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1 The Pulse 1
The Undergraduate Journal of Baylor University .
This
belief in tabula rasa leads Locke to argue that [c]hildren
commonly get not those general Ideas [of the rational Faculty],
nor learn the Names that stand for them, till having for a good
while exercised their Reason about familiar and more particular
Ideas (EU: I.II, 14). Yet, for Locke, a lack of innate
knowledge is not equivalent to a lack of natural faculties,
abilities, or tendencies. He distinguishes knowledge from
tendency by explaining:
I deny not, that there are natural tendencies
imprinted on the Minds of Men; and that, from the
very first instances of Sense and Perception, there
are some things, that are grateful, and others that
welcome to them; some things that they incline to,
and others that they fly: But this makes nothing for
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Locke
encourages parents to watch their children, for through
observation, parents can understand their childs distinctive
inclinations. Specifically, they should pay particular attention to
their child in those seasons of perfect freedom and mark how
[the child] spends his time (TCE: 125).
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Because of this strong desire for liberty, the wise tutor uses seasons
of freedom to turn children toward learning, for the chief art is to
make all that they have to do sport and play too (TCE: 63).
Locke insists that the love of liberty is a beneficial asset to the
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reasonable man.
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but Locke
insists that they can recognize developed rationality in others and
that they take pride in participating in the experience. By treating
children as rational creatures and recognizing their innate desire
to grow in this propensity, parents guide their children towards
reasoning abstractly and practicing reasonable actions later in life
that are suitable to the Dignity and Excellency of a rational
Creature (TCE: 31).
The duty of parents, and in fact, the principal reason for
marriage is procreation and education (2T: VII.80 and 81). In
speaking of Paternal Power in the Two Treatises, Locke
charges that parents must take care of their Off-spring, during
the imperfect state of Childhood and must inform the Mind,
and govern the Actions of their yet ignorant Nonage (2T: VI.58).
While children are ignorant, they are to look upon their parents as
their lords, their absolute governors and stand in awe and
reverence of them (TCE: 41). But there exists a limit to this
control. Age and Reason gradually loosen the ties of parental
power, and the nurturing process, until a man reaches his full
liberty in adulthood (2T: VI.55). This arrangement serves several
purposes within Lockean education. Since Locke contends that
children are born without a faculty to understand the law of
nature, they need parents to make their decisions. Parents also can
train children to submit their love of dominion to reason, for the
child that is not used to submit his will to the reason of others
when he is young, will scarce hearken or submit to his own
reason when he is of age to make use of it (TCE: 36). Finally,
a child left uneducated risks developing vices. Although these ill
habits come from small beginnings in pins and cherrystones,
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(TCE: 99) and argues that a strict hand be kept over children
(TCE: 41). In this way the father directs his child to practices
and habits that foster virtue while acting in a consistent manner
towards the child. Parents who fail in this responsibility and overindulge
their little ones can cherish their [childrens] faults and
cause perversity in them (TCE: 34). Locke acknowledges that
parents are tempted to be indulgent and familiar with their
children when very young, but then to become distant and severe
as they grow; yet, when this occurs, children will lack discipline
and eventually become resentful of their parents (TCE: 40).
This degree of severity and strict discipline by parents is
not meant to last indefinitely but should be relaxed as fast as
their age (TCE: 95). Since the child longs to show independence
of thought and takes pride in his liberty, granting confidence and
encouraging reasonable discourse is the best method for a father to
have an effective and positive influence on his older child. Once the
child has grown, his own reason rules his actions and passions in the
place of his parents.
Parents continue to nurture their children by crafting societal
interactions, instilling their children with manners, and training them
to act correctly in social situations. From the start children are so
often perplexed (TCE: 67) by rules thrown at them by maids
and governesses. Locke advises that instead of spouting rules and
precepts, parents should gently show their children what to do
before a social event; during the event, the child can practice his
new lesson in manners but should not be harassed if he makes a
mistake (TCE: 67). Locke reminds parents that years will teach
the child as much as anything, so be patient with younger
children. The more years a child is kept in good company, the
more he can learn by example, until having good manners
becomes practically natural. The company Locke speaks of in this
case is that of adults. Parents can make certain that young
children grow to love their company by ensuring that children
receive all their good things there and from their hands (TCE:
69) instead of from the hands of servants or other adults.
Another pragmatic lesson parents can teach children is the
practice of dancing. Locke praises the art of dancing because it
gives children manly thoughts and carriage more than anything
(TCE: 67) and provides the parents with an easy tool to instruct
their children. As we can see in this area of manners, the child is
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educational
method with the hope of minimizing the obstacles of civilization
and bringing man as near to nature as possible, for [e]verything is
good as it comes from the hands of the Maker of the world but
degenerates once it gets into the hands of man (EM: 11). Instead
of an educated man being guided by societal norms,
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Rousseau
desires for a child to have no other guide than his own reason by
the time he is educated. Unlike Locke, he does not rely on social
expectations to train children. Rousseau contends that men can
attain this freedom and independence of thought through
naturalistic education.
Rousseau does not deny that men need cultivation to
overcome feebleness and to develop intelligence and judgment. He
understands education to come from three sources: from nature,
from men, or from things (EM: 11). These three sources must
coincide and lead to a common goal if the individual is to
become well-educated (EM: 11), yet not all of the sources educate
man in the same manner. Education from nature acts independently
of mans actions. Education from things depends on man only in a
limited extent. Only education from man is entirely in his control.
Since the three educators must be mixed together for a perfect
result (EM: 12), Rousseau contends that nature, which man
cannot control, must determine the course of the other two in
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The child is
meant to follow only the natural inclinations, and thus he is
capable of observing natural habits. Unnatural habits, other than
failing when restraint is removed, do not foster a love of liberty.
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Even with
these explanations, it seems noteworthy that Rousseau extols the
influence of the countryside from his personal experience. In
Confessions,
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With this
explanation, we are able to shift away from recommendations for
the countryside being considered only as suggestions or a model.
Instead, we should focus on why Rousseau recommends this
setting as a backdrop to his entire experiment. For one, as OHagan
mentions, Rousseau considered public schools and colleges to be
unsound. In his opening pages of Emile, Rousseau describes such
institutions as ridiculous, teaching children to become doubleminded,
seemingly concerned for others, but really only concerned
for themselves (EM: 13). Rousseau believes that more intimate
communities allow parents to shield their children from these
filthy morals of the town (EM: 42). Thus, in the Confessions,
Rousseau praises the simplicity of this rural existence and
explains that the country opened [his] heart to friendship (CN:
24). In Emile, he further recommends the rural setting because it
allows parents to be the masters of everything that surrounds their
child.
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notions is not meant to entail that a child should lack all moral
qualities until twelve, for Rousseau states that Emile will become
hard working, temperate, patient, stable and courageous just
from his natural education (EM: 93). The concept of natural
education is not meant to imply that everything the child
encounters is coming about entirely naturally. OHagan notes,
During the period of negative education, the child is to be
surrounded by an environment of artificial necessity, encountering
obstacles which appear to be the inevitable outcome of his own
behaviour, rather than willed by others.
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He
describes living through this state of childhood in the Confessions:
I felt before I thought: which is the common lot of man, though
more pronounced in my case than in anothers (CN: 19).
Replacing this education with books teaches the child not to reason
for himself, but to rely upon the reason of others, whereas the
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drums, cages, pipes, and even model houses. Rousseau states these
details to note that this early education was on the right lines
(CN: 35). Overall, he muses that if only [Bossey] had lasted
longer it could not have failed to fix my character for ever. It was
founded on the affectionate, tender, and peaceable emotions (CN:
25).
Nurture versus Nature, or, The Political versus the Natural
Man
When we compare and contrast the educational works of
Locke and Rousseau, we find not only differing accounts of the
natural state of children and the methods of education, but varying
emphases on end results. In this section, I will compare these two
philosophers views on several topics: the natural inclinations of
children, the role of parents, the proposed method of education,
and the duty of the educated man in society. Locke and Rousseau
differ chiefly on the concept of nurture versus nature and on the
role of gentlemen in relationship to politics.
Lockes understanding of natural inclinations is not entirely
optimistic. Whereas parents should cherish, and even cater to, their
childs curiosity and love of liberty, children must be taught to
subdue their natural desire for dominion. Lockes method of
education takes these natural faculties, likes and dislikes, into
consideration. He proposes habits to break children of laziness
(TCE: 21) and to keep them from becoming spoiled (TCE:
106), while insisting on other actions which will encourage the
love of liberty in children, such as allowing them seasons of
freedom to play or work, whichever the child chooses (TCE:
125). Locke also understands children to have the natural desire to
be treated rationally. He insists that children understand it
[reason] as early as they do language (TCE: 81). Although
children themselves do not have the capability yet of employing
reason, they can recognize developed rationality in others, and they
take pride in participating in the experience. Because of this
natural desire to be considered rational creatures, Locke
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recommends that a father should not only talk familiarly with [his
child], but further, ask his advice and consult with him about
those things where he has any knowledge or understanding (TCE:
95). With the goal of helping a child become a man, such familial
conversation brings the young mind into serious considerations and
reasoning, raising his mind above capricious amusements. Locke
urges: The sooner you treat him as a man, the sooner he will begin
to be one (TCE: 95).
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Rousseau
insists that parents should not instruct young children through
teaching in social settings or through commandsunlike Lockes
insistence that children learn to dance and practice sociable
mannersbut parents should allow the child to grow naturally by
protecting the integrity of this state and keeping the evils of city
life out. They should allow necessary lessons to come in the childs
way, but should not instruct the child on how to think about things. Thus, while the role of
parents for each of these
philosophers consists of shielding children from the vices of
others, the role differs according to the use of nature versus
nurture. For Locke, children are trained through nurturing more
than nature, using reputation and habits. The expectations of
valuable society (the childs parents, the tutor, and trusted friends)
serve as a vehicle of learning through reputation, and habits
become a basis of training for correct actions. Through the habit of
giving, for instance, Locke understands children to learn such
virtues as liberality and generosity: [C]hildren maybe brought
to conceive that those that are commended and in esteem for doing
well willhave all other good things as a consequence of it
(TCE: 58). These habits should curb the natural wants which are
problematic, such as the desire for dominion. Also, habits
guarantee that children learn virtues even from a young age.
Children may not yet understand virtues, precepts, or rules, but
they can begin practicing them.
Rousseau directly critiques Locke for teaching by habit. He
calls the child who learns liberality the Lockean way a trained
hypocrite, claiming that Locke advises us to convince children by
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experience that the most liberal is always the best provided for.
This plan makes a child liberal in appearance and covetous in fact.
He adds that children will thus acquire a habit of liberality: Yes,
the liberality of a usurer, who gives a penny to get a pound.
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Yet
Rousseaus education is not meant to train the citizen. Rousseau
has been criticized for making his education either-or: either
education for individuality, or education for community.
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He
claims in La Nouvelle Heloise that man is too noble a being to
have to serve as a mere instrument for others.
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To put it in Kantian
language, Rousseau believes that man should always be treated as
an end in and to himself and never as a means to the community at
large.
However, when Rousseau considers education in light of
politics, his emphasis on personal worth largely disappears.
Rousseaus concern with the well-being of the community is
expressed through the General Will principle of the Social
Contract, which provides the total alienation of each associate,
together with all of his rights, to the entire community (SC: 1.6).
When men enter contractually, they must sacrifice all of their
rights to the whole. The community itself becomes the embodied
rights, and each man has equally forfeited and holds an equal,
separate association. Therefore, Rousseau argues that man in this
state by himself is a perfect and solitary whole, yet by giving in
to the community alters his constitution in order to strengthen it
(SC: 2.7). He gives himself to all, yet actually gives himself to no
one (SC: 1.6).
Rousseaus education of Emile cannot seem to fit with this
interaction with society. What, then, does Rousseau mean when he
claims that Emile will become a member of society and must
fulfill its obligations (EM: 120) or a savage in the streets? Even
with this contradiction, we can at least see that Rousseau
recommends that a well-educated mans presence in society be
minimal, in that he should live close to nature, eat and live simply,
and leave Paris.
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NOTES
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This section about John Locke is largely drawn from my senior honors thesis,
Education for a Liberal Polity: John Lockes Teaching on Fashioning Citizens
and Statemen. Hereafter, all citations will be noted in the body of the text. The
following editions and abbreviations shall be used: Locke, Some Thoughts
Concerning Education [TCE] and Of the Conduct of Understanding [CU];
Locke, Two Treatises of Government [2T]; Locke, An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding [EU].
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In this same passage, Locke stresses the variety of natural tempers even further
by adding, There are possibly scarce two children who can be conducted by
exactly the same method. The array of temperaments includes the following
list: stout, timorous, confident, modest, tractable, obstinate, curious, careless,
quick, or slow (TCE: 101). See also TCE: 66 and 102.
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During these free moments, the child will act of his natural temperament and
inclinations. In the presence of others, the child may not act as naturally. This is
because children, earlier perhaps than we think, are sensible of praise and
commendation (TCE: 57).
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For as these are different in him, so are your methods to be different, and your
authority must hence take measures to apply itself different ways to him (TCE:
102).
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Tarcov, Lockes Education for Liberty, 109. Tarcov also concludes that
Lockes statement in TCE: 101 in which he claims that original tempers
cannot be mended by rules does not mean they are not to be cured at all.
Instead of by rules or a direct contest, it is with Art they may be much mended
and turned to good purposes (TCE: 102), Tarcov, 130.
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Because of this, self-denial serves as the foundation for virtue. See TCE: 33.
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There are several sections throughout the Thoughts where Locke mentions
that children cannot yet understand precepts, rules, and principles. One example
is his explanation that children must learn from habit rather than rules (TCE:
10, 64-66). A second example can be found in his discussion of justice. Locke
explains, [C]hildren cannot well comprehend what injustice is till they
understand property and how particular persons come by it[A]s their
capacities enlarge, other rules and cases of justice and rights concerning meum
and tuum may be proposed and inculcated (TCE: 110).
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Ibid., 272. He therefore that would govern the world well, had need consider
rather what fashion he makes, than what laws; and to bring anything into use he
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Ibid., 350.
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Rousseau, Emile, 11. Compare this statement to the opening of his Social
Contract: Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Basic Political
Writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau,141. Hereafter, all Rousseau quotations will
be cited as follows: Rousseau, The Emile of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, [EM];
Rousseau, The Confessions, [CN]; the Social Contract [SC], from the Basic
Political Writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
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For Rousseau, early childhood ends at the age of twelve when the child passes
from boyhood into the approach of adolescence. Rousseau divides Emile into
five sections: infancy, boyhood, approach of adolescence, adolescence,
marriage. My enquiry will focus on infancy and boyhood.
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Ibid., 80.
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Ibid., 13.
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these sorts of thoughts and confessions only with the dearest of his friends
through private letters. Locke published his Two Treatises of Government
anonymously, even placing them under A in his alphabetized home library.
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See Rousseau, Emile, Julie, and Other Writings, 42. Because a father or tutor
must be a man himself before teaching his son how to live, Rousseau calls on
adults to also check their own way of living, to make [themselves] worthy of
the respect and love of everybody, so that all will seek to please [them].
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Compayre, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Education from Nature. See Emile 41:
[T]he first education should be purely negative. It consists not in teaching
virtue and truth, but in preserving the heart from vice and the mind from error.
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Also see (EM: 42): Exercise body, senses, powers, but keep the mind
inactive as long as possible. Let childhood ripen in children.
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Rousseau contends that this education is best for children on the basis of
empiricism: Since everything that enters into the human understanding comes
through the senses, the first reason of man is a reason of the senses. On this the
intellectual reason is based. Our first masters of philosophy are our feet, our
hands and our eyes (EM: 54).
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In this comment, Rousseau seems to agree with Locke about the fundamental
law of nature being self-preservation (2T: II.6), and the second law being to
preserve others as one preserves the self. However, Rousseaus explicit
observation that we love those who help us seems to differ from Locke. Locke
nowhere specifies that we love those who help us, but simply that we love those
who do not harm us. Thus, Lockes notion can be considered a no harm
principle, while Rousseaus requires more of the fellow humans.
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Rousseau emphasizes the place of parents, although his mothers death at his
birth and his fathers eventual abandonment show that Rousseau himself lacked
much parental guidance.
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Ibid., 58. In Emile, Rousseau comments that travel is not for everyone because
it can corrupt some: It is only good for the few people who are strong enough
in themselves to listen to the voice of error and not let themselves be seduced,
and see examples of vice and not be led astray. Travel develops the natural bent
and makes a man either good or bad (EM: 161).
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Ibid., 196.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bradley, James E. Whigs and Nonconformists: Slumbering
Radicalism in English Politics, 1739-89. EighteenthCentury Studies 9.1 (Autumn 1975): 1-27.
Compayre, Grabriel. Jean Jacques Rousseau and Education from
Nature. Translated by R. P. Jago. New York: Lenox Hill,
1971.
Forde, Steven. The Moral and Rational Requirements of Lockes
Liberalism. Paper presented at the Eric Voegelin Society
Conference, Washington D. C., August 31-September 4,
2005. Forthcoming in Review of Politics, What Does
Locke Expect Us to Know? 2006.
Graves, Frank Pierrepont. Great Educators of Three Centuries.
New York: Macmillan, 1912.
Kearney, Hugh. Locke and the Politics of Education. History of
Education Quarterly 12.1 (Spring 1972): 107-115.
Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Edited
by Peter H. Nidditch. New York: Oxford UP, 1975.
__________. Some Thoughts Concerning Education and Of the
Conduct of Understanding. Edited by Ruth Grant and
Nathan Tarcov. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1996.
__________. Two Treatises of Government. Edited by Peter
Laslett. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1988.
__________. Locke: Political Essays. ed. Mark Goldie.
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Ciri yang semula jadi yang mempunyai kanak-kanak, rasa ingin tahudan
kebebasan seolah-olah untuk membimbing murid muda yang paling.
Locke menggambarkanrasa ingin tahu sebagai motivasi kanak-kanak ke
arah pengetahuan, alam semula jadimemberikan ia sebagai alat yang
hebat untuk menghapuskan kejahilan, dan melalui, semua kanak-kanak
membawa kepada mempersoalkan tentang kebanyakan apa-apa (TCE:
118). Oleh itu, ibu bapa perlu menghargai rasa ingin tahu anak-anak
mereka sebagaiselera makan yang positif. Locke memberi amaran kepada
ibu bapa untuk menjawab soalan-soalandengan sabar dan perlahan-lahan
dan tidak pernah untuk memalukan kanak-kanak untuk mencariapa yang
mungkin kelihatan seperti pengetahuan remeh. "Kanak-kanak,"
katanyamengingatkan kita, "adalah orang yang tidak dikenali untuk kita
"rasa" yang baik dalam buku-buku dan teater. Namun pada akhirnya, dia
akanmasukkan masyarakat, sekurang-kurangnya sebahagiannya, pada
selesai pendidikan,dan dengan itu, boleh masih mungkin memasuki
kontrak sosial. Perkahwinan
"Akan membuat dia menjadi ahli penuh masyarakat" (EM: 129).Rousseau
tidak mengeluarkan kanak-kanak daripada masyarakat untuk hidup,
hanya untuk
pendidikan, yang mengajar bagaimana untuk hidup.Timothy O'Hagan
mengakui bahawa Emile menawarkan "khayalanpengalaman pendidikan,
"tetapi dia melanjutkan lagi komen beliau olehmenjelaskan kedudukan
Rousseau: "[S] institusi awam ejak daripada
sekolah-sekolah dan kolej telah irredeemably rosak, satusatunyapenyelesaian ialah untuk menarik balik kedua-dua murid dan guru
daripada masyarakat, danmenjalankan eksperimen secara berasingan
daripadanya. "P
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P Dengan inipenjelasan, kita dapat beralih daripada cadangan
untukkawasan luar bandar yang dianggap hanya sebagai cadangan atau
model.Sebaliknya, kita perlu memberi tumpuan kepada mengapa
Rousseau mengesyorkan inimenetapkan sebagai latar belakang kepada
seluruh eksperimen beliau. Untuk satu, kerana O'Haganmenyebut,
Rousseau dianggap sekolah dan kolej awam untuk menjaditidak kukuh.
Dalam halaman beliau pembukaan Emile, Rousseau menerangkan apaapainstitusi sebagai "tidak masuk akal," kanak-kanak pengajaran untuk
menjadi "doubleminded,seolah-olah tidak mengambil berat terhadap
orang lain, tetapi benar-benar hanya mementingkanuntuk diri mereka
sendiri "(EM: 13). Rousseau percaya bahawa lebih intimmasyarakat
membolehkan ibu bapa untuk melindungi anak-anak mereka daripada
kedua-"Moral kotor bandar" (EM: 42). Oleh itu, dalam Confessions,
Rousseau memuji "kesederhanaan kewujudan ini luar bandar"
danmenjelaskan bahawa negara ini "membuka hati [beliau] untuk
persahabatan" (CN:24). Dalam Emile, dia lagi mencadangkan penubuhan
luar bandar kerana iamembolehkan ibu bapa untuk menjadi tuan semua
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Akaun Rousseau dalam Pengakuan berpindah ke dalamnegara dari bandar
menandakan perubahan penting dalam pendidikan beliaupembangunan
kanak-kanak. Sedangkan pada Rousseau kehidupan bandarrakus
membaca buku-buku dengan bapanya, kehidupan negara yang
ditawarkan kepadanyalebih santai, kewujudan yang seperti kanak-kanak.
Kedua-dua aktiviti-bermaindan bacaan-contoh perbezaan di Rousseau
menarik antaraawal kanak-kanak dan akhir kanak-kanak. Perbezaan
antarakanak-kanak yang berbeza-beza umur terletak pada keupayaan
mereka untuk menggunakan, dan memahami,sebab.Rousseau percaya
bahawa anak-anak muda tidak lagi mampusebab: "Ia adalah mustahil
untuk membentuk apa-apa idea fakta moral atauLocke dan Rousseau 12
The Pulse.
hubungan sosial sebelum umur baligh ... pengetahuan [kanak-kanak]
semua dalam sensasi; tiada apa yang dapat melalui pemahaman "
(EM: 47). Oleh kerana kanak-kanak tidak boleh lagi memahami atau
mengambil kerja mereka
rasional, pemikiran harus menjadi akhir, bukannya cara, untuk
pendidikan.
Cadangan Rousseau untuk awal kanak-kanak cermin pendidikan
pemerhatian ini dari kesusahan kanak-kanak. Untuk satu, pendidikan
dalam moral tidak harus terdiri dalam kebaikan pengajaran, tetapi dalam
mengelakkan
maksiat. Rousseau berpendapat bahawa pelajaran pertama kanak-kanak
itu perlu
"Semata-mata negatif." Seorang cendekiawan menerangkan pendidikan
ini sebagai
"Campur tangan hanya untuk membuang halangan-halangan yang akan
menghalang percuma
bermain alam, atau untuk mewujudkan keadaan yang baik kepadanya. "P
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Apabila ia datang untuk melindungi kanak-kanak daripada pendidikan
moral,
Rousseau memerhati bahawa, sudah tentu, ia adalah mustahil untuk
membawa satu
kanak-kanak umur yang disyorkan dua belas tanpa mengajarnya
sesuatu tentang hubungan manusia dan tingkah laku moral. Sehingga itu
umur, bagaimanapun, beliau mencadangkan menangguhkan ini "perlu
tanggapan "selagi siapa yang boleh, kemudian hanya memberitahunya
terhad
maklumat apabila diperlukan (EM: 44). Konsep "perlu
tanggapan "tidak bertujuan untuk melibatkan bahawa kanak-kanak perlu
kekurangan semua moral
kualiti sehingga dua belas, untuk Rousseau menyatakan bahawa Emile
akan menjadi
"Bekerja keras, sederhana, sabar, stabil dan berani" hanya
daripada pendidikan semula jadi (EM: 93). Konsep "semula jadi
pendidikan "tidak bertujuan untuk membayangkan segala-galanya
bahawa kanak-kanak
pertemuan akan datang kira-kira sepenuhnya secara semula jadi. Nota
O'Hagan,
"Dalam tempoh pendidikan negatif, kanak-kanak itu menjadi
dikelilingi oleh persekitaran keperluan tiruan, menghadapi
halangan-halangan yang muncul untuk menjadi hasil yang tidak dapat
dielakkan sendiri
tingkah laku, dan bukan keras kepala oleh orang lain. "P
31
P Namun mengiringi ini
pendidikan negatif adalah tanggapan bahawa kanak-kanak perlu
mempunyai
pembelajaran lisan dan tidak perlu mereka membaca buku-buku, untuk
kanak-kanak
"Ingat kata-kata tetapi idea tersebut ditunjukkan off" (EM: 46). Rousseau
menyamakan "wabak yang paling besar di zaman kanak-kanak" dengan
membaca (EM: 51).
Walaupun dia masih berpendapat bahawa kanak-kanak perlu belajar
membaca, dia
percaya bahawa bacaan yang berterusan akan mengganggu kanak-kanak,
terutamanya jika mereka dipaksa supaya mereka.
Kepercayaan Rousseau bahawa kanak-kanak tidak mampu rasional
pemikiran bukan bermaksud untuk melibatkan bahawa dia percaya kanakkanak tidak mempunyai sebarang
jenis alasan sama sekali. Beliau berhujah bahawa "mereka berfikir dengan
baik pada
segala-galanya yang dikenakan ke atas faedah mereka yang hadir dan
yang nyata "(EM:
57). Oleh itu, Rousseau mengesyorkan amalan pendidikan yang
tumpuan minda murid "kepada apa yang secara langsung memberi kesan
kepadanya," yang
terutamanya bermakna bersenam badannya terus-menerus (EM: 53) hp
32
P
Rousseau berpendapat bahawa kanak-kanak perlu belajar melalui deria
mereka,
melalui menyiasat dan meneroka world.P semula jadi
33
P Beliau
menerangkan hidup melalui keadaan ini zaman kanak-kanak dalam
Pengakuan:
"Saya rasa sebelum saya berfikir: yang banyak bersama manusia,
walaupun
lebih ketara dalam kes saya berbanding orang lain "(CN: 19).
Menggantikan pendidikan ini dengan buku-buku mengajar kanak-kanak
tidak untuk sebab
untuk dirinya sendiri, tetapi untuk bergantung kepada sebab orang lain,
sedangkan
Locke dan Rousseau 13
The Pulse.
pendidikan kanak-kanak yang dimaksudkan untuk melatih dia untuk
berfikir sendiri. Hingga
dia mampu untuk berbuat demikian, pendidikan seharusnya menjadi
perayaan riang
zaman kanak-kanak. Rousseau beckons ibu bapa, "Cinta zaman kanakkanak. Melihat dengan
mata persahabatan pada permainannya, keseronokan, perpindahanperpindahan yang mesra yang "
(EM: 33). Rousseau meminta orang dewasa untuk memberi anak-anak
"juga dikawal selia
kebebasan "(EM: 39). Pada usia dua belas, maka, kanak-kanak mungkin
tahu
lagi ia tidak boleh gagal untuk menetapkan watak saya untuk selamalamanya. Ia adalah
diasaskan atas penyayang, lembut, dan emosi damai "(CN:
25).
Memupuk berbanding Alam, atau, Politik berbanding Asli
Man
Apabila kita membandingkan dan kerja-kerja pendidikan
Locke dan Rousseau, kita dapati akaun bukan sahaja berbeza daripada
keadaan semula jadi kanak-kanak dan kaedah pendidikan, tetapi yang
berbeza-beza
penekanan pada keputusan akhir. Dalam bahagian ini, saya akan
membandingkan kedua-dua
pandangan ahli-ahli falsafah kepada beberapa topik: kecenderungan
semula jadi
kanak-kanak, peranan ibu bapa, kaedah yang dicadangkan pendidikan,
dan tugas sebagai manusia yang berpendidikan dalam masyarakat. Locke
dan Rousseau
berbeza terutamanya kepada konsep tata tertib berbanding sifat dan pada
peranan lelaki dalam hubungan dengan politik.
Pemahaman TLocke terhadap kecenderungan semula jadi tidak
sepenuhnya
optimis. Manakala ibu bapa perlu menghargai, dan juga memenuhi,
mereka
rasa ingin tahu dan cinta kebebasan kanak-kanak, kanak-kanak mesti
diajar
menundukkan keinginan semula jadi mereka untuk kekuasaan. Kaedah
Locke daripada
pendidikan mengambil masa ini fakulti semula jadi, suka dan tidak suka,
ke dalam
pertimbangan. Beliau mencadangkan Tabiat untuk memecahkan kanakkanak malas
(TCE: 21) dan untuk memastikan mereka daripada menjadi rosak (TCE:
106), manakala mendesak tindakan lain yang akan menggalakkan
cinta kebebasan pada kanak-kanak, seperti membenarkan mereka
"musim
kebebasan "untuk bermain atau bekerja, yang mana kanak-kanak itu
memilih (TCE:
125). TLocke juga memahami kanak-kanak mempunyai keinginan semula
jadi untuk
dirawat secara rasional. Beliau menegaskan bahawa kanak-kanak
"memahaminya
[alasan] seawal mereka bahasa "(TCE: 81). Walaupun
anak-anak sendiri tidak mempunyai keupayaan lagi menggajikan
sebab, mereka dapat mengenali rasional maju pada orang lain, dan
mereka
berbangga dengan mengambil bahagian dalam pengalaman. Disebabkan
ini
keinginan semulajadi untuk dipertimbangkan makhluk rasional, Locke
Locke dan Rousseau 15
The Pulse.
mengesyorkan bahawa seorang bapa tidak boleh hanya "bercakap akrab
dengan [beliau
kanak-kanak], "tetapi lebih jauh," meminta nasihat beliau dan berbincang
dengan beliau mengenai
perkara-perkara di mana dia mempunyai apa-apa pengetahuan atau
pemahaman "(TCE:
95). Dengan matlamat untuk menolong kanak-kanak menjadi seorang
lelaki, kekeluargaan seperti
perbualan membawa minda muda ke dalam pertimbangan serius dan
pemikiran, meningkatkan fikirannya di atas hiburan berubah-ubah. Locke
menggesa: "Lebih cepat anda melayan dia sebagai seorang lelaki, lebih
cepat dia akan mula
menjadi salah "(TCE: 95) hp
34
P
Manakala Locke menekankan bahawa kualiti semula jadi seperti
selfdominion
dan kuasa ke atas orang lain harus dibendung dan bahawa
nafsu perlu ditundukkan oleh sebab, Rousseau menegaskan bahawa
kecenderungan adalah "sifat kita" yang segala-galanya perlu
mematuhi (EM: 12), dengan kecenderungan menjadi harga diri kita yang
pertama
(EM: 94) dan kedua kami, "cinta [manusia] mempunyai untuk rakyat dia
melihat bersedia untuk membantu dia "(EM: 97) hp
35
P Bagi Rousseau, kecenderungan
hanya menguatkan dan memanjangkan pada kanak-kanak sebagai kanakkanak membesar dalam
rasa dan kecerdasan. Kanak-kanak perlu belajar untuk menghargai
mereka
deria semula jadi dan perasaan, walaupun selepas membangun sebab.
Untuk
Contohnya seperti di dalam Pengakuan Rousseau memuji Madame de
Warens
untuk hati yang murni beliau dan "tegak dan mulia" dia kecenderungan.
Dalam
Sebaliknya, beliau mengkritik beliau untuk mengikuti sebab beliau, yang
adalah palsu
dan mencipta, "dan bukannya mendengar hatinya yang memberikannya
nasihat ... Apabila prinsip palsu disesatkan beliau, yang sebenar
perasaan sentiasa memberikan mereka mendustakan "(CN: 190).
Rousseau juga
secara terbuka scoffs pada pemikiran bercakap kepada kanak-kanak
seolah-olah mereka
makhluk rasional:
Pepatah yang hebat Locke adalah untuk sebab dengan kanak-kanak;
dan ia adalah kaedah yang paling popular pada hari ini.
Kejayaannya tidak muncul untuk mengesyorkan; untuk saya
bahagian sendiri, saya tidak pernah melihat orang begitu bodoh seperti
yang
kanak-kanak yang telah mereka memberi alasan begitu banyak.
Daripada semua manusia fakulti, Sebab, yang merupakan
kombinasi untuk yang lain, dibangunkan lepas dan dengan
kesulitan yang paling besar; namun ini adalah fakulti yang kita
diminta untuk digunakan untuk pembangunan yang lebih awal.
Ia adalah kemuncak pendidikan yang baik untuk membentuk seorang
lelaki
yang mampu sebab; dan kami mencadangkan untuk
mendidik kanak-kanak kecil dengan menggunakan alasan beliau! Ini
mula di mana kita harus berakhir, dan membuat
produk siap instrumen dalam sendiri
manufacture.P
36
P
Rousseau berpendapat bahawa soal siasat bulat kanak-kanak boleh
tidak dijawab, dan seseorang akan mempunyai untuk mengugut kanakkanak untuk
mempunyai apa-apa jenis kesan ke atas pemikiran mereka. Oleh itu,
adalah lebih baik untuk meninggalkan
pemikiran keluar sehingga anak-anak telah mencapai umur yang
sepatutnya dua belas
atau lima belas.
Locke dan Rousseau 16
The Pulse.
Perbezaan-perbezaan pendapat mengenai kecenderungan semula jadi
antara Locke dan Rousseau membawa ahli-ahli falsafah ini yang berbezabeza
strategi pendidikan, dengan projek-projek mereka menekankan memupuk
atau
alam semula jadi, masing-masing. ITnterestingly, kedua-dua ahli falsafah
masih
memahami peranan ibu bapa untuk menjadi asas bagi hak
perkembangan kanak-kanak. Keyakinan ini, bagaimanapun, dinyatakan
berbeza bergantung kepada peranan alam semula jadi dan memupuk bagi
setiap.
Bagi Locke, ibu bapa menjadi alasan anak dan kraf sosial
menetapkan untuk membimbing idea-ideanya. Mereka boleh dikatakan
mencipta masyarakat yang
mengelilingi anak-anak mereka, di mana "tidak ada contoh sakit [sedang]
ditetapkan sebelum
mereka, "seperti bercakap seorang bujang atau lain-lain kanak-kanak sakit
lebih awal
(TCE: 76). Sebaliknya, Locke mencadangkan bahawa kanak-kanak
"berada di dalam
syarikat ibu bapa dan yang akan datang pemeliharaannya mereka
komited "(TCE: 69). Locke membuat cadangan ini bagi
keperluan ... Cara terbaik untuk belajar untuk menilai dengan betul adalah
untuk
memudahkan pengalaman rasa kita sebanyak mungkin "(EM: 92). Dalam
Akhirnya, Emile harus menghargai kuasa "bukan semata-mata kerana
mencintai
susunan sosial ... tetapi untuk cinta yang sudah menjadikan beliau yang
masuk ke dalam cinta diri-Nya "(EM: 117).
Akhir sekali, kita dapati perbezaan yang luar biasa di antara
tujuan dan matlamat pendidikan untuk kedua-dua ahli falsafah. Locke
menulis
Pemikiran beliau Mengenai Pendidikan khusus untuk melatih puan-puan
yang akan menjadi pemimpin dalam arena politik dan sosial,
peruntukan bagi keseluruhan projek demokrasi dan liberalisme.
Puan-puan mentadbir masyarakat dalam pelbagai deria, memiliki
perniagaan atau
walaupun mengambil bahagian dalam politik. Sebagai pemimpin, tuantuan boleh
mengekalkan kuasa dalam masyarakat dan meningkatkan prospek
kelas yang lebih rendah. Oleh itu, kita boleh mengatakan bahawa
"kebajikan dan kesejahteraan
negara ... bergantung kepada [pelajaran] "(TCE: dedikasi).
Walaupun Locke tidak mengekalkan hierarki pangkat atau perintah
melalui kelas puan-puan, beliau tidak mengekalkan kelas
struktur dalam falsafahnya. Locke tidak berhasrat untuk lelaki
untuk tidak mengambil kira kelas yang lebih rendah atau meletakkan
mereka di disadvantage.P yang
40
P
Sebaliknya, Locke bercadang untuk kumpulan ini untuk berkhidmat
sebagai kunci kepada
pendemokrasian dan meratakan beransur-ansur masyarakat. The Locke
lelaki berkenaan dengan melindungi kehidupan, kebebasan, dan harta
untuk semua individu dalam masyarakat. Beliau adalah generasi baru:
bukan
meneruskan ketidaksamaan sistem kelas, lelaki ini adalah
mengawal diri dan bekerja keras; dia menghormati orang dalam semua
kelas
Locke dan Rousseau 18
The Pulse.
masyarakat. Steven Forde menerangkan pembiakan Locke daripada
puan-puan sebagai yang "pautan kebaikan dan kebahagiaan dengan
menjadi yang
seni memperoleh kebahagiaan dari membawa kebahagiaan kepada orang
lain. "P
41
P
Sebaliknya, walaupun dibesarkan di kawasan luar bandar, yang Rousseau
kanak-kanak bukan bermaksud untuk tinggal sepenuhnya di luar
masyarakat untuk hidup. Dia adalah
P Compayre, Jean Jacques Rousseau dan Pendidikan dari Alam. Lihat Emile
41:
"[T] dia pendidikan pertama harus semata-mata negatif. Ia tidak terdiri
dalam pengajaran
kebaikan dan kebenaran, tetapi dalam memelihara hati daripada maksiat
dan minda dari kesilapan. "
P O'Hagan, "Jean-Jacques Rousseau," 57.
P Lihat juga (EM: 42): "Berhati-badan, deria, kuasa, tetapi mengekalkan
minda yang
menyahaktifkan seberapa lama yang boleh. Biarkan kanak-kanak masak
pada kanak-kanak. "
P Rousseau berpendapat bahawa pendidikan ini adalah yang terbaik untuk
kanak-kanak berdasarkan
empirisisme: "Oleh kerana apa yang masuk ke dalam pemahaman
manusia datang
melalui pancaindera, sebab pertama manusia adalah sebab deria. Pada ini
yang
sebab intelek adalah berdasarkan. Tuan pertama kami falsafah adalah
tapak kaki kami, kami
tangan dan mata kita "(EM: 54).
P Sudah tentu, perbualan itu mesti berada di dalam perspektif yang
sesuai dengan umur kanak-kanak dan
keupayaan. Locke tidak menyokong yang tiga atau tujuh tahun karya lama
berhujah (TCE:
81). Walau bagaimanapun, dengan penanaman yang betul untuk
pertimbangan ini, bapa dan anak
akan mendapatkan akibat yang lebih besar daripada persahabatan.
P Dalam komen ini, Rousseau seolah-olah bersetuju dengan Locke
mengenai asas
undang-undang alam yang memelihara diri sendiri (2T: II.6), dan undangundang yang kedua adalah untuk
memelihara orang lain sebagai salah memelihara diri. Walau
bagaimanapun, ini jelas Rousseau
pemerhatian yang kita suka orang yang menolong kita seolah-olah
berbeza daripada Locke. Locke
mana-mana menyatakan bahawa kita mengasihi orang-orang yang
membantu kami, tetapi hanya yang kita suka kepada
yang tidak membahayakan kita. Oleh itu, tanggapan Locke boleh
dianggap sebagai "tidak membahayakan"
dasarnya, manakala Rousseau memerlukan lebih daripada manusia yang
lain.
P Rousseau, Emile, Julie dan Tulisan lain, 95.
P Rousseau menekankan tempat ibu bapa, walaupun kematian ibunya
pada beliau
kelahiran dan menunjukkan pengabaian akhirnya ayahnya yang Rousseau
dirinya kurang
banyak bimbingan ibu bapa.
P Rousseau, Emile, Julie dan Tulisan lain, 106.
P Compayre, Jean-Jacques Rousseau dan Pendidikan dari Alam, 25.