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SocialCognition

The
cognitiverevolution
startedasarevoltagainstbehaviorismbutthenwentontotransform
psychologyandthebehavioralsciences.Ithasshownthatthestudyofmentalprocessescan
provideascientificaccountofmentalactivityanditslinkstoovertbehavior.

Socialcognitionplacesanemphasisoninformationprocessing,categoriesandconceptsas
theyareperceivedbytheindividual,andthelimitedcognitiveresourcesavailabletothemind.

ALBERTBANDURA:SOCIALLEARNINGTHEORY
Bandurashowedthatpeoplelearncognitivelybyobservingothers,notmerelybyexperiencing
rewardsforwhattheydothemselves.Muchsociallearningoccursthroughobservationwithout
anydirectreinforcementadministeredtothelearner.
O bservationallearning
,sometimes
called
m odeling
,islearningthatoccurswithoutthelearnersreceivingdirectexternal
reinforcement.Suchlearningoccursevenwithoutthepersonseverperformingthelearned
responseatall.Itoccurswhenpeoplewatchothersorwhentheyattendtotheirsurroundings,
tophysicalevents,ortosymbolssuchaswordsorpictures.Muchofhumanlearningdepends
onobservationallearning.

OBSERVINGOTHERPEOPLESOUTCOMES
Yourexpectationsabouttheoutcomesofaparticularcourseofactiondependnotonlyonwhat
hashappenedtoyouinthepast,butalsoonwhatyouhaveobservedhappeningtoothers.We
aremorelikelytodosomethingifwehaveobservedotherpeopleobtainpositiveconsequences
forasimilarresponse.Observationalsoinfluencestheemotionsweexperience.Byobserving
theemotionalreactionsofotherstoastimulus,itispossibletovicariouslylearnanintense
emotionalresponsetothatstimulus.
Vicariousconditioning
occurswhenyouobserve
repeatedlythecloseconnectionbetweenastimulusandanemotionalresponseexhibitedby
anotherperson.

RULESANDSYMBOLICPROCESSES
Ithelpsnotonlytorewardappropriatebehaviorbutalsotospecifytherelevantunderlyingrules
andprinciplessothatchildrencanmorereadilylearnthestandardsthattheyaresupposedto
adopt.Whenchildrenunderstandthatparticularperformancepatternsareconsideredgoodand
othersareunsatisfactory,theyadopttheappropriatestandardsmoreeasilythanwhenthereare
noclearverbalrules.

THEAGENTIC,PROACTIVEPERSON
Banduraemphasizesthehumancapacitytobe
agentic
andexerciseselfregulationand
selfreflectionaspeoplegeneratebehaviorthat,ratherthanbeingmerelyreflexive,isproactive
andfutureoriented.Therefore,humanfunctioningreflectsthecontinuousinterplayofpersonal,
behavioral,andenvironmentalinfluences.Banduracallsparticularattentiontowardstheabilityto

symbolizeeventsandexperiencesandtoanticipateconsequences,planevents,anddirect
goalsandactivitiespurposelythroughforethought.Selfregulationandselfmotivationinvolvesa
processofadoptingselfstandardsandregulatingsubsequentbehaviorviathepositiveand
negativeconsequencesitproduces(includingthroughselfrewardandselfdevaluation).

SELFEFFICACY
Selfefficacy
referstotheindividualsbeliefsthattheycansuccessfullyexecutethebehaviors
requiredbyaparticularsituation.Perceivedselfefficacyinfluencesthegoalspeoplesetfor
themselvesandtherisksthattheyarewillingtotake.Higherperceivedselfefficacyleadsto
highergoalsandstrongercommitmentandperseveranceinpursuingthem.Lowerperceived
selfefficacymayleadtoanxietyandthedevelopmentofavoidancepatternsanddepression.

PERSONALITYCHANGEANDTHERAPY
AccordingtoBandura,therapymustenhancethepatientssenseofselfefficacy.Thisis
accomplishedwhenthetherapistandclientworktogetherinthesafetyofthetherapysituationto
explorealternative,moreadaptivewaysofthinkingandreacting(emotionallyandbehaviorally)in
situationsthatareproblematicfortheclient.Therapythereforeincludesawiderangeofactual
andimagined(symbolic)experiencesdesignedtodevelopmoreeffectivestrategiesandplans
forsettingandachievingdesiredgoals,forfunctioningmorecomfortablyandeffectively
interpersonally,andforreducinganxiety,depression,andperceivedstress.
Assertiveness
training
,whichhelpspeopleovercomeshynessandassertthemselvesmoreeffectivelywhen
theyfeeltheyshould,maybeaccomplishedbyroleplaying,rehearsingassertiveresponses,and
observationofmodelswhodisplayassertiveness.In
covertmodeling
,thisisdonein
imagination.

BECKSCOGNITIVETHERAPY
Becks
cognitiverestructuring
isdirectedatchanginghowpeopleencodeorconstruetheir
experiencesandthemselves.Itisbasedontherationalethatanindividualsaffectandbehavior
arelargelydeterminedbythewayinwhichtheystructuretheworld.Theircognitionsarebased
onattitudesorassumptions(schemas)developedfrompreviousexperiences.Therearefive
stepstocognitiverestructuring:
1. Clientsfirstlearntorecognizeandmonitortheirnegative,automaticthoughts.
2. Theyaretaughttorecognizetheconnectionsbetweenthesenegativethoughts,the
emotionstheycreate,andtheirownactions.
3. Theylearntoexaminetheevidenceforandagainsttheirdistortedautomaticthoughts.
4. Theysubstituteforthesemorerealisticinterpretations.
5. Theyaretaughttoidentifyandchangeinappropriateassumptionsthatpredisposedthem
todistorttheirexperiences.

SHELLEYTAYLOR
Taylordescribedpeopleascognitivemisers,suggestingthatthemindtriestoinvestaslittle
energyaspossibleinthinking.Asaconsequence,whenlabelinganindividualsbehavior,one

labelstheperson.Thiscircularreasoningcausesustoseeothersashavingtraitsthatpredict
theirbehaviorconsistently,evenwhenweseethemactinginconsistentlywiththosetraits.

TOPDOWN/BOTTOMUPPROCESSING
Topdown

processing
involvesviewingnewinformationthroughthelensofalreadyactivated
conceptsintheminditgoesfromgeneraltospecific.
Bottomupprocessing
involveslooking
atdatafirst,thenformingimpressionsitgoesfromspecifictogeneral.
Confirmatory
hypothesistesting
(confirmationbias)referstothetendencytosearchfor,interpret,or
prioritizeinformationinawaythatconfirmsonesbeliefsorhypotheses.
Behavioral
confirmation
(selffulfillingprophecy)isapredictionthatdirectlyorindirectlycausesitselfto
becometrue,bytheverytermsoftheprophecyitself,duetopositivefeedbackbetweenbelief
andbehavior.

CONSTRUCTS
Constructs
arelikecategoriesinthemind.Theymayconsistofadjectivelabels,whichcreate
categoriesthataretraitlikeandrepresentfeaturesofanobjectorpersonnounlabels,which
essentiallylabelaperson(politician,nerd,etc.)orpropernouns,somebodyorsomethings
name.Constructsmaybecomeactivatedorcuedbysomestimulusintheworldand
subsequentlyusedtorelatetoothers.
Transference
isasubliminalprocessthatoccurswhen
oneencounterssomeonewiththesamequalitiesasaprevioussignificantotherandmakes
inferencesaboutwhatthisnewpersonislikebasedonpreviousknowledgeofthesignificant
other.Onemayevenmisrememberthenewpersonashavingfeaturesthattheydonthave,but
thesignificantotherdoes(a
falsepositivememoryerror
).ThisissimilartoSullivansideaof
parataxicdistortion
,whichskewshowyouviewortreatsomeonebasedoffofasignificant
otherofwhomtheyremindyou.

PROSPECTTHEORY:TVERSKY&KAHNEMAN
Thebrainoperatesintermsofpatternmatchingmechanism.Themindwillcomputehow
similarastimulusyouareencounteringintheenvironmentistosomethingyoualreadyhave
storedinmemory,ifatall.Peoplemakedecisionsbasedonthepotentialvalueoflossesand
gainsratherthanthefinaloutcomeusingheuristics.

FUNDAMENTALATTRIBUTIONERROR
The
fundamentalattributionerror
occurswhenoneplacestoomuchemphasisoninternal
characteristicstoexplainsomeonesbehaviorinagivensituation,disregardingimportant
externalfactorsornotadequatelyconsideringthem.

CUES
Cues
arestimuliencounteredintheworldthattriggermentalrepresentations.
Accessibility
is
thedegreetowhichaconstructcanbeactivatedfrommemorybyacue.
Transient
accessibility

referstotheaccessibilityofaprimedconstructoftenwhenaconstructis
transientlyaccessible,itheightensattentiontoothertransientlyaccessibleconstructs.
Chronic
accessibility
referstoanincreasedaccessibilityduetocontinualprimingofaconstructover

time.
Incidentalpriming
occurswhenatriggeringcueactivatesaconceptinthemindthatis
similartothecuetheconceptwillthenbecomereadiedforuse(thatis,itwillbetransiently
accessible).Subsequentlyencounteredrelativelyambiguousinformationwillbeinterpretedin
termsoftheincidentalprime.

GOALSTATES
Goalstates
arementalrepresentationsofthethingsonewishestoaccomplish.When
activated,theymoredirectlyandexplicitlyenergizebehaviorthanotherkindsofmental
representations.The
Zeigarnikeffect
referstothetendencytoexperienceintrusivethoughts
aboutanobjectthatwasonceinpursuitandleftincomplete.Themomentonehasthe
opportunitytopursuethegoalagain,onewillpursueit.Thisisevidencedbythefactthatpeople
rememberincompleteandinterruptedtasksbetterthancompletedtasks.However,ifyoubegin
adifferentbutsimilartaskaftertheinterruption,youwillnotexperiencedissonancebecausethe
activitiesaresosimilarthatitfeelsasthoughtheoriginalactivitywascompleted.

MoodandEmotion
BISANDBAS
The
behavioralinhibitionsystem(BIS)
istheneurologicalsystemthatmaydisposeindividuals
towithdrawfromnegativestimuli.Ithelpsindividualspauseandcontemplatebeforeactingand
hasbeenlinkedtointroverts,anxiety,andconscientiousness.Itenhancesattentiontothreats
andrisksandpossiblepunishmentandisadaptivebecauseitisusefulforavoidingdangerand
surviving.The
behavioralactivationsystem(BAS)
istheneurologicalsystemthatmaylead
individualstoseekoutpositivestimuliorrewards.Itstimulatesapproach(driving)behaviorin
ordertoattaingoalsorrewardsandhasbeenlinkedtoextravertsandgreateractivity.It
enhancesattentiontorewardcues.

SENSATIONSEEKING
MarvinZuckermans
SensationSeekingScale(SSS)
measuresthrillandadventureseeking,
experienceseeking,disinhibition,andboredomsusceptibility.Sensationseekingmaybelinked
toimpulsiveness.Highsensationseekershavelow
m onoamineoxidase(MAO)
levels,so
theirneurotransmitterlevelsaretoohigh(becauseMAObreaksdownneurotransmitters).

DRUGS
Antidepressants
areusedtoelevatethemoodofdepressedindividuals.Thetwomajor
categoriesofantidepressantsarethecyclicsandmonoamineoxidaseinhibitors.Lithiumisalso
usedtostabilizemoodswingsandtreatseveredepression.
Antipsychotics
areusedtotreat
schizophrenia.Theyoftenhaveseveresideeffects,whichmakesitdifficultforpatientsto
continuetreatmentontheirown.
M inortranquilizers
likeValiumandbenzodiazepines(Xanax,
Ativan)areusedtotreatanxiety,panicdisorder,andsomeconvulsivedisorders.Caremustbe
takenduringtreatmentbecausethesesubstancescanbehighlyaddictive.
Psychostimulants
areusedintreatingimpulsedisordersandsevereattentiondeficits.
M ethadone
isoftenusedto

overcomeheroinaddiction.However,nodrugbyitselfconstitutesanadequatecomplete
treatmentforpsychologicalproblems.

EVOLUTIONARYTHEORY
Directionalselection
occurswhenversionsofthecharacteristicsthatenhancesurvivaland
reproductiongraduallybecomeincreasinglyrepresented.
Stabilizingselection
occurswhen
moderate(asopposedtoextreme)characteristicsarepasseddownandsurvive.Evolutionary
theorysuggeststhathumansengagein
altruism
bothtoprotectonesowngroupaswellasto
benefitfromreciprocalaltruism.Thenotionof
biologicalpreparedness
suggeststhathumans
arebiologicallypredisposedtofearcertainthingsthathavethreatenedhumansthroughoutthe
courseoftheirevolution,butalsotobeeffectiveatlanguageacquisition,spaceperception,and
learning.Theoristshaveproposedthathumansdevelopeda
cheaterdetector
,amechanismto
identifyindividualsthatseekthebenefitsofsocialexchangebutrefusetoreciprocate
appropriately.
Domainspecificity
referstothefactthathumanshavedifferentstrategiesfor
differentsituations(domains).
Discriminativefacility
istheabilitytoappraisesituationsasthey
presentthemselvesandtorespondappropriately.

CULTUREANDPERSONALITY
Culturesmaydifferintermsofindividualismandcollectivism,buttheaverageculturaltendency
withinaculturemaynotberepresentativeofmanypeoplewithintheculture.Cultureinfluences
thesituationsthatpeopletendtoexperienceandthewaysweinterpretandrespondtothese
situations.The
culturalmeaningsystem
containsbasicgoalsvalues,emotions,standards,
selfregulatoryrules,interpersonalscripts,andcontrolstrategiesthatareactivatedonlyincertain
situations.Eachindividualdevelopsa
personalmeaningsystem
thatincorporatessome
componentsfromthesharedculturalmeaningsystemsandothersfromtheirownuniquelife
experiences.Researchershavefoundthatracebasedrejectionsensitivityisrelatedto
experiencesofrejectionandacademicperformanceinAfricanAmericanstudents.Culture
influencespersonalitybyaffectingthewaysinwhichotherpeople,aswellastheself,reactto
theindividualsbehavior.

GENDERDIFFERENCES
Genderinfluencestheviewstheindividualdevelopsaboutthemselfaswellashowotherpeople
treattheperson.Genderissomethingweenactitisapatternofsocialorganizationthat
structuresrelationsbetweenwomenandmen.Therearesignificantpsychologicaldifferencesin
behaviorbothbetweenthegendersandwithinthesamegender.Genderdifferencesarefound
notjustinoveralldifferencesinlevelsofbehavioralsointheifthenpatternsinwhich
personalityisexpressed.Womenmayrespondtostressbytendingandbefriendinginsteadof
byfightorflight.Therearedistinctculturaldifferencesinthewaythatgenderrolesare
interpreted.

THEEVOLVINGSELF
Inselfconstruction,individualsactivelypursuelifegoalscentralfortheselfastheybuildtheir
lives.Thisselfisrelational:itthrivesonsocialsupportandconnectedness,notinisolation.

Peoplehavethepotentialtolearnandthusalterthestructuresandfunctionsoftheirownbrains.
Idealqualitiesofawellfunctioningpersonincludeselfunderstandingandselfacceptance,a
senseofcompetence,responsibility,agency,connectiontootherpeople,andtheabilityto
selfregulateappropriately.

COGNITIVENETWORKMODELSOFEMOTION(GORDONBOWER)
Emotioncanbeconceptualizedasanodeinthecognitivenetwork.Whenthisnodeisactivated,
itisassociatedwithphysiologicalmemory(the
feeling
ofthatemotion).Theemotionisgoingto
bemadeaccessibleasafunctionofwhatelsearoundithasbeenprimed.Also,whenyouarein
acertainmood,itwillhaveanimpactonyourmemory.
M oodcongruentmemory
referstothe
ideathatamoodstatewillgivesomesortoflowlevelactivationtoeverythinginyourmemory
associatedwiththatmood.Itwillbeeasiertorememberthingsthatarecongruentwithyour
currentmood,andyouaremorelikelytointerpretambiguouscuesaccordingtoyourown
emotions.

APPRAISALTHEORIESOFEMOTION(RICHARDLAZARUS)
Emotionisnotsimplyanodeinanetworkrather,thenatureoftheinterpretationthatyou
superimposeontoasituationiswhatisgoingtocauseyoutobeinaparticularmoodstate.
Therefore,yourinterpretation,categorization,and/orappraisalofasituationiswhatsgoingto
predicttheemotionalstateyouwillendupexperiencing.Thisdoesnothavetobeaconscious
process.Allthatmusthappenisthataconstructmustbeactivatedfrommemorysothatacue
fromthesituationisprocessedintermsofthatconstruct.Essentially,cognitioncauses
emotion.

DIMENSIONALMODELOFEMOTION(JAMESRUSSELL)
Thereissomekindofautomatic,instantaneous,evaluativeresponsethatisgoingonaswe
respondtothestimuliinourworldaswellastoourownthoughts.Alloftheseexperiencescan
beconceptualizedalongtwodimensions:high/lowarousalandpositive/negativeevaluation.
Thesetwodimensionsaretheprimarythingsthatunderlieallofemotion.Youexperiencethese
discretestatewhenyouareinasituationthatcallsforthem(oftenimposedbysociety).
However,thistheorydoesnotaccountforhavingtwoemotionsatthesametime.

BIOLOGICALBASISOFEMOTION
PaulEkmantraveledaroundtheworldtoallkindsofdifferentculturesandperformedtwokinds
ofstudies.Inthefirst,heshowedeachparticipantaphotographofafaceandaskedthemto
labelwhatthepersonisexperiencing(a
decodingofemotions
).Acrossallcultureshe
studied,Ekmanfoundthatpeopleareextremelyfastatlabelingfacialexpressionswithemotions.
Inthesecondkindofstudy,heaskedparticipantstomodelemotionsviafacialexpressions
(
encodingemotions
).Ekmansuggestedthat,becausethereissomuchagreementbetween
participantswithinacultureaboutwhichfaceexpressescertainemotions,theremustbesome
crossculturaluniversalityinthebasicemotionsthatpeopleexperienceandexpresstheremust
besometypeofbiologicalsourcethatisnotimpactedbysocialization.However,notall
emotionsarebasicemotions.


VELTENMOODINDUCTIONPROCEDURE
Thepurposeofthisprocedureistotestifmoodcanaffectcognition.Itinvolvesaquestionnaire
withaseriesofselfstatementsthatstartrelativelylightweightandthenescalatesasyouread
through.Theparticipantsjobistoeithersimplyreadthestatementorreadthroughthe
statementandputacheckmarknexttoitonceread.However,thistestbeginswithwordsand
thuscognitions.Analternativetestsuggestedusingaclipfromasadfilmtoelicitmood,butthis
alsoelicitscognition.Thecurrentprocedureuseslyriclessmusicwhichisunfamiliartothe
participanttosetthemood.Butthemainpointisthatcognitionandaffectareconstantly
influencingeachother.

STANLEYSCHACHTER
Schachtercreatedamodelofemotionwhichsaysthatifyouexperiencesomeemotionthathas
somelevelofarousalandeveryoneintheroomisperformingaparticularemotionalbehavior,
thenthearousalwillcauseyoutostartperformingthatbehavioraswell.Thearousalis
attributedtothesituationandtheexpressedemotionofotherpeopleintheenvironment.Thatis,
thesocialcontextofasituationwillinfluencethekindofmoodyouperceiveyourselftobein
becauseitwillprovideacontextthroughwhichyourphysicalexperienceswillbeinterpreted.

FRITZSTRACK
Strackformulatedthe
facialfeedbackhypothesis
whichsuggeststhatemotionshave
associatedphysiomuscularresponses.Thatis,thebrainrememberstheexperienceofbeing
happyinsuchawaythatitremembersthetensingoftherelevantmusclesinthefacethatare
involvedinproducingasmile.Ifyousmile,youaremorelikelytobehappy.This,again,
suggeststhebidirectionalrelationshipbetweencognitionandemotion.

ZAJONC
Zajoncclaimedthataffectandcognitionoperateintwoindependentsystems.Emotionoccurs
incrediblyfast(fasterthancognition,accordingtohim)andhasasenseofirrevocability.Hewas
influencedbythe
m ereexposureeffect
whichsaysthatthemoreyoucomeincontactwitha
stimulus,themoreyoulikeitrepeatedexposure(consciouslyrecognizedorotherwise)creates
fluency.Thus,affectdoesnotrequirecognition.However,Zajoncconfusescognitionwith
consciousness.Youcanactivateaconceptfrommemorywithoutitarisingtoconscious
awarenessanditwillstill,byspreadofassociation,affectothercognitions.Also,evaluationis
notthesamethingasemotionforexample,ifyouareremindedofasignificantotherwhen
meetinganewperson,youcanactivateevaluationsaboutthenewpersonbasedonthe
significantother,butbefeelingacompletelydifferentwaytowardsthenewpersonthanyoudo
aboutthesignificantother.Still,Zajoncisrightthatemotionandaffectcomestomindmore
quicklythancognition.Thishassurvivalvalue:ifyouexperiencefear,itismoreimportantto
avoidthethingcausingfearthanfullyprocessallyourthoughts.

CLARKANDISEN(SA#4)

Feelingstates

(moods)
areinternalstates.
Emotions
disrupttheongoingbehavior,whereas
moodsdont.Moodsarealsogeneralizedandmayaffectotherdomains,whereasemotions
oftenhavespecifictargets.Feelingstatesalsoinfluencesocialbehavior:inapositivestate,
judgmentandinterpretationof,andbehaviorinresponseto,astimulusisusuallyconsistentwith
thatstate,whilenegativestatesaremorecomplex.Therearetwomodelsthattrytoexplainhow
affectinfluencesjudgmentandbehaviors.The
storagebinmodel
suggeststhatrecently
activatedconceptsaremoreaccessiblebecausesuchconceptsarereturnedtothetopof
mentalstoragebinssubsequentsequentialsearchesforinterpretiveinformationismorelikely
toaccessthesameconceptsagain.Sinceaffectivestatesfacilitatetheuseof
affectivelychargedmentalconcepts,thiscouldaccountforthegreateruseofmoodcongruent
constructsinsubsequenttasks.The
spreadingactivationmodel
statesthatwhenaconcept
isprocessedorattendedto,anodeisstimulated,andactivationspreadsoutalongportionsof
thenetworkassociatedwiththatnode.Iffeelingsarestoredinnodes,thenactivationofthose
feelingsshouldalsoactivaterelatedbehaviors,objects,situations,andepisodesconnectedto
thosenodes.

FISKE(SA#5)
Aschemathathasanaffectivecontentworksasatagthatidentifiesacategoryashavinga
positiveornegativeevaluation.Bottomupor
piecemeal
modelssuggestthataffectistreated
asamatterofalgebraiccombinationsofevaluations.Theysuggestthatstimuliisevaluated
componentiallyintoasummaryreaction.Instead,theauthoroffersatopdownor
schematriggered
modelofinterpersonalaffect.Thismodelclaimsthatotherpeopleare
representedasinstancesofcategorieswhichcontainexpectationsaboutpersonalityand
appearanceconsistentwithonespastexperiences.Affectislinkedtocategorizationsuchthat
theinstanceofacategoryelicitstheschemasaffect.Affectivelytriggeredschemataareguides
toaction.Peopleseekinformationthatwillsupporttheirexpectations,treatpeopleaccordingto
thoseexpectations,andelicittheexpectedreciprocalresponses(a
selffulfillingprophecy
).

FRIEDMANANDSCHUSTACK(SA#15)
Culturaleffects
arethesharedbehaviorsandcustomswelearnfromtheinstitutionsinour
society.
Ethnocentrism
isevaluatingothersfromonesownpointofview.Sometimeswhen
wemeetpeoplefromotherculturesweonlyseetheirculturallyconsistentaspects,andareblind
totheirindividualdifferences.Therearetwomajorapproachesforstudyingculturesin
personality:the
emicapproach
,whichfocusesonasingleculture,understoodinitsown
terms,andthe
eticapproach
,whichsearchesforgeneralitiesacrosscultures.Oneexampleof
aneticideaisJungs
collectiveunconscious
,therepositoryofmemories,guidingthoughts,
motivations,and
archetypes
sharedbyallpeople.Culturestendtobeclassifiedas
individualistic
(focusingontheautonomousindividual,asinWesterncultures)or
collectivist
(focusingonthecollective,asinEasterncultures).Personalitymusttakeintoaccountcultural
variationsandmustsimultaneouslyconstructtheoriesthatareverifiablethroughscientificdata.

GROUPINGPEOPLE

Peopleformgroupsbasedonthreemajorthings:professedbeliefs(politicalorreligious),
culturalhabitsandcustoms,andphysicalcharacteristicstiedtogeographicalregion.Physical
characteristicscausethemostovergeneralizationbecausedifferencesinpersonalityarenot
visibleinphysicalcharacteristics.Becauseraceishardtodefineandhighlysusceptibleto
scientificandsocialdistortion,itisnotusefultostudyracialgroups.Instead,psychologists
shouldfocusonethnicidentification,history,family,religion,andsocialclass.Infact,the
SES
gradient
showsusthatsocioeconomicstatusisimportantthosehigheronthescalehave
lowerriskofdyingprematurely.

LANGUAGE
Languageisextremelyinfluentialinshapingouridentities.Itmakesushuman,and
characteristicsofaparticularlanguagemakeusaparticulartypeofhuman.An
idiolect
isthe
uniqueversionthateachindividualspeaksofhisorherownlanguage.A
dialect
ismarkedby
similarcharacteristicssharedbyspeakersthatdifferfromothergroups.The
SapirWhorf
hypothesis
statesthatlanguageinfluencesthenatureofhowwethinkandperceivetheworld.

TheSelf
SCHEMAS
Schemas
arethementalrepresentationswithwhichpeopleinterprettheobjectsandsocial
situationsintheirworld,includingthemselvesandtheirownpsychologicalstates,aswellas
otherpeople.People
categorize
informationaboutideasandexperiencesthatresembleeach
otherinordertoorganizeandsimplifylotsofinformationefficientlysothatitcanbeusedquickly
tomakeinferencesanddecisions.
Prototypes
areclearorbestexemplarsoraschema.
Schemashelpmakesenseofneweventsbyrecognizingwhattheyarelikeintermsoftheir
similaritytopreexistingcognitivestructures.Schemasbecomeactivatedwhenotherthoughts
thatareassociatedwiththembecomeactivated.Whenschemasareactivated,theyinfluence
perceptionandattentionthus,apotentiallyambiguousactmayleadtoinferencesbeyondthe
informationgivenintheparticularsocialsituation.Schemasalsoaffectourmemoryofevents.
Availability
referstowhethertheschemaexistsornot.
Accessibility
referstohoweasyitisto
accesstheschema.
Applicability
referstowhethertheschemasisapplicabletothesituation.
Salience
referstothedegreetowhichaparticularsocialobjectstandsoutcomparedtoother
socialobjectsinasituation.
Priming
referstotheprocessthatincreasestemporary
accessibilityprimingthatactivatesoneschemacanalsomakerelatedschemasmore
activated.

SELFSCHEMAS
Selfschemas
consistofinterconnectedknowledgestructuresofmanydifferentsortsbasedon
awiderangeofexperiencesinthecourseofdevelopment.Theyarisefrompastexperiences
and,onceformed,guidehowwedealwithnewinformationrelatedtotheself.Wegive
informationrelevanttotheselfspecialcognitivetreatment,forexample,bybeingmoreattentive
towardit.Selfschemasarehighlyaccessiblepersonalconstructsthatapersonisreadytouse

forencodinginformation.Peopledifferstablyintheirselfschemas.Eachpersondevelopsa
selftheory
,asetofconceptsabouttheselfwhichinvolveanintegrationandorganizationofa
tremendousamountofinformation.
Selfknowledge
includesallthethoughtsandfeelingsthat
developaboutoneself.Thisknowledgerepresentationiscloselyconnectedinthememory
systemtoknowledgerepresentationsaboutthesignificantotherpeopleinoneslife.Whenthe
representationofaparticularsignificantotherisactivated,aspectsofyourown
selfrepresentationthathavebeenmentallyconnectedtothatsignificantotheralsobecome
activatedmentally.Thustheselfisintrinsicallyrelationalandinterpersonal.Astheselfdevelops
inrelationtoaparticularsignificantother,expectationsalsodevelopaboutthemostlikely
interactionsthatwilloccurwithhimorher.Whenonedevelopsrelationshipswithnewpeople,
transference

readilyoccursthishappenstothedegreethatrepresentationofsignificantothers
inmemoryareactivatedbythenewlyencounteredperson.Therefore,feelingstowardsand
inferencesaboutanewlyencounteredpersoncanbeunderstoodintermsoftheparticular
significantotherrepresentationthatisbeingtriggeredby,andappliedto,thenewperson.

PERCEIVEDSTABILITYOFTHESELF
Subjectivecontinuity
referstotheexperienceofonenessanddurabilityintheself.Each
personnormallymanagestoreconcileseeminglydiversebehaviorsintooneselfconsistent
whole.Peopletendtoreducecognitiveinconsistenciesandsimplifyandintegrateinformationso
thattheycandealwithit.Thiscreatesandmaintainstheperceptionofcontinuityeveninthe
faceofperpetualobservedchangesinactualbehavior.Peopleoftenknowagooddealabout
theirowncharacteristicifthensituationbehaviorpatterns.Thereisastrongrelationship
betweentheintraindividualstabilityofthosepatternsandthepersonsselfperceptionof
consistency.Throughoutthelifecourse,peoplemodifyandtransformtheirselfconceptsas
theyenvisageandconstructalternativefutureselvesandstrategicallyadapttodiverselife
challenges.

POSSIBLESELVES
Itisincreasinglycommontocharacterizetheselfasamultifaceted,dynamicsetofconcepts
consistingofmultipleselves.Thesedifferentperceivedselvesreflectdifferentaspectsofan
individualstotalpersonality.Eachoftheseaspectsmayconstituteadifferent
possibleself
or
potentialwayofbeing,schemasthatareallavailableandrelativelyaccessibleinmemory.The
selfoneisatanyparticularmomentwoulddependonwhooneiswith,when,andwhy,and
mostimportantlyonhowoneconstruesandinterpretsthesituation.Theselfmaybeamore
centralconceptforsocietiesthatvalueselfenhancementandseetheselfasanentitythanfor
societiesthatvaluetherelationsbetweenthepersonandotherpeopleratherthanoneselfalone.
Theconceptsoftheselfthatthepersoncanaccesseasilycomprisethe
w orkingselfconcept
.
Itincludeseverchangingcombinationsofpastselvesandcurrentselves,aswellasimagined
possibleselves.

SELFESTEEMANDSELFEVALUATION
Selfesteem
referstotheindividualspersonaljudgmentoftheirownworthitisinfluencedby
thefeedbackthatpeoplecontinuallygetfromtheenvironmentastheylearnaboutthemselves.

Individualsareguidedinselfappraisalbytheirmemoriesandinterpretationsofearlier
experiencesandbytheframeworkofselfconcepts,selfstandards,andselfperceptions
throughwhichtheyviewandfiltertheirexpectations.Peopleadoptmanydifferentstrategiesto
copewithperformancefeedbackrelevanttoselfesteem.Theimpactofsuccessandfailure
experiences,forexample,dependsonwhetherthepersonconstruesorframestheoutcomes
asreflectingontheselfasawhole,orintermsthataremorecircumscribedandspecifictothe
particularsuccessorfailuresituation.Selfevaluationprocessesreflecteachpersons
compromisesbetweentheneedforaccurateperceptionofhisorherperformanceinthereal
worldandtheselfprotectivedesiretomaintainafavorableselfimage.Theriskinthepursuitof
selfesteemisthatitcanleadpeopletofocustoomuchonthemselveswhileneglectfulofthe
feelingsandneedsofothers.Thiscanencouragecompetitivenessratherthancooperation.
Thecostsofpursuingselfesteemtendtobeespeciallyhighforpeoplewhoseehigh
selfesteemasessentialforfeelingthattheyareworthy.

SELFVERIFICATIONTHEORY(SWANN)
Peoplewantotherstoseehowtheyseethemselves.Ifpeoplehavehighesteem,theywillonly
acceptfeedbackfromtheenvironmentthatconfirmstheirpositiveselfbeliefs.Ifpeoplewithlow
selfesteemreceivesuchfeedback,theywillrejectittoremainconsistentintheirnegative
selfimage.Sometimescognitivebehavioraltherapydoesntworkbecauseitchallenges
peoplesselfconcept.

SELFAFFIRMATIONTHEORY(STEELE)
Peoplehaveamotivationtomaintaintheirselfintegrity,theirperceptionsofthemselves,and
theirabilitytocontroloutcomes.Whenselfintegrityisthreatened,wecanreestablish
selfworththroughdomainsnotrelatedtotheselfthreat.Otherdomainsactasabuffersothat
wedonothavetoresorttodefensiveness(althoughyoumighteventually).Ifyouhaveless
domainsfromwhichyouderiveyourideaofselfintegrity,youwillhavelessbuffers.

SELFDISCREPANCYTHEORY(HIGGINS)
Therearethreedifferentkindsoftheself:the
oughtself
(whoyouthinkyoushouldbe),the
idealself
(whoyouwanttobe),andthe
actualself
(whoyoureallyare).Wehave
selfevaluativestandardswhichareguidedbytheidealselfandoughtself.Ifyouhave
discrepanciesbetweentheoughtselfandtheidealselfandtheactualself,youwillhave
significantanxieties.Discrepanciesbetweentheactualselfandidealselfcausedissatisfaction,
whilediscrepanciesbetweenactualandoughtselfcancreateguiltandselfcontempt.

SELFENHANCEMENTTHEORY
Ifyoureceiveinconsistentfeedbackaboutyourself,youwilltrytobuffyourselfupandfocus
moreonpositiveaspectsofyourselfthatyoualreadyknow,oryouwillactaggressivelytoward
thepersonprovidinginconsistentinformation.

SYMBOLICSELFCOMPLETIONTHEORY(GOLLWITZER)

Peopledefinethemselvesinvariouswaysbyusingindicatorsofattainmentinthoseactivity
realmsasprogressiontowardscompletingthatselfdefinition.Therearethreecentralconcepts:
commitmenttogoals,symbolsofcompleteness(
statussymbols
),and
socialreality
(theidea
thatselfdefinitionscanonlycomeintobeingandremainstablewhenacknowledgedbyothers).
Whenimportantsymbolindicatorsarelackingpeoplewillstriveevenfurthertoreachthatstatus
orachievethatgoal.Whenpeopleactuallydogainstatusandhavemultiplestatussymbols,
theyarealotlessthreatenedwhentheyreceiveinconsistentfeedback.Thereisaninverse
relationshipbetweentheactuallevelofselfcompletionanddefensiveness.Onceyouhave
attainedstatusorcompletedyourselfyouhavelessofadesiretoinfluenceothers.

CONTINGENCIESOFSELFWORTH(CROCKER&WOLFE)
Contingenciesofselfworth
aretheaspectsonwhichanindividualsselfesteemisbased.
ThistheorywasinfluencedbyWilliamJames,whoarguedthatselfesteemrisesandfalls
arounditstypicallevelsurroundingdomainsonwhichwestakeourselfworth.Therefore,
selfesteemfluctuatesdependingonsuccessesandfailures.Conceptualizesselfesteemasa
globalentity,botha
state
(affect,amomentintime)anda
trait
(enduring,relativelystable
quality).Statejudgmentsarebasedonthesuccessesandfailuresonthedomainsinwhichyou
putastakeinyourselfesteem.Eachofthesecontributingdomainsare
not
equal.
Contingenciesareorganizedonhierarchies,into
superordinate
(meaningthatthereareother
valuesthatcontributetoit)and
subordinate
contingencies.Allvaryintheiraccessibility,and
somearemorechronicthanothersbecauseyouaccessthemeveryday.Whenyouhaveless
domains,andexperiencefailureinahugedomain,youaremorelikelytobecomeunstable.

LAYEREDIDENTITY
Insomeways,wecanthinkabouttheselfasanindividual.Whenwebegintotakeintoaccount
themultipleaspectsoftheself,thingsbecomemorecomplicated.Thefirstringaroundthe
centralindividualidentityiscomprisedofveryclosesignificantothersthisisthe
relational
identity
.Theotherlayersofidentityreflect
collective
or
socialidentity
,groupidentitiesthat
canbeactivatedandcanactivateotherconceptsinmuchthesamewayastheotheridentities
wehavediscussed.

MARILYNBREWER
Whenyouformanidentitywithagroup,itis,inasense,mergingwiththegrouptheidentityis
submerged
withinthegroup.Youwanttobethoughtofasagoodgroupmember,asalmost
interchangeableforanotherpersoninthegroup.

OPTIMALDISTINCTIVENESSTHEORY
Ononehand,wewanttoidentifysocloselywithagroupthatwedoinfactbecomealmost
synonymouswithit.Butontheotherhand,wewouldalsoliketomaintainsomesenseofour
otheridentities.Evenifyouarefullyidentifiedwithagroup,youstillwanttobedistinctiveenough
sothatyoucanberememberedasanindividualandretainyoursenseofself.

STEREOTYPETHREATTHEORY

Peoplewhoaresubjectedtostereotypeswilldoeverythingtheycannottoconfirmthe
stereotype.Thisisanxietyprovokingandimpactsperformancenegativelybecauseofevaluation
apprehension.Ifyoucontinuetohaveevaluationapprehensions,youmaybegintodisidentify
withthefieldregardlessofyouractualtalentsinthisdomain.

SYMBOLICINTERACTIONISM(MEADE)
Whenyouaretryingtounderstandwhoyouare,whatyouare,youaregeneratinginyourminda
notionofageneralizedotherandthenacquiringthecapabilityofplacingyourselfinaspot
outsideyourphysicalbodyasifyouweresomebodyelselookingatyourself(placingyourselfin
theshoesoftheother,thelookingglassself).Unlessyoubecomecapableofdoingthis,you
willnotbeabletoformasenseofselfthatallowsyoutonavigatetheworld.

SOCIALCOMPARISONTHEORY(FESTINGER)
Yoursenseofselfisafunctionofwhoisavailableforcomparison.Youevaluateyourtalentsin
comparisontothosearoundyou.Ifyouaretryingtomotivateyourselfitisuseful,undersome
circumstances,toengagein
upwardcomparison
becauseitenablesyoutoseethegapthat
youaretryingtosurpass.
Downwardcomparison
worksbylookingatpeoplewhoareless
talentedandmakingyourselffeelbetterbycomparison.

SELFPERCEPTIONTHEORY(BEM)
Wedrawconclusionsaboutourselvesthewaythatwedrawconclusionsaboutotherpeople:by
observingourbehaviorandthenaskingwhatexplainsit.Ifnosuitableexplanationsarefoundin
theenvironment,weassumethecausesmustbeinternal.However,thereisliteratureon
actorobserverdifferences
(whichstatethat,duetoourvisualperspective,wearemuchmore
likelytomakedispositionalinferencesaboutothersbasedontheirbehaviorthanweareabout
ourselvesbasedonourownbehavior).

GREENWALD(SA#6)
Theegoisatotalitariansystemthatorganizesknowledgeandrecordspersonalexperience.Itis
consideredtotalitarianbecauseithasthreeparticularcharacteristics:
egocentricity
,which
referstothefactthattheselfisseenasthecenterofknowledge
beneffectance
,whichallows
theegototakecreditforsuccessesbutnotresponsibilityforfailureand
cognitive
conservatism
,whichmakesitresistanttochange.Someevidenceisgivenforthis:
Primacyeffect
:
thingsthatappearfirstarerememberedbetter.
Recencyeffect
:
thingsthatappearattheendarerememberedbetter.
Knewitallalongeffect
:
youthinkyouknewmoreinthepastthanyouactuallydid.
Agingofopinions
:
feelasthoughopinionsyoubelievetobecorrecthavebeenheldfor
alongtime,evenifyougainedthemonlyrecently.
Selfhandicapping
:
arrangingexcusestocreateasituationinwhichtheexpected
outcomeiscreated.
Accordingtothisview,depressedpeoplelackbeneffectiveeffect,whilenormalpeople
overestimatetheircontrolinmostsituations.

ANDERSEN(SA#7)
Thisexperimentwasconductedwithspeakers,observers,andevaluators.Theevaluatorswere
samesexclosefriendsofthespeakers.Thespeakersweresplitintothreegroupsthat
discussedinnerthoughtsandfeelings,behaviorsandactions,oramixofthetwo.The
observerswererandomlyassignedtolistentospeakersandthenevaluatethespeakeron
differentpersonalitymeasures.Thesepersonalitymeasureswouldbeexaminedagainstthe
speakersownresultsandtheirfriendsinput.Resultsshowedthatobserverswhoheardmore
aboutinnerfeelingsweremoreaccurateintheirappraisal.Behaviordiscussion,ontheother
hand,ledtheobserverstoevaluatethespeakerbasedonstereotypesbecausetheydidnothave
themotivationorcontextforthebehaviors.Mixeddiscussionresultedinuniquedescriptions.
Thus,incontrasttoBemsselfperceptiontheory,peoplegivegreaterweighttocognitiveand
affectivedatathanbehavioraldatanotjustaboutthemselvesbutaboutotherpeopleto.Theonly
problemisthatwedontalwayshavethecognitiveandaffectivedata(i.e.whatapersonis
thinkingatthetime)tounderstandotherpeoplewhenwewantto.

Depression
SELFEFFICACYEXPECTANCIES
Expectanciesandbeliefsthatonewillbeabletoexertcontrolandsuccessfullyexecute
necessaryactionsareessentialforeffectivefunctioningandgoalpursuit.Selfefficacyisa
foundationforthesuccessfulpursuitofadifficultgoal,orforchangingandimprovingones
situationoroneself.

LEARNEDHELPLESSNESSANDAPATHY
Learnedhelplessness
occurswhenapersoncomestoexpectthataversiveoutcomesare
uncontrollable.Asaresult,theymaybecomeapatheticanddespondent,andthatstatemay
generalizeandpersist.Whenpeoplebelievetheycannotcontroleventsandoutcomes,they
graduallydevelopasenseofhelplessnessandevenseveredepression.

CAUSALATTRIBUTIONS
Causalattributions
aretheexplanationspeoplemakeofthecausesofevents,andtheyhave
predictableimplicationsforhowtheyfeelaboutthemselvesandotherpeople.Asuccessthatis
perceivedtobetheresultof
internalcauses
producesmorepositivefeelingsaboutoneselfthan
doesthesamesuccesswhenitisattributedto
externalcauses
.Similarly,wefeelworsewhen
weperceiveourfailureintermsofinternalratherthanexternalcauses.Inmostpeople,
perceptionsofcausestendtobebiasedinselfenhancingways.Generally,mostpeopletendto
becomelessupsetwhentheythinktheycanpredictandcontrolstressfulorpainfulevents,even
iftheperceptionisillusory.

PESSIMISTICEXPLANATORYSTYLES
Peoplearemostvulnerabletoperceivingthemselvesashelplesswhentheyseethebadthings
thathappeninlifeasduetotheirowninternalqualities.
Pessimism
isanexplanatorystylethat

hasthreecomponents:thepersonseesbadeventsasenduring(stable),widespread(global),
andduetotheself(internal).

PETERLEWINSOHN
Thecauseofdepressionultimatelyhastodowiththereinforcementsthatareorarenot
availabletoyouinyourlifedepressionisproducedbyalackof(positive)reinforcement.Ifyour
groupisdiscriminatedagainstyouwillnotgetthesereinforcements.Ifyouarelackingcertain
skillsets,youwillnotbeabletoobtainreinforcements.Alotofthisresearchisdonewith
animalsandanimalmodels.

LEARNEDHELPLESSNESS
BasedonthecageddogexperimentsconductedbyMartinSeligman,thistheoryholdsthat
depressionariseswhenyoulearntobelievethattheoutcomesyoureceivearenotcontingent
whatsoeveronyourenvironment.Itisverydifficulttogetridofbecauseitappearstobe
endogenous
,asthoughitjustgrewinsideofyoulikesomesortofbiologicalmalfunction

ATTRIBUTIONALREFORMULATIONOFLEARNEDHELPLESSNESS
CreatedbyAbramson,Seligman,andTeasdale,thistheorytakesattributionalprocessesinto
account.Specifically,depressedpeopleengageinapessimisticattributionalstyleinwhich
failuresareattributedtointernal,global,andstablefactors.Peoplewhoengageinthisstyleare
alsomorevulnerabletobecomingdepressed.The
diathesisstressmodel
iswhatactually
accountsfordepression.Itmaintainsthatifyouhavea
diathesis
(vulnerabilityfactor,i.e.the
pessimisticattributionalstyle)andyouencountera
stressor
,thenaninteractionwilloccur
betweenthetwothatpredictstheprobabilityofbecomingdepressed.Ultimately,pessimistic
attributionalstyleandthepresenceofpowerfulstressorsiswhatcausesdepression.However,
researchshowsthatitdoesntreallymatterifattributionsareinternal,moresothattheyare
globalandstable.

HOPELESSNESSTHEORY
TheorizedbyAbramson,Alloy,andMetalsky,thistheorystatesthatdepressedpeopletendto
overgeneralizeaboutthefuturebasedononeeventinthepresent(whichishighlymaladaptive).
Thediathesisstressinteractionleadsyoutobecomehopelessaboutyourlife.That
hopelessnessisaproximalcause(mediator)ofdepression,whereasthediathesisisthedistal
mediatorthatsetsthestagefordepressionarisingundercertaincircumstances.Ifyouareina
mood,whateveroccurs,thetendencywillbetoconstrueitinaccordancewiththatmood.
Diathesisstressisamuchstrongerpredictorofhopelessnessthandepression.

BECKSCOGNITIVEMODEL
Thistheoryistreatmentcenteredandinvolvesatrialofnegativebeliefs.Itisbasedonthe
findingthatdepressedpeoplearerelativelyaccurateintheirviewofthemselves,butbecauseof
thisaremissingpositivethoughtsaboutthemselves.Thus,whatneedstobechangediswhats
storedintheselfschema.Thisisdonebyteaching
m indfulness
,helpingdepressivesbecome
awareoftheirautomaticthoughtsandhowtheyarecausingthemharm.Thisisdoneby

distancingtheselffromharmfulthoughtsandrecognizingthattheyarebadhabits,and
decentering,learningtograspthatnoteverythingisaboutyou.Thiscreatesroomtoestablish
thoughtsthataremoreproductiveandlessinconvenient.

INTERPERSONALMODELS(WEISSMAN,COYN,HAMMOND)
Thereissomethingaboutinterpersonallifeandthewayitisproceedingandthewayyou
navigateitthatultimatelyleadsyoutospiraldownintodepression.Depressiveindividualsexhibit
excessivereassuranceseekingtowardssignificantothers,whichmakestheotherpersonfeel
theyhavebeenunabletosootheconcernsthismaycausethemtodistancethemselves,
realizingyourconcerns.Thisisalearnedhelplessnessinductionforthesignificantotherand
causesthedepressedindividualtobecomeevenmoreisolatedthantheywerebefore.

TREATMENT
Cognitivetherapydoesworkandisgenerallyrelativelyshortterm.Interpersonaltherapymaynot
beaseffectiveinsomedistances.Medicationonlyalleviates,butdoesnotcure,depression.As
soonasyoustoptakingmedsitmaycomeback.Ultimately,thebestbetistocombinecognitive
therapyandmedication.

HOLLONANDGARBER(SA#12)
HollonandGarberdescribe
cognitiveexpectancytheory
,arefinementofCBTthatisnota
newideologyofdepressionbutratheraparticularchangetothebehavioraspectofCBThinged
onidentifyingexpectationsofdepressedpeople.Themodelholdsthatinterveningatthe
expectancystagehelpspatientsrethinkwhattheyexpectinthefutureandchangetheirabilityto
adaptwhenthenexteventoccurs.Specificemphasisonchangingattributionsisinefficient
becauseitrequiresalteringbeliefsabouteventsthathavealreadyoccurredemphasisontesting
expectationsthatweregeneratedbydysfunctionalattributionalstylespermitstheuseof
prospective,enactivehypothesistestingandservesasthemostefficientmeansofaltering
existingbeliefsystemsorattributionalstyles.

BECKANDYOUNG(SA#13)
BeckandYoungdiscussCBTandhowitcanbeusedtotreatdepression.Beckthoughtthat
depressionwascharacterizedbythe
cognitivetriad
:anegativeviewofyourself,ofthe
environment,andofthefuture.Becauseofthistriad,depressedpeopledistortthe
characteristicsoftheirexperiences.CBTinvolvesacollaborativerelationshipbetweenpatient
andtherapist:thetherapistshouldaskthepatientforfeedback,andthepatientshould
summarizeattheendofthesession.Therapyisdesignedtochangethepatientsdistortions.
CBTinvolveselicitingautomaticthoughtsandthenanalyzingthevalidityofmaladaptive
assumptionsandseeinghowtheseareguidingthepatientsthoughts.Beckconsideredthe
behavioralaspecttobeveryimportant,relyingon
cognitiverehearsal
(askingapatientto
imagineeachstepinaccomplishingatask)and
roleplaying
(testingoutnewbehavior).

Stress,Anxiety,andCoping
COGNITIVEAPPRAISALOFSTRESS
Anattitudeofdetachmenthelpspeoplereactmorecalmlywhenexposedtogoryscenes
portrayingbloodyaccidentsanddeath,orwhenexpectingelectricshock.However,a
detachmentstrategytoreduceemotionalitycanbemisused,producingcallous,insensitive
attitudesandcoldbloodednesstowardothers.

COGNITIVEAPPRAISALVS.HIDINGNEGATIVEFEELINGS
Cognitivereappraisal
isacoolingstrategyinvolvingshiftingfocustotechnicaldetailsinorderto
remainemotionallydetached.
Suppression
involvestryingtoswallowemotionalreactions.
Studiesfindthatcognitivereappraisalisanoverwhelminglymoreadaptivewaytoregulate
negativeemotions.

COGNITIVETRANSFORMATIONSTODEALWITHSTRESS
Psychologicaldistancingandstrategicselfdistraction,whenpossible,canbeanexcellentway
tomanageunavoidablestressandcopewithseverelifecrises.Itincreasespaintoleranceand
reducesanxiety.Butthetypeofcognitivestrategythathelpsonetodealbestwithstressalso
dependsontheindividual.

HOTVS.COOLBRAIN
Whenaneventtriggersautomaticfearreactionsorisperceivedasstressful,physiological
reactionsinthebodyaretriggeredatthebiologicallevel.Theactivationofthesympathetic
nervoussystemproducesmanyofthephysiologicalchangesthatareexperiencedinreactionto
perceivedstress.Thesearepartofthe
fightorflightreaction
,thebodysemergencyreaction
systemtothreatanddangerwhichenablestheorganismtocoperapidlyandeffectivelybthe
alertnessandenergynecessaryforsurvivalinthefaceofanattack.Butinmanysocial
situation,automatichotemotionalreactionsbecomedebilitatingratherthanadaptive.The
amygdalareactionsimmediatelytodangersignals,preparingthebodybiologicallytofightorflee
asvirtuallyreflexivereactions.Italsoplaysaroleinstrongappetitivebehaviors,leadingto
impulsiveapproachbehaviors.

STRESSANDCOPINGMODEL(LAZARUS&FOLKMAN)
Thismodelhasthreestages.Thefirststageis
primaryappraisal
inwhichanindividual
decidesifastimulusisbothrelevanttotheselfandthreatening.Ifso,thesecondstage,
secondaryappraisal
,involvesformulatingandenactingacopingresponse.Thenthethird
stage
reappraisal
,involvesevaluatingifthestimulusisstillrelevantandthreatening.Ifnot,
copingwaseffectiveandnoanxietyisinducedifitsstillrelevantandthreatening,anxietymay
occur.Therearemanymethodsofcoping,thesimplestofwhichis
directaction
.
Problemsolvingcoping
canreduceanxietybyspellingoutthepathwayforavertingthe
disasterinyourmind,butmayalsoincreaseanxietyifyouhavenomeansofenactingthe

strategyyouvecomeupwith.
Distraction
isusefulifthethreatisnotfatalandtheresnota
wholelotyoucandoaboutthesituation.
Cognitivereframing
involvesmentallytransforminga
setofstimuliintosomethinglessthreatening.
Emotionfocusedcoping
isextremelyineffective
becauseitreliesontheassumptionthatthemoreyouthinkabouttheaversivestimulusthesafe
andmoreinchargeyouwillfeel,whichisnottrue.

PHOBIAS
Phobias
arehabitsofthoughtandbehavioralavoidancethatareselfreinforcing(a
neurotic
paradox
).MacleodandMathewsstudiedschemasthatconcerntheenvironmentandthe
phobicsituationinwhichtheaversivestimuliarelikelytobeencountered.Onceyouhave
developedaschemayouhavehypervigilancetothreatcuesrelatedtothephobicobject.These
effectshavebeenextensivelystudiedwithlexicaldecisiontasksandmodifiedStrooptests.

PANICDISORDER
Panicdisorder
involvesahypersensitivitytochangesinphysiologicalstateandsensation.Itis
normalforbloodpressure,heartrate,andotherphysiologicalmeasurestofluctuate,butpeople
withpanicdisorderinterpretthosechangesassignsofimpendingpanicattacks.Theproblemis
thatthemoreyouthinkaboutitthemoreyourheartratequickensitfeedsonitself.This
horrificfeedbackloopiscalled
catastrophizing
.

GENERALIZEDANXIETYDISORDER(GAD)
GAD
isatendencytobeanxiousallthetime,althoughitmaynotbecompletelyparalyzing.It
involvesselffocusedattentionabouttryingtoavertdisaster:youthinkofeverypossiblething
thatcouldgowrong,sothatyoucanescapeeverysituation.Theproblemisthatthisprevents
youfromactuallyaccomplishinganythingbecauseyouspendallyourtimeandenergyworrying.

POSTTRAUMATICSTRESSDISORDER
PTSD
occurswhenyouareexposedtoatraumaticeventandexposuretostimulithatreminds
youoftheincidentcausesapsychoticepisodeinwhichyourelivethetrauma.Peoplewith
PTSDavoidallstimulireminiscentoftheevent,avoidthetopicinconversation,andavoid
affiliatingwithpeopleinthesamepredicament.
EdnaFoa
isatopresearcherinthisfieldand
hasdonealotofworkinexposuretherapies.
M arilynCloitre
,whilelesserknown,conducted
researchonthebasiccognitiveprocessunderlyingPTSD.Inherunderstanding,thetraumatic
event(whichinahealthyindividualwouldbeintegratedintotheselfbecauseitisimportant,
painful,andpartoflife)mayendupbeingrelativelydisconnectedfromtherestofyour
selfknowledge.Thusitsactivationhasaninhibitoryeffectontherestoftheordinaryselfit
takesover,whichexplainswhypsychoticepisodesoccur.Treatmenttheninvolvestriggering
somethingintheordinaryselfthenaskingatthesametimetosaysomethingorreplyinaway
thatreflectsthetraumaticevent.Thisaimsatintegratingtraumaticknowledgeintotheself,
whichdoesnotmakeitlessunpleasanttothinkabout,butmakesitpossibletothinkabout
withouthavinganepisode.

MILLER(SA#10)

SAFETYSIGNALHYPOTHESIS
Whereasignalreliablypredictsthedanger,theabsenceofthesignalreliablypredictssafetyand
relaxation.Ifnosignalreliablypredictsdanger,thennosignalreliablypredictssafety.
Essentially,predictabilityhasacomplexrelationshipwitharousalbecausewedolike
predictabilityifweperceivewehavetheabilitytosomewhatcontrolit.However,ifwesee
predictabilitywithanuncontrollablefuturethenwewillexperiencemorestressbecausewe
neverknowwhentorelax.

INFORMATIONSEEKINGTHEORY
Individualsseekinformationwhenfacedwithunpredictabilityandstriveforcertainty.Moreover,
uncertaintycausesconflictandincreasessurpriseandarousal.Thetheorypredicts(1)choice
ofinstrumentalcontrolandselfadministrationbecauseindividualsseekinformation(2)less
anticipatoryarousalwithsuchcontrolbecauseindividualsareinlessconflict(3)lessimpact
withcontrolbecauseindividualsarelesssurprisedbytheaversiveevent(4)controllability
appearstoreduceaversivenessinthecaseofinstrumentalcontrolbuttohavenoeffectinthe
caseofselfadministration.

INTERNALITYHYPOTHESIS
Individualschoosecontrolbecausehavingcontrolimprovesanaversiveoutcomebyenabling
individualstopresentstimulitothemselvestosuitfluctuationsintheirmoodtherebyrendering
theoutcomelesspainful.Controlshouldbechosenovernocontrol.Controlshouldbe
associatedwithlessanticipatoryarousalbecausetheindividualiswaitingforalessaversive
event.Controlshouldbeassociatedwithlessimpactarousalbecausetheaversiveevent
actuallyhurtsless.

MINIMAXHYPOTHESIS
Inanaversivesituation,individualswanttominimizethemaximumdangertothemselvesand
controllabilityenablesthemtodoso.Apersonwhohascontroloveraversiveeventshasalower
maximumdangerthanapersonwithoutcontrol.However,thistheoryexplainswhyonewould
wanttorelinquishcontrolincertainsituationsifanotherpersonhasgreaterskillinpreventingan
aversivestimulus,onewouldwanttogiveupcontroltothatpersoninordertominimizethe
maximumpainfromtheaversivestimulus.

SILVERANDWORTMAN(SA#11)
KLINGERSINCENTIVEDISENGAGEMENTTHEORY
Whenanaversivelifeeventremovesorblocksaparticulargoal,individualsgothrougha
processofdisengagementinwhichtheircognitions,feelingsandbehaviorsunfoldinanorderly
andpredictablesequence.Peoplerespondtoobstaclesvigorouslywithmorepowerfulandrapid
efforts.Iftheseresponsesdonotwork,theyaremorefrustratedandangryandtheirbehavioris
moreaggressive.Thentheyabandonthegoal,leadingtodisengagementanddepression.
Peoplecanrecoverfromit,thoughapersonexperiencingmoreofthesecyclesismore
vulnerabletolifecrises.

WORTMANANDBREHMSINTEGRATIVEMODEL
Whenpeoplesfreedomorcontrolarerestricted,theirresponsesdependontheexpectationof
controlovertheoutcomeandtheoutcomesimportance.Peoplewhoexpecttohavemore
influenceonanimportantoutcomewillrespondtolossofcontrolwithenhancedmotivationto
achievetheoutcomeandaggressiveandangrybehaviors.Iftheydontsucceedafterseveral
times,theirexpectationsofcontroldiminishwhentheystoptryingandarestillexposedtothe
loss,theywillbecomedepressed.Thegreatertheexpectations,themoredepressedpeoplewill
becomeaftergivingup.

THELEARNEDHELPLESSNESSAPPROACH
Exposuretouncontrollableproblemsdidnotalwaysresultinpassivityordepressedmood.The
helplessnesseffectdependsontheattributionofcausalitythatapersonmakeswhen
encounteringtheuncontrollableoutcome.Theseattributionsaregenerallyinternal,stable,and
globalindepressedpeople.

SHONTZSTHEORYOFREACTIONTOCRISIS
Peopleneedtogothroughstageswhentheytrytocopewithaversiveoutcomes.Their
responsesdependontheirinterpretationofinformationpriortothecrisis.Theytrytofind
symptomsofsomethingbenignorthreatening.Whenpeoplefindclearsignsofcrisis,theyare
shocked.Aftertheshocktheywillexperiencehelplessness,disorganizationandpanicandthey
areunabletosolvetheproblem.Peopleareadaptivetothecrisis,whentheyshiftbetween
encounterandretreatfromcrisis.Thenthecyclesoccurlessfrequentlyandpeoplerecover.

LAZARUSANALYSISOFTHECOPINGPROCESS
Peoplegothroughemotionalstagesthecrisiscanberesolvedandpeopledonthavetogo
throughdepression.Peoplemayappraiseapotentiallyharmfulsituationasathreatandfocus
onthepossibleharmorfocusonthepotentialformasteryorgain.Thecopingprocessinvolves
aninhibitionofaction,informationseeking,andintrapsychicmodes.Ahighdegreeofuncertainty
orambiguityaboutanoutcomeinhibitsdirectactionanddrivesinformationseeking.If
informationisnotavailable,directactionisunsuccessful,orharmhasalreadyoccurred,the
individualmayresorttointrapsychicmodes.

EMPIRICALRESEARCHONREACTIONSTOUNDESIRABLELIFEEVENTS
Allthesemodelshavethreeassumptions:(1)thereisageneralpatterntoresponsetolife
crises(2)peoplegothroughaseriesofstagesovertimeintheprocessofcoping(3)people
acceptorresolvetheircrises.However,researchshowsthatnotallindividualsrespond
identicallytoallaversiveoutcomes.Thelimiteddatathatareavailabledonotappeartoclearlyfit
astagemodelofemotionalresponse.Patternsofextremevariabilityinresponsealsodonot
supportthenotionofastagedresponse.Finally,asubstantialminorityofindividualsexhibit
distressforamuchlongerperiodoftimethancommonlyexpected.Therearealsoanumberof
indicationsthatpeoplecontinuallyreexperiencethecrisisfortherestoftheirlives.

Competence,Control,andMastery
PERSONALGOALSANDPROJECTS
Thegoalsanindividualpursuesareorganizedandcoherent,andofcentralimportanceinthe
functioningofthepersonalitysystem.Current
lifetasks
areprojectstowhichindividuals
committhemselvesduringparticularperiodsintheirliveswhichhelpgivemeaningtothe
individualslifeandprovideorganizationanddirectionformanymorespecificactivitiesandgoal
pursuitsthatareintheirservice.Goalsareorganizedhierarchicallywith
superordinategoals
moreimportantthat
subordinategoals
.Ingoalpursuit,peopleevaluatetheirownbehaviorand
perceivedprogress,andtheyrewardandpunishthemselvesaccordingly,therebyfurther
influencinghowtheyprogress(orfailtodoso).Indoingso,theycomparetheircurrentstateof
performancewiththeirselfstandardsiftheyperceiveadiscrepancy,theytendtobemotivated
toreduceitortoresettheirstandardstoalowerlevel.

THEPURPOSEOFSELFREGULATION
Mostofgoalpursuitisautomaticandtheprocessesactivatedingoalpursuitareadaptivefor
mostlifefunctions.Effectiveselfregulationandselfcontrolingoalpursuitdependsbothonthe
personsmotivationandonhisorhercompetencies.Themotivationalstrengthofanobject
dependsonhowoneconstruestheobjectanddependsonhowmuchthepersonvalues
longtermsuperordinategoalsassociatedwithit.Selfregulatorybehaviorsthatserveahigher
goalcentraltotheselfhavehighermotivationalsignificanceandaremorementallyaccessible.
Selfregulatorycompetencies
refertothecognitiveandattentionalmechanismsthathelpus
executegoaldirectedbehavior.

BIOLOGICALSOURCESOFCONTROL
Researchershavedescribedan
anteriorattentionalsystem
thatregulatesthepathways
involvedin
executivefunction
throughoutthecortex.Executivefunctionisrequiredfor
adaptive,goaldirectedbehaviorstosolvenovelproblems,particularthosecallingforthe
inhibitionofautomaticorestablishedthoughtsandresponses.TheEFbrainsystemsenable
effortfulcontrol
,orwillpower,ingoalpursuitbyallowingpeopletoregulatetheirattention.

TRAITDISPOSITIONALINTERPRETATION
Attentioncontrolscoresarerelatedpositivelytoextraversionandnegativelytoanxietyand
impulsivity.
Egocontrol
referstothedegreeofimpulsecontrolinsuchfunctionsasinhibitionof
aggressionandtheabilitytoplan.
Egoresilience
referstotheindividualsabilitytoadaptto
environmentaldemandsbyappropriatelymodifyingtheirhabituallevelofegocontrol.
Undercontrolling
peopledonotinhibittheirimpulses,whereas
overcontrolling
peopledo.
Individualswhoarehighonindicesofegocontroltendtobesomewhatmoreabletocontroland
inhibittheirmotoractivity.

DELAYOFGRATIFICATIONABILITY

Theabilitytovoluntarilydelayimmediategratification,totolerateselfimposeddelaysofreward,
isatthecoreofmostconceptsofwillpower,egostrength,andegoresilience.Learningtowait
fordesiredoutcomesandtobehaveinlightoffutureconsequencesisessentialforthe
successfulachievementoflongterm,distantgoals.Delayabilityrequiresananticipatory
representationoftherewardorgoal,orselfinstructionstomakethemmoresalientand
powerful.

COOLINGSTRATEGIES
The
m arshmallowtest
isadelayofgratificationparadigminwhichkidsareofferedtwo
marshmallows,ontheconditionthattheycanonlyhavebothiftheywaittotakethefirstoneuntil
thesecondoneisgiventothem.Delayofgratificationismadeeasierbydistractingattention
fromtherewardsandthusfromtheaversivenessofwantingthembutnothavingthem.
Selfcontrolishelpedbymentallytransforming(
cognitivereframing
)aversivestimuliinto
pleasantoneswhilestillmaintainingtheactivityonwhichtheultimaterewarddepends.A
psychologicallycoolcognitiverepresentationofarewardenhancesgoaldirectedwaiting.
Coolingislikelytobeadaptivewhenappliedtocopinginaversiveorfrustratingsituationsthat
mustbetoleratedforgoalattainment.

IMPLICATIONSOFSELFREGULATORYCOMPETENCE
Selfregulatorycompetenceturnsouttobeareliableindexofastablecompetencebasicfor
manyaspectsofpersonality.Selfregulatorycompetencecanhelptoprotectpeoplefrom
experiencingmanyofthenegativeconsequencesassociatedwiththeirdispositional
vulnerabilities.Effectiveattentioncontrolisrelatedtohavinglowerimpulsivityandlessnegative
affectlaterinlife.

HOT/COOLINTERACTIONINSELFREGULATION
The
coolcognitivesystem
isspecializedforcomplexmentalandspatialrepresentationand
thoughtitiscognitive,emotionallyneutral,contemplative,flexible,integrated,coherent,slowand
strategic.The
hotsystem
isspecializedforquickemotionalprocessingandautomatic
respondingtohottriggerstimuliitisquickandautomatic,thebasisofemotionality,activates
fearsaswellaspassions,andisimpulsiveandreflexive.

IMPLEMENTATIONINTENTIONS(GOLLWITZER)
Implementationintentions
areifthencontingencyplansthatoneplansoutandrehearses
aheadoftimetoprotecttheindividualfromobstacles,frustrations,andtemptationslikelytobe
encounteredinpursuitofthecurrentgoal.Implementationintentionshelpinawiderangeof
regulatorytasks,fromactioninitiationtoinhibitionofunwantedhabitualresponsesand
resistancetotemptation.Aftertheseintentionshavebeenestablishedandsufficiently
rehearsed,itiseasiertoselfregulateeffectivelybecausetheessentialcoolsystemstrategies
becomeactivatedmuchmorereadily,evenwhenstressishigh,withoutconsciouseffort.

LEARNEDOPTIMISM

Learnedoptimism
occurswhenthepersonishelpedtoencodethedailyhasslesoflifeby
deliberatelyusingselfenhancingexplanations.Peoplewithanoptimisticorientationtolifeseem
tofacestressfulsituationsbythinkingaboutthemconstructivelytodealwiththemaseffectively
aspossible,essentiallytryingtomakethebestofthesituationevenifitisanextremelydifficult
one.

DWECKSMASTERYORIENTEDCHILDREN
Masteryoriented
childrenseetheirfailureatataskasduetoalackofeffortandoftenactually
performbetterafterfailure.Evenafterseveralfailures,masteryorientedchildrenremainpositive
andoptimisticaboutthepossibilityofsuccess,whilehelplesschildrenexpressnegativefeelings
andresignation.

INCREMENTALANDENTITYTHEORIES
Entitytheorists
choosegoalsmotivatedbythedesiretoavoidunfavorablejudgmentsandto
gainapprovalabouttheircompetence.
Incrementaltheorists
choosegoalsmotivatedbythe
desiretoincreasetheircompetence.Ourselfconceptsandtheoriesaboutourimportant
qualities,ourwayofencodingorconstruingourselves,impactoursubsequentdevelopment.
Oncetheyhaverenderedanegativemoraljudgment,entitytheoristsgenerallyrecommend
punishment,whereasincrementaltheoristsrecommendeducationorrehabilitation,consistent
withtheirbeliefinthepossiblityofpersonalitychangeeveninwrongdoers.Entitytheoristsalso
showedlessflexibilityintheirselfconceptionsandorientationtootherculturalgroupsthan
incrementaltheorists.

MENTALSTIMULATION(SHELLYTAYLOR)
Sometypesofselfreflectioncaninvolveaveryhealthyformofmentalstimulation.Youwill
receivethebenefitsofpracticeeffectsandthesamepartsofthemotorcortexwillbeactivated
asifyouwereactuallydoingtheactivity.

POSITIVETHINKING/FANTASY(GABRIELEOETTINGEN)
Positivethinkingcanactuallybeaprobleminitsownright.Ifyouhaveagoal,onepossibilityis
thatyoucouldsitinyourlivingroomandenvisionyourselfachievingitenvisioningtheoutcome
feelssogoodandissorewardingthatitreducesthemotivationtoactuallytakeactiontorealize
thegoal.
M entalcontrasting
involvespittingadesiredfutureagainstacurrentreality,which
activatesexpectationsofsuccessandhelpsidentifyobstacles.Ifyouhavehighexpectations
therewillbeincreasedgoalpursuitifyouhavelowexpectations,theoppositewilloccur.

DEVELOPINGCOMPETENCEINCHILDREN
Threemajorrequirements:
1. Abalancebetweensomelevelofwarmth,responsiveness,attentiveness,andakindof
disciplineorstructure(setofboundaries)inthehomethatestablishesconsistency.
2. Lotsofverbalinteractionwithadults.Bedtimestoriesareimportantfordeveloping
languageskills.Firstbornchildrenhaveadistinctiveadvantagebecausethereisno
competition,sotheygaincompetencemorequickly.

3. Lotsofverbalinteractionthatisinitiatedbythechildwiththeadultbeingresponsiveto
exactlywhatthechildsays(eveniftheadultdoesnotknowtheanswer).

EMOTIONREGULATION(JAMESGROSS)
Commonintuitionwouldsuggestthat
suppressing
badresponsesisagoodwaytohandle
emotions.Exceptwhenthisistestedempirically,itcreatesmorestressthanjustexposureto
badstimuliingeneral,andalsomakesithardertorememberinformation.Rather,ifyoutakea
clinicalpositionyouwillbelessstressedandbetteratrememberinginformation.Cognitive
reframingallowsustotakeadifferentviewpointandseeifitpreventstheproblematicresponse
fromhappening(i.e.sothatthereisnoproblematicemotiontodealwithfromthebeginning).

LANGER(SA#8)
Mindfulness
involvesaninitialawarenessofthethingsthatmakeyoumindless.Mindlessness
involvesnomotivation.Essentially,peopleuseheuristicstotakeshortcutsandreducetheuse
ofcognitiveresources.Peopletrytocategorizeothersintotheirschemasveryquicklyandjudge
themaccordinglytomakethemfitbetterthantheyactuallyfit.Mindlessnesshappensvia
automaticbehavior,thinkinginheuristics,andthinkingfromasingleperspective.Premature
cognitivecommitments,repetition,thebeliefthatresourcesarelimited,entropy,andschoolall
encouragemindlessness.Thecostsofmindlessnessincludestuntedpotential,narrow
mindedness,lossofcontrol,andlearnedhelplessness.

PsychologicalDefensivenessandtheUnconscious
ANXIETYANDUNCONSCIOUSDEFENSES
Consciousandunconsciousdefensemechanismscanbeusedtocopewithanxietyarousing
stimuli.Thenatureandmechanismsofunconsciousrepressionremaincontroversial.
Nevertheless,thereiscompellingevidencethatunconsciousprocessesandeventsinfluenceus
massively.Manypsychoanalystswarnagainstgeneralizingfromexperimentswithcollege
studentstoclinicalpopulationsandproblems.

THEADAPTIVEUNCONSCIOUS
Modernresearchsuggeststhatsocialinformationmaybelargelyprocessedoutsideofour
awareness.Itisdifficulttodeterminewhetheraparticularmemoryforatraumaticeventis
accurateorgrosslydistorted.

INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCESINCOGNITIVEAVOIDANCE
Individualstendtorespondtostresseitherbyavoidanceorhypersensitization.Thisisthe
repressionsensitization
personalitydimension.Thesetwotypesdonotdifferintheirrecallfor
threateninginformation.
Repressors
attendtomorepositivefeedback,seethemselvesmore
favorably,andaremorementallyandphysicallyhealthy,whereas
sensitizers
arepreoccupied
withnegativefeedbackandareoftenselfcritical.Thereareindividualdifferencesinthe
tendencytoward
blunting
(selfdistraction)and
m onitoring
(increasedalertness)instressful

situations.Ifadaptiveactioninthefaceofathreatseemsimpossible,cognitiveavoidanceor
bluntingmaybemorelikely.Ifpotentiallypainfuleventsarethoughttobecontrolledbythe
personsactions,thengreaterattentionandvigilancetothemmaybefound.Matchingthe
amountofinformationapersonreceiveswiththeirmonitoringbluntingstylecanhelpreduce
stressformedicalpatients.

AUTOMATICITY
Automaticthought
andbehaviormeansthattherearesomekindsofbehaviorsthatyou
engageinwithoutmuchthoughtorintention.
Declarativeknowledge
isinformationabout
someone,something,orsomewherethatisrelativelyeasytorecall.
Proceduralknowledge
consistsofsequencesofmotorbehaviorthatareenormouslywellpracticedandneverthought
aboutindetail.Proceduralknowledgeisextremelydifficulttointrospectuponandexistslargely
outsideofawareness.Whenyoustarttryingtopayattentiontosomethingnormallyoutsideof
awareness,thislearnedsequenceofbehaviorcanbedisrupted.Sometimesstoppingtryingto
thinkaboutsomethingcanbethebestwaytoactuallycallittomind.Therearefourcomponents
ofanautomaticprocess,thoughtheydontalwaysgotogetherandarentevenhighlycorrelated:
lackofawareness,nocognitiveeffort,little/lackofcontrol,andlackofintention.However,
intentionalautomaticity
referstodecidinginadvancetorehearseasequencesuchthatwhen
youseeitscueyoucanbehaveautomatically(implementationintentions).

BREWIN(SA#9)
Exploresthreelargerquestions:dopeopleregisterandrespondtoeventstheyarenotawareof,
whatarethelimitsofpeoplesabilitytoreportoninternalstatesandreasonsforbehavior,andto
whatextentisconsciousbehaviorinfluencedbyunconsciousprocesses?Peopledohavethe
abilitytodetectandrespondtostimulitowhichtheyareunaware.Limitationsinselfreports
arisewhenthetaskiscomplex,whenthereispooraccesstomentalstatesandfactorsthat
shapebehavior,andwhentheyareaskedtointrospect.Verbalreportsofstatesareunreliable.
Thereisevidencefortwocognitivesystems(controlledandautomaticprocesses).Clinicians
mustmakeinferencesoffofverbalreportsandphysicalbehaviors.

Altruism,Empathy,andAggression
CONTRIBUTIONSFROMEACHLEVEL
Anintegrativemodelofpersonalityincludescontributionsfromallsixlevelsofanalysis.The
traitdispositionallevelofanalysisidentifiedthetwotypesofconsistency:crosssituational
consistencyandifthensituationbehaviorconsistency.Thebiologicallevelofanalysishas
exploredtheimportanceoftheindividualsgeneticandbiologicalcharacteristicsinthe
personalitysystemaswellastheevolutionaryhistoryofthehumanspecies.The
psychodynamicmotivationallevelshowedthatourthoughtsandbehaviorscanhave
unconsciousselfdefensivemotivations.Thebehavioralconditioninglevelfocusedonanalyzing
peoplesbehaviorinrelationshiptothesituationsinwhichitoccurs.Italsoshowedthepowerof
conditioninginthedevelopmentoffearsandotherstrongemotions.Workersatthe

phenomenologicalhumanisticlevelrecognizedthatthebehavioralandemotionaleffectsof
situationsdependonhowindividualssubjectivelyperceiveandconstruethem.Thesocial
cognitivelevelcombinedfeaturesofmultiplelevelsofanalysistoexplainindividualdifferencesin
personalityandexaminedtherolesociallearning.

CHARACTERISTICSOFTHEPERSONALITYSYSTEM
Neuralnetworkinformationprocessingmodelsappliedtopersonalityfocusonhowthepersons
internalmentalrepresentationsarerelatedtoeachothertoformanorganizednetworkstructure.
Inthe
CognitiveAffectiveProcessingSystem(CAPS)
,individualsarecharacterizedbythe
easeofaccessibilityfordifferenttypesofcognitionsandaffectsor
cognitiveaffectiveunits
(CAUs)
andthedistinctiveorganizationofrelationshipsamongtheminthesystem.CAUs
includethepersonsselfrepresentation,representationsofothers,situationalconstrual,
enduringgoals,expectationsbeliefs,andfeelingstates,andwhiletheaccessibilityofeachCAU
fluctuates,therelationshipsbetweenthemremainstable.Thestablestructureofthepersonality
systemplaysoutindistinctivepatternsofifthenrelationshipsbetweensituationsand
behaviorthatcharacterizeeachindividualdistinctively.
Rejectionsensitivity(RS)
isa
processingdispositionthatconsistsofassociationsbetweenexpectationsofrejection,
readinesstoencodeambiguoussituationsasrejection,hotaffect,andmaladaptivebehavioral
scripts.Whiletheyarenotmorelikelytobeaggressiveingeneral,individualswhoarehighin
RStendtohaveanifthenprofileofincreasedaggressionandincreaseddepressionin
situationswheretheyfeelrejected.The
narcissistic
personalitysignatureischaracterizedbya
patternofseekingoutsituationsthatallowforselfpromotionandusingthesesituationstoprove
onessuperiority.Personalitydevelopmentandchangeinvolvebothbiochemicalandsocial
cognitiveinfluencesthatcontinuouslyinteract.CAPSintegratescontributionsfromalllevelsof
analysis.

PERSONALITYSYSTEMINACTION
Thepersonalitysystemcanbeactivatedbyinternalandexternalcues.Peoplesbehavior
becomespartoftheirpersonalitysystembecauseitimpactshowtheyareperceivedbyothers,
howtheyperceivethemselves,andthekindsofsituationsthattheyexperience.Peopleshape
theirenvironmentsthroughthepeopletheychoosetointeractwithaswellasthepeoplethatthey
attract.Becauseeachpersonbringshisorherownstablepersonalitysystemtoarelationship,
CAPSmayalsobeusedtounderstandthedynamicsofcloseinterpersonalrelationships,which,
inasense,developtheirownpersonality.Understandinganindividualspersonalityprocessing
systemcanhelptopredictbehaviorinarelevantsituation.Peoplemaysucceedintheirgoal
pursuitbybeingcautiousandavoidfailure(
preventionfocus
)and/orbyeagerlypursuingtheir
desires(
promotionfocus
).Eachfocushasitsadvantagesanddisadvantages.TheBISand
BASbiologicalsystemsinfluencehowindividualsappraiseandrespondtosituations.InCAPS,
thepersoniscapableofbeingproactive,notonlyintheselectionofsituations,butinthe
interpretation,transformation,andconstructionofsituations.Therapyinthisframeworkcanhelp
peoplerecognizesomeofthekeyinternalandexternalstimulithattriggerdistressingthoughts,
feelings,andbehaviors.

KENDODGE
Canwefindoneormorestagesofinformationprocessingatwhichanaggressivechildhas
somesortofdeficit?
1. Scanningtheenvironment.
2. Selectiveperception.
3. Interpretation/categorizationofwhateverthecueis.
4. Associationtootherlearnedinformationinmemory.
5. Possibleresponseretrieval.
6. Responseselection.
Dodgefoundthattherewerenotdeficitsatanylevelexcept#3:ifapersonexhibitedaggression
asachild,whenpresentedwithanambiguouscueintheenvironmentasanadulttheywillbe
morelikelytointerpretthisasaninsultorathreat.Dodgethenanalyzedanumberof
vulnerabilityfactorsthatcanpredisposeindividualstobecomeaggressive(his
cumulativerisk
model
).Biologicalfactorsincludehyperreactivitytostimuluscues,attentionproblems,and
impulsivity.Contextvariablesincludepoverty,externalstressors,andvaluesthatyoudoordo
notacquireinthecontextofgrowingupinanunpredictableenvironment.Parentingvariables
includeharshdiscipline,lackofwarmthinthehome,andpoorteachingstrategiesand
monitoring.Peerfactorsincluderejectionandexclusion,aswellasexposuretodeviantpeers.
Anythingthatyouhaveinanyofthesecategoriesallbuilduptocontributetotheprobabilityof
engaginginaggressivebehavior.Overinterpretationofhostilityisamediatorofaggressive
behavior.However,asallofthesefactorsgoup,youaremorelikelytoexperiencepeer
rejectionpeerrejectionitselfbecomesamediatorofinterpretivebiaswhichitselfisamediator
ofaggressivebehavior.

PHARES(SA#17)
Barondefined
aggression
asanyformofbehaviordirectedtowardthegoalofharminganother
livinghumanbeingwhoismotivatedtoavoidsuchtreatment.Aggressionisstudiedbothin
naturalsettingsandinlab/fieldresearch.Therewasmuchdebateoverwhetheraggression
hasitsfoundationsinbiologyorcognitivefactors.Theargumentforbiologycomesfromfighting
instinctinanimalsandhumansthatisdirectedtowardsmembersoftheirownspecies,thefact
thatweallhavetheinstincttobeaggressive(whichisnormaltoexpress,butifyousuppressit
toooftenitcanleadtoexhibitinginplacesitshouldnotbeexpressed),andthataggressioncan
actuallybeevolutionarilyuseful.However,geneticinfluencesdonthavealotofsupport.The
frustrationaggressionhypothesis
saysthatfrustrationalwaysproducesaggression,and
aggressionisalwaysaproductoffrustration.However,inreality,frustrationhasmanydifferent
products,anditismorelikelythatfrustrationproducesanger,whichthenproducesaggression.
SociallearningtheorysuggeststhatwatchingaggressiononTVandinthehomeduring
childhoodteachesusalotaboutaggressiveresponsesandacceptablebehaviors.Supposedly
watchingTVallowsustopurgeaggressivetendencies(the
catharsiseffect
)butthereisnot
muchsupportforthis.Regardlessofcauses,therearesomesituationalfactorsthatmaylead
toaggression,includingheat,drugs,diffusionofresponsibility,adehumanizedvictim,obedience
toauthority,andsexualarousal.The
Rosenzweigtest
isusedtotestforindividualtolerancein
situationstodeterminethetippingpointfortheonsetofaggressivebehavior.


PHARES(SA#18)
Altruism
istheintenttohelpothers,despitenogaintoonesself.Thereisanongoingdebate
overwhetheraltruismandempathyarebiologicallybasedorlearned(orboth).Piagetsuggested
thatmoralitydevelopedduringthecognitivedevelopmentprocess,butKohlbergbelievedthat
moralitydevelopsaswegothroughhisuniversalstagesofdevelopment.Wedoknowthat
empathy
promotesaltruism,becausesituationalcuesthatleadtoempathyleadtoanincrease
inaltruism.Thereisevidenceofageneraldispositiontobeempatheticinadults(butnotin
children).Finally,socialization,modeling,andreligionareallfactorsthatleadtothedevelopment
ofaltruism.

AuthoritarianismandSocialInfluence
QUALITIESOFFIRSTTIMEKILLERS
Selfreportsshowfirsttimeviolentoffenderstobeveryshy,timid,anduncomfortablearound
otherpeople,tohaveexperiencedharshdiscipline(evenabuse)inthehome,andtohave
receivedverylittledirectteachingofcommunicationskills.Ofcourse,theseareselfreportsand
manyoftheserespondersmaystillbeawaitingatrial(wouldwantempathy).

SOCIOPATHY
Sociopathy
isalackofempathyorremorse,whichmayoccurastheresultofextremeabuse.
Through
habituation
,theyeventuallyhavezerophysiologicalresponsetothesufferingofother
people.Studieshaveshownthatvicariousconditioninginfilm,cartoons,andmediadoes
increaseaggressivebehaviorinchildren.Infact,youmayevenbeincitedto
copycatviolence
,
participatinginviolencemodeledbysomeoneelsesothatyoumayreapthesamebenefits.
However,thisdependson(1)howsimilaryouaretothemodel,(2)howsimilaryoursituationis
tothemodels,and(3)ifyouhaveaccesstotheweaponofchoice.

ZIMBARDO,EBBESEN,MASLACH(SA#14)
Peopleoftenthinkthattheyareinvulnerabletosocialcoercionor
influence
becauseitallows
themtopreserveafavorableselfimage.Butthiskeepsthemfromdevelopingsympathyand
identifyingwithothers,andtheyareactuallynotinvulnerableandshouldbeawareofoutside
influences.Therearethreenecessarycomponentsto
coercivepersuasion
:aninduced
motivetochange,anavailablemodelorinfosourcewhichprovidesthedirectionofchange,and
rewardsforthechangesmade.PattyHearstwasusedasanexampleofindoctrination.There
areseveralvariablesthatmakeyouvulnerabletocoercivepersuasion:initialposition,fearand
anxiety,guiltarousal,isolationfromsocialsupport,informationcontrol,persuasive
communication,cohesionofpeergroup,communicatorcharacteristics,andtheillusionoffree
choice.

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