Major renewable sources and their development in India

A renewable energy source is generally environment-friendly. It is also likely to be locally

available thereby making it possible to supply energy earlier than in a centralised system. Gridconnected renewables could improve the quality of supply and provide system benefits by
generating energy at the ends of the grid where otherwise supply would have been lax.
India has plenty of renewable resources of energy-solar, wind, hydro, and biomass. It was
recognised as early as the 1970s that these sources needed to be developed if the growing energy
demand was to be met. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal
ministry for matters relating to new and renewable energy systems and devices. (Earlier the
ministry went under the name of Ministry of Non-conventional Energy SourcesMNES)
The mission of the MNRE is as follows:
i. Reduce dependence on oil imports through development and deployment of alternate fuels
(hydrogen, biofuels, and synthetic fuels) and their applications to contribute towards bridging the
gap between domestic oil supply and demand and thereby improve energy security.
ii. Increase the share of clean power by promoting renewable electricity to supplement fossil fuel
based electricity generation.
iii. Enlarge energy availability and improve access to meet needs for clean energy for cooking,
heating, motive power and captive generation in rural, urban, industrial, and commercial sectors.
iv. Encourage convenient, safe, and reliable new and renewable energy supply options to be costcompetitive.
The programmes of the MNRE include (i) grid connected and standalone power generation from
small hydro, wind, solar, biomass, and industrial/urban wastes; (ii) rural energy programmes such
as electrification of remote villages, biogas, and improved chulhas for cooking; (iii) solar energy
applications such as thermal water heaters, solar photovoltaic applications for lighting and water
pumping; and (iv) integrated rural energy programme (IREP).
Research, development, and demonstration programmes in new technologies such as geo-thermal,
hydrogen energy, fuel cells, alternative fuels for surface transport, etc., are also undertaken by
MNRE. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA), a financial institution under
the administrative control of MNRE, supports the renewable energy programmes by providing
concessional funds.

By the end of the Tenth Plan (as on 31 March 2007) the contribution of power generation from
renewables had reached 10406.69 MW representing about 8.1 per cent of total installed
generating capacity. Of this, wind power accounted for 7092 MW followed by small hydro at
1975.60 MW and biomass (including co-generation) at 1158.63 MW.
India is implementing the programmes on renewable energy, covering the entire gamut of
technologies, including improved chulhas, biogas plants, short rotation fuel wood tree species,
biomass gasifiers, solar thermal and solar photovoltaic systems, wind farms, wind mills, biomass
based cogeneration, small and micro hydel systems, energy recovery from urban, municipal and
industrial wastes, hydrogen energy, ocean energy, fuel-cells, electravans and gasohol, etc.
In each of these areas, there are programmes of resource assessment, R&D, technology
development, and demonstration. Several renewable energy systems and products are now not
only commercially available, but are also economically viable in comparison to fossil fuel
systems. A large domestic manufacturing base has been established for renewable energy systems
and products.
India now has a good R&D base for the development of technologies for harnessing
renewable/non-conventional energy sources. A substantial manufacturing infrastructure and
consultancy services have also emerged in the country for the design, manufacture and supply of
non-conventional energy equipments.
These include small scale and medium/large scale industries, both in the public sector as well as
the private sector. India is now also in a position to offer its goods, technical expertise and
services in this sector, particularly to developing countries. Technical guidance and help has been
provided to many developing countries for the construction of biogas plants.
Hydroelectric Systems:
Electric generators driven by water turbines represent an indirect use of solar energy. The flowing,
falling water that spins the turbine blades begins as rainfall from clouds; the clouds are formed
from water vapours lilted by sunlight warming the earth. Totally renewable, and without the
pollution produced by burning fossil fuels, hydroelectric energy is one of near-ideal energy
resources.
Unfortunately, the number of places where such a system can be set up is limited. Large projects
bring their own environmental problemsdeforestation, and uprooting o. human populations
from the sites. They alter downstream ecology as well as ecology in the lake area behind the dam.
Huge areas get submerged causing loss of flora and fauna. Also, the time taken to construct these
projects is quite long. Increasing thought is now being given to small size hydro projectsmini-

hydel or micro-hydelwhich can be built on small streams and even canals, without large dams.
These are eminently suitable in mountainous areas.
The small hydro power (SHP), i.e., up to 25 MW capacity is becoming economically viable with
appropriate systems for evacuation/ utilisation of power from the project being increasingly put in
place.
A database has been created for potential sites suitable for SHP projects. Models have been
developed that take into account the available geomorphological and hydrological data and use
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for identification of potential sites. A software package
has been developed for Himachal Pradesh, which incorporates regional hydrological models for
rapid estimation of the hydro power potential and other salient features of potential sites.
Solar Energy:
The sun is the source of enormous amounts of energy in the form of radiationenergy travelling
in small wave packets called photons. The daily average global radiation is around 5 kWh per
sq.m per day with the sunshine hours ranging between 2300 and 3200 per year.
India is in the sunny belt of the world. The country receives solar energy equivalent to more than
5,000 trillion kWh per year, which is far more than its total annual energy consumption. Solar
heat and light can both be harnessed as energy-the former as solar thermal and the latter as solar
photovoltaic.
Solar thermal devices have been put under three categories, viz., low-grade heating devices up to
the temperature of 100C and 300C and high temperature solar thermal devices above 300C. By
making use of solar concentrators and by properly designed receivers, steam at temperatures of up
to 10000C can be generated by utilising solar energy.
Solar radiant energy can be converted into thermal energy. Depending on the technology, the
temperature of the output thermal energy can vary from as low as ambient temperature to as high
as 3000C. This opens up a vast area of applications including power generation and refrigeration.
The heat generated in a solar collector can also be utilised for cooking food, heating water, drying
grains/vegetables, wood seasoning, and desalination of water and generation of mechanical
power. R&D efforts in the area of low grade solar thermal technologies have resulted in their
widespread commercial applications.
R&D is also being pursued to develop newer technologies and processes. The solar thermal
energy programme of the ministry has been designed to promote utilisation of available
technologies optimally and develop newer applications.

Solar water heating systems (SWHS) have been commercialised in many countries of the world
including India. Their technical feasibility and economic viability has been established. It is now
recognised as a reliable product that saves substantial amounts of electricity or other conventional
fuels, leads to peak load reduction and prevents emission of carbon dioxide, a major green house
gas.
The heat from the sun can also be used for cooking. Solar cooking has the potential of saving
significant amounts of conventional fuel. On clear sunny days, it is possible to cook both noon
and evening meals in a solar cooker. Solar cooking, however, does not fully replace conventional
fuels, but helps in partly substituting such fuels. Different types of solar cookers have been
developed in India. These include box cooker, dish cooker, cardboard cooker, community cooker
for indoor cooking and solar steam cooking system.
A box solar cooker is a slow cooking device useful for small families. It can cook 4 dishes at a
time and can save 3-4 LPG cylinders in a year if used regularly. It is an ideal device for domestic
cooking during most of the year except the monsoon season and cloudy days. Cookers with
electrical back up are also available for use during non- sunshine hours.
The dish solar cooker is a fast cooking device useful for homes and small establishments. It can
cook almost all types of food for about 10-15 people. The cooker can save around 5 to 10 LPG
cylinders depending upon its use in homes or small establishments. Dish solar cookers are
promoted in the villages which are electrified or to be electrified with conventional grid.
The cardboard solar cooker is a low cost foldable device and can be used for preparing one or two
single dishes at a time in areas having good sunshine and low wind velocities. The cooker is light
in weight and can be easily carried in a bag. The community solar cooker for indoor cooking has a
large automatically tracked parabolic reflector standing outside the kitchen; it reflects the sun rays
into the kitchen through an opening in its north wall.
A secondary reflector further concentrates the rays on to the bottom of the cooking pot painted
black. It can cook all types of food for about 40-50 people and can save up to 30 LPG cylinders in
a year with optimum use.
The solar steam cooking system comprises automatically tracked parabolic reflectors coupled in a
series and parallel combination that generates steam for use in community kitchens for cooking
purposes. It can cook food for thousands of people in a very short time depending upon its
capacity. It is normally installed in conjunction with a boiler that can use conventional fuel if
necessary.
India became the first country in the world to start regular large scale manufacture and marketing
of solar cookers.

Solar air heating technology can effectively be used for drying or curing of agricultural products,
space heating for comfort, regeneration of dehumidifying agents, seasoning of timber, curing of
industrial products, tanning of leather and many more industrial and agro-processing activities.
It can act as a partial energy delivery (PED) or a full energy delivery (FED) unit. The PED units
require a back up energy system. Depending on the drying process, required temperature,
microclimate and site conditions, the technology has the potential of saving considerable
conventional energy in a variety of industrial establishments.
Various kinds of solar dryers have so far been developed and used in different field conditions in
the country. These include cabinet dryer, roof integrated solar air heating system, tunnel dryer,
dryer based on solar wall metal cladding technique, solar powered solar air dryer and dryer based
on solar hot water system coupled with liquid-air heat exchange.
Electricity can be generated directly from sunlight with the help of solar photovoltaic (SPV)
technology. The basis of this technology is the photoelectric effect: the atoms of certain metals,
such as selenium, possess electrons that are easily knocked out of place by light energy.
In a photovoltaic system, a wafer of the electron-emitting metal is in contact with another metal
that collects the electrons and passes them along into wires in a steady stream, while other
electrons from the wires flow in to replace them, thus forming a current of electrons, or electric
current. SPV technology enables direct conversion of sunlight into electricity through
semiconductor devices called solar cells.
Solar cells are interconnected and hermetically sealed to constitute a photovoltaic module. The
photovoltaic modules are integrated with other components such as storage batteries, electronics,
etc., to constitute SPV systems and power plants. Photovoltaic systems and power plants are
highly reliable, modular in nature, cause no pollution and have long life.
Such systems and power plants have emerged as viable power sources for applications such as
lighting, water pumping and telecommunications and are being increasingly used for meeting the
electrical energy needs in remote villages, hamlets, hospitals and households in the hilly areas,
forest regions, deserts and islands in the country.
And in the awesome heights of the Himalayas, solar electricity power the communication sets
used by our defence personnel. It is reported that solar electricity is providing power to operate
several hundred railway signals and many mini-electric plants in villages.
It was only in 1978 that a modest programme of R&D was started at the public-sector Central
Electronics limited (CEL) at Ghaziabad. In 1980, a national programme of pilot production and

field demonstration, centered round CEL, was sanctioned. In another five years, in 1985-90, solar
electricity system went commercial at CEL.
About the same time, another small programme was launched at BHEL at its Bangalore plant.
Two years later, in 1987, another public-sector company, Rajasthan Electronics Limited in Jaipur,
started making solar photo-voltaic panels based on the technology and solar cells provided by
CEL.
The MNRE is now the nodal agency for this sector. The country has developed a strong research
base with indigenous production capabilities in the entire area starting from silicon material to
solar cells, photovoltaic modules, .complete systems and power plants.
The factors which inhibit the rapid spread of SPV are (i) high initial costs, (ii) non-availability of
energy efficient hardware such as batteries, inverters, lamps, modules making up the total
systems, and (iii) need for reliability of individual components and simple servicing essential as
SPV systems are to be deployed in remote areas.
The R&D activities in the solar photovoltaic technology are aimed at achieving improved
performance of PV modules and systems. The MNRE is supporting research on all aspects of the
PV technology through higher efficiencies and improvements in the production yields, design and
reliability of PV systems and reduction of costs in the production of solar photovoltaic cells,
modules and systems.
Solar power programme of the MNRE comprises both solar photovoltaic and solar thermal power
programmes. It aims at producing grid quality power using solar photovoltaic and solar thermal
technologies.
Solar photovoltaic modules produce DC power, which is converted into grid quality AC power
using an inverter and other electronics. Solar thermal concentrating systems increase the
temperature of a working fluid above 300C, which runs a conventional turbine. The turbine
operates a generator and electricity is thus produced.
Wind Power:
Wind is a kinetic energy associated with the movement of large masses of air caused by the
differential heating of the atmosphere by the sun. Wind is concentrated in certain regions and
variable with time at any given location: harnessing it as an energy source is dependent on these
two factors. In India, for instance, winds are influenced by the southwest monsoons.
From March to August, the winds are uniformly strong over the entire Indian peninsula, except on
the eastern coast. In September, the winds weaken, and only coastal Gujarat and south Tamil
Nadu experience wind speeds of 15-20 kmph. During the lean months of October to February,

winds exceeding 10 kmph are found only on the Gujarat, Konkan, south Tamil Nadu and OrissaBengal coasts.
An extensive programme of wind data collection comprising wind monitoring, wind mapping,
and a complex terrain project has been undertaken by MNRE.
According to initial estimates, Indias wind power potential was assessed at around 20,000 MW. It
has been reassessed at 45,000 MW assuming 1 per cent of land availability for wind power
generation in potential areas.
The criteria for identification of a potential site for wind power projects have been modified, with
sites having wind power density greater than 200 W/m 2 at 50m height to be considered as
potential sites. At 201 wind monitoring stations, covering sites in 13 states/UTs, annual mean
wind power density greater than 200 W/m2 (at 50m height) has been recorded.
The comprehensive wind power programme that was launched in India in the mid-1980s with the
active involvement of utilities and industry has led to the creation of an industrial base and
infrastructure which has contributed to the large scale commercial development in this sector.
The Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET) acts as the technical focal point for wind
power development in the country. C-WET coordinates all activities relating to R&D and wind
resource assessment. The generic areas identified for R&D in this sector are: research and
advanced technology development; technology support to wind power industry; improvement in
the performance of existing wind turbine installations; manpower training and HRD; and research
support to wind resource assessment.
Small wind energy systems, such as water pumping windmills, small aerogenerators and hybrid
systems, are capable of harnessing vast wind energy potential in the country for meeting
mechanical and electrical energy requirement in decentralised mode, especially in rural and
remote areas. The MNRE is implementing a programme on deployment of such systems.
The main objectives of the programme are (a) to carry out R&D to improve the designs and
efficiency and to create test facilities for water pumping windmills, small aerogenerator and
hybrid systems, and (b) to field test, demonstrate, strengthen the manufacturing base of water
pumping windmills, small aerogenerator and hybrid systems.
The industry has taken up indigenised production of blades and other critical components. Efforts
are also being made to indigenise gearbox and controller.
Biomass:

Bio-energy includes those processes where biological formsvegetation, enzymes, bacteria, etc.,
provide the basis for energy or its conversion from one form to another form of energy. Bioenergy may be derived either from biomass or from biological conversion of organic matter.
Biomass includes both terrestrial and aquatic matterplant growth, plant residues, and wastes.
Most dry forms of biomass can be burnt directly to produce heat, steam, or electricity. Biological
conversion technologies utilise natural anaerobic decay process to produce high quality fuels
directly from biomass, methane from bacterial fermentation, and ethanol from yeast fermentation.
The traditional methods of direct burning are contributing to deforestation with its dangerous
consequences. An attempt has been made to counter this by undertaking vigorous Afforestation
programmes, by planting fast growing high calorific value type of plants and trees.
These are known as energy plantations. Wastelands are being brought into use for this purpose.
The wood harvested each year can be converted by direct combustion or gasification to power
and charcoal. The energy plantation and power programme has been taken up by the MNRE.
Biomass power for generation of distributed grid quality power, both from captive and field based
bio-mass resources, has been receiving attention the world over, particularly in the last decade.
The social, economic and environmental benefits of biomass power are accepted for long term
sustainability. The technologies are progressively getting upgraded, attaining maturity, and
reaching commercialisation.
The Biomass Power/Cogeneration Programme was implemented during the Tenth Plan,
with the following objectives:
(i) To promote technologies of cogeneration, biomass combustion, megawatt scale gasification,
and industrial co-generation for generation of power;
(ii) To develop Biomass Resource Atlas based on biomass resource assessment studies in different
regions of the country;
(iii) To support district-wise resource assessment studies in potential states;
(iv) To support R&D for development of technologies including advanced biomass gasification
and 100 per cent producer gas engines, as well as applications research for enhancement of
potential in identified areas of thrust; and
(v) To support and thus enlarge activities through awareness creation, publicity measures.
The R&D component of the programme aims at the development of biomass conversion
technologies, technology application packages; strategic developmental demonstration pilot

projects; improvement in efficiency; reduction in cost; and eventual commercialisation and

development of biomass power/cogeneration on an industrial scale.
An R&D project on Strategic Development of Bio-energy (SDB) is being implemented, which
entails development of technology packages for a variety of biomass materials for power
generation, as well as industrial applications.
The country had more than 1500 MW of capacity based on the technologies of biomass and
bagasse cogeneration as of 2008. In bagasse cogeneration sugar mills are now meriting a surplus
electricity of 950 MW for feeding into the grids. The technology and the equipment for these
projects have been sourced indigenously.
The potential of biomass power in the country has been estimated at about 19,500 MW, including
surplus power generation potential of around 3,500 MW from bagasse-based cogeneration from
existing sugar mills in the country.
Biomass gasifiers convert solid biomass (woody and non-woody) materials, such as wood,
agricultural residues and agro-industrial wastes etc., into producer gas through thermo-chemical
gasification process. The producer gas could be either burnt directly for thermal applications, or
used for replacing diesel oil in dual-fuel engines for mechanical and electrical applications.
Biomass gasifier systems from 3 kW up to 500 kW unit capacity which use wood, non-woody and
powdery biomass, have been developed indigenously. Conversion of dual-fuel engines to 100 per
cent producer gas engines has also been achieved under R&D projects.
The objectives of the programme in the Tenth Plan are given below:
i. To demonstrate an integral approach of biomass production, gasification and utilisation;
ii. To promote R&D on biomass production, briquetting, gasification and producer gas engines;
iii. To develop and promote commercialisation of technologies for various end-uses in rural and
urban sectors;
iv. To intensify electrification of remote villages;
v. To take up demonstration projects for 100 per cent indigenous producer gas engines coupled
with gasifiers for power generation;
vi. To expand manufacturing capacity, decentralised service facilities and introduce testing and
certification; and

vii. To support and thus enlarge activities through awareness creation, publicity measures,
seminars/workshops/business meets/training programmes, etc.
Biogas:
Biological conversion processes involve enzymatic or bacterial breakdown by micro-organisms at
relatively low temperatures. Methane or biogas is thus produced from plant, animal, human and
industrial wastes. The waste is fed into a specially-designed digester.
The microbes under the influence of low temperature heat provided from the sun decompose the
wastes and produce a gas containing a mixture of methane (55 per cent to 65 per cent), carbon
dioxide (35 per cent to 40 per cent) and traces of other gases like carbon monoxide. Biogas is an
efficient fuel when burnt in specially-designed stoves for cooking purposes and in silk mantle
lamps for lighting.
It can also be used in dual fuel engines for motive power and when attached with alternators for
generation of electricity. It saves the trek to collect firewood and exposure to smoke in the
kitchen. And if latrines are attached to these plants, it helps village sanitation too.
What makes the unit financially viable is the cash inflow in terms of saving on firewood, and
production and use of enriched manure with a high content of oxygen, phosphorus and potassium,
for agriculture.
Indigenously developed biogas (Gobar gas) plants are simple and easy-to-operate. The units
come in different types and sizes but some factors have to be kept in mind while setting them up.
For instance, the groundwater level has to be at least 2 metres below the surface and there must be
no well or hand pump within 15 metres of it.
The National Biogas Management Programme (NBMP) is a modified version of the National
Project on Biogas Development (NPBD), which was implemented during 1981-82 to 2001-02. Its
objectives are to: (i) provide clean and cheap source of biogas energy; (ii) produce and use
enriched organic manure; (iii) develop management systems for production of value added
products; (iv) improve sanitation and hygiene by attaching toilets with biogas plants; (v) mitigate
drudgery of women and girl children; (vi) generate employment in rural areas; and (vii) set up
biogas power stations in cattle-based institutions.
The biogas programme is implemented through the state governments and administrations,
corporate/registered bodies, KVIC and nongovernmental organisations. Technical back-up units
(TBUs) are providing technical and training support in a decentralised mode.
The main approved designs of biogas plants are: (i) floating gas holder type, popularly called
Indian or KVIC (Khadi and Village Industries Commission) Model, (ii) the fixed dome type,

commonly known as Deenbandhu Model, and (iii) bag type portable digester made of
rubberised nylon fabric. Fixed dome models using different construction materials have also been
approved, viz., the ferro-cement Deenbandhu Model and the pre-fabricated reinforced cement
concrete model.
Though in the beginning mainly cattle dung, kitchen waste and water hyacinth were used as
feedstock, by and by human night-soil was introduced as feedstock and accepted by rural folk.
Thrust areas identified for R&D on biogas are: (i) studies in the field of microbiology,
biochemistry and engineering for increasing the biogas yield, especially at low and high
temperatures; (ii) development of cost effective designs of biogas plants; (iii) development of
designs and methodologies for utilisation of other biomass. and agro-residues for biogas
production; (iv) reducing cost of biogas plants by use of alternative building materials and
construction methodology; and (v) diversified use of digested slurry for value added products.
Energy from Urban and Industrial Wastes:
Urban areas in India are estimated to be generating about 50 million tonnes of solid waste (1.4
lakh tonnes per day) and 6000 million cubic meters of liquid waste per year. This translates into a
potential for generation of over 2900 MW of power from urban wastes, which is likely to increase
to over 5600 MW by 2017.
Most of the solid/liquid waste generated in the country finds its way into rivers, ponds, low lying
land, etc., without any treatment, resulting in odour, pollution of water and air as well as emission
of green house gases like methane, carbon dioxide, etc.
This problem can be mitigated through adoption of environment-friendly technologies for
treatment and processing of waste before it is disposed of. These technologies not only lead to
generation of a substantial quantity of decentralised energy but also reduce the quantity of waste
besides improving the quality of waste to meet the pollution control standards.
The research projects sponsored by the MNES in the past have resulted in the development of
technologies for processing and treatment of various wastes like municipal sewage waste,
vegetable market wastes, wastes from leather industry, distilleries, sugar mills, pulp and paper
industries, etc., which are readily available for adoption.
In June 1995, a National Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban, Municipal and Industrial
Wastes was launched with a view to promoting the adoption of proper technologies as a means of
improving waste management practices in the country with the goals and objectives of (i) creation
of conducive conditions and environment with fiscal and financial incentives to help promote,
develop, demonstrate, and disseminate the utilisation of wastes for recovery of energy, (ii)

improving the waste management practices through the adoption of technologies for conversion
of wastes into energy, and (iii) promoting the setting-up of projects utilising wastes from urban,
municipal and industrial sectors.
Eight projects with an aggregate capacity of 22.50 MW based on urban waste such as municipal
solid and liquid wastes, cattle manure, vegetable market and slaughterhouse wastes, etc. had been
installed in the country by 2008. Several industrial waste-to-energy projects with a total capacity
about 35 MWeq had also been installed.
Alternative/New Technologies as Energy Sources:
With the rise in use of auto vehicles the requirement of oil for road sector increased enormously.
Considering the cost of petroleum with the consequent import bill and our limited reserves, there
is dire need not only to conserve fuel but also develop alternate fuels.
There is a close relationship between road condition and fuel consumption, and the roads in India
are bad. The Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) reveals that 98 per cent of our national
highways are non-motorable by world standards.
Road maintenance is of paramount importance. The quality of road surface is measured by the
roughness index given in millimeter per kilometer. A good riding quality requires an index of
2,000 mm. The national highways rate 7,000 mm (the riding is bad above 4,000 mm).
Besides road improvement, some other technological measures that can contribute to fuel saving
are (i) reduction in weight of busbody, by using light but sturdy materials; (ii) giving a shape to
the front of the body to reduce air resistance; (iii) fibreglass belted tyres; (iv) appropriate gear
boxes for city and inter-city operations; and (v) simple measures like preventing idle running of
engine, and control over speed. Furthermore, traffic management measures are required to
improve mobility on roads.
Compressed Natural Gas:
A major alternative to petrol is compressed natural gas (CNG). The technical feasibility of using
CNG as a transport fuel has already been established in Italy, USA, Japan, Brazil, and New
Zealand. Using CNG as a transport fuel requires some changes in the vehicles. Basically, in a
natural gas vehicle, gas is compressed at 160 to 200 times the atmospheric pressure and stored in
cylinders that can be mounted on the vehicles.
This CNG passes through a pressure-reducer before entering the engine. In petrol-driven vehicles
(which have engines with spark ignition), it is a simple matter of installing a kit that allows the
switchover from petrol to gas. Diesel engines used in trucks and buseswhich guzzle a major

share of oil in Indiaemploying compression ignition engines, can install a kit which allows the
use of a mixture of diesel and natural gas.
There are several catches, however. Alloy steel cylinders are used to store CNG on board
vehicles. This increases the weight of the vehicles. Reducing weight by using composite material
cylinders is a costly option.
While retrofit engines which use dual-fuel mixtures is an attractive proposition for the short and
medium-term substitution policies, the best way to utilise CNG for transportation is to use it in
the dedicated engines designed and developed for CNG.
Gas-substitution also offers an easy way out for bringing down noxious emissions from
automobiles using conventional fuels. (The only hitch is that the emission of hydrocarbons is
much higher in comparison, but these are predominantly non-reactive.)
Gasohol:
A mixture of absolute alcohol and petrolgasohol has been tried as a fuel to run a car. The
Mysore Sugar Company of Mandy tried out a 25:75 proportion mix of absolute alcohol and petrol
for maximum efficiency. A fuel economy of 3 to 5 per cent is achieved with the use of gasohol.
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen appears to be a favoured alternative due to its high specific energy per unit weight, its
almost universal availability as a component of water, good combustion characteristics and the
fact that it is environment-friendly. The primary combustion product is water vapour and, apart
from low nitric oxide fractions, there are virtually no harmful exhaust gases, in particular no
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulates which are the bane of petro fuel combustion.
Hydrogen could be used for a broad range of applications to supplement or substitute the
consumption of hydrocarbon fuels and fossil fuels. MNES is supporting research, development
and demonstration projects on various aspects of hydrogen energy including production, storage
and utilisation of hydrogen as fuel at various research, scientific and educational institutions,
laboratories, universities, and industries.
Hydrogen can be produced from renewable energy sources by various methods. Electrolytic,
photolytic/photo biological, photo- electrolysis and thermo-chemical hydrogen production
technologies are currently under development and use. The selection of production
processes/technologies will depend on the availability of resource, expertise, infrastructure and
economical aspects.

A National Hydrogen Energy Board has been set up to guide and oversee the preparation of a
Hydrogen Energy Road Map and its implementation through a National Programme on Hydrogen
Energy. The Road Map envisages taking up of research, development and demonstration activities
in various sectors of hydrogen energy technologies. It has visualised goals of one million
hydrogen-fuelled vehicles and 1,000 MW aggregate hydrogen based power generation capacity to
be set up in the country by 2020.
Applications of hydrogen directly in internal combustion engines for transport application as well
as decentralised power generation and also in fuel cells for stationary, mobile and transport
applications have been demonstrated. Hydrogen-powered two wheelers, three wheelers, catalytic
combustors, and power generating sets have been developed and demonstrated in the country.
Battery Operated Vehicles:
Battery operated vehicles (BOVs) are driven by an electric motor instead of a petrol or diesel
engine. The motor draws power from rechargeable batteries. BOVs provide environmentally
clean, noise-free, and energy- efficient sustainable transportation. The performance of BOVs is
improving through R&D work. The problem is mainly due to the weight of the battery and
installing battery charging stations at various places. Changing the batteries takes long.
One of the key components of the BOVs is the rechargeable batteries. The MNRE is
implementing the demonstration programme on BOVs through nodal agencies and departments in
the states and Union territories.
Research and development projects are going on in efforts to develop advanced, high energy
density batteries such as nickel metal hydride, lithium-ion and lithium polymer electrolyte
batteries and super capacitors for BOVs. Prototypes of nickel metal hydride batteries developed
have been demonstrated for operating an electric two-wheeler.
Fuel Cells:
Fuel cells produce electricity from an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen.
They are efficient, environmentally benign and reliable for power production. The use of fuel
cells has been demonstrated for stationary/portable power generation and other applications.
MNES has taken up projects on different types of fuel cells through various organisations. These
projects have led to the development of prototypes of fuel cells, materials/catalysts and
components for fuel cell systems.
The application of fuel cells has already been demonstrated for small-scale power generation and
for operating an electric vehicle. It is proposed to take up projects and activities related to
demonstration and testing of fuel cell systems in field conditions.

Research and development projects for development of different types of fuel cells like proton
exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), phosphoric acid fuel Cells (PAFCX, solid oxide fuel
cells (SOFC), direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), direct ethanol fuel cells (DEFC) and molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) along with components and materials for fuel cells including control
and instrumentation system are being supported, according to India 2009.
BHEL developed a 3 kW (31 kW) automated proton exchange membrane fuel cell power pack
and demonstrated for the stationary applications. Under a project the Indian Institute of Chemical
Technology, Hyderabad will integrate already developed 10 kW methanol reformer with a 10 kW
fuel cell to run it for 1000 hours. The Institute will also complete the development of 50 kW
methanol reformer system for technology demonstration.
Biofuels:
Biofuels are liquid and gaseous fuels produced from various forms of biomass and used to
displace conventional automobile fuels for transport mainly on land, but also by sea and air. So
bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas are labelled biofuels, as against fossil-fuel-derived oils such as
oil shales, tar sands and coal-to-liquids.
Ethanol, currently used mainly as a raw material for chemical industries, in medicines and for
potable purposes, is being increasingly looked upon as a potential fuel for powering automobiles.
When used in blends with gasoline, ethanol enhances the combustion of gasoline due to oxygen
molecules resulting in a more efficient burn and reduced emissions.
Other potential biofuels are edible and non-edible oils such as Jatropha curcas, Karanje, honge,
etc. Recent developments the world over have made the use of ethanol petrol blend and biodiesel
interesting new alternatives for conventional, unmodified diesel vehicles.
Biofuels are considered an alternative to rising fuel costs. During the Eleventh Plan period, the
Indian government has suggested jatropha cultivation on 4, 00,000 hectares for four years in the
first phase and on 2.5 million hectares in the second phase to meet the need for doping auto fuel.
However, the benefits of biofuels are also being questioned by some scientists looking at the
environmental cost of their production. According to a study, transforming ecosystems into farms
for biofuel crops will increase global farming and result in the net increase in carbon emissions.
It has been found that converting rainforests, peatlands and grasslands will outweigh the carbon
savings made from biofuels and create a situation called bio-fuel carbon debts by releasing 17
to 420 times more C02 than the annual greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions that these biofuels can
provide by displacing fossil fuels.

While India does have ample wasteland on which such plants can be grown, a cautious approach
is required considering the fact that these plants also have negative effects that can damage the
environment.
Ocean Energy:
Basically, there are three ways of generating power from the high seas: taming the waves,
harnessing the tidal power, and using the difference in temperatures between the layers of the
ocean i.e., by the technique ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC).
OTEC operation exploits the difference between the temperatures at the surface of the sea and at a
depth of 1,000 metres or more, to extract energy. In tropical countries such as India, the strategy
works even better as the temperature gradient in the seas is as great as 25C. Cold water is drawn
up a vertical pipe to condense a working fluidsuch as ammonia in a closed cycle.
The warm water at the surface is used to evaporate the fluid. By pumping the working fluid
around a closed circuit, the latent heat can be extracted through heat exchanges and used to
generate electricity. This is called the closed system. A variationthe open systemis also being
tested. In this system, it is the warm sea water which is used as the working fluid.
The warm water is passed into a vacuum chamber where it evaporates rapidly. After this, it can be
condensed by surface contact with the cold deep sea water. A third systemthe reverse OTEC
which uses the temperature difference between the warm ocean and the cold air above it, is also
being pursued in Russia. But the project has not been publicised.
Prototype OTEC devices were constructed in Cuba in 1929, and in the Ivory Coast in 1956. Both,
however, ran into heavy weather and the next attempt was only in 1979. This was a 50 KW plant
(mini-OTEC), sited off Hawaii, and set up as a research tool for designing IMW units.
Experiments in OTEC technology were being carried on in Kulasekarapattinam in Tamil Nadu.
However, there are operational snags. The main hurdles to be overcome; designing suitable long
cold-water pipes; advanced heat exchangers, large pumps and overcoming bio-fouling in the
system.
Another major hitch of course is the operational efficiency of OTEC plants, which is generally
lowonly about the order of 2.5 per cent. That is because the temperature gradient is very small
compared to conventional generating techniques.
About one to five per cent of the energy from the sun is converted into wind energy. By producing
waves, the winds in turn transfer part of their energy to the ocean. The inertia of the waves
provides short- time storage of energy, partially smoothening the vagaries of the wind and making
extraction of energy from the ocean waves more efficient.

The wave energy potential off the 6,000 km-long Indian coast is estimated at around 40,000 MW.
Ideal locations for tapping wave energy have been identified as the trade wind belts in the Arabian
Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
Scientists at the Ocean Engineering Centre of the Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai,
achieved a breakthrough in harnessing waves to generate electricity. After a series of setbacks, the
OEC team succeeded in putting up a pilot plant at the Vizhinjam fishing harbour, near
Thiruvananthapuram, with a peak generating capacity of 150 KW.
The indigenous plant is based on the principle of using oscillating water columns to harness wave
energy. A concrete caisson (chamber) is placed in the ocean. As waves dash against the caisson,
water rushes through an opening at the bottom, pushing the air inside upwards forcefully. In the
process, a turbine placed on top of the chamber rotates.
The turbine is attached to an induction generator which produces electricity. In the reverse
process at the column of waterfalls, air, sucked into the chamber from outside, rotates the turbine,
thus maintaining continuous generation of power.
The plant at Vizhinjam has been declared as a national facility for wave energy and wave
application studies. The Centre will have facility for testing the design of turbines and metals
against sea corrosion, besides orientation of the sea water structure.
Where the tidal range is large, electricity can be produced from ocean tides. Of all the forms of
ocean energy tidal energy has the potential for being harnessed for power generation in the
medium term. In India the potential sites identified are the Gulfs of Kutch and Cambay in Gujarat
on the west coast, and the Sunderbans on the east coast in West Bengal. If a natural or artificial
reservoir is available, moving turbines in the tides produce electricity.
A project for setting up of a 3.75 MW capacity demonstration tidal power project at Durgaduani
Creek in the Sundarbans area was put up by the West Bengal Renewable Energy Development
Agency (WBREDA) in February, 2008. The main objective of the project is to supply power to 11
remote villages in Gosaba and Bali Bijaynagar islands located in South 24 Parganas District of
West Bengal. The project will be executed by the NHPC.
Geothermal Energy:
As a concept, the production of electricity from the heat of the earth certainly has much to
recommend it. The earth is an almost infinite source of heat, if only the problems of converting it
into consumable energy can be overcome.
At least two techniques exist today for exploiting geothermal energy. The first is to utilise the
existing hydrothermal sources; the second, to attempt to extract heat from hot dry impermeable

rocks at considerable depth below the surface. While the first is relatively easy, at least in India,
the second technique has still to come out of laboratories.
The major work lies in sinking really deep boreholes to tap the energy contained under the earths
surface. Although steam and hot water come naturally to the surface in some locations, for largescale power harnessing, boreholes are normally sunk to depths to 3,000 metresor 3 km below
the surface.
The boreholes act as conduits, releasing steam and water at terrific pressure and temperatures.
From the well-head, the steam is transmitted by pipelines over considerable distances, if
necessary, to the power station, where the energy is actually harnessed.
The steam itself may come from several boreholes in the region and may contain considerable
impurities in the form of solids and gases. The cascading pressures from different sources are, in
some cases, used directly on turbines to generate power, with jet condensers being used to handle
the impurities.
The technique is by no means new. Many installations are in use in various parts of the world:
three of the largest are near Lardarello, Italy (500 MW), Wairakei, New Zealand (250) MW, and
the Geysers, California (1,000 MW). Mexico, Japan and the Philippines also have sizeable and
expanding geothermal programmes. Compared to these, the Indian effort has certainly been rather
nominal.
A pilot power project at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, sponsored by the National Aeronautical
Laboratory (NAL), and an exploratory study in the Puga Valley in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir,
have shown that the earth as a potential source of virtually unlimited power could well become a
reality.
Magneto telluric studies carried out by National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI),
Hyderabad have shown existence of potential geothermal sites in Surajkhand, in Jharkhand and in
Tapovan in Uttarakhand.
In order to conform the potential for power generation at Puga Geothermal Fields in Ladakh, J&K
and prepare an action plan for setting up of a power plant at Puga, an expert group was
constituted in September 2007 under the chairmanship of member (Planning), CEA. The Report
has been submitted and the ministry is following up the recommendations.
Magneto Hydrodynamics (MHD):
The principle of MHD power generation involves direct conversion of thermal energy into
electrical energy and the process is being experimented upon in several countries like Russia,
USA, Japan, China, The Netherlands, Australia, Poland and Finland.

The science of converting thermal energy to electricity through MHD involves the expansion of
superhot (2,800 K) electrically conducting gas against the retarding force of a strong magnetic
field to produce electric power directly. In effect, the turbine and generator are combined in MHD
into a single unit but without any moving parts.
The coal-based MHD research project in India, sponsored by the MNES, aims at the creation of a
suitable base for research and development work in the field of MHD power generation by setting
up a thermal power level of 5 MW. A small scale MHD power generator set up at Tiruchirapalli in
Tamil Nadu is providing data for design of bigger MHD plants that will produce power cheaply
and operate at a greater efficiency than existing coal or nuclear plants. The experimental run for
power generation was carried out by BHEL in collaboration with the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre. Experts believe that MHD could become a major electric power generation technology.
Energy Parks:
The Energy Park Scheme was started in 1994-95 under the Special Area Demonstration
Programme. The objectives of the scheme are: (i) to create awareness and give publicity amongst
the students/teachers and rural and urban masses about the use and benefits of the renewable
energy systems and devices; (ii) to demonstrate the use of NRSE technologies; (iii) to provide
opportunity to the technical institutions to carry out technical experimentation on renewable
energy systems and devices by the students/teachers; and (iv) to give large scale publicity through
setting up of state level renewable energy awareness/education parks.
The main features of modified scheme are that the district level energy parks are now being set up
only in technical institutions.
Specialised Institutions:
The MNES has established the following institutions for technology development and
application of various renewable energy sources:
Solar Energy Centre (SEC):
The SEC, set up in 1982, functions as a national testing and standardisation centre for solar
energy materials, components, and systems, takes up joint collaborative research projects, and
provides advisory and consultancy services to industry and users.
Training programmes are organised for different interest groups to users, of solar energy
technologies including field technicians and entrepreneurs. The SEC has well-defined
programmes to promote use and integration of solar passive concepts into the building design,
and in the area of solar radiation resource assessment.

The R&D campus of the Centre is located on the Gurgaon-Faridabad Road at the outskirts of
Delhi. The campus houses the national test facility for solar thermal and solar photovoltaic
systems and components, laboratories for system design and engineering, demonstration units on
solar electric generating systems for their long-term performance evaluation.
Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Renewable Energy (SSS NIRE):
An autonomous institution is being established at Wadala Kalam, Kapurthala, in Punjab. The SSS
NIRE will act as the technical focal point for conducting state-of-the-art R&D in renewable
energy and developmental activities in various areas relating to non-conventional/ renewable
energy sources, including human resources development at all levels and commercialisation of
renewable energy technologies.
Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET):
The C-WET has been established, as an autonomous body (registered society) at Chennai to serve
as the technical focal point for wind power development in India, with the objectives of
promoting and accelerating the utilisation of wind power and supporting the growing wind power
sector in the country. Its wind turbines test station is located at Kayathar in district Thoothukudi,
Tamil Nadu.
In addition, nine regional offices have been set up at Ahmedabad, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh,
Chennai, Bhopal, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Luck now and Patna.
C-WETs mission is to make domestically-owned wind industry internationally competitive
through demonstration and commercialisation of products and services at par with international
standards, specifications and performance parameters.
Eleventh Plan Ideas:
In order to meet India-centric requirements, various sectors related to the field of energy have
been identified for segregating different research avenues. The depletion of fuel resources has
resulted in the need of exploring renewable power generation.
Similarly, the application of distributed power generation may be useful for electrification of
remotely located un-electrified villages. Apart from this, application of new technologies in the
field of generation, transmission, and distribution also needs to be given utmost emphasis.
Technology advancements and R&D have so far not been properly addressed. Major
organisations such as NTPC, NHPC, Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd (POWERGRID) on the
generation side and Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL), Asea Brown Boveri Ltd (ABB), and
Siemens on the manufacturing side must enhance substantially their budget allocations for R&D.

The utilities should aim at least about 1 per cent of their profit to be utilised for R&D activities
and the manufacturing organisations should consider 3 per cent to 4 per cent to be provided for
technology development.
There is a need to work with specialised S&T laboratories under CSIR and other space and
nuclear establishments to develop material technology for advanced boilers, fuel cells, solar
power, battery, and super conducting material application in power sector.