Johann Kuppers

Biology 12
June 13, 2012

Biology 12 study guide:

Unit A: Cell Biology

Cell Membrane:
The plasma layer that surrounds and maintains the organelles and
cytoplasm of a cell. It is responsible for the exchange of materials in
and out of the cell and is made of a lipid bilayer.

Mitochondria:
The organelles responsible for the production of ATP (energy), through
a process known as cellular respiration. [Glucose + O ATP + HO +
CO]

Smooth and Rough Endoplasmic reticulum:

Network of flattened tubules in close proximity with the nucleus.

Smooth ER synthesizes
lipids while rough ER synthesizes proteins.
(Ribosomes on rough ER synthesize proteins)

Ribosomes:
Small organelles mostly found studded on Rough ER that synthesize
proteins. (Ribosomal complex made from rRNA while tRNA and mRNA
bring the amino acid and code for it, respectively)

Golgi Bodies:
A stack of flattened vesicles closely related to the ER that packages,
modifies, and sorts products arriving in transitional vesicles from the
ER.

Vesicles:
Small membranous sacs that transport materials in the cell. Excretory
vesicles take substances out of the cell, while transitional vesicles
move them around within the cell.

Vacuoles:

Special vesicle that stores food and water. Needs a lysosome to

destroy membrane to access the contents.

Lysosome:
A vesicle containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes that destroys waste
produced by the cell and also destroys unwanted foreign substances
that may enter the cell.

Nuclear Envelope:
The membrane surrounding the nucleus. It has many small pores to
allow mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA to exit the nucleus/nucleolus.

Nucleus:
The central control center of the cell. It contains the DNA of the cell,
and provides the environment essential for the replication of DNA and
RNA transcription. (to produce mRNA)

Nucleolus:
The dark structure inside the nucleus responsible for the production of
ribosomes. (rRNA)

Chromosomes;
The name given to the chromatin after they unwind before DNA
replication. They contain DNA wrapped around protein called histons.

The Functional relationships of cell Structures:

The Chromosomes (in the nucleus) contain the important information
for making products needed by the cell. This information is carried
(mRNA) out of the nucleus to the rough ER where the ribosomes
synthesize it to produce a product. This product is sent to the golgi
though a transitional vesicle that broke off the rough ER through a
process known as blebbing. The golgi then modifies, packages, and
sorts the product before it is secreted from the cell through exocytosis
or kept in the cell to take over a necessary function of the cell.

Unit B: Cell Biology

Polarity of Water and hydrogen bonding:

Water is a covalently bonded molecule made up of two hydrogens and
one oxygen atom. Since they do not share the electrons evenly the
molecule becomes polar (Oxygen side negative and hydrogen side
positive). This polarity allowes the molecule to form weak bonds to
other atoms/molecules through weak bonds called hydrogen bonds.

Water as a temperature regulator, solvent, and lubricant:

Because of hydrogen bonding, the water molecule keeps water
molecules tied together and thus resists changes in temperature
(temperature changes the kinetic energy and thus cause alterations in
the movement of particles. Hydrogen bonds resist this change). Since
water is polar, its charged ends can also cause the separation of other
substances, thus it can dissolve them. Water is also one of the most
important lubricants in our bodies, again because of the nature of
hydrogen bonds between water molecules that allow other substances
to slide easily alongside it.

Acids, bases, and buff ers and pH levels in the body:

Acids have a low pH value (<7), because of the Log[H+]. Therefore
theyre high in concentration of H+ ions. Bases on the other hand have
a high pH value (>7) because they have a low concentration of H+
ions (instead they have many OH- ions). Buffers are chemical
substances that can regulate pH to a set value even if H+ is removed
or added. This is due to the fact that they can produce or remove H+
ions to counter the change in H+ of a system (an equilibrium shift to a
system is countered by the buffer equilibrium shift). Hemoglobin is a
good example of a buffer in the human body. pH varies throughout the
body; in the blood it is around 7.2-7.4, in the stomach it is around 2.5,
in the small intestine it is around 8, and in the semen it is around 7.5.
pH levels are very important in the body because they can instigate
changes within biological molecules.

Unit C: Cell Biology

Synthesis and Hydrolysis of organic polymers:

Dehydration synthesis is the process of removing water molecules from
unit molecules to allow them to form new bonds creating a Polymer (in
the synthesis of peptides, amino acids form peptide bonds when water

is removed to create the protein/polymer). In Hydrolysis water is added

to break bonds in a polymer to create its separate unit molecules.

Structural diff erences of Carbs/Lipids/Proteins/nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates are all made of the simple organic sugar, glucose.
Glucose is a molecule composed of Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon.
The main structure of glucose is a five-carbon ring with one oxygen.
Esther bonds form between two carboxyl terminus to create larger
carbohydrates.
Lipids are polymers made up of two major complex molecules: Glycerol
and three fatty acids. Again the molecule is created when bonds form
with the removal of water from the carboxyl terminus ends of the fatty
acids/glycerol. This polymer is unique because it is neutral.
Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids. Amino acids contain
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes, sulfur. When formed into a
protein (through peptide bonds), proteins perform all of the
fundamental activities of the body to keep it functioning smoothly.
Nucleic acids are very important polymers made up of nucleotides
(sugar/phosphate with a nitrogenous base pair). DNA contains the
genetic information that makes every organism unique and individual
and also codes for the RNA which produce proteins and other
substances required to maintain the functionality of the body.

Mono/di/and polysaccharides:
While they are all different forms of carbohydrates, Monosaccharides
are single polymers of carbohydrates (like glucose), Disaccharides are
polymers made up of two glucose molecules (like maltose), and
Polysaccharides are carbs made up of longer strands of glucose (like
cellulose, glycogen, or starch).

Starch/Cellulose/and glycogen:
While they are all Polysaccharides, starch is a single chain with one
branch (and the form of carbs that are found in many foods, ie:
potatoes, rice, pasta), Cellulose is a straight chain (found in plants to
make them rigid, indigestible for humans), and glycogen, which is a
chain with many branches (storage form of excess glucose in the body,
in liver)

Main Functions of Carbohydrates:

Already covered in previous note; also a form of quick short term

energy for the body. Carbohydrates all break down into glucose
through digestion so they can be used to create other carbohydrates In
the body/ used to produce ATP during cellular respiration.

Saturated and unsaturated fats:

Saturated fat occurs when the fatty acids in the lipids have no double
carbon bonds, thus hydrogen takes up every vacant spot on the fatty
acid. Unsaturated fat occurs when double bonds form between the
carbon atoms in the fatty acids, thus disallowing the saturation of
vacant spots by hydrogen, and keeping the fat unsaturated.

Importance/location of neutral fats, steroids, and

phospholipids:
Neutral fats are found throughout the body enclosing major organs and
organ systems. They act as long term energy storage areas, insulating
layers to prevent heat loss, and protective cushions around the vital
organs of the body. Steroids have a backbone of four fused carbon
rings but differ in their molecular structure. They form hormones that
drive the sexual nature/makeup of males and females (testosterone,
estrogen, progesterone, etc) and also form important compounds in
the body (like cholesterol, which maintains the fluidity of the plasma
membrane and is a precursor to many hormones). Finally,
Phospholipids are the cells that form the inner/outer layer of the cell
membrane. They have a polar head and neutral tail, thus the head can
dissolve in water while the tail cannot.

Amino acid:

Protein structure:

The primary structure of proteins deals with the specific chain of amino
acids. The secondary structure deals with the proteins orientation in
space (helix or pleaded sheet, held together by hydrogen bonds). The
tertiary structure deals with a proteins 3D orientation in space due to
the kinks formed in the protein because of large amino acids. The
quaternary structure deals with the functionality of proteins especially
when several join and work together (such as hemoglobinfour
proteins joined together by an iron atom)

Functions of proteins:
Structural components in cell membrane (channels, gates, carriers, cell
identification). Serve as enzymes, muscle proteins. Also act as
neurotransmitter, such as in the case of endorphins which have the
ability to block neurotransmitter-P, the pain transmitter.

ATP and energy currency:

ATP is a modified nucleic acid with an edenine base. It also has a
triphosphate group instead of a single phosphate group. When the
enzyme ATPase breaks down the bonds between the three phosphates,
it releases a lot off energy which cells can use for many different
actions (ie: active transport, activation emery for enzymes, etc.)

Unit D: Cell Biology (DNA)

DNA bases and structure of DNA:

DNA is made up of the bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and
Cytosine. These nitrogenous are integrated into nucleotides which are
made from one sugar connected to a phosphate and to the base.
Nucleotides are bonded together throught the sugar and phosphate to
form a single strand. Then hydrogen bonds form between two
complimentary base pairs (A-T/G-C), to create a complete strand of
DNA in the double helix formation.

DNA Replication:
The enzyme helicase causes the DNA to unzip from the bottom. Then
complimentary DNA nucleotides form complimentary base pairs with
the exposed DNA nucleotides. The enzyme DNA polymerase proof
reads these new base pairs to check for any errors. Then the sugar
and phosphate portions of the nucleotides bond together with the help

of the enzyme ligase. Two semiconservative, identical strands of DNA

produced.

Recombinant DNA:
DNA that comes from two different organisms. Allows the integration of
foreign functions into a native species. (Goats can produce spider silk
when spider DNA combined with goats DNA)

Three uses for recombinant DNA:

-frost resistant crops.
-Mass production of human hormones (insulin for example)
-Production of hormones to increase productivity of animals (bGH in
cows, milk prd. In.)
-Pure and safe vaccines can be mass produced.

Structural composition of DNA and RNA:

Firstly, DNA utilized the base pairs A,T,G,C. While RNA replaces the T
(thymie), with a U (uracil). DNA also utilized deoxyribose sugar, while
RNA uses ribose. DNA comes in Two strands of DNA nucleotides that
are complementary joined together by hydrogen bonds. RNA only
comes in single strand form.

Unit E: Cell Biology (Protein Synthesis)

Basic steps of Protein synthesis:

During Transcription, the DNA unzips, allowing complimentary RNA
nucleotides to come and complementary base pair with their DNA
counterpart, forming a strand of RNA known as messenger RNA. This
mRNA leaves through pores in the nucleus and attaches to a ribosomal
complex on the surface of the rough ER. Then translation takes place.
A group of three RNA nucleotides, known as a codon, code for the next
RNA, tRNA to bring an amino acid. This occurs because the tRNA has
anticodons which allow it to join with the codons in the order the amino
acids are meant to be brought. Then the mRNA shifts exposing the
next codon and allowing the correct tRNA to bring the next amino acid.
When two amino acids are present they will form a peptide bond and
the tRNA of the previous amino acid will break off. This process will
eventually form a functional protein.

DNA-RNA transcription:

If DNA strand calls for TACGCCTAG, then the corresponding mRNA that
forms will translate into: AUGCGGAUC.

Environmental mutagens that can cause mutations in humans:

Radiation: From the sun, from natural deposits of radioactive
sediments. The ultra-violate rays can cause mutations leading to
cancer.
Natural poisons can cause changes in DNA that can also lead to
uncontrolled growth. (Natural gases, chlorine gas, etc)

How mutations aff ect Protein synthesis:

Silent mutation: A mutation that does not alter the function of the
protein produced.
Missense mutation: A mutation that causes the protein to perform a
different function than the one desired initially.
Nonsense mutation: A mutation that makes the protein completely
non-functional.

Unit F: Cell Biology (cancer)

General description of cancer:

Cancer cells are cells that have lost their specialization functions and
are beginning to grow out of control (anaplasia). Their nuclei are
abnormally large because they contain extra chromosomes. These
cells also lose contact inhibition which means they dont stop growing
when they make contact with other tissues/organs. When a tumor has
developed, it will create its own blood supply by developing a network
of blood vessels to feed it oxygen and nutrients, helping it to grow
more rapidly (vascularization). Eventually, parts of the tumor break off
and move to a new location in the body to begin growing secondary
tumors (metastasis).

Seven Signals that indicate Cancer growth:

-Change in bowel or bladder habits
-Sores that do not heal
-Unusual bleeding or discharge of fluids
-Thickening or lumps

-Indigestion or difficulty swallowing

-Obvious change in wart or mole
-Nagging cough or hoarseness

Proto-oncogene and oncogene:

A Proto-oncogene is a normal gene in human DNA that poses no threat
to the body. However, if a carcinogen causes a mutation in this gene, it
may turn into an oncogene, and oncogenes do cause cancer.

Initiators and promoters:

An initiator is the carcinogen (mutagen) that causes the protooncogene to turn into an oncogene, initiating cancerous growth.
Ultraviolet radiation, pesticides, or some drugs can act as initiators.
Then the Growth turns into a tumor through the process of promotion.
Tobacco smoke is a very common promoter because it provides the
right environment for the oncogene to begin to duplicate ant turn into
a tumor or unspecialized cells.

Viruses and Carcinogenesis:

Some viruses, like HIV, have special reverse transcriptors that takes
RNA and converts it to DNA and replaces a segment of the DNA
sequence in a chromosome. If it targets a proto-oncogene and changes
it by implementing new DNA, it could cause cancer.

Unit G: Cell Processes and Applications (Transport Across

Cell Membrane)

Organic Molecules and Fluid Mosaic model:

Organic molecules are biological molecules that all contain Carbon in
their atomic structure and form living organisms. The Fluid Mosaic
model states that, Proteins form a mosaic pattern within a bilayer of
lipid molecules and have a fluid consistency. All molecules in the Cell
membrane/Fluid mosaic model are organic.

Why cell membrane is Selectively Permeable:

The cell is described as such because of its ability to only allow
certain substances across, and regulates the amounts in which they
may cross the membrane.

Compare and contrast:

Diffusion: When particles move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low
concentration.
Facilitated Transport: When substances must diffuse through a
gate that is designed to
only allow through
specific materials. (Glucose, amino acids)
Osmosis: The diffusion of water from high to low concentration.
Active transport: when substances are moved against their
concentration gradient. This
process requires ATP
to function.

Factors that aff ect diff usion:

Concentration (High [ ] moves quicker), Molecular size (harder to
diffuse large particles), Molecular shape (Shape can also slow down
process), Temperature (High temperature = high Kinetic energy).

Endo, phago, and pinocytosis; and exocytosis:

Endocytosis is a process in which the cell allows larger substances to
cross the cell membrane. Phagocytosis is a version of endocytosis
where the membrane engulfs the substance and thus brings it through
the membrane. Pinocytosis is a version of exocytosis where smaller
compounds of a fluid nature are injected and form vesicles in the cell.
Exocytosis, on the other hand, is the process by which cells export
materials from the cell. They allow the membrane to part around the
material until it blebs off. All these processes require the use of ATP.

Hypertonic, Isotonic, and Hypotonic environments and cells:

A Hypertonic environment means the concentration outside the cell is
higher than the concentration inside the cell. This means water will
leave the cell to dilute the outside concentration of solutes, and thus
the cell will experience crenate, which is shrinkage due to the loss of
water. A Hypotonic environment is the opposite, meaning the
concentration of solutes is higher inside the cell. This causes water to
enter the cell thus causing the cell to swell. This is called
deplasmolysis. If the osmotic pressure is too great inside the cell it will

rupture. This is known as crenate. An Isotonic environment is one

where the concentrations are equal inside and outside the cell. No
diffusion occurs in this case.

Cell surface-area to volume relationship and cell size:

A cell with a large surface area means that it can experience more
deplasmolysis before lysus occurs. This means it can take a larger
volume inside itself and therefore increases in size.

Unit H: Cell Processes and Applications (Enzymes)

Demonstrate an understanding of these terms:

Metabolism: this is a general term that describes the processes in the
body that break down and process substances from ingestion to
excretion/defecation. Someone with a fast metabolism is less lightly to
gain weight because their body can process fats and starches at a
faster rate.
Enzyme: The proteins that drive the metabolic processes of the body.
They catalyze reactions by lowering the activation energy of chemical
reactions in the body.
Substrate: The material that the enzyme is catalysing. In the case of
Maltase, maltose is the substrate.
Coenzyme: A vitamin portion of the enzyme complex.
Activation energy: The energy provided by ATP which allows the
enzyme to change the substrates shape slightly, thus bringing about a
change in its chemical structure that creates a new product.

Thyroxin and Metabolism:

Thyroxin is a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland. It land on the
receptor of a cell and causes the cell to take up glucose. Then it
activates the glucose and thus the cell makes ATP. So essentially it tells
cells when to make ATP. This is the fundamental metabolic process in
the boy and thus Thyroxin is essential to Metabolism.

Lock and Key model of an enzymatic reaction:

The enzyme acts as the key, binding with the substrate and unlocking
it to change its shape and create a new compound.

How enzymes are aff ected:

pH: A high pH means there are many H+ ions, which ultimately
compromise the hydrogen bonds holding the enzyme together and
reducing its functionality.
Temperature: A high temperature will make the bonds break as well
because the molecules have too much kinetic energy and are moving
too much. If temperature is to low, there will not be enough energy in
the bonds to allow the enzyme to change the substrate (because
Kinetic energy is too low now).
Substrate concentration: At a certain point, there might be more
substrate than active sites on enzymes can accommodate. This will
lead to a plateau in the enzyme reaction efficiency.
Enzyme Concentration: Adding more enzymes will create more
active sites for reactions to occur at, thus driving up the reaction rate.
Competitive inhibitors: Competitive inhibitors occupy the active
sites on enzyme, disallowing reactions from occurring and thus slowing
down, or even stopping reactions all together.
Heavy Metals: They have a huge affinity for electrons, thus they
break apart the hydrogen bonds by pulling away electrons from the
enzyme. This greatly affects the enzymatic reaction rate because the
enzymes may be compromised.

Unit I: Human Biology (Digestive System)

Identify functions of the following:

Mouth: Contains teeth for physical digestion of food. Also contains
salivary amylase that can begin the chemical digestion of cooked
starch.
Tongues: Rolls food into small balls called bolus, and pushes them
toward the pharynx.
Pharynx: Chamber at back of the mouth where food and air cross
paths. A flap called the epiglottis keeps food from going down trachea
but rather channels it down the esophagus.
Teeth: Help with initial physical digestion of food by breaking it down
into swallowable sized chunks.

Salivary Glands: they connect to the mouth and contain water (a

lubricant and solvent), and Salivary Amylase (breaks cooked starches
into maltase).
Epiglottis: Flap over trachea that keeps food and liquid from going
down into the airway.
Esophagus: Muscular tube that moves food from pharynx to stomach
using rhythmic contractions known as Peristalsis.
Cardiac Sphincter: Muscular Sphincter that allows food into stomach
but keeps Hydrochloric acid of stomach from splashing up into
esophagus.
Stomach: Muscular sac that breaks down food by three way muscular
contractions causing churning, pepsin (breaks down proteins), and
HCL, which kills any harmful bacteria that may have been ingested.
Pyloric Sphincter: Allows Acid chime into the duodenum from the
stomach.
Duodenum: the first section of the small intestine. Has chemo
receptors that detect which substances are present and causes
pancreas and gall bladder to release secretions that contain many
compounds to break down acid chime further before absorption may
occur.
Liver: Produces Bile (through breakdown of old RBCs), to be released
through gall bladder for the emulsification of fats.
Gall Bladder: Where Bile is released into the duodenum to emulsify
fats.
Pancreas: Releases Pancreatic juice into duodenum which contains
many compounds (Sodium bicarbonate, trypsinogen, Pancreatic
amylase, atc) used to break down substance in acid chime.
Small intestine: Very long tube with huge convoluted surface area to
allow for most absorption possible. Also maintains a warm, moist
environment to promote efficient digestion.
Appendix: A small gland at the base of the large intestine that has no
proven function. Its functionality is controversial.
Large intestine: Where water is drawn out of the feces, and bacteria
called e-coli process any indigestible substances that the digestive
system could not.

Rectum: The end of the large intestine where feces is stored until
defecation.
Anus: The Sphincter where feces exits the body. (defecation)

Glandular sources of Enzymes and which digestive reactions

they promote:
Salivary Amylase: Secreted from the salivary glands into the mouth;
it catalyzes the breakdown of cooked starches into maltose.
Pancreatic Amylase: Secreted from Pancreases into small intestine
as part of pancreatic juice; it catalyzes the breakdown of
carbohydrates into maltose.
Proteases (Trypsin/Pepsin): Pepsin comes from pepsinogen found in
the gastric juice secreted from the gastric glands into the stomach. It
breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptides. Trypsin comes from
Trypsinogen which is found in the pancreatic juice secreted into the
small intestine. It also breaks down polypeptides into smaller peptides.
Lipase: Found in the pancreatic juice secreted from pancreas, it
performs the only chemical breakdown of lipids in the whole digestive
system before absorption occurs.
Peptidase: Produced by the small intestine itself, it performs the final
breakdown of peptides into individual amino acids before they are
absorbed by the villi.
Maltase: Also produced by the small intestine itself, it performs the
final breakdown of maltose into glucose before it can be absorbed by
the villi.
Nuclease: Found in Pancreatic juice. It catalyzes the chemical
breakdown of nucleic acids into nucleotides.

Swallowing and Peristalsis:

Swallowing occurs when rhythmic muscular contractions called
peristalsis cause food to be pushed down the esophagus to the
stomach.

The components and functions of the following:

Gastric Juice: Contains water, HCL, and Pepsinogen. When released
the HCL breaks down the Pepsinogen into pepsin , and also kills any

foreign bacteria. The Pepsin breaks down protein, and the water
lubricates the entire contents of the stomach.
Pancreatic juice: Contains water (lubricant), Sodium Bicarbonate
(lowers pH of acid chime to 8.5), Trypsinogen (when concerted to
trypsin, breaks peptides down further), Pancreatic amylase (breaks
down carbohydrates further), Lipase (breaks down lipids into glycerol
and fatty acids), Nucleases (break nucleic acids into nucleotides)
Intestinal Juice: Contains Maltase and protease. Maltase breaks down
maltose into glucose, and protease breaks down peptides into amino
acids. Both of the substances are then ready for absorption into the
body through the villi.

Source gland and function of insulin:

Insulin is excreted from the pancreas to the liver and causes the liver
to store glucose as glycogen when it is not needed (since Blood sugar
levels are balanced).

Bile and emulsifi cation of fats:

Bile is produced by the liver and secreted into the duodenum through
the gall bladder. It serves as a physical component in the digestion of
fats by breaking them into smaller lipids (emulsification).

Six Major functions of the Liver:

-Controls blood sugar levels
-Produces bile from products of destruction of old
RBCs (Bilirubin and Biliverdin)
-Produces urea from
breakdown of amino acids
-Detoxifies blood by removing poisonous substances (ie: alcohol)
-makes blood proteins like Fibrinogen and Prothrombin.
-Destroys old RBCs and converts their
components into other products

How small intestine is specialized for absorption:

The small intestine is very long and convoluted, creating a massive
surface area for absorption and digestion to take place. It is also warm
and moist, providing conditions that help the breakdown and
absorption of substances further.

Functions of E. coli in the colon:

E. coli is a bacterium that metabolises what our body cannot. It

releases minerals, and manufactures vitamins/ amino acids. It also
decomposes food into feces.

Unit J: Human Biology (Circulatory System and Blood)

Diff erentiation of the diff erent blood vessels:

Arteries are thick muscular blood vessels that carry oxyhemoglobin
rich blood away from the heart. Arterioles are small branches of
arteries. They have small sphincter muscles which help push blood
along. Capillaries are very think walled tiny blood vessels that carry
both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. They allow materials to
diffuse in and out of the blood (capillary fluid exchange). Venules carry
blood from capillary bed to veins and have semi lunar valves to
prevent backflow. Veins primarily carry deoxygenated blood from the
body to the right atrium (except for the pulmonary circuit where they
carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium). The smooth muscles help
move the blood back to the heart.

Identify and give functions for the following:

Subclavian arteries and veins: Leave the aorta and feed the arms
and upper chest wall. The veins meet up with major lymphatic ducts
before joining anterior vena cava.
Jugular veins: Veins that take blood from the head back to the
anterior vena cava. These veins do not have semi lunar valves thus
they rely on gravity to take the blood back to the heart.
Carotid Arteries: Take blood from heart to brain. Have receptors that
detect carbon dioxide levels and thus allow medulla oblongata to
regulate breathing when more oxygen is needed in the blood. Also
have pressure receptors that detect blood pressure.
Mesenteric Arteries: Go from heart to digestive system where they
feed intestines with nutrients and oxygen and branch into the villi and
microvilli capillary beds.
Anterior and Posterior Vena Cava: The two major portions of the
the biggest vein that returns all deoxygenated blood from the body to

the heart. Posterior receives bllod from lower portion of body. Anterior
receives blood from chest, arms, and head.
Pulmonary veins and arteries: These are the blood vessels of the
pulmonary system. The type of blood they carry is reversed from the
systemic circuit so that the veins carry the oxygenated blood and the
arteries carry the deoxygenated blood.
Hepatic Vein: Carries blood from liver back to heart.
Hepatic Portal Vein: Transports blood rich in nutrients from small
intestine to the capillary network of liver, which processed the
nutrients (ie: receives glucose and regulates the amount that is
released into the blood)
Renal arteries and veins: take blood to kidneys where it is cleaned
through pressure filtration and sent back to the heart cleaned of Urea,
ammonia, and uric acid, along with other nitrogenous wastes.
Iliac Arteries and Veins: Take blood to the legs and back to the
heart. In a fetus this is where the umbilical arteries leave to go to the
placenta to receive oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
Coronary Arteries and veins: Branch off the aorta and bring
oxygenated blood right to the heart muscle to allow it to pump blood
throughout the body.
Aorta: The artery leaving the left ventricle that branches into all the
arteries and arterioles supplying the body with blood. This blood vessel
has the highest blood pressure found in the Circulatory system.

Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circulation:

The pulmonary system takes oxygenated blood to the heart through
the pulmonary vein and then brings deoxygenated blood to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery. The systemic circuit pumps oxygenated
blood to the body through the aorta and brings it back through the
anterior and posterior vena cava.

Fetal and adult circulatory diff erences:

The fetal circulatory system has a hole in the atrial septum called the
foreman oval, which allows oxygenated blood to be pumped directly
from the right atrium to the left atrium. It also has a venous duct which
allows blood to bypass the liver and connect to the posterior vena cava
through the umbilical vein coming from the placenta. The final

differentiating structure is the atrial duct, which allows blood to pass

from the right ventricle directly into the aorta, bypassing the lungs.

Path of blood in body (from aorta):

Blood goes to the extremities and organs of the body, then it
reconvenes and all comes through the anterior/posterior vena cava
into the right atrium. From here it enters the right ventricle which
pumps it through the pulmonary artery to the lungs where gas
exchange occurs. Then it travels to the left atrium by way of the
pulmonary vein before re-entering the left ventricle to pass through the
aorta out to the body.

Major components of Plasma:

Is ninety % water, remainder consists of: protein, inorganic salts,
carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, vitamins, and hormones.

Functions of lymph capillaries, veins, and nodes:

The capillaries puck up excess fluids and return them to the blood
stream as well as absorbing fats from villi. The veins transport the
lymph fluid transports white blood cells, lipids, and antibodies. The
nodes purify the lymph of infectious organisms through the action of
white blood cells.

Shape, Functions, and Origin of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets:

RBCs have a biconcave shape, and are produced in the redbone
marrow. They function to carry Oxygen to cells, and Carbon Dioxide/
Hydrogen way from cells (due to hemoglobin). WBCs have an
amoeboid shape and have nuclei and mitochondrion. They are also
produced in the red bone marrow and serve to destroy foreign
substances/organisms in the body through the action of agglutination.
Foreign substances are detected through antigens (foreign structures
on the surface of cells that body does not have an antibody for).
Platelets lack a nucleus but can move in an amoeboid fashion. They
are produced in the red bone marrow as well and serve to form clots
over wounds in the blood vessels so that blood doesnt all flow out.
This is achieved through the action of the blood proteins
Thromboplastin and Fibrinogen.

Antigens and Antibodies:

Antigens have two meanings. Firstly they serve as the proteins on the
outside of RBCs to allow the body to determine of the blood cell is the

correct type. Secondly they serve as the term used to describe foreign
substances/organisms in the body. Antibodies are the proteins
produced by blood cells that will destroy specific foreign substances
entering the body. The process of elimination is called agglutination.
(Where many antibodies surround and begin destroying antigen until
WBC can come and finish it through phagocytosis)

Capillary-Tissue fl uid exchange:

At the arterial end of the capillary bed, Blood pressure is higher than
osmotic pressure. This causes the plasma to be forced into the tissues.
However on the venules side the osmotic pressure is higher, allowing
diffusion and osmosis of fluids back into bloodstream.

Unit K: Human Biology: (Circulatory System~ Heart

structure/Function)

Identify/Give functions for the following:

Left and Right Atria: The compartments of the heart responsible for
pumping blood into the ventricles.
Left and Right Ventricles: The other two components of the heart
that pump blood into the pulmonary circuit (Right ventricle), and
systemic circuit (Left ventricle).
Coronary arteries and veins: Supply the heart muscle with blood so
it has nutrients/oxygen required to pump blood.
Anterior and Posterior Vena Cava: The vein that brings all the
blood back into the heart. Anterior serves the chest arms and head and
posterior serves the bottom half of the body)
Aorta: The biggest/strongest artery in the body that blood leaves the
heart from as it is being pumped out to the body.
Pulmonary arteries/veins: Artery takes deoxygenated blood to lungs
and vein takes oxygenated blood to the left atria. (make up pulmonary
system)
Pulmonary Trunk: The base of the Pulmonary artery directly after the
pulmonary valve.
Atrioventricular valves: The valves between the atria and ventricles.
(Are tricuspid/bicuspid valves)

Chordae Tendineae: Muscular fibres that attach the flaps of the

atrioventricular valves to the inside of the ventricles making them
open only one way and preventing inversion.
Semi-Lunar Valves: The valves that prevent backflow of blood back
into the ventricles after ventricular contraction of the heart.
Septum: The muscular dividing wall between the right and left
chambers of the heart.

Location and function of SA node, AV node, and Purkinje Fibres:

The SA node is located in the upper dorsal region of the right atrium. It
is a nerve ending that conducts the impulse from the medulla
oblongata to initiate the contraction of the atria. The AV node is
stimulated by the contraction of the atria to wait until the ventricles
have filled with blood before stimulating the ventricles to contract. The
Purkinje Fibres disperse the impulse from the AV node so that the
ventricles contract evenly.

Autonomic regulation of the heartbeat by the nervous system:

The Medulla tells the Heart to contract through the vagus nerve which
ends in the SA node. If high levels of CO2 are detected in the carotid
arteries the medulla will initiate this impulse.

Factors that create Hypotension and Hypertension:

Hypertension may occur if too much fat is consumed. It will relate
plaque in the blood vessels which may constrict blood flow and cause
clots leading to serious heart issues or even death. Hypotension may
occur when an individual has too little salt in their diet. The lack of salt
will cause water to diffuse out of the blood to retain solute balance,
causing the decrease of blood volume and thus, low blood pressure.

Measurement of Blood Pressure:

At normal resting heart rate, an individuals blood pressure should be
around 120/80. The 120 is the systolic pressure measured during
contraction of the ventricles, and 80 is the diastolic pressure measured
during ventricle relaxation.

Unit L: Human Biology (Respiratory System)

Identify/Give functions for the following:

Larynx: The space at the back of the mouth where oral and nasal
cavities meet up.
Trachea: The tube that carries air from the larynx down to the lungs. It
maintains rigidity and flexibility in the forward direction through rings
of calcium.
Bronchi: Passageways that branch off the trachea and channel air to
smaller channels called bronchioles.
Bronchioles: Smaller thin walled passages that channel air from
bronchi to alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
Alveoli: Specialized sac like endings on the ends of bronchioles
designed for gas exchange. Large surface area and sheer number of
alveoli aid in their function.
Diaphragm and Ribs: The Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
between the ribs are responsible for the mechanical inhalation process.
When they contract the volume increases in the thoracic cavity,
allowing air to rush in to replace the drop in pressure.
Pleural Membranes: Membranes that cover the lungs that serve two
functions: they have a lubricant that helps lungs to slide smoothly
along thoracic cavity and also seal lungs from thoracic cavity to allow
diaphragm and intercostal muscles to change the pressure in lungs
causing the mechanic of breathing to work.
Thoracic cavity: The cavity in the chest area above the abdominal
cavity.

Role of cilia and mucus in the respiratory tract:

Mucus in the nose traps foreign particles from travelling further. In the
Trachea, mucus traps particles as well and then cilia lining it sweep the
mucus up to the pharynx where it may be expelled out of the mouth or
nose, or swallowed into the digestive tract.

Structure and function of alveoli:

Alveoli have a huge surface area and there are millions of them in each
lung. This increases the rate at which gas exchange can occur.

Contrast of the processes of inhalation and exhalation:

During inhalation, the diaphragm bows down and the inter costal
muscles cause the chest wall to push out. These actions cause the
thoracic cavity to increase, thus causing an increase in negative
pressure in the lungs and causing air to rush in to bring the pressure
back into equilibrium with the outside. During exhalation the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, shrinking the thoracic cavity.
This causes an increase in pressure, forcing air out of the lungs.

Roles of Carbon dioxide/Hydrogen ions in stimulating

breathing:
When Bicarbonate concentration and Reduced Hemoglobin
concentrations in the blood increase, the carotid arteries detect this
and send an impulse to the medulla oblongata which in turn passes an
impulse to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles telling them to
contract. This stimulates inhalation.

Exchange of Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen during internal and

external respiration:
During external respiration, Bicarbonate ions enter alveoli capillary
networks, where reduced hemoglobin releases its Hydrogen ion to
create Carbonic acid. Then Carbonic Anhydrase catalyzes a reaction to
turn the acid back into Carbon dioxide and water. This process occurs
in reverse during internal respiration.

How Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, and Hydrogen is carried in the

blood:
Oxygen is carried by Hemoglobin and is then called Oxyhemoglobin:
O + Hb HbO
Hydrogen when alone is carried by Hemoglobin and called Reduced
Hemoglobin:
H+ Hb HHb
When Carbon dioxide is carried solely by Hemoglobin (10%), it is called
Carbaminohemoglobin:
CO + Hb HbCO
But 90% of the time Carbon dioxide is carried as Bicarbonate ions:
HO + CO HCO H + HCO

Unit M: Human Biology (Nervous system)

Identify and give functions of the following:

Dendrite: The name of the axon that receives information from the
previous neuron in interneurons and motor neurons.
Cell Body: Located inside the neuron in a motor/inter neuron, and
along the peripheral axon of a sensory neuron; maintains the neurons
fuction.
Axon: The Fibre that conducts an electric impulse in a neuron.

Diff erences in function of Neurons:

Sensory neurons transmit an impulse from receptors to the
interneurons and their peripheral axon in myelinated. Interneurons are
present in the CNS only and transmit the signal from the sensory
neuron to the motor neuron. They also send the impulse to the brain.
The motor neuron sends the impulse to the effectors in the
muscles/glands which cause a reaction to occur. (Muscle
movement/Pain/etc.)

Explain Nerve transmission with the correct terminology:

When not in use, the axon is at resting potential (-65 mV). When a
threshold of disruption in the axon is met, the impulse will be
generated and depolarization will occur. The sodium gates will open
and flood the axon with sodium ions. This will bring the charge in the
axon to +40 mV. At this point repolarization will occur. The potassium
gates will open and potassium ions will leave the axon. Now the charge
in the axon is around -70-75 mV. The last stage is the refractory period,
in which sodium-potassium pumps will use active transport to move
the ions back to their original location.

Myelinated nerve fi bre and conduction speed:

The Myelinated sheath is made up of Schwann cells, and in between
each of these cells lies a node of Ranvier. When an impulse is
generated, it jumps from node to node because the Schwann cells
keep it from transmitting across their portion of the axon. This has a
stone skipping effect on the impulse and greatly accelerates it.

Major components of a synapse:

The synaptic cleft, pre-synaptic membrane, post-synaptic membrane,
and neurotransmitters, as well as the contractile proteins and synaptic
vesicles are the important structures within a synapse.

Process of Impulse across a synapse:

When an impulse reaches a synapse, sodium and calcium ions flood
the axon ending. The Calcium binds to the contractile proteins which
real in the synaptic vesicles (containing neurotransmitters). The
neurotransmitters enter the synaptic cleft through exocytosis, and
diffuse across where they are received by receptor proteins. This action
causes the sodium gates to open on the post0synaptic membrane,
generating the impulse on the other side.

How Neurotransmitters are broken down in the synaptic cleft:

Neurotransmitters are broken down by strong hydrolytic enzymes from
the post-synaptic membrane.

Refl ex arc and its function:

The reflex arc is designed to receive a stimulus and respond to this
stimulus in the shortest time possible. Since the reflex arc is made up
of only three neurons, and bypasses the brain, it fulfills these
requirements very nicely. Using an electric impulse is also a benefit,
because of the speed at which impulses travel, which is remarkable
fast.

Unit N: Human Biology (Nervous System~ Continued)

Contrast location and function of central and peripheral

nervous system:
The peripheral nervous system only has interneurons in the CNS
(spine), and two of its neurons have myelinated sheaths. Thus it is very
fast but not controlled by the brain (thus the term reflex is
appropriate). The Central Nervous system takes an impulse to the
brain. While this is slower, it allows more control over the reaction and
even allows one to make a conscious decision over the reaction to
make (if it passes to the cerebral cortex). The CNS also handles

functions that are more complicated, or vital, something a reflex arc

cannot provide.

Diff erences of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous

systems:
The Sympathetic system is activated by a high stress situation and
initiates a fight or flight response. It supresses the blood flow to the
digestive system and redirects it to the exterior skeletal muscles and
heart. It also dilates the bronchioles and pupils. The neurotransmitter
responsible for this is noradrenaline. The Parasympathetic system
causes the body to relax, directing blood flow to the digestive system
and internal organs, and away from the limbs. It utilizes the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Source and function of adrenaline:

In a high stress situation the brain will tell the adrenal cortex to release
adrenaline. Adrenaline is a hormone that activates the entire
sympathetic division of the nervous system.

Identify/Give functions of the following:

Medulla Oblongata: The portion of the brain in charge of the
autonomic nervous system. It controls breathing, heart rate, cough
reflex, sneezing, hiccupping, and vomiting.
Cerebrum: the largest portion of the brain. It is what makes one
conscious and able to think. The outer layer (cerebral cortex) is
responsible for the voluntary control of skeletal muscles (somatic
system). The associative cortex is responsible for learning, memory,
and creativity.
Thalamus: The portion of the brain responsible for the sorting and
distribution of impulses from the body. It also contained the RAS
system, which IDs impulses and only lets important ones through.
Cerebellum: The second largest portion of the brain thats controls
the coordination of muscle movements to allow complex actions like
walking or kicking/throwing a ball.
Hypothalamus: the portion of the brain responsible for maintain the
bodys homeostasis. It releases hormones to pituitary or releases
hormones itself that control functions such as: body temperature,
hunger, sleep, thirst, and water balance. The limbic system connects

the Hypothalamus to the cerebrum and is responsible for many drives

and emotions.
Corpus Callosum: the connection between the right and left
hemispheres of the brain that allows them to interact and
communicate.

Hypothalamus/Pituitary interaction and control of endocrine

system:
The Hypothalamus controls the pituitary by sending it impulses when it
should release hormones to parts of the body. It can also release
hormones directly. This hormonal control is what gives the
hypothalamus control over the endocrine system.

Unit O: Human Biology (Urinary System)

Identify/Give functions of the following:

Kidney: The organ that cleans blood of toxic nitrogenous substances.
Ureter: The tube that moves urine from the kidney to the bladder
through peristalsis
Urethra: The tube that moves urine from bladder out of the body
through the a process known as micturition, or peeing.
Urinary Bladder: The sac like organ that stores urine before
micturition.
Renal Cortex: The outer region of kidney that is responsible for
pressure filtration of blood, and selective reabsorption of substances
through the PCT.
Renal medulla: The middle layer of the kidney that is responsible for
counter current exchange (loop of henle), and water reabsorption
(collecting duct).
Renal Pelvis: The bottom of kidney where urine collects before
passing to the bladder through the ureter.

Identify/give functions of the following:

Nephron: The structure in the kidney responsible for the filtration of

blood and production of urine, as well as the reabsorption of water
back into the body.
Glomerulus: The tightly packed ball of capillaries inside the bowmans
capsule that takes all wastes and solutes out of the blood through
pressure filtration.
Bowman s capsule: The spherical structure containing the
glomerulus. Seals of glomerulus for maximum pressure to filtrate
blood.
Afferent/Efferent arterioles: The afferent brings blood to the
Bowmans capsule and the efferent takes it from the Bowmans
capsule into the peritubular capillary network.
Peritubular capillary network: The capillary system in conjunction
with the PCT and DCT in which selective reabsorption takes place.
PCT and DCT: The PCT carries filtrate away from the glomerulus, and
allows selective reabsorption of certain substances back into the blood.
The DCT reabsorbs a few more materials but is primarily responsible
for tubular excretion (movement of nitrogenous wastes, poisons, and
ions into DCT from capillaries).
Collecting duct: located at the end of the nephron (in the medulla), it
collects the urine and allows water to be reabsorbed back into the
medulla~ Blood.
Loop of Henle: Located in the renal medulla it is responsible for
counter current exchange. The ascending branch is permeable to
sodium (controlled by aldosterone from posterior pituitary). The
descending branch is permeable to water, and water is reabsorbed into
blood since that is where sodium has gone through ascending branch.

Urea and Glucose concentration in renal artery/vein:

The renal artery has a high concentration of urea and a high
concentration of glucose. The renal vein has a low concentration of
urea and a lower concentration of glucose.

ADH and aldosterone and their function:

Aldosterone is secreted from the adrenal glands and functions to
regulate the permeability of the ascending limb of the loop of henle.
ADH is secreted from the posterior pituitary, and functions to regulate
the permeability of the collecting duct to water. Water reabsorption is

indirectly controlled by aldosterone, because in the absence of sodium

in the renal medulla (controlled by aldosterone), the water will not
have a high concentration gradient to help it diffuse out of the
collecting duct.

Unit P: Human Biology (Reproductive System)

Identify/Give functions of the following:

Testes: tightly packed collections of seminiferous tubules where sperm
are produced (Spermatogenesis)
Epididymis: Where spermatids mature into sperm and are stored until
ejaculation.
Vas deferens: The tube that stores mature sperm and has
connections to the three semen producing glands. It connects to the
urethra to allow ejaculation to occur.
Prostate gland/Cowpers gland/Seminal vesicle: Produce seminal
fluid which is added to sperm to produce semen. (Has a pH of 7.5 due
to bicarbonate ions, fructose to provide energy for sperm, and
prostaglandins; special chemical substances that cause the uterus to
contract)
Penis: The organ of copulation in a male. Has erectile tissue to
become stiff to fit into vagina in order to deliver semen to ovaries.
Urethra: The tube that ends at the tip of the penis. Used for excretion
of urine during micturition, and semen during copulation.

Path of sperm from seminiferous tubules to the urethral

opening:
During ejaculation, the sperm leaves the seminiferous tubules and
enters the vas differens, where the three glands that produce seminal
fluid add their substances to produce semen. Then the semen enters
the urethra before being ejected from the penis. The movement of
sperm/semen during copulation is due to peristalsis.

Functions of Seminal fl uid:

To increase pH of female environment to protect sperm, to buffer
female environment (bicarbonate ions), to provide energy to sperm
(fructose), and to cause uterus to contract (prostaglandins).

Parts of Sperm:
The acrosome is a membrane around the head that protects enzymes
used to penetrate the egg. The head contains the genetic information
of the gamete. The midpiece contains special mitochondria that utilize
fructose to create ATP. The tail is what allows the sperm to swim up the
oviducts to meet an fertilize the egg.

Functions of Testosterone:
Testosterone is the male hormone produced in the interstitial cells
located in the seminiferous tubules that give males their secondary sex
characteristics. These include: body and facial hair growth, lengthening
of the vocal cords, acne, sweating, and increased muscle mass.

Control of endocrine system by negative feedback:

LH is released by the anterior pituitary; and stimulates the production
and release of testosterone. Once enough testosterone is released
negative feedback by it to the anterior pituitary will cause the pituitary
to stop releasing LH.

Identify/Give functions of the following:

Ovaries: Maturation of the follicle until ovulation of the egg into the
oviduct. Site of corpus luteum, thus production of estrogen and
progesterone, until degeneration of corpus luteum.
Oviducts: The tubes that carry the egg from the ovaries to the uterus,
and where fertilization usually occurs.
Uterus: The site of implantation of the fertilized egg into the
endometrium. Where the zygote matures into the fetus until delivery.
Cervix: Where the Vagina meets the uterus.
Vagina: The flexible tube that receives the penis during sex and acts
as the birth canal during delivery.
Clitoris: The button like tissue mass above the vaginal opening,
responsible for female sexual pleasure.

Function of Estrogen:
It is multifunctional. It stimulates the growth of the endometrium and it
causes female secondary sexual characteristics.

Sequence of events in the ovarian and uterine cycle:

During the first 13 days, the ovaries are in the follicular phase
(Maturation of follicle), while the uterus is in the proliferative phase
(expulsion of the endometrium for first 5 days, then regrowth of the
endometrium due to increased levels of estrogen from follicle). On day
14 ovulation occurs in the ovaries, leading to the luteal phase
(remainder of follicle turns into corpus luteum and produces estrogen
and progesterone). In the uterus this is known as the secretory phase,
because the endometrium thickens further (due to
progesterone/estrogen from corpus luteum), and prepares to receive
the egg. If egg is not fertilized implantation will not occur, the corpus
luteum will degenerate, and menstruation will follow.

Positive feedback and oxytocin:

When the uterous contracts leading up to birth, this action causes the
release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. The more contractions
occur the more oxytocin is released, leading to an increase in release
of oxytocin and contractions until delivery. The release of oxytocin also
stimulates the breasts to begin producing milk.

Hormonal changes due to implantation:

If implantation occurs, the embryo will begin releasing the hormone
HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), which will stimulate the corpus
luteum to continue producing estrogen and progesterone, and keep it
from degenerating. Once the Placenta has developed, the fetus will
stop releasing the hormone and the corpus luteum will degenerate.
Now the placenta has taken over the production of estrogen and
progesterone until birth.