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V-1
Buckingham Pi Theorem
The procedure most commonly used to identify both the number and form of the
appropriate non-dimensional parameters is referred to as the Buckingham Pi
Theorem. The theorem uses the following definitions:
n = the number of independent variables relevant to the problem
j = the number of independent dimensions found in the n variables
j = the reduction possible in the number of variables necessary to be
considered simultaneously
k = the number of independent terms that can be identified to describe the
problem, k = n - j
Summary of Steps:
1. List and count the n variables involved in the problem.
2. List the dimensions of each variable using {MLT} or {FLT}. Count the
number of basic dimensions (j) for the list of variables being considered.
3. Find j by initially assuming j = j and look for j repeating variables which do
not form a pi product. If not successful, reduce j by 1 and repeat the process.
4. Select j scaling, repeating variables which do not form a product.
5. Form a term by adding one additional variable and form a power product.
Algebraically find the values of the exponents which make the product
dimensionless. Repeat the process with each of the remaining variables.
6. Write the combination of dimensionless pi terms in functional form:
= f( 1, 2, i)
Theorem Example
Consider the following example for viscous pipe flow. The relevant variables for
this problem are summarized as follows:
P = pressure drop
= viscosity
= density
= roughness
V = velocity
L = length
{P
dependent
V-2
D = diameter
, V, D, , , L }
independent
-1 -2
V
-3
dimensions mL t
mL
Lt
-1
mL t
-1 -1
In order for the term to have no net dimensions, the sum of the
exponents for each dimension must be zero. Therefore, summing the
exponents for each dimension, we have:
mass:
time:
length:
a - 1 =0, a= 1
- b + 1 = 0, b = 1
-3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c = 3 1 1 = 1
We therefore have
V D / = Re = Reynolds number
Note: Changing the initial exponent for m to 1 ( from -1) would result in the
reciprocal of the same non-dimensional groups. Thus, some experience is
useful in obtaining P terms consistent with existing theory.
V-3
2 = a Vb Dc 1 = (mL-3)a ( Lt-1)b Lc ( L )1
Solving:
mass:
time:
Length:
2 = / D
a =0, a= 0
- b = 0, b = 0
-3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c = 1
Roughness ratio
3 = a Vb Dc L1 = (mL-3)a ( Lt-1)b Lc ( L )1
Solving:
mass:
time:
length:
3 = L / D
a =0, a= 0
- b = 0, b = 0
-3a + b + c + 1 = 0, c = 1
length-to-diameter ratio
4 =
/ V2
a + 1 = 0 , a = -1
- b - 2 = 0, b = -2
-3a + b + c - 1 = 0, c = 0
Pressure coefficient
V-4
P
VD L
=
f
, ,
V2
D D
or
C p = f R e ,L ,
V-5
Reynolds number
Mach number
Froude number
Weber number
Cavitation number
(Euler number)
Prandtl number
Eckert number
Specific-heat ratio
Strouhal number
Roughness ratio
Grashof number
Temperature ratio
Pressure coefficient
Definition
Qualitative ratio
of effects
Inertia
Viscosity
Flow speed
Sound speed
Inertia
Gravity
Inertia
Surface tension
Pressure
Inertia
UL
U
MA =
A
U2
Fr =
gL
U2 L
We =
p - pv
Ca =
U 2
RE =
Pr =
C p
k
U2
Ec =
c p To
c
= p
cv
L
St =
U
L
TgL3 2
Gr =
2
Tw
To
p p
Cp =
1/ 2 U2
Dissipation
Conduction
Kinetic energy
Enthalpy
Enthalpy
Internal energy
Oscillation
Mean speed
Wall roughness
Body length
Buoyancy
Viscosity
Wall temperature
Stream temperature
Static pressure
Dynamic pressure
Lift coefficient
CL =
L
2
1/ 2 U A
Lift force
Dynamic force
Drag coefficient
CD =
D
2
1/ 2 U A
Lift force
Dynamic force
V-6
Importance
Always
Compressible flow
Free-surface flow
Free-surface flow
Cavitation
Heat convection
Dissipation
Compressible flow
Oscillating flow
Turbulent,rough walls
Natural convection
Heat transfer
Aerodynamics,
hydrodynamics
Aerodynamics
hydrodynamics
Aerodynamics,
hydrodynamics
Geometric similarity
In fluid mechanics, geometric similarity is defined as follows:
V-7
SFG =
rm L m Wm
=
=
=
rp
L p Wp
V-8
Dynamic Similarity
In fluid mechanics, dynamic similarity is typically defined as follows:
Dynamic Similarity:
This is illustrated in the following figure for flow through a sluice gate (Fig. 5.7).
V-9
Frm = Frp
V-10
Prototype
Model
sphere
sphere
1 ft
6 in
5 knots
unknown?
5.58 lbf
1.98
slugs
ft
2
ft
-5
1.4 *10
0.00238
slugs
1.56 * 10-4 ft
ft
CD
= f{ R e }
D 2 = f VD
V2
For the prototype, the actual operating velocity and Reynolds number are
Prototype:
Vp = 5
na mi 6080
1hr
ft
= 8.44
hr
na mi 3600 sec
sec
Re p =
VD
8.44 ft/sec1ft
5
= 6.03 10
=
2
5
p 1.4 10 ft /s
V-11
Equality of Reynolds number then yields the required model test velocity of
Re m = Re p =
VD
Vm = 188 ft /sec
m
Based on actual test results for the model, i.e. measured Fm, equality of model and
prototype drag coefficients yields
C Dp = C Dm
Fp = F m
p Vp2 D 2p
m Vm2 D 2m
= 37.4lb f
Note: All fluid dynamic flows and resulting flow characteristics are not Re
dependent.
Example:
The drag coefficient for bluff bodies with a fixed point of separation; e.g.
radar antennae, generally have a constant, fixed number for CD which is not
a function of Re.
C D = const f (Re)
V-12