-imus
-istis
-erunt

Note that even the Perfect Tense follows the regular pattern except in the 1st and
2nd person singular.
II. Learn the personal endings of Passive Verbs:
Person

Singular

Plural

1st

-r

(I)

-mur

(we)

2nd

-ris

(you)

-mini

(you)

3rd

-tur

(he, she it)

-ntur

(they)

VERBS: PERSONAL E NDINGS AND TENSE INDICATORS

I. Personal endings of Active Verbs:
Person

Singular

Plural

1st

-o (-m) (I)

-mus

(we)

2nd

-s

(you)

-tis

(you)

3rd

-t

(he, she it)

-nt

(they)

The only exception to this pattern is in the Perfect Tense, which has the following
personal endings:
-i
-isti
-it

-imus
-istis
-erunt

Note that even the Perfect Tense follows the regular pattern except in the 1st and 2nd
person singular.
II. Personal endings of Passive Verbs:
Person

Singular

Plural

1st

-r

(I)

-mur

(we)

2nd

-ris

(you)

-mini

(you)

3rd

-tur

(he, she it)

-ntur

(they)

III. Tense Indicators:

Indicative:
Imperfect:
Future:
Perfect:
Pluperfect:
Future Perfect

-ba-bi- for 1st & 2nd conjugations, -e- for 3rd & 4th conjugations.
-i, -isti, -it, -imus, -istis, -erunt (add to perfect stem).
-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant (add to perfect stem).
-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint (add to perfect stem).

Subjunctive:
Present tense:
Imperfect:
Pluperfect:
Perfect:

He beat a friar. (Characteristic vowels for the 4 conjugations).

Add personal endings to the infinitive.
-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent (add to perfect stem).
-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint (add to perfect stem).

Present Tense All Conjugations Active and Passive

Active Voice:
-o
-as
-at

-amus
-atis
-ant

Thus:

amo I love
amas you love
amat he loves

amamus we love
amatis you (pl.) love
amant they love

-eo
-es
-et

-emus
-etis
-ent

Thus: moneo I warn

mones you warn
monet he warns

monemus we warn
monetis you (pl.) warn
monent they warn

-o
-is
-it

-imus
-itis
-unt

Thus:

peto I seek
petis you seek
petit he seesk

petimus we seek
petitis you (pl.) seek
petunt they seek

-io
-|s
-it

-|mus
-|tis
-iunt

Thus:

venio I come
ven|s you come
venit he comes

ven|mus we come
ven|tis you (pl.) come
veniunt they come

Passive Voice:
-or
-ris
-tur

-mur
-mini
-ntur

Thus:
portor
portaris
portatur
portamur
portamini
portantur

doceor
doceris
docetur
docemur
docemini
docentur

mittor
mitteris
mittitur
mittimur
mittimini
mittuntur

capior
caperis
capitur
capimur
capimini
capiuntur

audior
audiris
auditur
audimur
audimini
audiuntur

FIRST & SECOND CONJUGATION VERBS

I. First Conjugation Verbs (-re) in the present tense are formed as follows:
-
-s
-at

-mus
-tis
-ant

Thus: am I love
ams you love
amat he loves

ammus we love
amtis you (pl.) love
amant they love

The Imperative is formed with - (sing.) and -te (pl.): am, amte.
Principal Parts: am, -re, -v, -tum
There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjugation, most formed directly from a noun or
adjective stem. Thus, arma, arms - arm, I arm; amor, love - am, I love. Their conjugation is
usually regular (like am, amre, amv, amtum) but note the following irregularities in the
3rd and 4th Principal Parts (those marked with * also have regular forms):
crep, -re, crepu*, crepitum - to make noise
cub, -re, cubu*, cubitum* - to lie down
d, dre, ded, datum - to give
dom, -re, domu, domitum - to subdue
fric, -re, fricu, frictum* - to rub
iuv, -re, iv, itum - to help
lav, re, lv, lautum* - to wash
mic, -re, micu, - to glitter

nec, -re, necu*, nectum - to kill

plic, -re, plicu*, plicitum - to fold
pt, -re, ptv, ptum - to drink
sec, -re, secu, sectum - to cut
son, -re, sonu, sonitum - to sound
st, stre, stet, statum - to stand
ton, -re, tonu, tonitum - to thunder
vet, -re, vetu, vetitum - to forbid, veto

II. Second Conjugation Verbs (-re) in the present tense are formed as follows:
-e
-s
-et

-mus
-tis
-ent

Thus: mone I warn

mons you warn
monet he warns

monmus we warn
montis you (pl.) warn
monent they warn

The Imperative is formed with - (sing.) and -te (pl.): mon, monte.
Principal Parts: mone, -re, -u, -itum.
There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conjugation, many of them verbs of condition
with corresponding noun and adjective forms (timor, fear; timidus, fearful, shy - time, -re,
timu, to fear). The Perfect Stem often ends (like mone and time) in -u, but -ev, -, -s, and
-x are also found. Note the following:
rde, -re, rs - to burn, be on fire
auge, -re, aux, auctum - to increase
fle, -re, flv, fltum - to weep
doce, -re, docu, doctum - to teach
iube, -re, iuss, iussum - to order
mane, -re, mans, mansum - to wait for
misce, -re, miscu, mixtum - to mix
move, -re, mv, mtum - to move

pende, -re, pepend, pnsum - to hang

persude -re, persus, persusum - to persuade
responde, -re, respond, responsum - to reply
rde, -re, rs, rsum - to laugh
sede, -re, sd, sessum - to sit
tene, -re, tenu, tentum - to hold
torque, -re, tors, tortum - to twist
vide, -re, vd, vsum - to see

THIRD CONJUGATION VERBS

Third Conjugation Verbs have the infinitive ending in -ere. (Note the difference
from the -ere of the 2d conjugation).
1. Present tense has the characteristic vowel -i:
-o
-is
-it

-imus
-itis
-unt

Thus:

peto
petis
petit

petimus
petitis
petunt

Note that the characteristic vowel -i- of the third conjugation in the present tense
changes to -unt in the 3rd person plural.
2. The Imperfect tense is completely regular (with the short -e- of the infinitive
lengthening to -e- before the characteristic -ba- ending):
petebam
petebas
petebat

petebamus
petebatis
petebant

3. The Future tense differs significantly from what we have seen in the first and
second conjugations. There the characteristic symbol was -bi-, inserted before
the personal ending. For the Third Conjugation the characteristic vowel is -e(with -am in the first personal singular):
petam
petes
petet

petemus
petetis
petent

4. The Perfect tenses (Perfect, Pluperfect and Future Perfect) are regular, forming
normally from the stem of the third principal part. The Perfect Stem, however,
varies widely. Note the following:
bibo, -ere, bibi, bibitum, to drink
claudo, -ere, clausi, clausum, to close
cresco, -ere, crevi, cretum, to grow
desisto, -ere, -stiti, -stitum, to desist, stop
dico, -ere, dixi, dictum, to say, speak
figo, -ere, fixi, fixum, to fasten, affix,
transfix
lego, -ere, legi, lectum, to read; gather;
choose

mitto, -ere, misi, missum, to send

pono, -ere, posui, positum, to put, place
peto, -ere, petivi, petitum, to seek, ask
quaero, -ere, quaesivi, quaesitum, to
seek, inquire
quaeso, -ere, to beg, ask
relinquo, -ere, reliqui, relictum, to leave
behind
traho, -ere, traxi, tractum, to draw, drag

A few verbs show reduplication in the Perfect Stem:

cado, -ere, cecidi, casum, to fall
caedo, -ere, cecidi, caesum, to cut
curro, -ere, cucurri, cursum, to run
disco, -ere, didici, to learn
fallo, -ere, fefelli, falsum, to deceive

parco, -ere, peperci, parsum, to spare

pello, -ere, pepuli, pulsum, to drive
tango, -ere, tetigi, tactum, to touch
tendo, -ere, tetendi, tentum or tensum,
to stretch

5. Third -io verbs: Some 3rd conjugation verbs end in -io in the 1st pers. sing.,
present tense. They show -iunt in the 3rd pers. pl., present tense. The -i- also
appears throughout the imperfect and the future tenses. The perfect tenses are
regular, formed from the stem of the third principal part. Note the paradigm for
facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, do:
Present

facio
facis
facit
facimus
facitis
faciunt

Imperfect

Future

Perfect

faciebam
faciebas
faciebat
faciebamus
faciebatis
faciebant

faciam
facies
faciet
faciemus
facietis
facient

feci
fecisti
fecit
fecimus
fecistis
fecerunt

Pluperfect

feceram
feceras
fecerat
feceramus
feceratis
fecerant

Fut. Perf.

fecero
feceris
fecerit
fecerimus
feceritis
fecerint

Note the following common third conjugation -io verbs:

facio, -ere, feci, factum, to make, do

fugio, -ere, fugi, fugitum, to flee

rapio, -ere, rapui, raptum, to seize,

carry off

FOURTH CONJUGATION VERBS

Fourth Conjugation Verbs have the infinitive ending in -ire.
1. Present Tense:
-io
-is
-it

-imus
-itis
-iunt

Thus:

venio
venis
venit

venimus
venitis
veniunt

Note that -i is the characteristic vowel of the fourth conjugation in the present tense,
changing to -iu in the 3rd person plural.

2. The Imperfect Tense has regular endings, but with the characteristic -i-:
veniebam
veniebas
veniebat

veniebamus
veniebatis
veniebant

3. The Future Tense also shows the characteristic -i-, as well as the future tense
sign -e- as in the 3rd conjugation (instead of the -bi- of the lst and 2d
conjugations). Note, however -iam in 1st person singular:
veniam
venies
veniet

veniemus
venietis
venient

4. The Perfect tenses (Perfect, Pluperfect and Future Perfect) are regular, forming
normally from the stem of the third principal part. Note the following:
aperio, -ire, aperui, apertum, to open
audio, -ire, -ivi, -itum, to hear
nescio, -ire, nescivi, nescitum, to be ignorant of,
not to know

Thus:

Perfect:

Pluperfect:

Future Perfect:

sentio, -ire, sensi, sensum, to feel, know, sense

venio, -ire, veni, ventum, to come
convenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, to meet, assemble
pervenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, to arrive

veni
venisti
venit

venimus
venistis
venerunt

veneram
veneras
venerat

veneramus
veneratis
venerant

venero
veneris
venerit

venerimus
veneritis
venerint

THE PASSIVE VOICE

Present Passive Voice: Latin use of the Active and Passive Voices corresponds
generally to the English use. The passive forms for present, imperfect and future
are based on present stems for all conjugations, with these personal endings:
-r
-ris
-tur
-re

-re

portor
portris
porttur
portmur
portmini
portantur

doceor
docris
doctur
docmur
docmin
docentur

-mur
-mini
-ntur
-ere
mittor
mitteris
mittitur
mittimur
mittimin
mittuntur

-ere (io)
capior
caperis
capitur
capimur
capimin
capiuntur

-re
audior
audris
audtur
audmur
audmin
audiuntur

Imperfect Passive: The imperfect passive is formed by inserting -ba-:

portbar
portbris
portbtur
portbmur
portbmin
portbantur

docbar
docbris
docbtur
docbmur
docbmin
docbantur

mittbar
mittbris
mittbtur
mittbmur
mittbmin
mittbantur

capibar
capibris
capibtur
capibmur
capibmin
capibantur

audibar
audibris
audibtur
audibmur
audibmin
audibantur

Future Passive: Formed by inserting -bi- for first and second conjugations, -- for
third and fourth:
portbor
portberis
portbitur
portbimur
portbimin
portbuntur

docbor
docberis
docbitur
docbimur
docbimin
docbuntur

mittar
mittris
mitttur
mittmur
mittmin
mittentur

capiar
capiris
capitur
capimur
capimin
capientur

audiar
audiris
auditur
audimur
audimin
audientur

Passive Infintives: Change the final -e of the infinitive ending to -, except in the
third conjugation where the entire infinitive ending becomes -.
portr

docr

mitt

cap

audr

Specttrs procul audr possunt, the spectators can be heard at a distance.

Perfect Passive System

The perfect system for the passive voice (perfect, pluperfect and future perfect) is
formed by adding a form of esse to the perfect passive participle (the 4th principal
part). The perfect passive participle (always nominative) will agree with its subject
in number and gender.
Perfect Passive (I was carried . . . ): present tense of esse + the perfect passive
participle:
portatus sum
portatus es
portatus est
portat sumus
portat estis
portat sunt

doctus sum
doctus es
doctus est
doct sumus
doct estis
doct sunt

missum sum
missum es
missum est
miss sumus
miss estis
miss sunt

captus sum
captus es
captus est
capt sumus
capt estis
capt sunt

audtus sum
audtus es
audtus est
audt sumus
audt estis
audt sunt

Pluperfect Passive (I had been carried . . . ): imperfect tense of esse + the perfect
passive participle:
portatus eram
portatus eras
portatus erat
portat ermus
portat ertis
portat erant

doctus eram
doctus eras
doctus erat
doct ermus
doct ertis
doct erant

missum eram
missum eras
missum erat
miss ermus
miss ertis
miss erant

captus eram
captus eras
captus erat
capt ermus
capt ertis
capt erant

audtus eram
audtus eras
audtus erat
audt ermus
audt ertis
audt erant

Future Passive (I will have been carried . . . ): future tense of esse + the perfect
passive participle:
portatus ero
portatus eris
portatus erit
portat erimus
portat eritis
portat erunt

doctus ero
doctus eris
doctus erit
doct erimus
doct eritis
doct erunt

missum ero
missum eris
missum erit
miss erimus
miss eritis
miss erunt

captus ero
captus eris
captus erit
capt erimus
capt eritis
capt erunt

audtus ero
audtus eris
audtus erit
audt erimus
audt eritis
audt erunt

The perfect passive participle will agree with its subject in number and gender:
Vir ab agricol in casam ductus est. The man was led into the house by the farmer.
Virg a vir in casam ducta est. The maiden was led into the house by the man.
Animal puer in casam ductum est. The animal was led into the house by the boy.

FUTURE TENSE
I. Tense Indicators: The future tense indicator for the 1st and 2nd conjugations is -bi-. The
future tense indicator for the 3rd and 4th conjugations is -e- and -ie-.
II. Formation:
Active

Passive

1st Conjugation
amb
ambis
ambit

ambimus
ambitis
ambunt

ambor
amberis (-re)
ambitur

ambimur
ambimin
ambuntur

2nd Conjugation
docb
docbis
docbit

docbimus
docbitis
docbunt

docbor
docberis (-re)
docbitur

docbimur
docbimin
docbuntur

3rd Conjugation
ponam
pons
ponet

ponmus
pontis
ponent

ponar
ponris (-re)
pontur

ponmur
ponmin
ponentur

3rd Conjugation (-i Verbs)

capiam
capis
capiet

capimus
capitis
capient

capiar
capiris (-re)
capitur

capimur
capimin
capientur

4th Conjugation
audiam
audis
audiet

audimus
auditis
audient

III. Future Tense of sum:

er
eris
erit

erimus
eritis
erunt

III. Future Tense of possum:

poter
poteris
poterit

poterimus
poteritis
poterunt

audiar
audiris (-re)
auditur

audimur
audimin
audientur

Imperfect Tense
The Imperfect Tense denotes action going on in the past tense (i.e., continuous action in the
past). It is often translated with the past progressive tense in English (I was going to the
store). The Imperfect Tense can also denote repeated or customary action in the past (I
used to go to the store), as context requires.
The Tense Indicator for the Imperfect is -ba-. The personal endings are regular.
I. Active Voice:

amabam
amabas
amabat
amabamus
amabatis
amabant

monebam
monebas
monebat
monebamus
monebatis
monebant

ponebam
ponebas
ponebat
ponebamus
ponebatis
ponebant

audiebam
audiebas
audiebat
audiebamus
audiebatis
audiebant

monebar

monebaris
monebatur
monebamur
monebamini
monebantur

ponebar
ponebaris
ponebatur
ponebamur
ponebamini
ponebantur

audiebar
audiebaris
audiebatur
audiebamur
audiebamini
audiebantur

II. Passive Voice:

amabar
amabaris
amabatur
amabamur
amabamini
amabantur

III. The Imperfect of sum, esse:

eram
eras
erat

eramus
eratis
erant

IV. The Imperfect of possum, posse:

poteram
poteras
poterat

poteramus
poteratis
poterant

The Perfect Tenses

The tenses of the perfect system (perfect, pluperfect & future perfect) are all formed off the
perfect stem, obtained from the third principal part of the verb. Note the regular principal
parts for 1st and 2d conjugation verbs: voc, -re, -v, -tum and dbe, -re, -u, -itum.
I. ACTIVE VOICE
Add to the perfect stem the following endings:
Perfect
-
-imus
-ist -istis
-it
-runt

Pluperfect
-eram
-ermus
-ers
-ertis
-erat
-erant

Future Perfect
-er
-erimus
-eris
-eritis
-erit
-erint

vocv
vocvist
vocvit

vocvimus
vocvistis
vocvrunt

vocveram vocvermus
vocvers vocvertis
vocverat vocverant

vocver vocverimus
vocveris vocveritis
vocverit vocverint

debu
debuist
debuit

debuimus
debuistis
deburunt

debueram debuermus
debuers debuertis
debuerat debuerant

debuer
debueris
debuerit

debuerimus
debueritis
debuerint

The perfect system for the passive voice (perfect, pluperfect and future perfect) is formed by
adding a form of esse to the perfect passive participle (the 4th principal part). The perfect
passive participle (always nominative) will agree with its subject in number and gender.
Learn the third principal parts of the following verbs:
sum, esse, fu, futurum, to be
d, dre, ded, datum, to give
iuv, -re, iuv, iutum, to help
st, stre, stet, statum, to stand
vvo, -ere, vx, victum, to live
sede, -re, sd, sessum, to sit
veni, -re, vn, ventum, to come

iube, -ere, iuss, iussum, to order

mane, -re, mans, mansum, to remain
move, -re, mv, mtum, to move
pende, -re, pepend, pnsum, to hang
responde, -re, respond, responsum, to reply
tend, -ere, tetend, tentum (-sum), to extend
vide, -re, vd, vsum, to see

Note the perfect tenses of sum, esse, fui:

fui
fuisti
fuit

fuimus
fuistis
fuerunt

fueram
fueras
fuerat

fueramus
fueratis
fuerant

fuero
fueris
fuerit

fuerimus
fueritis
fuerint

II. Passive Voice:

Perfect Passive (I was loved . . . ): present tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:
amatus sum
amatus es
amatus est
amat sumus
amat estis
amat sunt

doctus sum
doctus es
doctus est
doct sumus
doct estis
doct sunt

missus sum
missus es
missus est
miss sumus
miss estis
miss sunt

captus sum
captus es
captus est
capt sumus
capt estis
capt sunt

audtus sum
audtus es
audtus est
audt sumus
audt estis
audt sunt

Pluperfect Passive (I had been loved . . . ): imperfect tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:
amatus eram
amatus eras
amatus erat
amat ermus
amat ertis
amat erant

doctus eram
doctus eras
doctus erat
doct ermus
doct ertis
doct erant

missus eram
missus eras
missus erat
miss ermus
miss ertis
miss erant

captus eram
captus eras
captus erat
capt ermus
capt ertis
capt erant

audtus eram
audtus eras
audtus erat
audt ermus
audt ertis
audt erant

Future Passive (I will have been loved . . . ): future tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:
amatus ero
amatus eris
amatus erit
amat erimus
amat eritis
amat erunt

doctus ero
doctus eris
doctus erit
doct erimus
doct eritis
doct erunt

missus ero
missus eris
missus erit
miss erimus
miss eritis
miss erunt

captus ero
captus eris
captus erit
capt erimus
capt eritis
capt erunt

audtus ero
audtus eris
audtus erit
audt erimus
audt eritis
audt erunt

The perfect passive participle will agree with its subject in number and gender:
Vir ab agricol in casam ductus est. The man was led into the house by the farmer.
Virg a vir in casam ducta est. The maiden was led into the house by the man.
Animal puer in casam ductum est. The animal was led into the house by the boy.
Infinitive of the Perfect Tense:
The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding isse to the perfect stem:
amavisse, to have loved
docuisse, to have taught
posuisse, to have placed
The perfect passive infinitive is formed with esse + the perfect passive participle:
amatus esse, to have been loved
auditus esse, to have been heard

Irregular Verbs
1. sum, esse, fui (to be)
Present

Imperfect

Future

Perfect

sum
es
est
sumus
estis
sunt

eram
eras
erat
eramus
eratis
erant

ero
eris
erit
erimus
eritis
erunt

fui
fuisti
fuit
fuimus
fuistis
fuerunt

potero
poteris
poterit
poterimus
poteritis
poterunt

potui
potuisti
potuit
potuimus
potuistis
potuerunt

feram
feres
feret
feremus
feretis
ferent

tuli
tulisti
tulit
tulimus
tulistis
tulerunt

volam
voles
volet
volemus
voletis
volent

volui
voluisti
voluit
voluimus
voluistis
voluerunt

nolam
noles
nolet
nolemus
noletis
nolent

nolui
noluisti
noluit
noluimus
noluistis
noluerunt

malam
males
malet
malemus
maletis
malent

malui
maluisti
maluit
maluimus
maluistis
maluerunt

2. possum, posse, potui (to be able)

possum
potes
potest
possumus
potestis
possunt

poteram
poteras
poterat
poteramus
poteratis
poterant

3. fero, ferre, tuli, latum (to carry, bear)

fero
fers
fert
ferimus
fertis
ferunt

ferebam
ferebas
ferebat
ferebamus
ferebatis
ferebant

4. volo, velle, volui (to want, wish)

volo
vis
vult
volumus
vultis
volunt

volebam
volebas
volebat
volebamus
volebatis
volebant

5. nolo, nolle, nolui (to not want)

nolo
non vis
non vult
nolumus
non vultis
nolunt

nolebam
nolebas
nolebat
nolebamus
nolebatis
nolebant

6. malo, malle, malui (to prefer)

malo
mavis
mavult
malumus
mavultis
malunt

malebam
malebas
malebat
malebamus
malebatis
malebant

Infinitives
General: An infinitive is, strictly speaking, an abstract verbal noun.
The infinitive is used in Latin, as in English, as a noun: Errare humanum est = To err is
human. When so used, the Latin infinitive is an indeclinable neuter noun.
The infinitive is also used in Latin, as in English, to complete the meaning of another
verb (complementary infinitive): Possum videre = I am able to see.
Unlike English, Latin rarely uses an infinitive to indicate purpose.
The infinitive is most widely used in Latin in Indirect Speech (Oratio Obliqua), which
combines an accusative subject with an infinitive in subordinate clauses after a verbs of
saying, thinking, and perceiving.
Puto eum sapientem esse = I think that he is wise.
Because the infinitive is widely used in the Indirect Speech, it must in Latin show tense
and voice and (where able) gender. Note the forms of the infinitive:
Formation:
Active

Passive

Present:

amre (to love)

amr (to be loved)

Perfect:

amvisse (to have loved)

amtus esse (to have been loved)

Future:

amtrus esse (to be about

to love)

amtum r (to be going to be

loved)

Notes:
1) The present passive infinitive is formed by dropping the -e from the active
infinitive and adding -. But in the third conjugation, the entire infinitive ending (-ere)
is dropped before adding the -: ducere duc (to be led).
2) The perfect passive and future active infinitives will show gender where
appropriate: Puto eam me amaturam esse = I think she will love me. Puto eos eam ad
oppidum ducturos esse = I think they will lead her to the town.
3) The future active infinitive, rare in English, is widely used in Latin for Indirect
Speech constructions (see 2 above).
4) The future passive infinitive is rarely seen.

DEPONENT VERBS
There is a group of verbs in Latin which have passive forms but active meanings. They
are called deponent verbs because they have laid aside (dpn, -ere) their passive
meanings but have retained their passive forms. They are translated only in the active
voice.
Thus:

loquor, loqui, locutus sum, to speak, talk

loquor = I speak
loquitur = he, she, it speaks
etc.

The conjugation of deponent verbs is completely regular:

First conjugation:
Second conjugation:
Third conjugation:
Fourth conjugation:

cnor, -r, -tus sum, to try, attempt

polliceor, -r, pollicitus sum, to promise
loquor, loqu, locutus sum, to speak, talk
orior, orr, ortus sum, to rise, arise

Note 1: Deponent verbs, however, have retained a few regular active forms:
a. The present active participle:

loquns, -entis = speaking

b. The future active participle:

locutrus, -a, -um = about to speak

c. The future active infinitive:

locutrus esse = to be about to speak

Note 2: Because deponent forms are translated actively, they can have no 4th principal
part (i.e., they have no perfect passive participle). Instead, the participle form
contained in the 3rd principal part (conatus, pollicitus, locutus, ortus, etc.) is a perfect
active particple. This participle fills a much needed gap in the language and accordingly
is frequently used. Thus:
conatus = having tried
locutus = having spoken

pollicitus = having promised

ortus = having arisen

SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS:
Four verbs in Latin have active forms in the first two principal parts, but deponent
forms in the third principal part (i.e., the perfect tense). They also are translated only in
the active voice. These verbs are:
aude, -re, ausus sum, to dare
fd, -ere, fsus sum, to trust

gaude, -re, gvsus sum, to rejoice

sole, -re, solitus sum, to be accustomed to

COMMON DEPONENT VERBS:

lst Conjugation:
arbitror, -r, -tus sum, to think
cnor, -r, -tus sum, to try, attempt
hortor, -r, -tus sum, to encourage, urge
moror, -r, -tus sum, to delay
mror, -r, -tus sum, to wonder at, be surprised

2nd Conjugation:
polliceor, -r, pollicitus sum, to promise
videor, -r, vsus sum, to seem
vereor, -r, veritus sum, to fear
mereor, -r, meritus sum, to deserve, earn

3rd Conjugation:
loquor, loqu, loctus sum, to speak, talk
patior, pat, passus sum, to suffer; permit, allow
proficscor, proficsc, profectus sum, to set out, depart
aggredior, -, aggressus sum, to approach, attack
congredior, -, congressus sum, to meet, come together
gredior, -, gressus sum, to go out, disembark
prgredior, -, prgressus sum, to advance, go forward
sequor, sequ, sectus sum, to follow
tor, -, usus sum, to use, make use of (+ abl.)
morior, -, mortuus sum, to die (fut. act. part. = moritrus)
nscor, -, natus sum, to be born; be found
revertor, -, reversus sum, to go back, return

4th Conjugation:
orior, -r, ortus sum, to rise, arise
potior, -r, pottus sum, to get possession of (+ abl.)
opperior, -r, oppertus sum, to await, wait for

IMPERSONAL VERBS OF FEELING

The following 5 impersonal verbs take the genitive of the cause of the
feeling and the accusative of the person affected:
piget - it vexes, irks
paenitet - it repents
taedet - it wearies
miseret - it pities
pudet - it shames
Piget m stultitiae meae - I am vexed at my folly.
Paenitbbit eum stultitiae suae - He will repent his folly.
Taedet ns vitae - We are weary of life.
Miseret es pauperum - They pity the poor.
Nonne t pudbat stultitiae tuae - Were you not ashamed of your folly?

The cause of the feeling may also be expressed by an infinitive or a

clause:
neque m paenitet mortls inimcitis habre (Rab. Post. 32) - nor am I
sorry to have deadly enmities.
nn dedisse istunc pudet; m quia nn accp piget (Pl. Pseud. 282) - he is
ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.!

Independent Uses of the Subjunctive Mood

General: Latin has three moods or manners of verbal action. The indicative
mood is used for statements of fact and questions. The imperative mood
expresses a command. The subjunctive is used to express idea, intent, desire,
uncertainty, potentiality, or anticipation. The subjunctive is found primarily in
subordinate clauses, but some independent uses also exist. Its use is subtle and
best learned from long exposure to the original texts. But general rules do exist.
A. Jussive and Hortatory Subjunctive:
The Jussive (iubeo, -ere, iussi, iussus) and Hortatory (hortor, -ari, -atus sum) are
used to express a command or an exhortation:
Veniat!
Let him come! (Jussive)
Veniamus!
Lets come! (Hortatory)
The Jussive occurs in the third person, the Hortatory in the first.
The negative is introduced by ne: Ne hoc faciat! Let him not do this!
B. Potential Subjunctive:
The subjunctive may be used to express an action which might possibly
occur:
Haec credas.
You might believe these things.
Dicas eum hominem bonum esse. You might say he is a good man.
Past potentiality is expressed by the imperfect subjunctive:
Crederes eum hominem bonum esse. You might have believed he was a
good man.
C. Deliberative Subjunctive:
The present and imperfect subjunctives are used to deliberate about
something, often in a rhetorical question:
Quid faciam?
What am I to do?
Quid facerem?
What was I to do?
The negative is introduced by non.
D. Optative Subjunctive
The Optative (opto -are) is used for a future wish capable of fulfillment,
introduced by utinam or ut (negative utinam ne or ne):
Utinam veniat!
Would that he may come!
Utinam ne veniat!
Would that he may not come!
Contrary to fact wishes use the imperfect subjunctive for present time and
pluperfect subjunctive for past time:
Utinam veniret!
Would that he were coming (but he is not).
Utinam venisset!
Would that he had come (but he did not).

CONJUGATION OF SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

I. Present Tense.
The present subjunctive is formed by changing the characteristic vowel of the four
conjugations (remember: He beat a friar).
amem amemus
ames ametis
amet ament

doceam
doceas
doceat

doceamus
doceatis
doceant

ducam
ducas
ducat

ducamus
ducatis
ducant

audiam audiamus
audias audiatis
audiat audiant

The passive is formed with normal personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -mini, -ntur).
II. Imperfect Tense.
The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the personal endings to the present active
infinitive (i.e., the second principal part).
amarem amaremus
amares amaretis
amaret amarent

docerem doceremus
doceres doceretis
doceret docerent

ducerem duceremus
duceres duceretis
duceret ducerent

audirem audiremus
audires audiretis
audiret audirent

The passive is formed with normal personal endings to the present active infinitive.
III. Perfect Tense.
The perfect subjunctive is formed much like the future perfect indicative, adding these
endings to the perfect stem (third principal part): -erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint.
amaverim amaverimus
amaveris amaveritis
amaverit amaverint

docuerim docuerimus
docueris docueritis
docuerit docuerint

duxerim duxerimus
duxeris duxeritis
duxerit duxerint

audiverim audiverimus
audiveris audiveritis
audiverit audiverim

IV. Pluperfect Tense.

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the personal endings to the perfect
infinitive.
amavissem amavissemus docuissem docuissemus
amavisses amavissetis docuisses docuissetis
amavisset amavissent
docuisset docuissent

duxissem duxissemus
duxisses duxissetis
duxisset duxissent

audivissem audivissemus
audivisses audivissetis
audivisset audivissent

The passive is formed in the normal fashion by combining the perfect passive participle
with the present subjunctive of esseI: amatus sim, doctus sim, etc.
V. Subjunctive of Esse.
Present
sim
sis
sit

simus
sitis
sint

Imperfect

Perfect

essem essemus
esses essetis
esset essent

erim erimus
eris eritis
erit erint

Pluperfect
fuissem
fuisses
fuisset

fuissemus
fuissetis
fuissent

Third Declension Adjectives

Third-declension adjectives fall into three classes: 1) Adjectives of three
terminations in the nominative singular - one for each gender; 2)
Adjectives of two teminations; and 3) Adjectives of one termination. With
rare exceptions, third declension adjectives follow the inflection of I-Stem
nouns.
1. Third Declension Adjectives of Three Terminations:
Masculine

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

acer
acris
acri
acrem
acri

Feminine

acres
acrium
acribus
acres
acribus

acris
acris
acri
acrem
acri

Neuter

acres
acrium
acribus
acres
acribus

acre
acris
acri
acre
acri

acria
acrium
acribus
acria
acribus

celeber, -bris, -bre, celebrated, famous

2. Third Declension Adjectives of Two Terminations:

Masc. & Fem.

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

omnis
omnis
omni
omnem
omni

omnes
omnium
omnibus
omnes
omnibus

brevis, breve, short

crudelis, crudele, cruel, bloody
fidelis, fidele, faithful
gravis, grave, heavy, serious
lamentabilis, lamentabile, deplorable
omnis, omne, all

Neuter

omne
omnis
omni
omne
omni

omnia
omnium
omnibus
omnia
omnibus

perennis, perenne, perennial, eternal

puerilis, puerile, boyish
regalis, regale, royal
similis, simile, like
terribilis, terribile, terrible
tristis, triste, sad, gloomy

3. Third Declension Adjectives of One Termination:

Masc. & Fem.

Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

ingens
ingentis
ingenti
ingentem
ingenti

ingentes
ingentium
ingentibus
ingentes
ingentibus

audax, -acis*, bold, daring

discors, discordis, inharmonious, discordant
felix, felicis, happy, fortunate
ferox, ferocis, savage, wild
infelix, infelicis, unhappy, unfortunate
ingens, ingentis, huge, mighty
*The second entry is the genitive singular.

Neuter

ingens
ingentis
ingenti
ingens
ingenti

ingentia
ingentium
ingentibus
ingentia
ingentibus

innocens, innocentis, harmless

multiplex, multiplicis, multiple
recens, recentis, recent
sapiens, sapientis, wise
supplex, supplicis, suppliant
vetus, veteris, old

Note: Observe where the characteristic -i appears in 3rd declension

adjectives:
1) -i in the ablative singular of all genders.
2) -ium in the genitive plural of all genders.
3) -ia in the nominative and accusative plural of the neuter.
A few third declension adjectives of one ending are declined without the
characteristic -i. Thus, vetus, veteris, old: vetere (abl. sing.), veterum (gen. plu.), vetera
(neut. nom. and acc. plu.).

Of course a third declension adjective may be used with a noun of any

declension. Note the following patterns:
3 endings

2 endings

acer vir
acris regina
acre animal

1 ending

omnis vir
omnis regina
omne animal

sapiens vir
sapiens regina
sapiens animal

Nine Irregular Adjectives

Nine adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension have their genitive
singular in -ius and their dative singular in -i in all genders. Otherwise they
show the regular endings for adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension
(e.g., bonus, -a, -um). Their plurals are regular.
alius, alia, aliud, other*
nullus, -a, -um, no, none
solus, -a, -um, alone

totus, -a, -um, whole

ullus, -a, -um, any
unus, -a, -um, one

alter, altera, alterum, the other

neuter, neutra, netrum, neither
uter, utra, utrum, which (of two)

Thus:
Masc.

Fem.

Neut.

Sing. solus
solius
soli
solum
solo

sola
solius
soli
solam
sola

solum
solius
soli
solum
solo

Plural: soli

solae
etc.

sola

*Alius has alterius in the genitive singular (to avoid aliius). Otherwise, it
follows the pattern set forth above.
Note the similarities in the declensions of the pronouns ipse, ipsa, ipsum;
ille, illa, illud; iste, ista, istud, all of which show the same pattern as above
in the genitive and dative singular.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are compared in Latin in the same manner as in English. There are
three degrees of comparison: 1) Positive; 2) Comparative; 3) Superlative:
1) Positive:
2) Comparative:
3) Superlative:

long
longer
longest

short
shorter
shortest

tall
taller
tallest

1. Positive Adjectives:
The Positive Degree of Adjectives is the normal form: longus, -a, -um.
2. Comparitive Adjectives
Adjectives are compared by adding -ior (M.&F.) or -ius (N.) to the base. The
base is taken from the genitive singular of the adjective. The comparative adjective
is then declined as a regular third declension (i.e., not i-stems).
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

Masc. & Fem.

longir
longirs
longiris longirum
longir
longiribus
longirem longirs
longire
longiribus

longius
longiris
longiri
longius
longire

Neuter
longira
longirum
longiribus
longira
longiribus

3. Superlative Adjectives:
Superlative adjectives are formed by adding normal 1st and 2nd declension
endings (-us, -a, -um) to the base. The stem is taken from the genitive singular:
longissimus, -a, -um

brevissimus, -a, -um

felicissimus, -a, -um

Translation of the Superlative:

In Latin the superlative is broader in meaning than in English. It can mean
longest (as in English); but also rather long, too long, very long.
4. Comparison with Quam:
Latin can use quam (than) to compare two words. If quam is used, the words
compared are in the same case: Puellae diligentiores quam pueri sunt.
5. Ablative of Comparison:
If the word to be compared is in the nominative or accusative, quam may be
omitted and the second word put in the ablative: Puellae diligentiores pueris sunt.

6. Comparison in -er:
All adjectives ending in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus, -rima, rimum
to the nominative. The comparative is regular.
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum
celer, celeris, celere

pulchrior, -ius
celerior, -ius

pulcherrimus, -a, -um

celerrimus, -a, -um

7. Comparison of Adjectives in -eus or -ius:

Adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension ending in -eus or -ius form the
comparative with magis and the superlative with maxime:
idoneus, -a, -um

magis idoneus, -a, -um

maxime idoneus, -a, -um

8. Adjectives in -ilis:
A few adjectives ending in -ilis form their superlative with -limus, -a, -um:
facilis, -e (easy)
difficilis, -e (difficult)
similis, -e (similar, like)
dissimilis, -e (unlike)
gracilis, -e (slender)
humilis, -e (humble, lowly)

facilior, -ius
difficilior, -ius
similior, -ius
dissimilior, -ius
gracilior, -ius
humilior, -ius

facillimus, -a, -um

difficillimus, -a, -um
simillimus, -a, -um
dissimillimus, -a, -um
gracillimus, -a, -um
humillimus, -a, -um

9. Irregular Adjectives:
Some adjectives (as in English) are simply irregular and must be memorized:
bonus, -a, -um
malus, -a, -um
mgnus, -a, -um
parvus, -a, -um
mult, -ae, -a
-------------------------------------------------multus, -a, -um
senex, senis

melior, melius
peior, peius
maior, maius
minor, minus
plrs, plura

optimus, -a, -um

pessimus, -a, -um
maximus, -a, -um
minimus, -a, -um
plrim, -ae, -a

exterior, exterius
inferior, inferius
interior, interius
prior, prius
proprior, propius
superior, superius
ulterior, ulterius

extrmus, -a, -um

infimus, -a, -um (imus)
intimus, -a, -um
prmus, -a, -um
proximus, -a, -um
summus, -a, -um
ultimus, -a, -um

-------senior

plrimus, -a, -um

--------

PARTICIPLES
General: When we take a verb and make an adjective out of it, we have constructed a
verbal adjective or participle:
The shouting woman departed.
The men saw the destroyed town.

A participle, like any other adjective, must agree with the noun it modifies in gender,
number and case. But the participle also has attributes of tense and voice: shouting is
present active; destroyed (i.e., having been destroyed) is perfect passive.
Because the participle, although an adjective, retains verbal force, it may take a direct
object:
We saw Hercules drinking the wine: Vidimus Herculem vinum bibentem.

Formation:

Active

Passive

Present:

amns, amantis (loving)

Perfect:

[Deponent Verbs only]

amtus, -a, -um

(having been loved)

Future:

amtrus, -a, -um

(about to love)

amandus, -a, -um

(having to be loved)

----------

Present Active Participle: Add -ns to the present stem (-ntis for genitive singular) and
decline like third declension adjectives of one termination. In the case of i-stem verbs,
-ie- will appear: capins, capientis.
If used as an attributive adjective, the present participle will have - in the ablative
singular. ab amant fmin, by the loving wife.
If used as a substantive (noun), the present participle will have -e in the ablative
singular. ab amante, by a lover.

Perfect Passive Participle: This is the fourth principal part of the verb, declined as an
adjective of the 1st and 2nd declension.
Future Active Participle: Take the fourth principal part of the verb, drop the -us and
add -rus, -a, -um. Then decline as a 1st and 2nd declension adjective.
Future Passive Participle: Add -ndus, -a, -um to the present stem. Then decline as a 1st
and 2nd declension adjective. In i-stem verbs, -ie- will appear: audiendus, -a, -um;
sentiendus, -a, -um.

Uses of the Participle:

The tense of a participle is always relative to that of the main verb. A present participle
refers to action contemporaneous with that of the main verb (whether the main verb is
past, present or future). A perfect participle refers to action prior to that of the main
verb. A future participle refers to action subsequent to that of the main verb. A proper
understanding of Latin participles must always bear in the mind their tense and voice.
Present active participle: contemporaneous action, active voice.
Fmina clmns eum vidit:
The shouting woman saw him.
Shouting, the woman saw him.
When she was shouting, the woman saw him.

Perfect passive participle: prior action, passive voice.

Fmina territa clmvit.

The having-been-frightened woman shouted.
The woman, having been frightened, shouted.
The frightened woman shouted.
When she had been frightened, the woman shouted.

Future active participle: subsequent action, active voice.

Fmina dictra virum vdit.

The about-to-speak woman saw her husband.
The woman, about to speak, saw her husband.
About to speak, the woman saw her husband.
When the woman was about to speak, she saw her husband.

Future passive participle (gerundive): subsequent action, passive voice.

Librs legends in mns posuit.
He placed having-to-be-read books on the table.
He placed books to be read on the table
He placed books which should be read on the table.

The Perfect Active Participle of Deponent Verbs: A perfect active participle (having
seen, having done, having left, etc.) is a critical syntactical component. Its absence in
Latin for regular verbs is made up for by the frequent use of the perfect participle of
deponent verbs (which by nature must be active), the use of the ablative absolute, and
the use of cum clauses. Take care to translate the perfect participle of a deponent verb
actively (locutus, having said; hortatus, having encouraged; secutus, having followed,
etc.).
Notes: 1) Latin participles are often best rendered in English as subordinate clauses
(i.e., temporal, causal, concessive, conditional). The context must decide.
2) The future passive participle (gerundive) often carries the notion of
obligation, necessity, or propriety.

INDIRECT STATEMENT (ORATIO OBLIQUA)

General: The statement He scatters dragons teeth on the land is a direct
statement (rti recta): Dents dracnis in terr spargit.
But after words of saying, denying, announcing, telling, showing, knowing,
not knowing, believing, thinking, hearing, seeing, feeling, hoping, fearing, and
the like, we are able to express statements indirectly (rti oblqua):
He says that he scatters the dragons teeth on the land.
He hopes that he scatters the dragons teeth on the land.
Formation: In English indirect statements are introduced by a
subordinating conjunction that, which has no equivalent in classical Latin.
Instead, a subject accusative + infinitive is used. The subject of the old
direct statement (he) is made accusative (eum) and the verb (scatters) is put
into its infinitive form (spargere).
This usage also may be found in English (though less commonly than
the subordinate clause with that): I believe him (subject accusative) to
be (infinitive) a good man.
When dealing with indirect speech, only the subject and the verb are
changed - the rest of the sentence remains unchanged.
Direct Statement:
Indirect Statement:

Dents dracnis in terr spargit.

Dc eum dents dracnis in terr spargere.

Reflexive in Indirect Statement: If the subject of the indirect statement is

the same as the subject of the main (introducing) verb, the reflexive
pronoun is used:
Dcit s dracnis dents in terr spargere.
He says that he (himself) scatters the dragons teeth on the land.
Dcunt s dracnis dents in terr sparsros esse.
They say that they (themselves) will scatter the dragons teeth on
the land.

FORMS FOR INFINITIVES:

Each verb has six infinitive forms, five of which are in common
use and must be learned:
Active
Pres.
Perf.
Fut.

laudre
monre
laudvisse
monuisse
laudtrus esse monitrus esse

dcere
audre
dxisse
audvisse
ductrus esse auditrus esse

Passive
Pres.
Perf.
Fut.

laudr
laudtus esse
laudtum r

monr
monitus esse
monitum r

The future passive infinitive is rare.

dc
ductus esse
ductum r

audr
audtus esse
audtum r

GERUND AND GERUNDIVE

I. The Gerund
The Gerund is a verbal noun, always active in force. The infintive of the verbs supplies
the nominative case:
Legere est difficile = To read is difficult (reading is difficult)
The other cases are formed by adding -nd- to the present stem of the verb (-iend- for
3rd conjugation I-stems and all 4th conjugation verbs), plus the neuter singular endings
of the second declension. The Gerund has no plural.
A. Declension of Gerund:
(Nom.legere
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Abl.

reading)
legendi
legendo
legendum
legendo

of reading
to/for reading
reading
from/with/in/by reading

B. Gerund as simple noun: The Gerund funtions in grammatical cases like any other
noun; but it retains its verbal force and may control a direct object or be modified by an
adverb:
Cupidus legendi est.

He is desirous of reading.

Obj. Gen.

Legendo discimus.

We learn by (means of) reading.

Abl. of Means

Regi libenter parendo*

fortiores fiemus.

By obeying the king willingly,

we shall become stronger.

Abl. of Means

* Note that verbs governing the dative will do so in the gerund form as well.

C. Gerund with ad to express purpose:

Ad + the gerund will express purpose:
Ad legendum venit.

He comes for the purpose of reading (to read).

But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred.

D. Gerund with causa to express purpose:

The genitive of the gerund followed by causa will express purpose:
Legendi causa venit.

He comes for the sake of reading (to read).

But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred.

II. The Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)

The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and is always passive in force. It is formed by adding
-ndus, -a, -um (-iendus, -a, -um with I-stems and 4th conjugation verbs) to the stem of the
verb. It declines like a lst and 2nd declension adjective.
A. Gerundive as simple adjective:
The Gerundive carries a notion of necessity, obligation or propriety and can be used
(like any adjective) in simple agreement with its noun:
Libros legendos habeo.
I have books having to be read (that
must be/should be read).
Fortis et laudandus vir est.
He is a brave man and worthy to be praised.
Iniuria et non ferenda facta est.
An injury not to be borne has been done.
B. Gerundive with Direct Object:
The Gerundive is always preferred over the Gerund where a direct object in the accusative
case is involved:
Libris legendis discimus.
We learn by books being read (by
reading books).
Cupidus librorum legendorum est.
He is desirous of books being read (of
reading books).
C. Gerundive with ad + acc. and gen. + causa to express purpose:
The Gerundive (like the Gerund) may be used with ad + acc. or gen. + causa to express
purpose. This is the regular construction where a Direct Object is involved.
Librorum legendorum causa venit.
He comes for the sake of books being read (to
read books).
Ad libros legendos venit.
He comes for the purpose of books being read
(to read books).
D. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation:
Finally, the gerundive is used with sum in the Future Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.
Here, also, there is always a notion of necessity, obligation, or propriety. The
construction is passive; and the gerundive will agree (number, case, and gender) with
the subject of the sentence. Since the gerundive here functions in a verbal setting,
agreeing with the subject of the sentence, the case will always be nominative (or
accusative in indirect speech).
Carthago delenda est.
Nautae videndi sunt.

Carthage must (should) be destroyed.

The sailors must be seen.

Dative of Agent with Passive Periphrastic:

If the agent of the action is expressed, the dative case is used:
Carthago nobis delenda est. Carthage must be destroyed by us.
Nautae videndi sunt tibi.
The sailors must be seen by you.

THE SUPINE
The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, appearing only in the accusative
singular (-um) and ablative singular (-) and limited to two usages.
I. The Supine in -um:
A. The Supine in -um may be used after verbs of motion to express purpose:
Legts ad Caesarem mittunt rogtum auxilium. They send envoys to Caesar to ask for help.
Stultitia est ventum ducere invts cans. It is folly to take unwilling dogs to hunt.

The construction is found most commonly with the verbs re and venre, followed
by many phrases: cubitum, dormitum, sessum, salttum, etc.
The Supine in -um may take a direct object, though the construction was not very
common:
Hannibal patriam dfnsum revoctus est. Hannibal was recalled to defend his country.
The Supine in -um, very common in early Latin, was not favored by Cicero and Caesar. It
was frequent again in Sallust and Livy but in Later Latin was generally supplanted by the
infinitive of purpose.

B. The Supine in -um was used with the passive inifinitive of re (r) to form the
rare future passive infinitive:
Hs litters redditum r putbam. I thought that this letter was going to be returned.

The construction was never common and was often replaced with a futurum esse
(fore) ut construction: Nuntiat fore ut foedus fieret. He reported that a treaty would be
made.
II. The Supine in -.
The Supine in - is used with a few adjective (and the nouns fs, nefs, and opus) to
express an ablative of respect or specification:
mirabile dict: marvelous to relate
facilis fact: easy to do.
s hoc fs est dict: if this is right to say.
nihil dignum dict: nothing worthy of mention.

Ut Clauses of Purpose, Result and Indirect Command

The expression of purpose, result, and indirect command are distinct:
!
!
!

He died in order that we might live. (Purpose)

It rained so hard that my basement was flooded. (Result)
I requested that he go. (Indirect command).

For each of these constructions, Latin uses a subordinate clause introduced by ut with
the verb of the subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.
I. Ut Clauses of Purpose:
!

A Purpose Clause is preceded by ut (in order that) with the verb in the subjunctive.
Venit ut eam videat. He comes in order that he might see her (to see her).

!
!

A negative purpose clause is formed with ne (in order that . . . not).

!
Puella discessit ne videretur. The girl left (in order) that she not be seen.

N.B. In a relative Purpose Clause, qui, quae, quod may replace ut when the
antecedent of the relative pronoun is expressed.
!
Viros misit qui hoc facerent. He sent men (who were) to do this.

!
!

N.B. When the Purpose clause has a comparative, ut is often replaced by quo.
Glaudium abiecit quo facilius curreret. He threw away his sword so that he
might run more easily.

II. Ut Clauses of Result:

!

A result clause is preceded by ut (so that) with the verb in the subjunctive.

A negative result clause is formed with ut . . . non (so that . . . not).

N.B. Tam (so, so very), sic (so, in such a way), ita (so, so very, in such a way), tantus,
-a, -um (so large, so great) and the like often precede a Result Clause.

Tanta fecit ut urbem servaret. He did such great things that he saved the city.

Tam strenue laborat ut multa perficiat. He works so energetically that he

accomplishes many things.

Erant tot aedificia ut omnia videre non possem. There were so many buildings
that I could not see them all.

III. Ut Clauses of Indirect Command:

!

Sometimes an ut clause simply expresses a command, wish, desire, hope, etc.,

without any strong meaning of purpose or result.

A negative indirect command clause is formed with ne.

Mihi persuasit ut venirem. He persuaded me that I come (to come).

Me monuit ne venirem. He warned me that I not come (not to come).

Ab eis petivit ne se vulnerarent. He begged them not to wound him.

IV. Negative Ut Clauses:

Negative ut Clauses use distinctive introducing words. Learn the following:

Negative Purpose! !

Negative Result! !

Negative Ind. Command

that . . . not ne!

that . . . not ut . . . non!

that . . . not ne!

!
!

Purpose: !
!

Celeriter cucurrit ne capi posset.

He ran quickly in order that he not be caught.

!
!

Result:!
!

Tam celeriter cucurrit ut capi non posset.

He ran so quickly that he could not be caught.

!
!

Indirect !
Command:!

Eum oravit ne tam celeriter curreret.

I begged him that he not run so fast.

Latin Contractions
1. All verbs in -ris (i.e., the 2nd person singular of the present, imperfect, and
future tenses of deponents and the passive voice of other verbs) are often
syncopated to re.
imitere for imiteris
2. All verbs in the 3rd person plural of the perfect tense may show -ere instead of erunt.
invexere for invexerunt
amavere for amaverunt
3. fore = futurus esse
essem, esses, etc. = forem, fores, etc. (though not strictly a contraction)
4. -vi- and -ve- are often suppressed in perfect forms:
optastis for optavistis
audissent for audivissent
audisse for audivisse
nosti for novisti
amarant for amaverant
noram for noveram
5. aliquis, aliqua, aliquod contract to quis, qua, quod after si, nisi, num and ne.
6. ac = atque
di = dei
deum = deorum
dis = deis
vin = visne
scin = scisne
sis = si vis
sodes = si audes
sultis = si vultis
7. Contractions found in the old poets:
homost = homo est
periculumst = periculum est
ausust = ausus est
qualist = qualis est