Ground (electricity)

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A typical earthing electrode (left of gray pipe), consisting of a conductive rod driven into the ground, at a home
in Australia.
Most electrical codes specify that the insulation on protective earthing conductors must be a distinctive color (or
color combination) not used for any other purpose.

In electrical engineering, ground or earth is the reference point in an electrical circuit from which
voltages are measured, a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical connection to
the Earth.
Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons. In mains powered
equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to ground to prevent user contact with dangerous
voltage if electrical insulation fails. Connections to ground limit the build-up of static electricity when
handling flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices. In some telegraph and power
transmissioncircuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of
installing a separate return conductor (seesingle-wire earth return).
For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a (reasonably) constant potential reference against
which other potentials can be measured. An electrical ground system should have an appropriate
current-carrying capability to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In electronic
circuit theory, a "ground" is usually idealized as an infinite source or sink for charge, which can
absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential. Where a real ground
connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero potential is no longer valid. Stray
voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may create noise in signals or if large enough
will produce an electric shock hazard.
The use of the term ground (or earth) is so common in electrical and electronics applications that
circuits in portable electronic devices such as cell phones and media players as well as circuits
in vehicles may be spoken of as having a "ground" connection without any actual connection to the
Earth, despite "common" being a more appropriate term for such a connection. This is usually a
large conductor attached to one side of the power supply (such as the "ground plane" on a printed
circuit board) which serves as the common return path for current from many different components
in the circuit.

History[edit]
Long-distance electromagnetic telegraph systems from 1820 onwards[citation needed] used two or more
wires to carry the signal and return currents. It was then discovered, probably by the German
scientist Carl August Steinheil in 18361837,[1] that the ground could be used as the return path to
complete the circuit, making the return wire unnecessary. However, there were problems with this
system, exemplified by the transcontinental telegraph line constructed in 1861 by the Western Union
Company between Saint Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. During dry weather, the
ground connection often developed a high resistance, requiring water to be poured on the ground
rod to enable the telegraph to work or phones to ring.
Later, when telephony began to replace telegraphy, it was found that the currents in the earth
induced by power systems, electrical railways, other telephone and telegraph circuits, and natural
sources including lightning caused unacceptable interference to the audio signals, and the two-wire
or 'metallic circuit' system was reintroduced around 1883. [2]

Radio communications[edit]
An electrical connection to earth can be used as a reference potential for radio frequency signals for
certain kinds of antennas. The part directly in contact with the earth - the "earth electrode" - can be
as simple as a metal rod or stake driven into the earth, or a connection to buried metal water piping
(the pipe must be conductive). Because high frequency signals can flow to earth due to capacitative
effects, capacitance to ground is an important factor in effectiveness of signal grounds. Because of
this, a complex system of buried rods and wires can be effective. An ideal signal ground maintains a
fixed potential (zero) regardless of how much electric current flows into ground or out of ground.
Lowimpedance at the signal frequency of the electrode-to-earth connection determines its quality,
and that quality is improved by increasing the surface area of the electrode in contact with the earth,
increasing the depth to which it is driven, using several connected ground rods, increasing the
moisture content of the soil, improving the conductive mineral content of the soil, and increasing the
land area covered by the ground system.
Some types of transmitting antenna systems in the VLF, LF, MF and lower SW range must have a
good ground to operate efficiently. For example, a vertical monopole antennarequires a ground
plane that often consists of an interconnected network of wires running radially away from the base
of the antenna for a distance about equal to the height of the antenna. Sometimes a counterpoise is
used as a ground plane, supported above the ground.

Building wiring installations[edit]

See also: Earthing system

Electrical power distribution systems are often connected to ground to limit the voltage that can
appear on distribution circuits. A distribution system insulated from ground may attain a high
potential due to transient voltages caused by arcing, static electricity, or accidental contact with
higher potential circuits. A ground connection of the system dissipates such potentials and limits the
rise in voltage of the grounded system.
In a mains electricity (AC power) wiring installation, the term ground conductor typically refers to
three different conductors or conductor systems as listed below.
Equipment earthing conductors provide an electrical connection between non-current-carrying
metallic parts of equipment and the earth. According to the U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC), the
reason for doing this is to limit the voltage imposed by lightning, line surges, and contact with higher
voltage lines. The equipment earthing conductor is usually also used as the equipment bonding
conductor (see below).
Equipment bonding conductors provide a low impedance path between non-current-carrying metallic
parts of equipment and one of the conductors of that electrical system's source, so that if a part
becomes energized for any reason, such as a frayed or damaged conductor, a short circuit will occur
and operate a circuit breaker or fuse to disconnect the faulted circuit. The earth itself has no role in
this fault-clearing process[3] since current must return to its source; however, the sources are very
frequently connected to earth.[4] (see Kirchhoff's circuit laws). By bonding (interconnecting) all
exposed non-current carrying metal objects together, they should remain near the same potential
thus reducing the chance of a shock. This is especially important in bathrooms where one may be in
contact with several different metallic systems such as supply and drain pipes and appliance frames.
The equipment bonding conductor is usually also used as the equipment earthing conductor (see
above).

Metal water pipe used as grounding electrode

A grounding electrode conductor (GEC) connects one leg of an electrical system to one or more
earth electrodes. This is called "system grounding" and most systems are required to be grounded.
The U.S. NEC and the UK's BS 7671 list systems that are required to be grounded. The grounding
electrode conductor connects the leg of the electrical system that is the "neutral wire" to the
grounding electrode(s).[5] The grounding electrode conductor is also usually bonded to pipework and
structural steel in larger structures. According to the NEC, the purpose of earthing an electrical
system is to limit the voltage to earth imposed by lightning events and contact with higher voltage
lines, and also to stabilize the voltage to earth during normal operation. In the past, water
supply pipes were often used as grounding electrodes, but this was banned where plastic pipes are
popular. This type of ground applies to radio antennas and to lightning protection systems.
Permanently installed electrical equipment usually also has permanently connected grounding
conductors. Portable electrical devices with metal cases may have them connected to earth ground
by a pin in the interconnecting plug (see Domestic AC power plugs and sockets). The size of power
ground conductors is usually regulated by local or national wiring regulations.

Earthing systems[edit]
In electricity supply systems, an earthing (grounding) system defines the electrical potential of the
conductors relative to that of the Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system has
implications for the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply. Regulations for
earthing systems vary considerably between different countries.
A functional earth connection serves a purpose other than providing protection against electrical
shock. In contrast to a protective earth connection, a functional earth connection may carry a current
during the normal operation of a device. Functional earth connections may be required by devices
such as surge suppression and electromagnetic-compatibility filters, some types of antennas and
various measurement instruments. Generally the protective earth is also used as a functional earth,
though this requires care in some situations.

Impedance grounding[edit]
Distribution power systems may be solidly grounded, with one circuit conductor directly connected to
an earth grounding electrode system. Alternatively, some amount of electrical impedance may be
connected between the distribution system and ground, to limit the current that can flow to earth.
The impedance may be a resistor, or an inductor (coil). In a high-impedance grounded system, the
fault current is limited to a few amperes (exact values depend on the voltage class of the system); a
low-impedance grounded system will permit several hundred amperes to flow on a fault. A large
solidly-grounded distribution system may have thousands of amperes of ground fault current.

In a polyphase AC system, an artificial neutral grounding system may be used. Although no phase
conductor is directly connected to ground, a specially constructed transformer (a "zig zag"
transformer) blocks the power frequency current from flowing to earth, but allows any leakage or
transient current to flow to ground.
Low-resistance grounding systems use a neutral grounding resistor (NGR) to limit the fault current to
25 A or greater. Low resistance grounding systems will have a time rating (say, 10 seconds) that
indicates how long the resistor can carry the fault current before overheating. A ground fault
protection relay must trip the breaker to protect the circuit before overheating of the resistor occurs.
High-resistance grounding (HRG) systems use an NGR to limit the fault current to 25 A or less. They
have a continuous rating, and are designed to operate with a single-ground fault. This means that
the system will not immediately trip on the first ground fault. If a second ground fault occurs, a
ground fault protection relay must trip the breaker to protect the circuit. On an HRG system, a
sensing resistor is used to continuously monitor system continuity. If an open-circuit is detected (e.g.,
due to a broken weld on the NGR), the monitoring device will sense voltage through the sensing
resistor and trip the breaker. Without a sensing resistor, the system could continue to operate without
ground protection (since an open circuit condition would mask the ground fault) and transient
overvoltages could occur.[6]

Ungrounded systems[edit]
Where the danger of electric shock is high, special ungrounded power systems may be used to
minimize possible leakage current to ground. Examples of such installations include patient care
areas in hospitals, where medical equipment is directly connected to a patient and must not permit
any power-line current to pass into the patient's body. Medical systems include monitoring devices to
warn of any increase of leakage current. On wet construction sites or in shipyards, isolation
transformers may be provided so that a fault in a power tool or its cable does not expose users to
shock hazard.
Circuits used to feed sensitive audio/video production equipment or measurement instruments may
be fed from an isolated ungrounded technical power system to limit the injection of noise from the
power system.

Power transmission[edit]
In single-wire earth return (SWER) AC electrical distribution systems, costs are saved by using just a
single high voltage conductor for the power grid, while routing the AC return current through the

earth. This system is mostly used in rural areas where large earth currents will not otherwise cause
hazards.
Some high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) power transmission systems use the ground as second
conductor. This is especially common in schemes with submarine cables, as sea water is a good
conductor. Buried grounding electrodes are used to make the connection to the earth. The site of
these electrodes must be chosen carefully to prevent electrochemical corrosion on underground
structures.
A particular concern in design of electrical substations is earth potential rise. When very large fault
currents are injected into the earth, the area around the point of injection may rise to a high potential
with respect to distant points. This is due to the limited finite conductivity of the layers of soil in the
earth. The gradient of the voltage (changing voltage within a distance) may be so high that two
points on the ground may be at significantly different potentials, creating a hazard to anyone
standing on the ground in the area. Pipes, rails, or communication wires entering a substation may
see different ground potentials inside and outside the substation, creating a dangerous touch
voltage.

Electronics[edit]

Signal
ground

Chassis
ground

Earth
ground

Ground symbols[7]

Signal grounds serve as return paths for signals and power (at extra low voltages, less than about
50 V) within equipment, and on the signal interconnections between equipment. Many electronic
designs feature a single return that acts as a reference for all signals. Power and signal grounds
often get connected, usually through the metal case of the equipment. Designers of printed circuit
boardsmust take care in the layout of electronic systems so that high-power or rapidly-switching
currents in one part of a system do not inject noise into low-level sensitive parts of a system due to
some common impedance in the grounding traces of the layout.

Circuit ground versus earth[edit]

Voltage is a differential quantity. To measure the voltage of a single point, a reference point must be
selected to measure against. This common reference point is called "ground" and considered to

have zero voltage. This signal ground may not be connected to a power ground. A system where the
system ground is not connected to another circuit or to earth (though there may still be AC coupling)
is often referred to as a floating ground.

Separating low signal ground from a noisy ground [edit]

In television stations, recording studios, and other installations where sound quality is critical, a
special signal ground known as a "technical ground" (or "technical earth", "special earth" and "audio
earth") is often installed, to prevent ground loops. This is basically the same thing as an AC power
ground, but no general appliance ground wires are allowed any connection to it, as they may carry
electrical interference. For example only audio equipment is connected to the technical ground in a
recording studio.[8] In most cases, the studio's metal equipment racks are all joined together with
heavy copper cables (or flattened copper tubing or busbars) and similar connections are made to the
technical ground. Great care is taken that no general chassis grounded appliances are placed on the
racks, as a single AC ground connection to the technical ground will destroy its effectiveness. For
particularly demanding applications, the main technical ground may consist of a heavy copper pipe,
if necessary fitted by drilling through several concrete floors, such that all technical grounds may be
connected by the shortest possible path to a grounding rod in the basement.

Lightning protection systems[edit]

Busbars are used for ground conductors in high-current circuits.

Lightning protection systems are designed to mitigate the effects of lightning through connection to
extensive grounding systems that provide a large surface area connection to earth. The large area is

required to dissipate the high current of a lightning strike without damaging the system conductors
by excess heat. Since lightning strikes are pulses of energy with very high frequency components,
grounding systems for lighting protection tend to use short straight runs of conductors to reduce the
self-inductance and skin effect.

Bonding[edit]
Main article: Electrical bonding
Strictly speaking, the terms grounding or earthing are meant to refer to an electrical connection to
ground/earth. Bonding is the practice of intentionally electrically connecting metallic items not
designed to carry electricity. This brings all the bonded items to the same electrical potential as a
protection from electrical shock. The bonded items can then be connected to ground to bring them to
earth potential.[9]

Ground (earth) mat[edit]

Main article: Ground mat
In an electrical substation a ground (earth) mat is a mesh of conductive material installed at places
where a person would stand to operate a switch or other apparatus; it is bonded to the local
supporting metal structure and to the handle of the switchgear, so that the operator will not be
exposed to a high differential voltage due to a fault in the substation.
In the vicinity of electrostatic sensitive devices, a ground (earth) mat or grounding (earthing) mat is
used to ground static electricity generated by people and moving equipment. [10]There are two types
used in static control: Static Dissipative Mats, and Conductive Mats.
A static dissipative mat that rests on a conductive surface (commonly the case in military facilities)
are typically made of 3 layers (3-ply) with static dissipative vinyl layers surrounding a conductive
substrate which is electrically attached to ground (earth). For commercial uses, static dissipative
rubber mats are traditionally used that are made of 2 layers (2-ply) with a tough solder resistant top
static dissipative layer that makes them last longer than the vinyl mats, and a conductive rubber
bottom. Conductive mats are made of carbon and used only on floors for the purpose of drawing
static electricity to ground as quickly as possible. Normally conductive mats are made with
cushioning for standing and are referred to as "anti-fatigue" mats.

3 ply static dissipative vinyl grounding mat shown at macro scale

For a static dissipative mat to be reliably grounded it must be attached to a path to ground. Normally,
both the mat and the wrist strap are connected to ground by using a common point ground system
(CPGS).[11]
In computer repair shops and electronics manufacturing workers must be grounded before working
on devices sensitive to voltages capable of being generated by humans. For that reason static
dissipative mats can be and are also used on production assembly floors as "floor runner" along the
assembly line to draw static generated by people walking up and down.

Isolation[edit]
See also: Galvanic isolation
Isolation is a mechanism that defeats grounding. It is frequently used with low-power consumer
devices, and when electronics engineers, hobbyists, or repairmen are working on circuits that would
normally be operated using the power line voltage. Isolation can be accomplished by simply placing
a "1:1 wire ratio" transformer with an equal number of turns between the device and the regular
power service, but applies to any type of transformer using two or more coils electrically insulated
from each other.
For an isolated device, touching a single powered conductor does not cause a severe shock,
because there is no path back to the other conductor through the ground. However, shocks and
electrocution may still occur if both poles of the transformer are contacted by bare skin. Previously it
was suggested that repairmen "work with one hand behind their back" to avoid touching two parts of
the device under test at the same time, thereby preventing a circuit from crossing through the chest
and interrupting cardiac rhythms/ causingcardiac arrest.
Generally every AC power line transformer acts as an isolation transformer, and every step up or
down has the potential to form an isolated circuit. However, this isolation would prevent failed
devices from blowing fuses when shorted to their ground conductor. The isolation that could be

created by each transformer is defeated by always having one leg of the transformers grounded, on
both sides of the input and output transformer coils. Power lines also typically ground one specific
wire at every pole, to ensure current equalization from pole to pole if a short to ground is occurring.
In the past, grounded appliances have been designed with internal isolation to a degree that allowed
the simple disconnection of ground by cheater plugs without apparent problem (a dangerous
practice, since the safety of the resulting floating equipment relies on the insulation in its power
transformer). Modern appliances however often includepower entry modules which are designed
with deliberate capacitive coupling between the AC power lines and chassis, to suppress
electromagnetic interference. This results in a significant leakage current from the power lines to
ground. If the ground is disconnected by a cheater plug or by accident, the resulting leakage current
can cause mild shocks, even without any fault in the equipment.[12] Even small leakage currents are a
significant concern in medical settings, as the accidental disconnection of ground can introduce
these currents into sensitive parts of the human body. As a result, medical power supplies are
designed to have low capacitance.[13]
Class II appliances and power supplies (such as cell phone chargers) do not provide any ground
connection, and are designed to isolate the output from input. Safety is ensured by doubleinsulation, so that two failures of insulation are required to cause a shock.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_%28electricity%29

Section 6: System Grounding Bill Brown, P.E., Square D Engineering Services

Introduction The topic of system grounding is extremely important, as it affects the
susceptibility of the system to voltage transients, determines the types of loads the
system can accommodate, and helps to determine the system protection
requirements. The system grounding arrangement is determined by the grounding
of the power source. For commercial and industrial systems, the types of power
sources generally fall into four broad categories: A Utility Service The system
grounding is usually determined by the secondary winding configuration of the
upstream utility substation transformer. B Generator The system grounding is
determined by the stator winding configuration. C Transformer The system
grounding on the system fed by the transformer is determined by the transformer
secondary winding configuration. D Static Power Converter For devices such as
rectifiers and inverters, the system grounding is determined by the grounding of the
output stage of the converter. Categories A to D fall under the NEC definition for a
separately-derived system. The recognition of a separatelyderived system is
important when applying NEC requirements to system grounding, as discussed
below. All of the power sources mentioned above except D are magneticallyoperated devices with windings. To understand the system voltage relationships

with respect to system grounding, it must be recognized that there are two common
ways of connecting device windings: wye and delta. These two arrangements, with
their system voltage relationships, are shown in figure 6-1. As can be seen from the
figure, in the wye-connected arrangement there are four terminals, with the phaseto-neutral voltage for each phase set by the winding voltage and the resulting
phase-to-phase voltage set by the vector relationships between the voltages. The
delta configuration has only three terminals, with the phase-to-phase voltage set by
the winding voltages and the neutral terminal not defined. Neither of these
arrangements is inherently associated with any particular system grounding
arrangement, although some arrangements more commonly use one arrangement
vs. the other for reasons that will be explained further below. Figure 6-1: Wye and
delta winding configurations and system voltage relationships 2 Solidly-grounded
systems The solidly-grounded system is the most common system arrangement,
and one of the most versatile. The most commonly-used configuration is the solidlygrounded wye, because it will support single-phase phase-toneutral loads. The
solidly-grounded wye system arrangement can be shown by considering the neutral
terminal from the wye system arrangement in figure 6-1 to be grounded. This is
shown in figure 6-2: Several points regarding figure 6-2 can be noted. First, the
system voltage with respect to ground is fixed by the phase-to-neutral winding
voltage. Because parts of the power system, such as equipment frames, are
grounded, and the rest of the environment essentially is at ground potential also,
this has big implications for the system. It means that the line-to-ground insulation
level of equipment need only be as large as the phase-to-neutral voltage, which is
57.7% of the phase-to-phase voltage. It also means that the system is less
susceptible to phase-to-ground voltage transients. Second, the system is suitable
for supplying line-to-neutral loads. The operation of a single-phase load connected
between one phase and neutral will be the same on any phase since the phase
voltage magnitudes are equal. This system arrangement is very common, both at
the utilization level as 480 Y/277 V and 208 Y/120 V, and also on most utility
distribution systems. While the solidly-grounded wye system is by far the most
common solidly-grounded system, the wye arrangement is not the only
arrangement that can be configured as a solidly grounded system. The delta system
can also be grounded, as shown in figure 6-3. Compared with the solidly-grounded
wye system of figure 6-2 this system grounding arrangement has a number of
disadvantages. The phase-to-ground voltages are not equal, and therefore the
system is not suitable for single-phase loads. And, without proper identification of
the phases there is the risk of shock since one conductor, the B-phase, is grounded
and could be mis-identified. This arrangement is no longer in common use, although
a few facilities where this arrangement is used still exist. The delta arrangement can
be configured in another manner, however, that does have merits as a
solidlygrounded system. This arrangement is shown in figure 6-4. While the
arrangement of figure 6-4 may not appear at first glance to have merit, it can be
seen that this system is suitable both for three-phase and single-phase loads, so
long as the single-phase and three-phase load cables are kept separate from each

other. This is commonly Figure 6-2: Solidly-Grounded Wye System arrangement and
voltage relationships Figure 6-3: Corner-Grounded Delta System arrangement and
voltage relationships 3 used for small services which require both 240 VAC threephase and 120/240 VAC single-phase. Note that the phase A voltage to ground is
173% of the phase B and C voltages to ground. This arrangement requires the BC
winding to have a center tap. A common characteristic of all three solidly-grounded
system shown here, and of solidly-grounded systems in general, is that a shortcircuit to ground will cause a large amount of short-circuit current to flow. This
condition is known as a ground fault and is illustrated in figure 6-5. As can be seen
from figure 6-5, the voltage on the faulted phase is depressed, and a large current
flows in the faulted phase since the phase and fault impedance are small. The
voltage and current on the other two phases are not affected. The fact that a
solidly-grounded system will support a large ground fault current is an important
characteristic of this type of system grounding and does affect the system design.
Statistically, 90-95% of all system short-circuits are ground faults so this is an
important topic. The practices used in ground-fault protection are described in a
later section of this guide. The occurrence of a ground fault on a solidly-grounded
system necessitates the removal of the fault as quickly as possible. This is the major
disadvantage of the solidly-grounded system as compared to other types of system
grounding. A solidly-grounded system is very effective at reducing the possibility of
line-to-ground voltage transients. However, to do this the system must be
effectively grounded. One measure of the effectiveness of the system grounding is
the ratio of the available ground-fault current to the available three-phase fault
current. For effectively-grounded systems this ratio is usually at least 60% [2]. Most
utility systems which supply service for commercial and industrial systems are
solidly grounded. Typical utility practice is to ground the neutral at many points,
usually at every line pole, creating a multi-grounded neutral system. Because a
separate grounding conductor is not run with the utility line, the resistance of the
earth limits the circulating ground currents that can be caused by this type of
grounding. Because separate grounding conductors are used inside a commercial or
industrial facility, multi-grounded neutrals not preferred for power systems in these
facilities due to the possibility of circulating ground currents. As will be explained
later in this Figure 6-4: Center-Tap-Grounded Delta System arrangement and voltage
relationships Figure 6-5: Solidly-Grounded System with a ground fault on phase A 4
section, multi-grounded neutrals in NEC jurisdictions, such as commercial or
industrial facilities, are actually prohibited in most cases by the NEC [1]. Instead, a
single point of grounding is preferred for this type of system, creating a unigrounded or single-point grounded system. In general, the solidly-grounded system
is the most popular, is required where single-phase phase-to-neutral loads must be
supplied, and has the most stable phase-to-ground voltage characteristics.
However, the large ground fault currents this type of system can support, and the
equipment that this necessitates, are a disadvantage and can be hindrance to
system reliability. Ungrounded systems This system grounding arrangement is at
the other end of the spectrum from solidly-grounded systems. An ungrounded

system is a system where there is no intentional connection of the system to

ground. The term ungrounded system is actually a misnomer, since every system
is grounded through its inherent charging capacitance to ground. To illustrate this
point and its effect on the system voltages to ground, the delta winding
configuration introduced in figure 6-3 is re-drawn in figure 6-6 to show these system
capacitances. If all of the system voltages in figure 6-6 are multiplied by 3 and all
of the phase angles are shifted by 30 (both are reasonable operations since the
voltage magnitudes and phase angles for the phase-to-phase voltage were
arbitrarily chosen), the results are the same voltage relationships as shown in figure
6-4 for the solidly-grounded wye system. The differences between the ungrounded
delta system and the solidly-grounded wye system, then, are that there is no
intentional connection to ground, and that there is no phase-to-neutral driving
voltage on the ungrounded delta system. This becomes important when the effects
of a ground fault are considered. The lack of a grounded system neutral also makes
this type of system unsuitable for single-phase phase-to-neutral loads. In figure 6-7,
the effects of a single phase to ground fault are shown. The equations in figure 6-7
are not immediately practical for use, however if the fault impedance is assumed to
be zero and the system capacitive charging impedance is assumed to be much
larger than the phase impedances, these equations reduce into a workable form.
Figure 6-8 shows the resulting equations, and shows the current and voltage phase
relationships. As can be seen from figure 6-8, the net result of a ground fault on one
phase of an ungrounded delta system is a change in the system phase-to-ground
voltages. The phase-to-ground voltage on the faulted phase is zero, and the phaseto-ground voltage on the unfaulted phases are 173% of their nominal values. This
has implications for power equipment the phase-to-ground voltage rating for
equipment on an ungrounded system must be at least equal the phase-to-phase
voltage rating. This also has implications for the methods used for ground detection,
as explained later in this guide. Figure 6-6: Ungrounded Delta System winding
arrangement and voltage relationships 5 The ground currents with one phase is
faulted to ground are essentially negligible. Because of this fact, from an
operational standpoint ungrounded systems have the advantage of being able to
remain in service if one phase is faulted to ground. However, suitable ground
detection must be provided to alarm this condition (and is required in most cases by
the NEC [1] as described below). In some older facilities, it has been reported that
this type of system has remained in place for 40 years or more with one phase
grounded! This condition is not dangerous in and of itself (other than due to the
increased phase-to-ground voltage on the unfaulted phases), however if a ground
fault occurs on one of the ungrounded phases the result is a phase-to-phase fault
with its characteristic large fault current magnitude. Another important
consideration for an ungrounded system is its susceptibility to large transient
overvoltages. These can result from a resonant or near-resonant condition during
ground faults, or from arcing [2]. A resonant ground fault condition occurs when the
inductive reactance of the ground-fault path approximately equals the Figure 6-7:
Ungrounded Delta System with a ground-fault on one phase Figure 6-8: Ungrounded

Delta System simplified ground fault voltage and current relationships 6 system
capacitive reactance to ground. Arcing introduces the phenomenon of currentchopping, which can cause excessive overvoltages due to the system capacitance
to ground. The ground detection mentioned above can be accomplished through the
use of voltage transformers connected in wye-broken delta, as illustrated in figure
6-9. In figure 6-9, three ground detection lights LTA, LTB and LTC are
connected so that they indicate the A, B and C phase-to-ground voltages,
respectively. A master ground detection light LTM indicates a ground fault on any
phase. With no ground fault on the system LTA, LTB and LTB will glow dimly. If
a ground fault occurs on one phase, the light for that phase will be extinguished and
LTM will glow brightly along with the lights for the other two phases. Control relays
may be substituted for the lights if necessary. Resistor R is connected across the
broken-delta voltage transformer secondaries to minimize the possibility of
ferroresonance. Most ground detection schemes for ungrounded systems use this
system or a variant thereof. Note that the ground detection per figure 6-10 indicates
on which phase the ground fault occurs, but not where in the system the ground
fault occurs. This, along with the disadvantages of ungrounded systems due to
susceptibility to voltage transients, was the main impetus for the development of
other ground system arrangements. Modern power systems are rarely ungrounded
due to the advent of high-resistance grounded systems as discussed below.
However, older ungrounded systems are occasionally encountered. Figure 6-9: A
Ground Detection method for ungrounded systems B A C VT VT VT LT A LT B LT C LT
M GROUND FAULT LOCATION LTA LTB LTC LTM PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C NONE DIM
DIM DIM OFF OFF BRIGHT BRIGHT BRIGHT BRIGHT OFF BRIGHT BRIGHT BRIGHT
BRIGHT DIM BRIGHT R High-resistance grounded systems One ground arrangement
that has gained in popularity in recent years is the high-resistance grounding
arrangement. For low voltage systems, this arrangement typically consists of a wye
winding arrangement with the neutral connected to ground through a resistor. The
resistor is sized to allow 1-10 A to flow continuously if a ground fault occurs. This
arrangement is illustrated in figure 6-10. Figure 6-10: High-Resistance Grounded
System with no ground fault present 7 The resistor is sized to be less than or equal
to the magnitude of the system charging capacitance to ground. If the resistor is
thus sized, the high-resistance grounded system is usually not susceptible to the
large transient overvoltages that an ungrounded system can experience. The
ground resistor is usually provided with taps to allow field adjustment of the
resistance during commissioning. If no ground fault current is present, the phasor
diagram for the system is the same as for a solidly-grounded wye system, as shown
in figure 6-10. However, if a ground fault occurs on one phase the system response
is as shown in figure 6-11. As can be seen from figure 6-11, the ground fault current
is limited by the grounding resistor. If the approximation is made that ZA and ZF are
very small compared to the ground resistor resistance value R, which is a good
approximation if the fault is a bolted ground fault, then the ground fault current is
approximately equal to the phase-to-neutral voltage of the faulted phase divided by
R. The faulted phase voltage to ground in that case would be zero and the unfaulted

phase voltages to ground would be 173% of their values without a ground fault
present. This is the same phenomenon exhibited by the ungrounded system
arrangement, except that the ground fault current is larger and approximately inphase with the phase-to-neutral voltage on the faulted phase. The limitation of the
ground fault current to such a low level, along with the absence of a solidlygrounded system neutral, has the effect of making this system ground arrangement
unsuitable for single-phase line-toneutral loads. The ground fault current is not large
enough to force its removal by taking the system off-line. Therefore, the highresistance grounded system has the same operational advantage in this respect as
the ungrounded system. However, in addition to the improved voltage transient
response as discussed above, the high-resistance grounded system has the
advantage of allowing the location of a ground fault to be tracked. A typical ground
detection system for a high-resistance grounded system is illustrated in figure 6-12.
The ground resistor is shown with a tap between two resistor sections R1 and R2.
When a ground fault occurs, relay 59 (the ANSI standard for an overvoltage relay, as
discussed later in this guide) detects the increased voltage across the resistor. It
sends a signal to the control circuitry to initiate a ground fault alarm by energizing
the alarm indicator. When the operator turns the pulse control selector to the
ON position, the control circuit causes pulsing contact P to close and re-open
approximately once per second. When P closes R2 is shorted and the pulse
indicator is energized. R1 and R2 are sized so that approximately 5-7 times the
resistor continuous ground fault current flows when R2 is shorted. The result is a
pulsing ground fault current that can be detected using a clamp-on ammeter (an
analog ammeter is most convenient). By tracing the circuit with the ammeter, the
ground fault location can be determined. Once the ground fault has been removed
from the system pressing the alarm reset button will de-energize the alarm
indicator. This type of system is known as a pulsing ground detection system and is
very effective in locating ground faults, but is generally more expensive than the
ungrounded system ground fault indicator in figure 6-10. Figure 6-11: HighResistance Grounded System with a ground fault on one phase 8 For medium
voltage systems, high-resistance grounding is usually implemented using a low
voltage resistor and a neutral transformer, as shown in figure 6-13. Reactance
grounding In industrial and commercial facilities, reactance grounding is commonly
used in the neutrals of generators. In most generators, solid grounding may permit
the level of ground-fault current available from the generator to exceed the threephase value for which its windings are braced [2]. For these cases, grounding of the
generator neutral through an air-core reactance is the standard solution for lowering
the ground fault level. This reactance ideally limits the ground-fault current to the
three-phase available fault current and will allow the system to operate with phaseto-neutral loads. Low-resistance grounded systems By sizing the resistor in figure in
6-11 such that a higher ground fault current, typically 200-800 A, flows during a
ground fault a low-resistance grounded system is created. The ground fault current
is limited, but is of high enough magnitude to require its removal from the system
as quickly as possible. The low-resistance grounding arrangement is typically used

in medium voltage systems which have only 3-wire loads, such as motors, where
limiting damage to the equipment during a ground fault is important enough to
include the resistor but it is acceptable to take the system offline for a ground fault.
The low-resistance grounding arrangement is generally less expensive than the
high-resistance grounding arrangement but more expensive than a solidly grounded
system arrangement. Creating an artificial neutral in an ungrounded system In
some cases it is required to create a neutral reference for an ungrounded system.
Most instances involve existing ungrounded systems which are being upgraded to
high-resistance grounding. The existence of multiple transformers and/or deltawound generators may make the replacement of this equipment economically
unfeasible. Figure 6-12: Pulsing Ground Detection System Figure 6-13: Medium
Voltage implementation for high-resistance grounding 9 The solution is a grounding
transformer. Although several different configurations exist, by far the most popular
in commercial and industrial system is the zig-zag transformer arrangement. It uses
transformers connected as shown in figure 6-14: The zig-zag transformer will only
pass ground current. Its typical implementation on an ungrounded system, in order
to convert the system to a high-resistance grounded system, is shown in figure 615. The zig-zag transformer distributes the ground current IG equally between the
three phases. For all practical purposes the system, from a grounding standpoint,
behaves as a high-resistance grounded system. The solidly-grounded and lowresistance grounded systems can also be implemented by using a grounding
transformer, depending upon the amount of impedance connected in the neutral.
NEC system grounding requirements The National Electrical Code [1] does place
constraints on system grounding. While this guide is not intended to be a definitive
guide to all NEC requirements, several points from the NEC must be mentioned and
are based upon the basic principles stated above. As a starting point, several key
terms from the NEC need to be defined: Ground: A conducting connection, whether
intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and the earth
or to some body that serves in place of the earth. Grounded: Connected to earth or
to some body that serves in place of the earth. Figure 6-14: Zig-Zag grounding
transformer arrangement Figure 6-15: Zig-Zag grounding transformer
implementation 10 Effectively Grounded: Intentionally connected to earth through a
ground connection or connections of sufficiently low impedance and having
sufficient current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltages that may
result in undue hazards to connected equipment or to persons. Grounded
Conductor: A system or circuit conductor that is intentionally grounded. Solidly
Grounded: Connected to ground without inserting any resistor or impedance device.
Grounding Conductor: A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded
circuit of a wiring system to a grounding electrode or electrodes. Equipment
Grounding Conductor: The conductor used to connect the non-current-carrying
metal parts of equipment, raceways and other enclosures to the system grounded
conductor, grounding electrode conductor, or both, at the service equipment or at
the source of a separately-derived system. Main Bonding Jumper: The connection
between the grounded circuit conductor and the equipment grounding conductor at

the service. System Bonding Jumper: The connection between the grounded circuit
conductor and the equipment grounding conductor at a separately-derived system.
Grounding Electrode: The conductor used to connect the grounding electrode(s) to
the equipment grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, at the
service, at each building or structure where supplied by a feeder(s) or branch
circuit(s), or at the source of a separately-derived system. Grounding Electrode
Conductor: The conductor used to connect the grounding electrode(s) to the
equipment grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, at the
service, at each building or structure where supplied by a feeder(s) or branch
circuit(s), or at the source of a separately-derived system. Ground Fault: An
unintentional, electrically conducting connection between an ungrounded conductor
of an electrical circuit and the normally noncurrent-carrying conductors, metallic
enclosures, metallic raceways, metallic equipment, or earth. Ground Fault Current
Path: An electrically conductive path from the point of a ground fault on a wiring
system through normally noncurrent-carrying conductors, equipment, or the earth
to the electrical supply source. Effective Ground-Fault Current Path: An intentionally
constructed, permanent, low-impedance electrically conductive path designed and
intended to carry current under ground-fault conditions from the point of a ground
fault on a wiring system to the electrical supply source and that facilitates the
operation of the overcurrent protective device or ground fault detectors on highimpedance grounded systems. Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter: A device intended
for the protection of personnel that functions to de-energize a circuit or portion
thereof within an established period of time when a current to ground exceeds the
values established for a Class A device. FPN: Class A ground-fault circuit interrupters
trip when the current to ground has a value in the range of 4 mA to 6 mA. For
further information, see UL 943, Standard for Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters.
Ground Fault Protection of Equipment: A system intended to provide protection of
equipment from damaging line-to-ground fault currents by operating to cause a
disconnecting means to open all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit. This
protection is provided at current levels less than those required to protect
conductors from damage through the operation of a supply circuit overcurrent
device. Qualified Person: One who has the skills and knowledge related to the
construction and operation of the electrical equipment and installations and has
received safety training on the hazards involved.
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