Evaluation of Drying Methods on Antioxidant Activity, Total Phenolic

and Total Carotenoid Contents of Sweet Potato

(Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) var. Tainong73
Predner Duvivier1, Pao-Chuan Hsieh2, Po-Yung Lai1, and Albert L. Charles1
1. Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation, and 2. Department of Food Science,
National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan.

ABSTRACT
This study analyzed the evaluation of the antioxidant activity (AOA), total
phenolics, total flavonoids, and total carotenoids of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.)
var. Tainong 73 during the drying process. Flesh and skin samples were submitted to
sun-drying, low-temperature drying (LTD) at 25C, hot air drying (HAD) at 50C, or
HAD at 75C, and extracted with ethanol. Then, AOA was assessed by
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydradzyl (DPPH); anti-oxidative potency in linoleic acid system
model (AOP), and 2,2-Azino-di-[3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate] (ABTS) assays.
Skin samples showed, on average, higher AOA than the flesh. The AOA and
composition were higher in samples submitted to HAD at 50 or 75C for four or one day
than at lower temperatures for longer times. Stronger correlation was observed between
the AOA and phenolics than carotenoids content, suggesting that phenolics are the major
contributors to AOA of sweet potato var. Tainong 73.
Key words: antioxidant activity, phenolics, carotenoids, sweet potato, drying process

J. International Cooperation 3 (2) (September 2008): 73-86

2008 International Cooperation and Development Fund

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Introduction
Food storage is a key factor of food
and nutrition security and food drying by
heat is an old and common practice of
preserving food. It brings food water
activity to a level unfavorable for the
microorganisms development during
storage and facilitates food distribution
by reducing bulk volume. However,
thermal processing has long been
perceived to cause the loss of some
heat-labile nutrients, thus lowering the
nutritional value of the food. Earlier
studies in selected legume sprouts and
seedlings
indicated
that
thermal
processing significantly alters functionality
of legumes (Randhir and Shetty, 2005).
The suitability of a post harvest food
treatment depends on its effect on
nutritious and functional properties of the
food (Marc et al., 2004).
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.)
is an easy-to-grow crop with good
adaptability to diverse environmental
conditions, high yielding ability and high
energy content (Ravindran et al., 1995).
It is suitable for organic food production
and other environmentally friendly
agricultural practices. It ranks fifth most
important food crop in terms of fresh
weight after rice, wheat, corn, and
cassava in developing countries where
95% of its annual production (more than
133 million tons) is concentrated (Centro
Internacional de Potato (CIP), 1998).
Some varieties have anti-carcinogenic

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properties and/or antioxidant activity

(AOA) (Teow et al., 2007), which
categorizes the sweet potato as a
promising crop for global food security
(Scott, 1992).
The objective of this study was to
analyze the effects of four drying
processes on the AOA, total phenolic,
flavonoid, and carotenoid contents of the
Taiwanese sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas
Lam.) var. Tainong 73 (TNG 73).
Materials and Methods
Materials
Freshly harvested sweet potato
tuberous roots were purchased from the
local market in Pingtung, Taiwan, spring
2007. DPPH and ABTS radicals, catechin,
Folin-Ciocalteu phenols reagent, gallic
acid (GA), hexahydrate aluminium
trichloride, linoleic acid, rutin, sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3), sodium hydroxide,
sodium nitrite, thiobarbituric acid (TBA),
trichloroacetic acid (TCA), and vitamin C
were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co.
(St. Louis, MO, USA). All other reagents
were either extra pure or of analytical
grade.
Experiment Design
The study was carried out according
to a 2 x 5 factorial experiment yielding
10 treatments in a completely randomized
design (CRD) with three replicates. One
factor consisted of two parts of the root

Duvivier, Hsieh, Lai, and Charles

Evaluation of Drying Methods on

Antioxidant Activity

75

(the flesh and the skin), while the other

consisted of four drying processes
(sunlight, LTD at 25 C, HAD at 50 C,
and HAD at 75 C), which were tested
against a fresh sample as control. The
response variables were DPPH free
radical scavenging activity (FRSA), AOP,
ABTS FRSA, total phenolics, total
flavonoids, and total carotenoids.
Sample Preparation
Samples were washed in tap water,
dried at room temperature, peeled, and
cut in small pieces (0.5 to 1 cm of
thickness). The sample dry mater (SDM)
was measured according to the
Association of Analytical Chemists
(AOAC, 1990). Water activity was
measured in an Aw Quick water activity
meter (Rotronic Instrument Corp.,
Huntington, N.Y., U.S.A.). The function
of the desorption isotherm was established
using Excel software. The samples were
then divided into five parts. Four of them
were submitted to sun-drying, low
temperature drying (LTD) at 25 C, HAD
at 50, or HAD at 75 C. The other one
served as control. A drying curve was
established in each drying process to
decide the end-point drying time. This
end-point was set at the time the drying
curve stabilized. The dried samples were
ground to a fine powder (Figure 1) using
a laboratory miller. The sample powders
were weighted and sealed in laminated
plastic bag and kept in desiccators until
extraction.

Figure 1. Color Appearance of the

Samples. A and B: entire
and cross section of fresh
roots, respectively; C, D, E,
F: powder of the flesh
submitted to sun-drying,
low temperature drying at
25C, hot air drying at
50C, and hot air drying at
75C respectively; G, H, I,
J: powder of the skin
submitted to sun-drying,
low temperature drying at
25C, hot air drying at
50C, and hot air drying at
75C, respectively.

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Preparation of the Crude Extracts

Sweet potato powder (4 0.01 g)
was mixed with 40 ml ethanol in a 250
ml flask. The flask was then shaken at
100 rpm in dark for 24 h in a water bath
set at 25 C for complete extraction
(Auerbach and Gray, 1999; Huang et al.,
2004). The mixture was filtered through
Whatman no. 1 filter paper (Whatman
Inc., Clifton, NJ). The residue was
washed with an additional 40 ml ethanol.
The filtrate was evaporated to dryness
using a rotary evaporator model BUCHI
111 equipped with a water-bath BUCHI
461 (Switzerland) and a vacuum pump
EYELA A-3S (Tokyo, Japan). The dried
residue, referred to as crude extract, was
weighted, re-dissolved in ethanol to a
concentration of 10 mg/ml, and stored at
-20 C until analysis.
Carotenoids Extraction
Carotenoids
were
extracted
according to Teow et al. (2007). Briefly,
25 g fresh sample or 5 g powder were
mixed with 2 g Na2CO3, 1 g
diatomaceous earth, and 25 ml methanol.
A hexaneacetone (1:1 v/v) mixture (50
ml) was added and stirred for 2 h in the
dark. The mixture was filtered through
Whatman no. 1 filter paper. The residue
was first washed twice with 25 ml
methanol, then once with 50 ml
hexaneacetone mixture. The extract was
combined in a 250 ml separatory funnel
and made up to volume with de-ionized
distilled water (ddH2O). The aqueous

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phase was discarded and the upper layer

was transferred into a 50 ml volumetric
flask and made to volume (50 ml) with
hexane for analysis (Chandler and
Schwartz, 1998).
Determination of the Antioxidant
Activity (AOA)
The AOA was measured by DPPH,
AOP, and ABTS assays. DPPH assay was
conducted according to Molyneux (2004).
Absorbencies were monitored at 517 nm
(A517) in a spectrophotometer Beckman
Coulter DU 730 UV/VIS and DPPH
FRSA was determined using the
following formula: DPPH FRSA (%) =
[(A0-Af)/A0]*100, where A0 is the blank
absorbance and Af, the test sample
absorbance. AOP assay was carried out
according to Jung et al. (2005).
Absorbencies
were
read
in
spectrophotometer at 532 nm (A532)
against blank and the AOP (%) was
calculated as follow: AOP (%) = [1-(A532
sample/A532blank)*100]. ABTS FRSA
was determined according to Teow et al.
(2007). Absorbencies were monitored at
734 nm (A734) in spectrophotometer.
Vitamin C was used as standard
(Bouayed et al., 2007). The ABTS FRSA
was expressed in mg vitamin C
equivalent (VCE) / 100 g SDM.
Determination of a Single Antioxidant
Activity Indicator
Many methods for evaluating total
AOA exist; however, no correlation has

Duvivier, Hsieh, Lai, and Charles

been established among them. As yet, the

choice of the methods is done in
consideration of the available resources,
the analysis to be done, and its cost
(Arnao, Cano, and Acosta, 1999). No
absolute superiority of one in comparison
to other has been established. This lack of
correlation and hierarchy among the
different methods of analysis has posed a
serious problem in ranking food crops on
basis of total AOA. In this study, to
overcome this problem, a single AOA
indicator was computed from the results
of three assays (DPPH, AOP, and ABTS).
It was referred to as AOA relative
desirability
index
(RDI)
and
corresponded to an integrated criterion of
ranking on basis of the AOA evaluated
not only by one, but three variables. A
modified Gauss-Laplace normalization
formula was used to compute the RDI:

RDI =

X j ,k X j

j =1

+C ,

where k is a treatment, namely,

sun-drying, LTD at 25 C, HAD at 50C,
HAD at 75 C, or the control fresh
sample; j is a response variable used to
evaluate the AOA, namely, DPPH FRSA,
AOP, or ABTS FRSA; Xj,k is the value of
the response variable j for treatment k; Xj
is the average value of the response
variable j for all sample treatments; j is
the standard deviation of the response
variable j for all sample treatments; C is a
constant chosen to avoid negative values

Evaluation of Drying Methods on

Antioxidant Activity

77

of RDI and make its lowest value equals

1.00. The treatment with the lowest RDI
was considered as the least desirable in
term of AOA, while the treatment with
the highest RDI was considered as the
most desirable one.
Total Phenolic and Total Flavonoid
Contents Assays
Total phenolic content was assayed
according to the method of Folin and
Ciocalteu (1927) as reported by Kim et
al. (2006) using GA as standard. The
results were expressed as mg GA
equivalent (GAE)/100 g sample fresh
weight (SFW). The total flavonoid
content was assessed by the aluminium
trichloride colorimetric method as
described in Marinova, Ribarova, and
Atanassova (2005) using catechin as
standard. The results were reported in mg
catechin equivalent (CE)/ 100 g SFW.
Total Carotenoids Analysis
Total carotenoid content was
measured according to Gomes (2007).
The absorbance of the extract was read in
spectrophotometer at 450 nm and the
total carotenoid content was calculated
according to the following formula:
CT =

A450 x1000
,
250 xLxW

where CT is the total carotenoid content

in g -carotene equivalent (BCE) /g
sample; A450, the absorbance of the
extract at 450 nm; L, the path-length of

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the cuvette used in the spectrophotometer;

w, the initial amount (g) of sample
divided by the final volume (ml) of
extract obtained. The results for the dried
samples were then converted in g
BCE/g SFW.

y=176.03x3-148.96x2+50.3x, where y is
the water activity and x, the water content
of the samples. The coefficient of
determination was R2= 0.972.

Statistical Analyses

The highest DPPH FRSA in flesh

samples was observed in samples
submitted to HAD at 75 C, followed by
the fresh ones, then the sun-dried ones
(Table 1). While the flesh samples
submitted to HAD at 75 C showed
higher DPPH FRSA than the fresh ones,
the loss of activity was low in those
sun-dried (2.82 %), moderate in those
submitted to HAD at 50 C (13.37 %),
and high in those submitted to LTD at 25
C (47.58 %). In the skin, fresh and
sun-dried samples were not significantly
different and showed the highest DPPH
FRSA, followed by those submitted to
LTD at 25 C, then those which were
submitted to HAD at 75 C. The loss of
DPPH FRSA was lower than 15 % in all
cases. Flesh samples dried in sunlight and
those submitted to LTD at 25 C showed
lower AOP values than those dried with
hot air at 50 and 75 C. No significant
difference was observed between samples
dried in sunlight (10.09 % of loss of
activity) and those submitted to LTD at
25C (16.95 % loss of activity). The loss
of activity in samples dried with hot air at
50 and 75 C were 3.93 and 5.05 %,
respectively,
with
no
significant
difference. In the skin, the loss of AOA
evaluated as AOP varied from 2.66 % in

The data were submitted to a

two-way analysis of variance according
to Kuehl (1999). The SAS (Statistical
Analysis System, v. 8.1; SAS Institute
Inc., Cary, NC, USA) software was used.
Treatment effects were evaluated by F
test at p=0.05. The results were reported
as meanSE. Means comparison was
done by Duncan multiple range test at
level= 0.05. The relationship among the
different variables analyzed in this study
was measured by the Pearson correlation
coefficient (r). The relative fit goodness
of the three methods used to evaluate the
AOA was assessed by the coefficient of
determination, R2, and the coefficient of
variation (CV). Higher is the R2-value,
more accurate is the method, and lower
CV-value corresponds to higher precision.
Results
Drying Control
The water activity (aw) of the
samples during drying stabilized around
0.4. To reach this aw, the samples took 10
days in LTD at 25 C, seven days in
sun-sun-drying, four days in HAD at 50
C, and one day in HAD at 75C. The
function of the desorption isotherm was

Effect of drying on Antioxidant Activity

of TNG73

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Evaluation of Drying Methods on

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79

Table 1. Effect of the Drying Process on the Antioxidant Activity of Sweet Potato var.
Tainong 73
DPPH (%)
A2
AOP (%)
B2
ABTS+23
C2
Treatment1
Flesh
Control
89.260.07b
71.261.80a
4882.240.00a
Sun-drying
86.740.08c 2.82 64.070.00c 10.09
616.520.41c 87.37
LTD at 25C
46.790.39e 47.58 59.180.71c 16.95
616.041.75c 87.38
HAD at 50C 77.330.00d 13.37 68.460.20b 3.93
569.680.00d 88.33
HAD at 75C 90.320.00a -1.19 67.660.00b 5.05
1524.601.82b 68.77
Skin
Control
94.960.14a
82.640.00a
4669.6311.71a
Sun-drying
94.060.08a 0.95 80.440.20a 2.66
1618.024.56d 65.35
LTD at 25C
90.590.04b 4.60 62.871.20c 23.12 1898.970.88c 59.33
HAD at 50C 81.110.12d 14.59 73.650.92b 10.87
622.041.70e 86.67
HAD at 75C
89.100.1b
6.17 74.850.60b 9.67
3224.730.00b 30.94
1

LTD: low-temperature drying; HAD: hot air drying. Means with a same letter in a column are not
significantly different (p>0.05).
2
A, B and C are extent of decrease (%) of DPPH, AOP and ABTS, respectively, during the drying process,
with regard to the fresh samples values.
3
mg vitamin C equivalent /100 g dry weight.

sun-dried samples to 23.12 % in those

which were submitted to LTD at 25 C.
No significant difference was observed
between fresh and sun-dried samples, and
between samples submitted to HAD at 50
C and 75 C in terms of AOP.
The highest ABTS FRSA of the
flesh was observed in the fresh samples
with 4882.24 mg VCE/100 g SDM. The
extent of decrease of activity during the
drying process was high (68.77% in
samples dried with hot air at 75 C, and
exceeding 85 % in the other conditions).
In the skin samples, the same trend was
observed, but the extents of decrease of
the ABTS FRSA were lower (from 30.94
to 86.67 % in samples submitted to HAD

at 75 C and 50 C, respectively). The

correlation parameters listed in Table 2
show that the pair-wise correlations
among the three analytical methods
(DPPH, AOP, and ABTS assays) were
positive (r>0) and significant (p<0.05),
but not high (0.37r0.61).
According to the RDI, the fresh
samples of both the flesh and the skin
were the most desirable (Figure 2). In the
flesh, the second best result after fresh
samples was observed in samples
submitted to HAD at 75 C, followed by
those sun-dried, then those dried with hot
air at 50 C for four days. The lowest
RDI-value was observed in samples dried
at low temperature (25 C) for 10 days.

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Table 2. Matrix of Pearson Coefficients of Correlation (r) among Different

Variables Analyzed
Total
Total
Total
Variables
DPPH
AOP
ABTS
Phenolics flavonoids caraotenoids
AOP

0.61**

ABTS

0.44*

0.37*

Total phenolics

0.40*

0.63**

0.78**

Total Flavonoids

0.36NS

0.52**

0.31NS

0.64**

Total carotenoids 0.21NS

0.23NS

0.80**

0.75**

0.16NS

RDI

0.55*

0.63*

0.45*

0.22 NS

0.60*

0.38*

*,** Correlation significant (p<0.05) and (p<0.01), respectively. NScorrelation non-significant (p>0.05).

The RDI varied slightly among the skin

samples during the drying process (from
2.79 in samples submitted to HAD at 50
C for 4 days to 3.14 in sun-dried
samples). However, even in the best case
of the skin samples dried in sunlight,
there was a substantial decrease of the
RDI to the extent of 23.97 %.
Effect of Drying on the Total
Carotenoids Content

Figure 2. Antioxidant Activity (AOA)

and Relative Desirability
Index (RDI) of Sweet
Potato var. Tainong 73. ()
flesh and () skin samples
submitted to different drying
processes.

The results of carotenoids content

are summarized in Table 3. Total
carotenoids content of flesh samples
varied from 2.19 g BCE/g SFW in
samples dried at 75 C to 8.46 g BCE
equivalent /g SFW in the fresh samples.
The decrease in carotenoid content during
the drying process reached 68.09 % in
samples submitted to LTD at 25 C to

Duvivier, Hsieh, Lai, and Charles

Evaluation of Drying Methods on

Antioxidant Activity

81

Table 3. Effects of the Drying Process on Total Carotenoid Contents of Tainong 731
Total Carotenoids (g -carotene equivalent/g SFW)
Treatment2

A3

Flesh

Skin

B3

Fresh samples

8.460.01a

4.760.01a

Sun-drying

2.410.01d

71.51

1.780.01e

62.61

LTD at 25C

2.700.01b

68.09

3.240.01d

31.93

HAD at 50C

2.540.04c

69.98

3.520.05c

26.05

HAD at 75C

2.190.04e

74.11

3.790.04b

20.37

Means with a same letter in a column are not significantly different ( p>0.05).

LTD: low-temperature drying; HAD: hot air drying.

A and B are extent of decrease (%) of flesh and skin total carotenoids, respectively, during the drying
process based on fresh samples values.

74.11 % in those dried at 75 C. In

samples submitted to HAD at 50 C and
sun-drying, the decrease was 69.98 and
71.51 %, respectively.
Total carotenoids content of skin
samples varied from 1.78 g BCE/g SFW
(in sun-dried samples) to 4.76 g BCE/g
SFW (fresh samples). The decrease
during the drying process reached 20.37
% in samples dried with hot air at 75 C
to 62.61 % in sun drying. In drying at
25 and 50 C, the decrease was 31.93 and
26.05 %, respectively.
Effect of drying on the Total Phenolic
Content
The highest total phenolic contents
in the flesh were observed in fresh
samples, followed by those dried with hot
air at 50 and 75 C. The two latter drying

temperatures did not show significant

difference (Table 4). Samples submitted
to sun-drying and LTD at 25 C were not
significantly different and had lower total
phenolics content.
In the skin, the highest content of
total phenolics was observed in the fresh
samples, followed by those dried with hot
water at 50 C, then those dried at 75 C.
The lowest content was observed in
sun-dried samples, followed by those
submitted to LTD at 25 C. Skin samples
had consistently higher total phenolics
content than flesh samples.
Effect of Drying on the Total Flavonoids
Content
The total flavonoid content followed
the same trend as the total phenolics, both
in the flesh and the skin during the drying

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Table 4. Effects of the Drying Process on the Total Phenolic and Total Flavonoid
Contents of Tainong 73
Treatment1
Flesh
Fresh samples
Sun-drying
LTD at 25C
HAD at 50C
HAD at 75C

Total Phenolics2

A3

Total Flavonoids2

B3

243.020.32a
23.210.10c
27.620.01c
76.110.02b
76.100.08b

90.95
88.63
68.68
68.68

42.250.09a
19.620.07e
21.780.17d
34.450.02c
36.200.02b

53.56
48.45
18.46
14.32

Fresh samples

258.950.67a

104.250.12a

Sun-drying

74.160.05e

71.36

57.480.06e

44.86

LTD at 25C

94.810.28d

63.39

61.780.14d

40.74

HAD at 50C

185.0324.35c

28.55

70.540.12c

32.34

HAD at 75C

237.481.11b

8.29

99.810.02b

4.26

Skin

LTD: low-temperature drying; HAD: hot air drying; means with a same letter in a column are not
significantly different (p>0.05).

(mg catechin equivalent/100 g sample fresh weight).

A and B are extent of decrease (%) of total phenolics and total flavonoids respectively, during the drying
process, with regard to the fresh samples values.

process. The highest contents were

observed in the fresh samples, followed
by those dried with hot air at 75 C, then
those dried at 50 C (Table 4). The
samples dried in sunlight had the lowest
content, followed by those dried in LTD
at 25 C. Losses of flavonoids during the
drying process were consistently higher
in the flesh (14.32 to 53.56 %) than the
skin (4.26 to 44.86 %), suggesting that
high-temperature-short-time were better
than low-temperature-long-time drying
conditions.

Correlation of AOA with Total Phenolics,

Total Flavonoids, and Total Carotenoids
Significant pair-wise correlations
were observed between total phenolics
and each one of the three AOA indicators
(p<0.05) as indicated in Table 2. These
results agreed with Islam et al. (2003)
who reported significant correlation
between the AOA and the total phenolics
content of sweet potato leaves. However,
significant correlation was observed
between the AOA and total flavonoids
only in the AOP assay, and between AOA

Duvivier, Hsieh, Lai, and Charles

and total carotenoids in ABTS assay. The

parameters of pair-wise correlations
involving total phenolics, total flavonoids,
and total carotenoids indicated that the
drying process had a similar effect on the
various secondary metabolites studies.
Discussion
DPPH FRSA of fresh samples was
high (89.6 %) and similar to results of
some medicinal plants (Miliauskas,
Venskutonis, and van Beek, 2004). The
pair-wise correlations among the three
methods used to evaluate the AOA were
low. Such low correlation is common
according to Molyneux (2004) and poses
a serious problem in ranking food
commodities for AOA. The relative
desirability index (RDI) indicated that
total phenolic, total flavonoid, and total
carotenoid contents were higher in fresh
than dried samples. Similarly, Muchoki,
Imungi, and Lamuka (2007) observed
that heating and drying of vegetables lead
to substantial loss of antioxidants.
Rehman, Salariya, and Habib (2003)
reported
that
evaporation
and
decomposition at elevated temperatures
results in loss of AOA.
Larraruri,
Sanchez-Moreno, and Saura-Calixto
(1998) observed reduction of AOA by 28
% in the red grape pomace peels when
dried with hot air at 100 oC. The RDI was
higher when the samples were dried at 75
C for 1 day in comparison to drying at
25 C for 10 days and 50 C for 4 days.
On average, fresh skin samples had

Evaluation of Drying Methods on

Antioxidant Activity

83

higher DPPH FRSA and phenolic content

than the flesh. Similarly, Kondo et al.
(2002) reported total phenolics content
was higher in the skin than the flesh of
fruits. Teow et al. (2007) observed very
large variations in carotenoids content of
sweet potato (from 0.18 to 226 g BCE
/g SFW). In views of their results,
Tainong 73 may be considered as a
low-carotenoids content variety. Though
statistically significant, the variation
among the drying processes was low. The
loss of carotenoids during the drying
process was higher in the flesh (68.09 to
74.11 %) than the skin samples (20.37 to
62.61 %). Those results suggested that
the drying process is an inefficient
storage method of the sweet potato
Tainong 73 in term of AOA retention.
However, drying is necessary in the food
industry to improve storage life, reduce
bulk volume, facilitate distribution, and
combat food insecurity. If the flesh of
sweet potato Tainong 73 is to be dried,
high- temperature-short-time method is
most suitable for preserving the
nutritional properties of the crop. It is
interesting that the sun-drying gave quite
good results, considering that sunlight is
the main and often the only source of
energy available to farmers for drying in
developing countries.
Conclusions
The AOA and phenolic compounds
were higher in the skin than the flesh
samples of Tainong 73. Since sweet

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potato is usually peeled before cooking,

and the skin is considered a waste, the
skin of sweet potato Tainong 73 can
constitute a non-expensive source of
antioxidants in the food industry. The
correlations among the analytical
methods were poor, and the fit goodness
analysis did not establish any hierarchy
among them. However, using the relative
desirability index, AOA was higher in the
fresh samples. In this study, a high
temperatures short time conditions
resulted in increases in AOA, total
phenolics, flavonoids, and carotenoids.
References
Association of Analytical Chemists
(AOAC). 1990. The Official
Methods of Analysis of the
Association of Official Analytical
Chemists. Arlington, Virginia: The
Association of Official Analytical
Chemists.
Arnao, M. B., A. Cano, and M. Acosta.
1999. Methods to Measure the
Antioxidant Activity in Plant
Materials.
A
Comparative
Discussion. Free Radical Research
31: 89-96.
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