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Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia

1 ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES
1 Geographical
Norway and Sweden lie to the west and east of a great ridge which divides
the peninsula, its coastline broken by countless rivers and fjord. Southern Sweden,
Finland, and Denmark are flat and low-lying, with numerous watercourses and lakes.

2 Geological
Sweden has very important deposits of iron and copper, both more significant
to the economic well-being than to its building crafts. The country also has granite,
marble and, in the south, suitable clay for bricks. The Danish earth-crust, like that of
Skne and north Germany, is predominantly boulder clay, and is not surprising that
all these regions brick is the principal building material. Norway, Sweden, and
Finland have vast tracks of forest, and wood is the basis of vernacular architecture
in the three countries.

3 Climatic
Due to the proximity of the sea throughout Scandinavia, and to the influence
of the Gulf Stream and the effects of the prevailing west and south-west winds, the
climate almost everywhere is less harsh than in countries further east of similar
latitude, although the winters are habitually long and severe.
The wide availability of timber, with its effective insulation and weatherresistant properties, and the early development of ingenious wood-construction
techniques counteracted to some extent the rigours of domestic life in the
protracted cold season

4 Political/Historical/Social/ Religious
Scandinavian history in the renaissance period is dominated by the kingdoms
of Denmark and Sweden. Through the union of Kalmar (1397) the three Nordic
kingdoms (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) were united under Danish supremacy. In
Denmark, Copenhagen was established as the capital in 1416; the accession of
Christian I in 1448 marked the foundation of the Oldenburg dynasty, which still
continues on the throne today. Danish history of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries is punctuated by wars with Sweden (1513-23, 1563-70, 1623-15, 1643-5,
1675-1720). The turbulence of the period, which included the reformation and war
with Germany (1625-9), did not prevent the initiation of large public works
programmers under Christian IV (1588-1648), and they were renewed in the more

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


peaceful years from 1720-1801. Between 1801 and 1814 Denmark was involved in
the Napoleonic Wars against England, after which Norway was ceded to Sweden.
Sweden broke away from Danish dominance under Gustavus Vas (1523-60),
who established a hereditary monarchy and introduced Protestantism to Sweden
(1527). The increasing power of the Crown in the seventeenth century coincided
with a period during which grandiose buildings were constructed, particularly in
Stockholm. Throughout the period, and especially during the reign of Queen
Christina (1632-54), Sweden became a European power of some importance.
However, wars at the end of the century against both Denmark and Russia caused
Swedish prestige and the influence of the monarchy to be reduced at home. After
the congress of Vienna (1814) Sweden gained Norway, but lost Finland, which had
been a Swedish province since the fourteenth century. It had been repeatedly
devastated in the eighteenth century during the wars between Sweden and Russia,
and in 1809 was incorporated into the Russian empire as semi-autonomous Grand
duchy. Such wealth as Norway and Finland had wad based on the supply of raw
materials, especially iron and timber.
Gradually country houses replaced the castle-like dwellings which were
favoured expression of wealth and authority among the Danish and Swedish nobility
and royalty. Many country houses were built in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, often on forested estates, constructed of wood.
The cityscapes of Copenhagen and Stockholm reflect the increasing
centralization of court life in the seventeenth century, and the rivalry between the
two capitals. Copenhagen was modernized under Christian IV, while Stockholm took
on much of its present-day character later in the seventeenth century.
The Lutheran reformation of Scandinavia greatly affected church designs in
Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Here, as with much domestic building, Scandinavia
was inspired by Protestant Holland. Emblematic steeples remained characteristic
features of Scandinavian religious (and secular) buildings, while centralised plans
were often favoured for churches.
During the eighteenth century the two capitals were gradually eclipsed by the
new S. Petersburg. Copenhagen, which had been ravaged by fire in 1721, embarked
on a phase of urban renewal inspired by early neo-Classism in Paris. After 1800, the
architects of the Finnish capital, Helsinki, looked to S. Petersburg and to Napoleonic
Paris for inspiration, while Oslo (then called Christiania and by that time Swedish)
turned for inspiration to Schickels Berlin.
Scandinavia has rich history of urban planning: an early example of a new
town is Kristianstaad (Denmark), designed on a grid layout under Christian IV; Oslo
(1624) and Stockholm (c. 1625) also have extensive gridded street plans.

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


Further major fires in Copenhagen (1794 and 1795) necessitated the
rebuilding of large parts of the city, which, as a result, has an astonishingly unifies
neo-Classical character. Many public buildings were rebuilt and reflect the
enlightened Danish attitude to reform.
The capital of Finland was moved from Turku, the centre of the Swedishspeaking intelligentsia, to the fishing village of Helsinki in 1812. Like his colleague
C.H. Grosch in Christiana (later Oslo), C.L. Engel in Helsinki was given commissions
for a wide range of building types needed to serve government administrative
centre.

1. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
1.1

Renaissance Architectural Character

a. Plan
- In renaissance Architecture the plan focused on proportions. Their
structures usually have square and symmetrical plans.
b. Faade
- It also shows symmetry especially in verticals. In domestic buildings, the
faade usually surmounted by cornice. The window openings in each floor
are repeated and parallel to each other. The door is usually placed at the
center.
- In churches the faade is surmounted by pediments. They also put
pilasters, entablatures and arches. All architectural designs is organized
and placed in order to gain a visual proportion and symmetry.
c. Arches
- It was supported by piers or columns with capital. The arches in
renaissance period are semi-circular or segmental. Arches are often used
in arcades.
d. Column and Pilasters
- Renaissance was defined as the revival of classical styles. They still used
the Roman orders of columns, Doric, Ionic Corinthian, Tuscan and
Composite. These orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or
architrave or as decorative purpose in form of pilasters.
e. Vaults
- The vaults in renaissance are semi-circular or segmental. In gothic they
have ribbed vaults, but in renaissance vaults do not have rib. Domes were
also used frequently that may be as large structural features or as roofing
for small spaces.
f. Ceilings
- Ceilings were just simply flat but they also used coffred ceilings.
g. Doors

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


-

Doors usually set within an arch. Its upper portion is surmounted by a


triangular or segmental pediment. Some doors have square lintels.
h. Windows
- Windows is similar on the style of the doors. It also set with a semi-circular
arch (in mannerist period the Palladian arch was used also). It also may
contain square lintels and triangular or segmental pediment. Windows
were put in repeated orders, parallel to each other at each floor.

2 DENMARK
1 Renaissance Architecture in Denmark

Renaissance architecture thrived during the reigns of Frederick II and


especially Christian IV. Inspired by the French castles of the times, Flemish
architects
designed
masterpieces
such
as Kronborg
Castle in Helsingr and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerd. In Copenhagen, Rosenborg
Castle (16061624) and Brsen or the former stock exchange (1640) are perhaps
the city's most remarkable Renaissance buildings.

During the reign of Frederick II, Kronborg Castle was designed by two Flemish
architects, Hans Hendrik van Paesschen who started the work in 1574 andAnthonis
van Obbergen who finished it in 1585. Modelled on a three-winged French castle, it
was finally completed as a full four-winged building. The castle burnt down in 1629
but, under orders from Christian IV, was quickly rebuilt under the leadership of Hans
van Steenwinckel the Younger, son of the famous Flemish artist. It is widely
recognized as one of Europe's most outstanding Renaissance castles and is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Frederiksborg Palace (16021620) in Hillerd is the largest Renaissance


palace in Scandinavia. Christian IV had most of Frederick II's original building pulled
down in order to have van Steenwinckel complete a three-winged French-styled
castle with a low terrace wing around a courtyard. The architectural expression and
the decorative finish clearly reflect Dutch Renaissance preferences as evidenced by
the ornamental portals and windows and especially in sweeping Italianate gables.

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen, also built by Christian IV, is another
example of the Dutch Renaissance style. In 1606, the king first had a two-storey
summerhouse built on a site he used as a park for relaxation. He then decided to
start work on a much more ambitious building, the castle, which developed in
stages until a Dutch Renaissance masterpiece was completed in 1624. Predating the
castle, the Renaissance-style park, is Denmark's oldest royal garden.

Sponsored by Christian IV, Brsen, one of the first commodity exchanges in


Europe, was built from 1618 to 1624. It was designed to emphasize Copenhagen's
position as a commercial metropolis. Although inspired by the Dutch Renaissance
style, the distinctive towers and garrets on the roof reflect the taste of Christian IV.
The characteristic spire of the building with four intertwinded dragon tails topped by
three
crowns,
symbolises
the
then
Kingdom
of
Denmark,
which
included Norway and Sweden.

In 1614, Christian IV began work on the construction of the then


Danish Kristianstad in Scania, now in the south of Sweden, completing many of its
buildings in the Renaissance style. Particularly impressive is the Church of the
Trinity (16181628) designed by Flemish-Danish architect Lorenz van Steenwinckel.
It is said to be Scandinavia's finest example of a Renaissance church.

Christian IV also initiated a number of projects in Norway that were largely


based
on
Renaissance
architecture He
established
mining
operations
inKongsberg and Rros, now a World Heritage Site. After a devastating fire in 1624,
the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with
an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts, and renamed Christiania. King
Christian also founded the trading city of Kristiansand, once again naming it after
himself.

While stone buildings became more and more common as town houses,
farms continued to be half-timbered, sometimes in conjunction with a single stone
house. Ordinary people continued to live in half-timbered houses.

Holbk in northwestern Sealand began to develop towards the end of the


Middle Ages. Prosperity peaked in the 17th century as corn grown locally was traded

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


with Germany and the Netherlands. The half-timbered houses which now form the
museum date back to that period, providing an insight into how the town functioned
at the time.

Danish country vicarages from this period tended to be built in the same style
as farmhouses, though usually rather larger. A fine example is Klstrup Vicarage
near Kerteminde in north-eastern Funen. The house itself is a thatched halftimbered building with a large rectangular courtyard flanked by outhouses.

2 Notable examples
a

FREDERIKSBORG PALACE - Frederiksborg Palace is a palace in


Hillerd, Denmark. It was built as a royal residence for King Christian IV
and is now a museum of national history. The current edifice replaced a
previous castle erected by Frederick II and is the largest Renaissance
palace in Scandinavia. The palace is located on three small islands in
the middle of Palace Lake (Slotsen) and is adjoined by a large formal
garden in the Baroque style. During the reign of Frederick II, Kronborg
Castle was designed by two Flemish architects, Hans Hendrik van
Paesschen who started the work in 1574 and Anthonis van Obbergen
who finished it in 1585. Modelled on a three-winged French castle, it
was finally completed as a full four-winged building. The castle burnt
down in 1629 but, under orders from Christian IV, was quickly rebuilt
under the leadership of Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger, son of the
famous Flemish artist. It is widely recognized as one of Europe's most
outstanding Renaissance castles and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Frederiksborg Palace (16021620) in Hillerd is the largest Renaissance


palace in Scandinavia. Christian IV had most of Frederick II's original
building pulled down in order to have van Steenwinckel complete a
three-winged French-styled castle with a low terrace wing around a
courtyard. The architectural expression and the decorative finish
clearly reflect Dutch Renaissance preferences as evidenced by the
ornamental portals and windows and especially in sweeping Italianate
gables.

ROSENBORG CASTLE - Rosenborg Castle is a renaissancecastle


located in the centre of Copenhagen, Denmark. The castle was
originally built as a country summerhouse in 1606 and is an example of

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


Christian IV's many architectural projects. It was built in the Dutch
Renaissance style, typical of Danish buildings during this period, and
has been expanded several times, finally evolving into its present
condition by the year 1624. ArchitectsBertel Lange and Hans van
Steenwinckel the Younger are associated with the structural planning
of the castle. In 1606, the king first had a two-storey summerhouse
built on a site he used as a park for relaxation. He then decided to start
work on a much more ambitious building, the castle, which developed
in stages until a Dutch Renaissance masterpiece was completed in
1624. Predating the castle, the Renaissance-style park, is Denmark's
oldest royal garden.
c

KRONBORG - Kronborg is a castle and star fortress in the town


of Helsingr, Denmark. Immortalized as Elsinore in William
Shakespeare's play Hamlet, Kronborg is one of the most
important Renaissance castles in Northern Europe and was added
to UNESCO's World Heritage Sites list on November 30, 2000.

The castle is situated on the extreme northeastern tip of the island


of Zealand at the narrowest point of the resund, the sound
between Denmark andSweden. In this part, the sound is only 4 km
wide, hence the strategic importance of maintaining a sea fortress at
this location commanding one of the few outlets of the Baltic Sea.

The castle's story dates back to a stronghold, Krogen, built by King Eric
VII in the 1420s. Along with the fortress Krnan, Helsingborg on the
opposite coast of resund, it controlled the entranceway to the Baltic
Sea. From 1574 to 1585 King Frederick II had the medieval fortress
radically transformed into a magnificent Renaissance castle. The main
architects were the Flemings Hans Hendrik van
Paesschen and Anthonis van Obbergen, whereas the sculptural work
was coordinated by Gert van Groningen. In 1629 a fire destroyed much
of the castle, but King Christian IV subsequently had it rebuilt. In 1658
Kronborg was besieged and captured by the Swedes who took many of
its valuable art treasures as war booty. In 1785 the castle ceased to be
a royal residence and was converted into barracks for the army. The
army left the castle in 1923, and after a thorough renovation it was
opened to the public.

GAMLE HOUSE - While stone buildings became more and more


common as town houses, farms continued to be half-timbered,

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


sometimes in conjunction with a single stone house. Ordinary people
continued to live in half-timbered houses.

Holbk in northwestern Sealand began to develop towards the end of


the Middle Ages. Prosperity peaked in the 17th century as corn grown
locally was traded with Germany and the Netherlands. The halftimbered houses which now form the museum date back to that
period, providing an insight into how the town functioned at the time.

Danish country vicarages from this period tended to be built in the


same style as farmhouses, though usually rather larger. A fine example
is Klstrup Vicarage near Kerteminde in north-eastern Funen. The
house itself is a thatched half-timbered building with a large
rectangular courtyard flanked by outhouses.

e TRINITY CHURCH - Designed by the Flemish-Danish architect, Lorenz


van Steenwinckel, the grandiose building is widely considered by many
to be Scandinavia's finest Renaissance church. Its extensive nave is
able to accommodate congregations of up to 1,400. Like many Danish
churches of the times, it is built of red brick. But this church is
decorated with many sandstone statues and ornaments, including
several monograms of Christian IV, testifying to his involvement.

The well-preserved interior is decked with star-shaped cross vaults,


supported by pillars of granite. Trinity Church has been little altered
since it was built. The main addition is its 59-meter-tall tower
constructed in 1865. The church is pleasantly and abundantly
illuminated thanks to its 26 tall windows.

The entrance through the western tower opens into a six-bay nave,
with wide aisles, terminating in a projecting eastern sanctuary. The
vaults are covered with a cross-gabled roof, with large ornamented
gables on the north and south sides.

Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia

2. SWEDEN
2.1

Renaissance Architecture in Sweden

The union of Kalmar, which endured for more than a century, was
characterized by constant dissension and wars between Danes and Swedes. In
1520, King Christian II of Denmark and Norway invaded Sweden to enforce his
authority after a spirit of revolt had evinced itself. Having being crowned, however,
he had hundreds of his opponents executed. The mass murders aroused a rebellion
in 1521, led by Gustav Vasa, who became administrator after the successful
rebellion and in 1523, king as Gustav I. Denmark, however, retained possession of
the southern part of the peninsula. Under Gustav, Sweden became hereditary
monarchy in which the power of nobles was circumscribed and that of the clergy
subordinated to the state.

2.2

Notable examples

PALACE THEATRE IN GRIPSHOLM-is a castle in Mariefred,


Sdermanland, in Sweden and is regarded as one of Sweden's finest
historical monuments. A fortress was built at the location around 1380
by Bo Jonsson Grip, and belonged to his family until the confiscation of
mansions and castles by King Gustav I in 1526. The King tore it down,
and built a fortified castle with circular corner towers and a wall, for
defensive purposes. Of the original medieval fortress, only the faade
of a wall remains.

After the Napoleonic Wars and the loss of Finland, national building
activity was concentrated within the military sector. The Karlsborg
Fortress and the Gta Canal, employing 60,000 men in a 23-year
period, were the largest Swedish building projects of all time.

During the 16th century Sweden enter a period of expansion. The


Revalditrict of Estonia put itself voluntarily under Swedish protection in
1561, and as a result of the Livonia War of 1557 to 1582, Sweden
acquired all of Estonia from Poland, including the district of Narva.
Gradually the kingdom became a power in Baltic Area, and its
expansionists policies were furthered by Gustav II Adolph, considered
the greates Swedish King, who succeeded to the throne in 1611. The
king died in 1632, but his policies were continued and brilliantly

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Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


fulfilled by his chancellor, Count Axel Oxenstierna, who directed the
Swedish government during the minority of the monarchs eccentric
daughter Christina.
-

After the Rise of Sweden as a Great Power in the 17th century, the
aristocracy began to build again. At the same time, the notion of the
architect was established and the profession developed. Numerous city
palaces and Landschlsser were built following Western European and
above all, french models. Additionally, the building of churches was
resumed.

KATARINA CHURCH- is one of the major churches in central


Stockholm, Sweden. The original building was constructed 16561695.
It has been rebuilt twice after being destroyed by fires, the second time
during the 1990s. The Katarina-Sofia borough is named after the parish
and the neighboring parish of Sofia.

STOCKHOLM PALACE- the official residence and major royal palace of


the Swedish Monarch (the actual residence of King Carl XVI Gustaf and
Queen Silvia is at Drottningholm Palace).

The palace is built of brick, with midsections of the west, south, and
east faades covered by sandstone.

The roof slopes slightly inwards.

The roof is covered with copper and is surrounded by a


stonebalustrade which is stretched around the entire main building.

The 17th century also saw the founding of a number of cities. They
were set out with a regular Grid plan street pattern with central
squares. The exceptions to this are the Danish Skne and in
Gothenburg, which were laid out to Dutch models in 1619 and include
canals. The designs are still recognizable today, even where the
original timber buildings have now perished.

3. NORWAY
3.1

Renaissance Architecture in Norway

After the Black Death, monumental construction in Norway came to a


standstill, except for vernacular building, only to be resumed in the 16th and 17th

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Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


centuries under Danish administration. There are few examples of Renaissance
architecture in Norway, the most prominent being the Rosenkrantz Tower in
Bergen, Barony Rosendal in Hardanger, and the contemporary Austrt manor
near Trondheim, and parts of Akershus Fortress.
Christian IV undertook a number of projects in Norway that were largely
based on Renaissance architecture. He established mining operations
in Kongsberg and Rros, now a World Heritage Site. After a devastating fire in 1624,
the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an
orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts, and renamed Christiania. King Christian
also founded the trading city of Kristiansand, naming it after himself.

3.2

Notable examples

a. BARONY ROSENDAL- (Baroniet Rosendal) is a historic estate and


manor situated in Kvinnherad in Hordaland county, Norway.
-

The history of Rosendal dates back to the 1650s, when the


nobleman Ludvig Holgersen Rosenkrantz (1628-1685) came
to Bergen as commissioner of war for the Danish king, Fredrik III. At a
ball at the fortress of Bergenhus he met Karen Axelsdatter
Mowatt (1630-1675), sole heiress to the largest fortune of the country
at the time. Her father was a great land-owner and had more than 550
farms all over the western part of Norway. They married in 1658, and
were given the farm of Hatteberg in Rosendal as a wedding present.

In 1661, Ludwig Rosenkrantz started building his own manor in


Rosendal. He completed this in 1665. In 1678 King Christian V of
Denmark gave the estate the status of barony - the only one of its kind
in Norway. Around 1850, an expansive renaissance garden was laid out
around the manor.

The families of Rosendal were important people in the cultural life of


Norway. Authors Henrik Ibsen, Jonas Lie and Alexander Kielland and
painters Hans Gude and Anders Askevold visited Rosendal often.
Musicians like Edvard Grieg and Ole Bull were guests here. Often there
were concerts in Rosendal, a tradition which is still kept alive.

b. ROSENKRANTZ TOWER- The Rosenkrantz


Tower (Norwegian: Rosenkrantztrnet) is one of the most prominent
buildings of Bergenhus fortress. The tower derives its name from

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Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


governor Erik Rosenkrantz (1519-1575). It was during his
administration (15591568) that the tower received its present shape
and structure. The oldest part of the building, however, is made up of
a medieval tower, known as the "Keep by the Sea", built by
King Magnus the Lawmender in the 1270s as part of the royal castle in
Bergen.
-

The keep was slightly modified c. 1520, then extensively modified and
expanded in the 1560s by Scottish stonemasons and architects in the
service of Erik Rosenkrantz to attain its present form. Rosenkrantz'
building contained dungeons on the ground floor, residential rooms for
the governor higher up, and positions for cannons on the top floor. In
the 1740s, the tower was converted to a magazine for gunpowder, a
function it served until the 1930s. The whole building has been open to
the general public since 1966. Today, the tower serves primarily as
a tourist attraction.

c. AUSTRTT- Austrtt or Austrtt Manor (in Norwegian: Austrttborgen)


is a manor in rland municipality, Sr-Trndelag, Norway. Since the
10th century Austrtt has been the residence for many noblemen,
noblewomen and officials who played a significant role in Norwegian
history. In historical records Austrtt can also be found written
as strt, steraat, steraad, Austaat and Austrt.
-

The layout of the manor as it stands today is attributed to


chancellor Ove Bjelke, for whom construction was completed around
1656. The manor house burned in 1916. Restoration was begun in the
1920s and completed in 1961. The manor house was previously part of
a larger property, but the land is now independent from the manor
house. The Norwegian state owns the manor house, which is
administered by Nordenfjeldske Kunstindustrimuseumin Trondheim.
The manor is open for public tours from June until August.

The name Austrtt is thought to derive from the old Norse terms
for eastern (austr) and direction or (tt), which could be interpreted as
eastbound, or possibly the eastern property.

Skjegge Asbjrnson (also known as Jernskjegge meaning Iron Beard) is


the first person whose name is coupled with Austrtt, though only after
his death. According to the Heimskringla Saga of Olav Tryggvason,
Skjegge Asbjrnson from Uphaug in Yrjar (i.e. Opphaug in rland) was

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Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


one of the opponents during King Olav Tryggvasons efforts to convert
Mid-Norway. Skjegge spoke against him at the Frostating in 997, and
King Olavs men killed Skjegge. Snorri Sturluson relates that Skjegge
was buried in Skjegghaugen at Austrtt (haugen from the Old
Norse haugr meaning hill or mound), though this burial mound has
never been identified.
-

Austrtt is one of the oldest residences for Norwegian chieftain &


officials. In the 11th century the feudal lord (lendmann) Finn
Arnesson resided there. He was married to Harald Hardrdes niece
Bergljot Halvdansdottir and so was related by marriage to
two Norwegian Kings: Saint Olaf, and Harald Hardrde. His brother Kalf
was killed in battle against Harald Hardrde at Funen and Finn became
enemies with Harald. He then left Austrtt to serve Sweyn Estridsson,
who appointed him as jarl ruling Halland.

After Finn, Austrtt is not mentioned in the historical sources for 80


years. It is likely that, consistent with the practice of the time, the land
was property of the crown. In 1130 Kre Saksesson (also called Kre
kongsbror literally the kings brother Kre), is recorded as lord of
Austrtt. He was succeeded at Austrtt by his son Sigurd Kresson and
his grandson Jon Sigurdsson. During this period the Austrtt
borgkapell (chapel) which still exists was constructed, most probably
by Jon. Jons daughter Baugeid then came into possession of Austrtt.
She married sulv Eiriksson, who was responsible for the death of
Duke Skule Brdsson.

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fletcher, B. (1896) Sir Banister Fletchers: A History of Architecture 20th
edition. (D. Cruickshank, Ed.) Architectural press
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Scandinavian_art_and_architecture.asp
x
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_architecture#Characteristics_of_
Renaissance_architecture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Denmark
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenborg_Castle
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Denmark
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenborg_Castle
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Denmark

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Renaissance Architecture of Scandinavia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Church,_Kristianstad
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronborg
Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia (Volume 25)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripsholm_Castle
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Sweden#Renaissance
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_Church
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_Palace
http://www.destination-stockholm.com/sights/palace.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austr%C3%A5tt
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barony_Rosendal
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergenhus_Fortress
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Norway

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