PREIABRICATED STRUCTURES

Unit II

Part-A[2MARI(S)
1. lvhat are the types

oi

prefalrricated romponents? lMay/l\tte 2O1z'),

(Nov/DeczOlZ)

.
.
r
o
2.

Column
Beam

Roo[
Slabs

Explain the term lift-slab cotrsFuctio n. (May /l!]I.e ZOl2)

Lift slab construction is a method gfconstructing concrete buildings by casung the

floor or roofslab on top of the previous slab and then raising [.iacki4g] the slab up with
hydraulic jacks, so being cheaper and faster as not requiring boxing and supports for
casting in situ.

3.

Giv lhe elas$ification

.
.
.
.
.
.
4.

ofwa[ panels. {I.raylrune 2009)

Cellular unit
Hollow concrete block masonry unit
Soil-cement block units
Fly ash

brick

Lime soil blocks

RCC

panels

What are the tests irvolved in prefabricated compolents?

Testing on Individual Components

.
.
.
.

Strength Tests-Load Test,

Rebound Hammer,

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Measurement,

Pull-out methods

i!

S, Defitre large panel systems,

'I'he designation 'larg6.panel system,
refurs to multi-storey

strilctut*

cornposed of

hrge wall and lloor cohcrete panels connected in th vertical ard horizontal dtrections
3o that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the rooffs wltlin
a building
These panels form a boxJike structure,

6, What are the types of prehbrication ? (Mayltlll'Ile

.
7,

.
.

2O1,i3)

Light HefabricaUon
Heavy prefabrication

Define th methods ofcoirsrructioir components ofcolumn,

Precast columns can be produced as either multi-storey corbelled

colrmns or single
,oor to floor elements. They may be either prestressed or rein'furced.

ln the Melbourne

market it has been found that the single floor to fioor column is
the most ecofiomical.
Single storey reinforced columns are simple to derign,
detail a d csRs{nrt Oncc loads
and bending moments are established the design process is the
same as a standard
reinfor,ced in-situ column. Eccentric loading due to erection
requirements arld localized
affects at the top and bottom ofthe column should be
taken into account in the design.

8.

Define the methods ofconsbuction compotrents ofbeam.

Precast beam details have been developed with simplicity

and practicality in mind,
Typically they are an inverted Tee profile and are designed
as prestressed

or partially

prestressed. This type of component is designed

as continuous for imposed loads in its

6nal form, while being simply supported during the erection

phase. They are also
designed so that no propping is required during
erection of the supported floor. The
precast floor components sit directly on
the ledge of the invefted Tee.

9.

Deflne the term prefabrication Systems in prefabrication.

The word 'system' is referrecl ro a particular merhod

of constnrction of buildings
using the prefabricated components !vhich a.e lnter_related
in functions and are
produced to a set of,nstruclions. lviah certain consLraints,
several plans are possibie,

using the same set of components. The degree of flexibility varies from system to
system.
The following aspects, among others, are to be considered in devising a system:
a) Effective utilization ofspaces;
b) Straight and simple walling scheme;
c) Limited sizes and numbers ofcomponents;

d) Limited opening in bearing wa)ls;

e) Regulated locations of
f) Standardized

partitions;

seMce and stair uoits;

g) Limited sizes ofdoors and windows wit]l regulated positions;

h) Structuml clarity and efficiency;

j) Suitability for adoption in low rise and h'igh rise building

k) Ease of manufacturin& storihg and Eransporting;
m) Speed and ease oferection; and
n) Simple iointing system.

10.

What is shear wall? (NovlDec 2O1?) (Nov/Dec-2013)

Shear wall are vertical elements of

$e horizontal force resisting

system' Shear

walls are consEucted to counter the effects of lateral load acting on a structure 'ln
residential construction shear walls are straiSht external walls that typically form a
box which provides all ofthe lateral support for the buildings.

11.Write the components of prefabricated structures'

COMPONENTS

The dimensions of precast elements shall meet the dcsign requirements However' the
actual dimensions shall be the preferred dimensioI}s as follows:

a) Flooring and Roofing Scheme

Precast slabs or other precast structural flooring

units:
1) ,ergrh

2) t1lidtft

- Nominal iength shall

- Nominal width sllali

be in multiples of 1 M;

be in multiples oi 0 5 M; and

3) Overoll Thickness - Overall thic*ness shall bc in multiples of 0.11f.

b) Eedms

t)

trdn rth

2) l,yr:dth

-Nominal

length shall be

ir multiplcs

of 1 M;

Nominal width shall be in multiples of 0.1 14 at}d

3) Ovem Depth

Overall dePth ofthe floor zone shall beln multiples of0-1 M.

c) Columns
1) Herrrr,

- Height of columns for industrial building

2) Laterol Dimensions

1 M and

other building 1iV

Overall lateral dimension or diameter of columns shall bc in

muttiples of 0.1.M.

iIl Walls
Ihickness - The nominal thickness of walls shall be in multiples of O

el Staircose

l{idti - Nominal width

shall b in multiples of 1 M.

D Lintels

- Nominal length shall be in multipls of 1M;

2) Mdah - Nominal width shall be in multiples of 0.1M;
3) Deprrr - Nominaldepth shall be in mulhplesof0.l .

1) Iength

and

A sunshades/ ChaJia Prajections

l) tergtr, - Nominal length shall be in multiples oflM.
2) Projection

- Nominal length shail be in multiples of0.5M-

12.write the dimensional Tolerances. (Mayllune 2013)

lngth: [120 mm)
Width (flanges and fillets): (+10 mm, -5 mm)
Depth (overail): [+12 mm, -5 mm)

Width [web): (+10 mm, 5 mm)

Depth (flanges and fillets]i

(t5 mm)

Eearing Plates [center to centerJ: {112 mm]

lit

'

13.Give the classification

oflloorsl;b. (Mayllune 2011)

PrEcaEt concrete floors offer Significont advantagcs

in many types of buildiug

construction, They offer desigrl time and cost adyantages over other fldoring
materials. and systemt and are suitat le for use with all sbuctural systems, i.e.
concrete, masonry and steel.

>

Flat Slab

Rib and Timber tnfill

F Hollowcore
F Spaced Hollowcore
> shell Beams
) DoubleTee

15. . What are the loads acting ou wll| p.nels? {Nov/Dec'2013)

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.
.
.

Longitudinal load
Transyerse load

Wind load
Seismic load

Part-B(16MARKS]
1.

ludte the test procedure on precast compotrelts in prdabdcatlon system.

TEST$ ON PXTCAST COMPONENTS/STRUCTUBNS

All the precast urits of the same size, manufac.tured from t}le same material
under similar conditions of produition shall be grouped together to constitute a

loi

Tlie number of units to be selected from each lot for dimensional requirements shall
depend upon the size of the lot and shall t e in accordanre with Components.

Sample Size and Reiection Numtter the

ulits

shall be selected from the lot at

rafldom. In order to ensure the randomness of selestion, reference may be made

to ts 4905.

Number of Tests and Criteria for Conformity All the units selected at rardom in
accordance wit}l column 1 and 2 sfTable lshall be subjected to the dimEnsional

requirements.

A unit failing to satisry aIly ofth6 dimensional requirements shall be teimed as

defective. The

lot shall be coflsidered as conforming to the

dimensions

requirements if no defective is found in the sample, and shall be reiected if the

number of defectives is greater tha[ or equal to the nrat reiection number, If

t]e

number of defectives is less than the first reiection Dumber t}}e second sample

of the same size as takeD in the first stage shall be selected from the lot at
random and subiected to the dimensional requirements,

"

Tbe number of defectives in the first sample and the second sample shall be

combined and

if the combined

number of defectives is less than the second

rejection number, the lot shall be considered as conforming to the dimensional

requirements; otherwise {rot.'l'he lot which has been found as satisfactory wit}t
respect to the dimensional requirements shall then be tested for load

tesl For

this purpose one unit shall be selected for every 300 udts or part thereof. The
lot shall be considered as conforming to the strength requirement ifall the units
meet the requirement; otherwise not.

Testirg on Individual Components

.
.

Strength Tests'Load Test,

Rebound Hammer,

.
.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Measurement

pull-out methods

Load Test

a total load
The component should be loaded for one hour at its full span with
(including its own self weightJ of 1'25 times the sum of the dead and imposed

loads used in design.

should not show any sign of weakness' faulty

removal of
construction or excessive deflectioo. lts recoYery orle hour after the
the test load should not be less than 75 Percent of the maximum deflection

At the end of this time

it

recorded during the test.

and
tf presuessed. it should not show any visible cracks up to u'orking load
hour'
should have a recbvery ofnot less thaR 85 percent in one
Load Testing of Strudure or Part of Sfructure

Loading tst on

a completed structure should be made if required t'y the

ofthe strength ofthe

specification or ifthere is a reasonable doubt as to the adequacy
dead load of the structures
structure. Tests the structure should be subjected to futl
load used in design' for
plus an imposed load equal to 1 25 times the specified imposed
removed During the tests' Yeltial
a perigd of 24 h and then the imposed load shatl be
be placed in position leaving a
struts equal in strength to take the whole load should
gap under the member.

members plusweightof
NOTE- Dead load includes selfweightofthe structural
the design'
and walls or partitions, ifany, as considered in

finishes

reinforced concrete structure does not show

If within 24 h ofthe removal of the load, a
maximum deflection shown during the 24 h

a recovery of at least 75 percent of the

lapse of 72 h'
under load, test loading should be repeated after a
structure shall be
lf tie recovery is less than B0 percent in second test' the
deemed to be unaccePtable
does not show

structure
ll within 24 h of the removal ot the load, prestressed concrete
deflection shown during the 24 h
a recovery of at least 85 percent of the maximum
under load, the tcst loading shouid be repeated'

Thc structure should be cunsidered to have failed, if the recovery affer

the
second test is llot at hast 95 percent of the maximum
deflection shown during the
scond

test

If the maximum derlection in mm, shown during 24 h under load is

less than ,i0 I2/D
where , is the effective span in m; and D, the overall depth of the
section in mrDBebound Hamnen This is used to measure hardness at mncrete surhce, which can
be related to its strength. The instrument used is riery handy.

lllbasgnic Pulse Velocity Measuremen* The quality of concrete can be assessed by

pa$sing throuth concri:te ljla.asonic pulse aiid measuring its veloctty.
Tbe measured
values can be affected somewhat by surface texture, moisture content,
temperature
and specinen size.. but are sigDificattly affected by rei forcemenL deforinities
arld
crac.ks in concrete

Pull-out TesC for finding compressive strength of hardened concrete by correlating it

to the pulling force required to pull an embedded metal device inserted in concrere.
{&ebound Hammer, UltrasoBie P+lsc yetrocity Measurement, pull-out methods is detalls
in Maintenance and Rehabilitation of structures)

2. Classify'the stnrcture of

tle

building baged on load distiibution, (MalruDe.

2013)

The following are the main components which are fi:equendy used in our
building

.
.
.
.
.

Stab

Joist
Beams

Wall panels
Columns.

The roofing/flooring systems consisr of lic plank and

ioisL The planks are casted
to a stafldard size and they are connected with RCC
ioist which are provided at a
regular intervai. The loads from planks are transmitted to RC
ioist and then to main
beams.

proiections ou the
The main beams are provided with chanoel sections 10cm
in the channels and
necessary sides with the spacing ofioist. The roist are seated
bolted together.

Theloadsfromslabtothemainbeamswillcomeaspointloads.Atypicalframe
rrith different loadings is analfzed. The foundalion unit is the only unit which is
going to cast in site'

Slab:

flooring slab system consist of planks which are

in any one of tlle
supported over RCC joisl The planks can be made
span a[d
following form with or without prestressing' According to the

The roonng slab

loads,

.
.
.
.
.

Hollow core 3ection

Double T section

it

Channel section

LightweiSht concrete roofing slab

Solid rectanBular Planks

' Ioistr
planks' These ioisl
'
The ioists are designed as a small beam loaded ftom
transmittheloadtothemainbeamthroughthechannelsprovidedinthe
are provided to get
main beams. In this ioist a Eiangular shape stirrups
planks' The joists are casted
the proper bonding or colnection with the
stirrups will be
partially in the factory' The apex portiol of the t angular
projection a connecting
proiecting from the casted top surface ln this

rodwillt,einsertedandadditionalbarsfromplanksarealsoinserted.
plank will act as a
This will give monolithic action as well as the
continuous slab over the joist'
Beams:

of 300mm x 300mm
All the main and secondary beams are of same size
according to
various reinfbrcemenl are provided at various conditions
distance between the
the Moment. The beams a'e casted for the clear
a dePth of 10cm are provided
columns. A square ol 1ocm x 10cm hole for

ti
i.

ii

ll

ti
t:

1i

ii

ii

on either side to achieve the connection with

other beanireinfotcement

or column reinforcement by proler welding. A.fter welding

the eoncrete
has to be done ai the junction with the proper
care. At the imction of
column and beam, it is necessary to put site concreting.
For this purpose
the top ends of t}le brams are tampered properly,
so that it will give
aocess to site concrete and for t}le needle
vibrators to get proper
compaction.

Wdl panelsr
The wall panels ar casaed with all fixiDgs
like door, ventilatar, window
frames. These waII panels are nln load
bearing walls Therefore neglcct
solid rectangular cross section wall panel with
RCC Fon the yiew of
tfiermal effects and for safety the minimum of
150mm is provided
as

$.all thickness. This wall is a sandwich tJ?e, whjch

is cellular concrete
blocks of 75mm thick is sandwiched by
RCC Mzs grade mncrete to a
thickness of 37-imm on either face with
minimum reinforcemerl Since
the walls are in steel moulds there will
be no need to plaster on either
face of the wall.

folurnne
Many types of colu,Ilrts arc availabl in prefabricated
sjlstem. Grooves
are provided o, the required faces to keep
the walls in positiorl This
grooye will act as a part of columns
and since the area of column has
been increased due to ribs, will give additional
moment carrying as well
as load carrying capacity ofcolumn.
At the same timq t]Iis grooye grves a
.nild orrramental look to our building.

}. lflrite the details about large panel construction

in prefabrication components.
( GylDcc-?OlZ)
IAXCE.PAXEL SYSTEMS

F"

The designario, "rarge-panel system'' refers

to multi-storey sructures
composed of large wall :inLl floor concrete
panels connected in the vcrtlcai anrl
horizonta] directions so tla. t;e wall p..lli.ts
cn(l,,sc appropllarc spaces for
the rooms

10

within

building. These panels form a box-like structure (see Figure 3). BotI vertical

ho zontal panels resist glavity load. Wall panels are usually one story high.
Horizontal floor and roof panels span either as one-way or two-way slabs. When

and

properlyioined together, these horizontal elements act as diaphragms that tmnsfer the
lateral loads to the walls.
Depending on the wall layout, there are three basic configurations of large-panel
buildings:

Cross-wall system. The main walls that resist graYity and lateral loads are

placed in the short direction ofthe building.

Longitudinal-wall system. The walls resisting gravity and lateral loads are
placed in the longitudinal direction; usuall, there is only one longitudinal wall,
except for Ble system with two lon$tudinal walls.

. Two-way system. The waUs are placed in both directions.

il
E
]_

Figure: A Iarge-panel concrete building under construction

Panel connections represenl the key structural components in these systems'

their location within a buildin& these connections can be classified into

vertical and horizontal ioirrts. Vertical jolrfs connect the vertical faces of adjoining wall
panels and primarily resist vertical seismic shear forces. tlorizontal joints co nect the
Based on

horizontal faces of the actjoining wall and floor panels and resist both gravity and
seismic loads.
11

ln this systenl yenical rdrll panl connetrtions

are aeomplidEd by mearB of
groolre ioints, w ich consist of a
@ntiruous yoid betwen the panels with hpping
[orkontai steel and vertical tietbars
Horizontal ioint reinforcement consists
of doB,els proiected
&e bairpin hooks site-welded to the doweh;
the welded

film & Fnels

atrd

length of ttre lapped bars

depends on the bar diarDeter and the

sieel grade. Vertical
ensioo 6rces developed at the panel intIsections.

tie bns are designed for

Lateml stabiliry ofa large-panel buildirE

system tj?ical for Ronania is provided
by the oolumns
to t}le wall panels (WHE Report g3)- Boundary
etemnts (called
tdhd in Romania) are wed insaead of the mlumns as .stiffening,
elemefis at dle
qterior, as shown in FIBUTe 6.
The urity of u.all panels is ahieved by
neans of splice
ters welded to the traDs]ers reinforcerDcxrt
of adiaceDt panels in the vertical
i)ints
LotEitudinal dotvel

12

,-t

Plan ofa large-panel buildiog showing ve$ical connection details IWHE Report 32,

Kazakhstan)

1:l

Depending on the construction method, these ioints can be classified as wet and dry.

tf,ctjointj are constructed with cast-in-place cohcrete poured between the precast
gonels. To ensure smrctural continuity, protruding reinforcing bars from the panels

{dorrels) are welded looped, or otherwise connected in the ioint region before the
@Dcrete is placed- Dry joints are constructed

bi

bolting or weldiag togetler steel

!*ates or other steel inserts cast into the ends of tlle precast panels fur this purpose.

VI(d ioints more closely approximate cast-in-place constructio& whereas tlte force
lransfer in structurcs with dry joints is accomplished at discrete points.

,1,

Write tbe details about fi:ame system co[structiou

in

prefabrication

components,

Frame Systems

Precast Fames can be constructed using either linear elements or spatial beam-

column sub assemblages. Precast beam-column sub assemblages have the

advantage that the connecting hces between the sub assemblages can be placed

away from the gitical frame regions; however, linear elements are generally

preferred because of the difficulties associated with forming, handling, and

erecting spatial elements.

The use of linear elemertts ge[erally means placing the connectin8 fuces at th
beam-column iunctions, The beams can be seated on corbels at the columnt for
ease of

consruction and to aid tfie sbear transfer from the beam to the column'

The beam-column ioints accomplished in this rrray are hinged. However, rigid

beam-column connections are used

in

some cases, when the continuity of

longitudinal reinforcement through the beam-colurnn ioint needs to be ensured'

The space frame is constructed using two main modular elements: a cruciform
etement and a linear beam element (Figure 8). The cruciform element consists

ofthe tmnsverse hame ioint with halfofthe adiacertbeam and column lengths.
The longitudinal frames are constrllcted by installing the precast beam
elenents in betlveen lhe transverse frame ioints. The precast elements are

14

ioined by welding the proiected reinforcement bars {dowels) and casung the
concrete in place. Joints between the cruciform elements

trr*6..4*a.fittB

lr
i'tI

:
1
; /-'
=L=
-

il

1"

1."'1

.'

rale,rrt l9/$! tiNnr

{!r,

1..-r

,}r.lI,t

Figu;e 8: A perspective dmwing showing cruciform and linear units (WHE Report 33,

Kyrgzstar)
t

ir
,!
11

L;l)'

,I
,.,

i.,
ll-i.!r i

'-.'l

-'l

-^o'

Figure 9: Hollow-core precast slab (WHE Report 33, Kyrgyzstan)are located at the mid-

span

of

beams arld columns, whereas the longitudinal precast beam-columR

connec ons are located close to the columnsHollow-core precast slabs are commonly used for floor and roofstructures iIl this type
olcoostruction, as shown in ligirre

q.
15

f-driie tdtd.L
?. AC

rsndq

},nC gidrr,

+Etb"@Iht'
t RC Arfhals,
6 RC ..ft S'
a ICSa&k-

frGuvE:

Co

ponents ofa precast reinfurced c{xrcliete fiame system

Solumn

Systems

wi6

Shear Waf ls

l}cse systerns rely on shear walls to sustain

lateral load effects' rvherE tle

slab-

'lhere are two main systems in this

cerhnn structure resists mainly SraYity loads
ea&8orjt

.
.

Lift-slab system with u'alls

Prestressed slab-col$mn syste"l

reinforced concrete eolomns aRd

The load-bearing structure consists of precast

gabsPrecastcolumnsareusuallytwostorieshigh.Allprecaststrucklra}elcrireDts
are assembled by means of special

poured on
ioints Reinforced concrete slabs are

tle ground in forms, one on top ofthe other'

groun'l up to the final heiSht by tifting
Concrete floor slabs are litted from the
cra$es.

16

The slab panels are lifted to the top of the column and then moved downwards to

the final position. Temporary supports are used to keep the slabs in the position
unul the connection

witl

the columns has been achieved.

In the connections, the steel bars (dowels) that projcct from the edges of the.
slabs are welded to the dowels of the adjacent components and transverse
reinforcement bars are installed

in

place. The connections are then nlled with

concrele that is poured at the site.

Another type of precast system is a slab-column system that uses horizontal

preshessi

g in two orthogonal directions to

achieve continuity. The precast

concrete column elements are L to 3 stories high. The reinforced concrele floor slabs

fit the clear span between columns. After erecting the slabs and columns ofa story,
the columns and flbor slabs are prestressed by means of prestressing teldons that
pass through ducts in the columns at the flooi level and along the gaps left between

adiacent slabs.

After prestressing, the gaps between the slabs are filled with in situ concrete
and the tendons then become bonded with the spans. Seismic loads are resisted

fiiainly by the shear walls (precast or cast-in-place) positioned between the columns

al
l1

at appropriate locations.

This technology has been used in Yugoslayia dsring the last 40 years under the

proprietary name, "lMS Building System," and it can be found in all major Yugoslav
cities, including Belgrade, Novi Sad, Nis, and in other countries, such as Cuba, the
Philippines, and Egypt.

5. Explain the methods of construction components of column, beam and

floor

slab- [Mayllune 2012)

1. Columu:

Precast columns can be produced as either multi-storey corbelled columns or

single floor to floor elements. They may be either prestressed or reinforced. [n

the Melbourne market it has been lound that the single floor to floor column is

the most economical. Single storey reinforced columns are simple to design,
detail and construct. Once loads and berding momerlts are estabiished the

'l/

i:

design process is the same as a standard reinForced in-situ cadumll. Eccentric

leading due to erection requirements and locali"ed effects at the top and bottom
of the column should be

takel into account in t]e desigrl

Erka reinforcement is usually provided at the top and bottom of the columq
these additional ties act as antt-splitting reinforcement Othf important hctors

EIat mu6t be csffiidered in designing inalude the required beam bearing on the
column. When considering this bearing area, it must be remembered that due to

the corner chamfer and tracking rod to dam rhe high flow gmut, approximately
30 to 40 mm is lost around th perimeter.

The trase connection is generally anallzed as a pill ioint and due to connection

delails drc columns te;d to be conservatively sized, manuhciured with high

strength concrete, and reinfomement typically timited to four corner bars witll
Dominal ties. This approach results in extrerne[, simple co lporents that can

"asily

be mass produced-

'1.

t:l

2,kms:
. Precast beam details have beea developed with simplicity and practicality

in

Eltnd. Typicauy they are an inverted Tee profile and are designed as prestressed

{r

partially

prestressed. This tvpe of component is designed as continuous for imposed

hcads

in its final form, while being simply supported during the erection

phase_

T'hey are aiso designed so that no propping is required during erection of the

supporied floor.
The precast floor components sit directly on the ledge oi the invefted Tee. With

l-looi ro floor hcighr columns rhe bearns JrE .rblc to srt CI e(tly on top ol the
18

columns. Dowels pron uding from the columns

pass through ducts within the

end of tJle beams to provide the pin joined connection.

This allows the connection between beams and columns to be very simple and

eliminate the need for difficult corbelled or mechanlcal shear type connections.

one of the most critical design cases for the beams and the beam to coluFn
connection is the design for torsion loading. During the erection phase

it

is

inevitable that at some stage the beam will be loaded on only one side causing
the beam to

rollE

on the column Particularly if the column is narrower than the

beam.

The beam column conneclion n1!$ tte designed and detailed to lcgis! this
torsional load. \ryhile the use of this type of one way skeletal structure is a very
simple and effective method of construction, it does require a slighdy ilcreased

overall beam depth compared to slim line profiled treams or a traditional band
beam system.

The end result is Senerally that

it is more economical to increase the overall

building height than to reduce beam depths.

3. Precast Floor syslems:

There are numerous precast flooring components to choose from, including:

Hollow core slabs,Composite Beam

Siab (Ultra floor

/ l ransfloor)

Composite

Prestressed Planks (Mini Slabs) Single and Double Tee components Although
interchangeable, to some extent, each of these forms of flooring has a n optim

span range. This optimum range depends not only on direct cost but indirect
costs such as al1y requirernents for temporary propping during erection and the

19

Dethod of support or connection to beams, The skeletal hame systems,

discussed in this paper, are based on the use of hollorry core slabs.

fiese slabs are prerirst,

prestressed concrete units

with continuous

voids

furmed to reduce weighL and In tur& cosl Hollow core slabs are Datruhctured

on long line casting beds (over 100 metres in length) and saw cut to the
rquired length after curin&
There are two distinct manufacturing methods. A dry cast extrusion system in

which a very Iow sump corcrete is forced, or extruded through a machine or a

wet mix method in which a higher sump concrete is poured

ir

two or more

layers by a marhine similar to a latgc kerb and chaffiel machine.

trEAI4 POSITIONING ON COLUMNS

Using these sophisticated manufacturing systemq hollcw core slabs are highly

cmcient arld due to the optimized pro6les, are able to achieve span to depth ratios that
sther methods cannot compete with. While hollow core

Mdbourne, as

ulits

have multiple uses in

wall panels, spandrel panels and bridge deck units, they

are

predouinandy used as Boor or mof deck systems Hollow core slabs are generally
dsigned as simply supported, as it is more economical to provide all the strength in
the positive moment area than to generate both positive and negative moment
rdpacity.

Shear capa.ity can become a critical case where high negative moments are
activated. ln these instances one or more cores may need to be opened and filled with
cqncrete.

Cantiievers can be achieved up to normal span to

depti ratios by the simple

addition of top strands. To tie the structure together and hetp provide diaphragm
aetion in the floor system hollow core siabs are usually topped with a structural screed.
The optimum thickness of the screed is about 60mm. The prestress induced hog
in the slabs needs to be taken into account in setting the thickness

?o

:ii,
PRECAST COLUMN TO BASE CONNECTION BY ANCHOR BOLTS

!\
i!

({$

rrl?r li*

vh*

G$! rnlon

2l

HP
l..a

-trmltr

nEarat[ Gitft

fi m cmlmx col{I{Emx}t{

7A

BY WELDED sTEff,

Etnn G mlxl

tr

PRECAST COLUMIIT TO COLUMN CONNECTTON BY BOLTS

I
l

mm
i
I
I

i
I

ffi

e'

l_l,
I

i'

i,t,t

BEAM To BEAM coNNECTIoN ToR coMPosITE AcTtoN BY WELDING

I

e4. un! ikurr.,ollr

t\
\\
\l\t
1

mri m rreu con*rcnorswrru

xoriHnp sEAu

t$l E'
IOi'TTS BTTWEEN INTERNAL

&

24

EnDs -

DTTERNAL WALL PITNELS

1
J

I
I

VEf,TICAL IOINTS BETWEEN INTERNAL WATL PANELS

-.ti
BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTION BY STEEL BEARING PI.ATES

-'1I
I

l:.

;-=q

F-_=.ffi5<

t,
J1

t1
\\
\\

\t

BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTION BY STEEL COVERED FACES

25

*A't

'o

O,EIX

T}?.I[XTS

_l

--t
COITXECTION BY TTE NODS OR

HIGI IEffiNE

'AXr

Bf,TWEEN HOLLOW CORE SUIB

I
I

oEIALS

AI q

I
l

6. Give some examples for indush.ial strnctures

related in prefabricatiol

stlTctures, (MaylJune 2009)

IndnsFial Structures

Prefabricatiotr Systems and SFuctural Schemes

The word ,system, is referred to a particular

methoa

oi construction of

buildings using the prefabricated.components

which are inter-related in functions and
are produced to a set of instructions. With
certain constraints, several plans are
possible, using the same set of components.
The degree of flexibility varies from
system to system.
However, in all the systems there is a certain
order and discipline.

The following aspects, among others, are to

be considered in devisinga system:
a) Effective utilization ofspaces;
b) Suaight and simple walling scheme;

c] Limited sizes and numbers ofcomponents;

d) Limited opening in bearing walls;
e] Regulated locations of partitions;
D Siandardized seryice and stair units;

g) Limited sizes ofdoors and windows

with regulated positions;
hJ Structural clarity and efliciency;

i) Suitability for adoprion in iow rise and high rise building;

k] Ease of manulactu ri ng, storing and transporting;

.a/

ra] Speed and ease of erection; and

n) Simpl }oirung sYstem.

COXPONEITTS

Thc dimensions of precast elements shall meet tbe desi8n rcquitEsstls

ndrever, the actual dlmensions shall be the preferred dirnensioBs as fttlotifs

a\

Fboring and Roofog.tciene

Precast stabs or other precast slrucural

BGirE

ryrits:
1)

'l
reDrti - Nominal length shatl be in muldples of l';

- Nominal width shall be iD rtrultiptes of 0'5 M; and

3) Overult Thicknd5tr - Overall &ickness shatl be in multipts of o1U'

2) widra

hI ffearrs
1)

,e/lgu -Nomind length shall be in multip]es of 1 M;

2) Widri

3)

Nominal widtlr shall be in rnultiples of 0 1 M; and

ove,:fltt Depth

'

Averall depth of the floor zone shall be in mphiples ot 0'1

c\ Columnt

ltr

- Height of mlumns for industrial building I li and oiber building x"

2) Laterat Dimensions- Overall lateral dimension or diameis of olumr CnO
1) Heigrrt

be in multiples

of0.1 [L

d) WaIIs
Thickness
E')

- The nominal thickness

of walls shall be in

mEltipks of0-1l'-

Stoircase

w.dri - Nominal width shall be in mlhiples of 1 M'

fr

Lintels
1) f,e,gth - Nominal length shall be in multiples of 1M;

2l Mdtr, - Nominal width shall be in multiples of 0 1M; and

3) Depti - Nominal depth shail be in muitiples of0'1MgJ

Sunshades/ Chaija Proiections

1l Lengt r - Nominal length shall be i$ multiples of 1'7'

2) Proiection - Nominal length shall

be in multipies of

Prefabrication SYstems
28

0'5i''

TIiC system oF preEbn-cated

ion$ruitiori +enils ul ihe exient of thC usc of

prefabricated components, their matefials, sizes and the technique adopted for &eir
maBufacturcand use in building.
Ty p es

of P r efo h ri co ti o$aupoh

I
e n t-s

The prefatrricated concrete components such as those given below may be used

which shall be in accordance with releyant Indian Standards, wbere available.

a) Reinforced/Prestressed colcrete channe] unit

b) Reinforced/prestressed concrete slab unit

c) Reinforced/prestressed concrete beams
l

d) Reinforced/prestressed concrete columns

g) Reinforced/presFessed concrete wall elements

I
I
I
t
I
I
I

h) Hollow/Solid blocks and battens

I
I

e) Reinforced/prestressed concrete hollow core slab

0 Reinforced concrete waffle slab/shells

i) Precast plank and joists for flooring and roofing

kl Precastioists and trussed girders

ii

m) Light weight/cetlular concrete slabs

tl

n) Precast lintel and chaijas

pl Large panel prefabricates

'i

qJ Reinforced/prestressed concrete trusses

rJ Reinforced/prestressed roof purlins

s) Precast concrete L-panel uoit

t) Prefabricated brick panel urit

u) Prefabricated sandwich concrete panel, and

v) Precast foundation.

There may be other types of components which may be used with the approval of the

Authority.
NO'l E - The elements may be cast at the site or offthe site.

There are two categories of open prelab system depelldir}g on the extent of
prefabrication used in the construction

as given
2()

in a ard b.

Po*ial prefabricotiort sYstem

aJ

aDd otler
This system baskdly uses precast mofiqg and nooring components
construcdon
Erinor elements like lintelt charias, ldtclten sills in conventional building
or load bearing walls
The strudural system could be in the form of tll-srtu fEmework

bl

Fult prcIobricqtion sqstem

The finer walls

lfl this system almost a)l th struf,aral components are prefab cated
ilable material'
may be of brick/block masonry or of any ot}er locally a

cl Lorye Panel Prelobricotion System

Tte components
This system is based on the use.of large prehl' components'
balco'ies' staircases' ete
Dsed are precast concrete larBc panels for wallq floort roofs,
upon the
Tte casting of the coriponenls boutd be at the site or off the site' Defirding
partial prtf'b sy$em and
extent of prefubrication, this system can also lend itself to
ftrll prefub system.

PTecast Wall

l.lBasedonthestructuralfunctionsofthewalls,theprecastwallsmaybeclassified
as:

a) Load bearingwalls,

b) Non-load bearing walls, and

c) Shear walls.

1.2 Based on construction, the precast walls maybe classified a5:

a) Homogeneous Walls - which could be solid, hollow or ribbed; and
b') Non-Ilomogeneaus lryolls

- tlese

could be composite or sandwich panels'

l.3Basedontheirlocationsandfunctionalrequiremeltstheplecastwallsmayalso
dassified as:

which may be load bearing or non-load bearing depending upon the

impart better
lay-out; these are usually non-homogeneous walls ofsandwiched type to

aJ External walls,

drermal comlorts; and

etc;
b) lnternal walls p.oviding resistance against vertical loads, horizorlt:ll loads' frre'
these are normally homogeneglls walls.

30

2 Precast floors
Depending upon the composition

of units, precast flooring units may be

homogeneous or non-homogeneous

a) Homogeneous floors may be solid slabs, cored slabs, ribbed or waffle,slabs

bl

Non-homogeneous floors may be muiti-layered ones

with combinations of light

weight concrete or reinforced/prestressed concrete, with hller blocks.

Depending upon the way the loads are transferred, the precast floors may be
classified as one way or two way systems:

a) One way system transfers loads to supporting members in one direction only. The

precast elements which come under this category are channel slabs, hollow core slabs,
channels and ties system, light wight/cellular concrete slabs, etc.

bl Two way systems transfer loads in bdth the directions imparting loads on the foui
edges. The precast elements under this category are room sized panels, two way ibbed

or waffle slab systems, etc.

3 Staircase systems
Staircase system may colsist of single flights with in-built risers and treads in

the element. The flights are normally unidirectional transferring the loads
supporting landing slabs or load bearing

,o

walls

4 Box TYPe Constructions

In this system, room size units are prefabricated and erected at site. Toilet and
kitchen blocks could also be similarly prefabricated and erected at site.

N0II -'l'his

sysrcm derives its stability and stiflness from the box units which are

iurrned by four adi (icnt wails. Walls are iointod to make rigid conflections among
thcnrselvcs-'l'hc box unit rests on toundrlion which may be of convent'onal type or
precast lYPe.

: i!

write the details about Prefabricatio[ Building Methodologies for Low

Cost Housing.

Prefabrication Buitding Methodotogies for Low Cost Housing

l:oundations
Various lypes oflilundiltiors normally adoplccl arc:

Ii) 0pen f0(nditrior]s.

[ii) llib loLLnLlltioris

Iiii)

Coluntrrs nrrd lotttltrgs.

Iiv] ll(iC ralt iourt(li!l iort

and
LoIrvctltior].ll llrt Llir)Js tlsinll in siLll lcrl'rliqLtcs arc lbLr11d to be cconomical
oi low rise
tnorc plitcli(rl [)r ]ir'"! i1)5t ltousitlg ol slLrrrrs r'vlticll gcncrally consists
loun'lations
sll rtl1urei,. 1u scl:ilil ( 11, ' ,irlt, sp(lci,ll ilti'illi'rl is l'rclltirod Lo makc lhc

continuous using horizontal reinforcement. Prefabrication is not recommended for

foundations in normal situations.

Walls
In the construction of wallg rammed earth, normal brick, soil cement blocks,
hollow clay blocks, dense concrete blocks, small, medium and room size panels etc of
different sizes are used. However, bricks continue to be the backbon of the building
industry. In actual construction, the number ofthe bricks or blocks that are broken into

different sizes to fit into position at site is very large. As a result of this, there is
wastage of material and the quality of construction also suffers. Increasing the size of

wall blocks will prove economical.due to greater speed and less mortar consumption,

which can be achieved by producing low density bigger size wall blocks and
advantages ofindustrial wastes like blast furnace slag and fly ash can be made.

Several prefabrication tcchniques have heen developed arrd execu[ed for walls but
these mcdium and large panel techniques have not proved economical for low rise
buildings as compared to traditional brick work.

Floor and Roof

Structural floors/roofs account for substantial cost of a bui]ding in normal

situation, Therefore, any savings achieved in floor/ roof considerably reduces the cost

of buildings. 'fraditional

cast in-situ concrete roof involve

the use of temporary

shuttering which adds to the cost of construction and time. Use of standardized and
optimized roofing components whcrc shuttering is avoided prove to be economical,

fast and bcttcr

ir

quality. Somc of the prcfabricated roofing/flooring components

found suitablc in rrany low cost housing proiects are:

(i) Precast

RC

planl(s.

{ii} Prccasl. hollow concrete paDels(iii) Precast RIt parrcls.

(iv) Prec.rsi Iilll r:irrved pancls.
{v) Preca!t aoncrctc/fcrroccl)ra11L pan.ls.

Ivi) Prec;rsl

I1(:

(]1.r)ncl uDits.

34

7, Explain in detail about the behaviour and construction of roof and floor slab.

[May/lune 2009) (May /lute-2072)(Nov/Dec-z013)

Roofins members:
Roofing nrembers cau be divided iDto two groups, short span and long span
roofing members. The short span members rest on purlia, while long span ones are
directly supported tly the mairI girders.

The short span roofing members are the reinforced planks made of porous
hollow tiles, light weight concrete; roofing materials and sma]l reinforced concrete
rooiing members will be dealt with here.
a) Reinforced planks made ofporous hollow tiles:

The roofing members consist of porous tiles having longitudinal circular holes.
Reinforced porous tiled planks having a length of 2.3m, thickness of 6 to 10cm and
a

width of 20cm can be produced. Ofthese tiles, two kinds exist.

'Ihe first kind is heat insulating and has a unit weight of 750 kg/m3,the second
kind is load bearing, its unit weight is 1100 kg/m3,this is used fbr production of
reinforced planks.
'l'he disadvantage of using the porous hollow tiles in question for roof covering

is that the material of the latter is highly moisture absorbing and therefore not

frost resistant.'lhus the roof cover should protect from moisture and hence it
should be rough rendered with lime cement mortar.

b) Light weight concrete roofing memt ers:

l,ight weight concrete roofing mcrnbers play a role, in addition to

space

bordcring and load bearing, in hcat insul.rting and so the appiication oI a separate
Ir{

-t rnirrlirtrng

,,ryL

i. nut i'((s5.rry.

l,igtrr woight corrrclc roofing mcrnber-s can only bc applicd

if

there is

possit)iliLy ol their rriilorl(rnrclll. It reqLrircs n bond bctaveen thestcel andthelight

wciLillt concrcLe for cnsrlring Lhc lransrrrission ol the tensile lb.ce acting in stcel

barstolheconcrelc'.vitlr Lhostecl b;r|s

s1rdrtr1l;

hc

ce

itis

necessary to protect the

r"{rlrlrrc(:nlcnt iriliriir.il i L)r'r'osion.

l;ro r thc vio,.1,s

po l 1Jl strcnglll

liShl r:oncrctcs of thc quality L(170 or LClU00

it1r Lluitc suitaL)l!r oli llr,r irl1)ducli{Jn ol r'oolr)ll lllembcrs with a r0clangular c/s and

a thickness off 7.5-25cm, members

is

750kg/m3.They have a width of 50cm

thickncss of 7.5-25cm and a lengrl of 1.75-6.00m. The unit weight ofthe member is
100Kg/m3.
c) small reinforced concrete roofing members:

The small reinforced concrete roofing members is essentially a precast simply

supported, dbbed reinforced concrete slat. A rib and block slat) is composed of
rectangular shaped precast concrete reinforccd or prcstressed ribs supporting
rebated filler blocks placed between two ribs. This system is sometimes referred to

block or beam and block. [n - situ concrete is poured between and

over the blocks. Slat depths vary foom 170mm to 380mm with clear span upto
as planks and

10m.

d) Large reinforced concrete roofing members:

The large reinforced concrete roofing members resting directiy on the main
girders of the structures represents more advanced kind of precast roofing
members. These members are manufactured

in a length

spacing of the frames (6-10m). Their width is 1.30m

corresponding to the

to 1.80m. They are directly

supported by the main girders so that purlins are not required.

Flooring membersr
In industrial buildings the use ofthe prefab members, for floor consist of
precast joist and f'looring memheis.

'[he flooring members a.c designcd for

a span of 9m and for the bearing

of a live load of 100okg/m7. Aftcl thc memhers are placed in final position a
longitudinal load bearing reinforccment and stirrups are pJaced in the trough
formcd bctween thc longitudinirl ribs of the adiacen[ members. Continuous mesh
reinfo.cement is placed on thc top of thesc members; therc after a 5cm thick insitu
concretc liryer is cast on lhc loD ol thc lrembers and the rrough berween lhe
corirrcle- ln this way ihe sl.rb rs preformcd
Iongihrdinrl .ibs are also lill.(l rrp
^'ilh
,ls ;l continrrous slnb.
r\ prcill-essed llor;r',rl: r,li llbcr' 1'r I span ol 60'n a:ld live lo;rd of
!L)001{g/rll' .nJ !treight of 145{-llr! ir

\^'i(lr

'r rf i''rl

Flooring members

to be used for smaller loads similarly to

roofing

members can also be made of light weight concrete. These members are used
chiefly in houses and public buildings. The weight of the flooring members should
not exceed 5 tons otherwise the storage and transportation as well as the placing of
these memhers using the present availahle

B.

Explain the conatrEction ofprecast

RC

eq ilments would

be dimcult.

ioist and brick panel stab/roof

The system consists oF

.
.
.

Prefab Llrick panels.

Partially precast

joists.

l'oppinS/screedconcrete.

Prefab brick

RC

l
l

panels

Bricks confirming to IS: 2180 and hayiltg (ompressive strength >40 N/mm2 to
be used.

Length: Maximum panel length to be 1.2 m. For further economisingyour

structure, panel length to be decreased to 0.9 m.

Width: to be 530 mm fol conyentioral burnr clay

br ieks

(230x110x75)-tand

450

mm for panel ofmodular bricks {190x110x75)

Longitudinal ioints: thickness to bc 40 mm to accommodate 6 dia rebar with

adequatc covcr.

Transvelse ioints: thickncrss to be 15,30 mm dcpending on the brick size.

Partially precast

IIC

ioist

The joisL sh.rll be desigrrL,d

ls

compositc 'l:beam with 35 mm thick flange

coocrete.

.
.

hc widLlr ol Lhc jrrist shilil support t\,vo succcssive spaIls of bricl( panels.

Width: rninrnudl

1:10 nrrn, rvhich can

,lrUi1(l .rl l,'r'nt!lll

3/

bt illcl'eilsed

as per

rcquired for

Depthr minimum 100 mm for

roist span upto 4200 mm'

Reinforcement bars

for
Precast Brick panel: Reinforcement conforming to IS: 432 to tre used
desi8ning the panel. Conventionally for brick panels, 2 bars of6
mm embedded in the longitudinal ioints'

for
PrecastRC ioist: Reinforcement conforming to ISr 14142 to be used
design,ng the ioist.

joist rebars to
cover: minimum 15 mm for the brick panel and 25 mm for
be maintained.

Moulds for precast elements

small
Mould to be made on site ofseasoned good quality timber for
applications.

which are non

For mass housing projects, it is recommended to have steel/FRP
time
absorbents and non-corrodible materials These also saves the fabrication
and construction time is shortened'

PRECAST R.C. PLANK FLOORING/ROOFING SCHEMS

The scheme consists of precasl

R.C.C

planks supported over partially precast

joists. 0]gurcll This scheme has been succcsslully adopted' in a iarge number of
and also
resi.iential buildings in different parts ol rhe country by various organizations

R.C.C.

for industrial sheds and school buildings wiih primary and secondary beams'
Elements of trloor/ rooF Thc floor/ rool con\^ists precast RCC' Planks' (ii)

I).rrtially Prec.lst l1C.c. ,oists.

and [iiil

Primary and sccondary beams lor large cover

joists with insiLu

spaces. Prccast RC lrlanks To provide thc'lec'i)oanr cffect with the
wide
.oncrelc, the pirnk fIigure 2) is ntaclc pilrtly:l r:nr errd p;rrtly 6 cm thick A 1ocm

[iilng is also ol_{)vir]c(l lin'strcngL l('nii',1 thc haunch Porlion oF the

Lrrit (1ur'inB lr.rrdltrii{ iinci cl'cair-i!r]. l'h. plan( rj 'r rd" llp to M 15 !ira(le ccmenl

trrporerl cor:crL'

concrete reinforcement with m. s, bars .Width is usually 3Ocm. Length

may vary up ro a
maximum of 150cm. One 30x 1Socm plank weighs about 150kg and can
be handled
manually, Partially Precast R.C.C. Joists: It is usually of square section lScm wide
and
15 cm deep with stirups projecting out so that the overall depth of the joists with

insitu concretc is 21cm.lt is designed as compositc Tee_lrearrl with 6cm thick llange
comprising of 3cm precast and 3 cm insitu concrete. This section calr be adopted upto
4m.span.

Casting and Curing R. C. Plauk

Ilner

sides of the mould that come

in contact with

concrete are oiled, the

members assembled and placed on a casting platform having either mould oil applied

or wrinkle free paper or G.l sheet spread, to cover the bottom surface

oT

the plank

including the mould. Reinforcement cage with mortar cover of 15mm is placed inside
the mould and M-15 cement concrete with 10mm and downgraded aggregate is poured
to a depth such that after compaction with piate yibrator, it beconies 3cm. The upper
side ofthe longitudinal members ofthe nlould are put in position and the two tapering
members are also then placed over the mould M-15 concrete is then poured

in

the

middle and the sides and compaction again carried out of plate vibrator. Conqete is
finished level with the mould and the top surface, made rough by trowel marking. Half
an hour after casting, the cwo tapering members are lifted off and cleaned for reuse for

turther casting. Two hours after casting, dcpending upon weather, the nuts are opened
and the sides of the frame are |crnoved by lighting tamping and sliding away. The unit

thus cast is first slid, by push .lftcr 24 ro 30 hours and then tilted through 900 long
edgcs. It is transpo.ted in vi:rlical posiLion and sfaci{ed against a support in the same
position fbr curinS by spriDhling water ibr 14 days. It is air cured for another 14 days
befrrre bcing laid

ir lloor./ rool.

9. Ilxplain iD dctail about illrpor.tance aod types ot shear waU.{May/June-2009)

llclinitiotr:
Shclrr'rv,rli .lr(r vcrlicill .'llrrrcdLs ol Lltc hoiizojlt,ll forcc rosi:jLtnB system. Shcar
\l.rlls^ a|c

(o

!lrLlctcd to crrLIitcr'lltc cllccts

ol

ltrLcl rl !oart

acti g

a structure.ln

residential construction shear walls are sraight external walls that typically form a
box which provides all ofthe Iateral support for the buildings.

Importanee of shear wall:

when shear walls are designed and constructed properly, and they will have the
strength and stiffness to resist the horizontal forces. In building construction, a rigid

yertical diaphragm capable of transforming lateral forces from exterior walls floors
and roofs to the ground foundation in a direction parallel to their planes.

Lateral forces caused by wind, earthquake and uneven settlement loads, in

addition to the weight of structure and occupants, create powerful twisting forces.
These forces can literally shear a building apart. Reinforcing a frame by attaching or
placing a rigid wall inside it maintains their shape of the frame and prevents rotation at
the joints. Shear walls are especially

inportant ilr high l ise building sutjected to lateral

wind and seismic forces.

Purpose of constructing shear walls:

Shear walls are not only designed to resist gravity or vertical loads (due to self

wt and other living moving loads), but they are also designed for lateral loads of

eafthquake/wind. The walls are structurally integrated with roofs/floors and

other laterals running across at right anglcs, thereby giving the three
dimensional stability for the buil(ling structure.

Shear wall structural systems are stable, because their supporting area with
rcference to total plan area of building is comparativ{rly more, unlike in the case
oIRCC fra med structures.

Walls have to lcsist the uplift filrccs causcd by the pull ofwinds. Walls have to

rcsist thc shcar forccs th;rl Lry tr) push the walls ovcr-. Walls havc to rcsist the

lileral ft)r(]c ol rhe wind that tricr to push thc ! /.lis in and
thc burldini:

40

l'rull

thcn away tiom

Comparison ofshear wall with construction ofconventional load bearing wallsl

Load bearing masonry wall is very brittle material. Due to different kinds of
stresses such as shear, tensile etc, caused by earthquakes,

it collapses instantly during

the unpredictable and sudalen earthquakes.

0n the other hand even moderately designed shear wall structures not only
more stable, but also comparatively quite ductile. In safety terms it means that, during
yery severe earthquakes they

will not suddenly collapse causing death of people. They

give enough indicative warnings such as widening structural cracks, yielding rods etc,

offering most precious moments for people to run out off the structures before they
totally collapse.
Forces on shear wall:
Shear wall resist two tyPes ol torces,

a) Shear forces

b) Uplift forces

a) Shcar forccr
Shear forces are generated in stationary buildings by accelerations resulting

from ground. 'fhis action creates shear forces throughout

tie

height of the wall

between the top and bottom shear wall connection

b) Uplift forces:
Uplift forces exist on shear walls because the horizontal forces are applied to the
top of the wall. fhese uplift fbrces lry lo lift up one end of the wall and push the other

cnd down. In soDrc cases lhe uplift li)rce is large cnough to tip the wall over' Uplift
fbrccs arc BroJlcr or1 tall short walls .lnd lcss on low long walls. Bearing walls have less
uplift. Shcar wJlls oced hold down dcviccs at cach cnd When the gravity loads cannot

rosist all ol Lhc uplilt.'llte hold down device thcn provides the necessary uplift
rcsistancc.

41

Types ofshear walls:

.l2.
3.
4.
5.

RC shear

wall

Plywood shearwall
Mid plyshear wall
RC

hollow concrete block masonry wall

steel plate shear wall.

1. RC shear

It

wall:

consist

of reinforced concrete walls and reinforced concrete

slabs. Wall

thickness varies from 140mm to 500mm, depending on the number of stories,

building age, and thermal insulation. In general these walls are continuous
throughout the building height, however some walls are discontinued as the
street front or basement level to allow for commercial or parking spaces.

Floor slabs are either cast in-situ flat slabs or less often, precast hollow
core slabs. Buildings are suppofted by concrete strips ol' mat foundation, the
later type is common for buildings with basemenL

Plywood Shear wall:

Plywood is the traditional material used in the construction of shear walls. The

creation of prefallricated shear panels have made

it

possible to iniect strong

shcar assemblies into small walls that fall at cither side of a opening in a shear

wall. Plylvood shear wall consists of

.
.

Pl,lr'vood, to tlansfer shear force

Chords, to rcsists tension or compression generated by the

overturning moments

llase connection, to transfer sheaa k) foundation

3. Midply Shea. wallr

1'hc midpl5, slrear wall is an improved timber shear \,1all that was devclopcd by

rcdesigninlj the loints bctwr:cn rlrcrrllnf, Jn(l lr.lmrnI memhlrrs. co lh,rt the
failur{: mo(la r)bserrcd in staird.lr(1 wall lcstitlg arL- vtatllillly eliminalrl.l ii l,rtcral
loud l1'vei I l ,,t ' tli,L.r'ir to ca!i'rar l.rLrLll{r in stalral.r'lrv:rll-

4)

4. RC hollow concl-ete block urasonry walls:

'l hcse

walls are constructcd by reinibrcing th(] hollow concrete block masonry

by taking advantage of hollow space and shapes ofthe hollow blocks. It requires

continuous stecl rods Lroth

in thc vertical and horizontal

direction at

sffucturally critical locanon oi the wall panels, packecl with fresh grout concrcte
in the hollow space ol mason.y blocks.
RHCIJM elemcnts designed both as load i.:earing walis for grayiry loads and
also
as shcar walis

5. Steel plate shear

fbr latcral seismic loads to safcly withstand earthquakes.

wall:

In gellcrll stcel platc :,-hear w.lil sysLcm cotrsisrs of a stecl plate wall, boundary
columns al1d horizontal floor bcams. 'lbgether the steel plate wall and boundary
columns act as a vertjcal plate girdcr.'l he columns act as a flaoge ofthe vertical
plate girder and thc steel platc wall ;lcl.as its wcb.'the horizontal floor bcam
acls ml)fc or lcsr, as transversc stilfencr in thc lrlirtc Eirdcr. Steel plate slleal.
wall systcrn iias been usod iil rcccnl ycars in high sei..jmic iu-eas to resist lateral
loads.

10. What al.e erection stlessc's? How are ihey elimiuated or reduced?
Strcsscs dcvolopin8 in rncrnbcrs durillg hoisting and placing differ from those

arising in thcir Iin.ri positiotl. Owiirg to [his addirional rciIribrcement would be

rcquircd which ali(,r thc placirig is fi[ishcd, bccolnes Luucccssary. 'l'he additional
sresses as wcll as llic rcillforc{]irlr

l-

rcquirod [o Rsist thcm should be e]iminated.'l'he

mcthod will rlilli,r' l.r' cilult iriilivrLlual plobl(.nr.

The simplest solution

for the climinatiorl of c.ection strcsses and

surplus

reinforccment connccted with thc Iatter consist in the firm attachmcnt ofa steel beam

to the member. The fig shows the hoisting of a frame whcrc the steel beam bca6 the
erection stresses developing in the stanchions. 'l'hc cnds ofthe steel beam are wedged

to the stanchion, while its middle is trussed to the stanchion by the bolts of inserted
stirrups which press it down. In this way the devcloping bcnding momcnt duc to the
dead load is borne partly by the stanchi{rn itselfwithout any additional rcinForcement.

Afterthc beam has bccn hoisted by 450, lhc tcmporary rcinlorcinB stccl heam bccomes
unnecessary and can be removed.

'

The same solution applied during hoisring a mrlrisr()ried frame. For large

structures the above mcthod, owing to grcat lcngth and sfrong forccs is no longer
sa lis[darory Jncl so hnro hcAv-v lall icnd sl.nl LI'ur'lur. wotr'rl hc ncrcssary.
Erection stre$scs dcveloping during hoisting in cdlmn and girdcrs ofhigh halls
may be climinated most suitably by post tcnsioning with {rablcs l;igurc shows thc post

tensioning applied whcn hoisting i3m high column of thc power statio[- Thc stressing
cables applied on both sidcs oF the cohimn arc tensior'rcd by gas thrcaded iack
assembled to end of the column by a tcnsioncd lorcd of 25 + 25

50MP-

'l'hc k'nsioning l{rx:c is (:onlr()lla(l hy rlairsu ng lh{'r'c;tction force dcvcloping

lbov. thr hoistinfl prr lrsiDg,r nrrnorncl(i)rrIq ]roirlrrl, ilrI rr(rm.nl I \ ,

I ir,nr lv'st ir r!i,)Irnjl colrlf{.f b rla|.cs
l.l)c rno r_,,f1 ,rIisrrlg lr,rrr rlf,r(! lorrl. ln llh ti) rrrI n.1 .nlr l)rlli!inlj m()tn{'ill anscs hUt
.llso I ii rll r, (lonlli ':,1(lrl r,' lr i.ir rl rir li .:r,ll lt;ri,, ,,1., r .,rls a llcr.i .t,i Lt rl
I ( .

,)

i rr I

When the colu)nn has Lrecn hoistcd the equipments used for post tensioning has to be

disnrantied belbre piacing begins.

11le samc resull rlriglrt be achiBved by a temporary ppst tpnsioniqg ofa sho,rter

secrlon of the column. This rnerho{j was uscd for pqrit t4nlioning the column

ofpower

statiol at Bereffe. ]lere the post EnsioninB extended only over the section afiected by
a positiye momcnt durin8 troistiflg, bala8ciog the tcn$ionql Sor{e

de!rchpi{*&9e. T.S

required tensioniEg iorce is provided by a hydraulic jack Naturally the magnitude of

this lorce must be rreasurcd.

k
ts

I
I