Electrical Machine Formulae

Contents
- Notation
- Transformers
- Induction Machines
- Synchronous Machines
- Direct Current Machines
- Efficiency
- Temperature Rise
- Dielectric Dissipation Factor

Notation
The library uses the symbol font for some of the notation and formulae. If the symbols for the
letters 'alpha beta delta' do not appear here [] then the symbol font needs to be installed
before all notation and formulae will be displayed correctly.
[siemens,
S
[volt-amps, VA]
susceptance
voltamperes
S]
B
s
[per-unit]
induced voltage
slip
[volts, V]
E
T
[newton-metres,
frequency
torque
[hertz, Hz]
f
V
Nm]
conductance
terminal
[siemens,
G
X
[volts, V]
current
voltage
S]
I
Y
[ohms, ]
j-operator
reactance
[amps, A]
j
Z
coefficient
admittance
[siemens, S]
[190]
k

number of
impedance
[ohms, ]
m
[number]
loss angle
phases
[degrees, ]
N
[number]
number of turns
magnetic flux
[webers, Wb]
n
[number]

rotational speed
phase angle
[degrees, ]
P
[revs/min]
power
efficiency

[per-unit]
p
[watts, W]
pole pairs
temperature
[centigrade, C]

R
[number]
resistance
angular speed
[radians/sec]

[ohms, ]

Transformers
For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across N1 primary turns
and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across (N1 + N2)
primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1
Note that the winding current is I1 through the N1 section and (I2 - I1) through the N2 section.
For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary current I1, rated
secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2

For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere
rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal transformer
with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2
The secondary circuit impedance Z2 referred to the primary circuit for an ideal transformer
with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z21 = Z2(N1 / N2)2
The voltage regulation V2 of a transformer is the rise in secondary voltage which occurs
when rated load is disconnected from the secondary with rated voltage applied to the primary.
For a transformer with a secondary voltage E2 unloaded and V2 at rated load, the per-unit
voltage regulation V2pu is:
V2pu = (E2 - V2) / V2
Note that the per-unit base voltage is usually V2 and not E2.
Open Circuit Test
If a transformer with its secondary open-circuited is energised at rated primary voltage, then
the input power Poc represents the core loss (iron loss PFe) of the transformer:
Poc = PFe
The per-phase star values of the shunt magnetising admittance Ym, conductance Gm and
susceptance Bm of an m-phase transformer are calculated from the open-circuit test results
for the per-phase primary voltage V1oc, per-phase primary current I1oc and input power Poc
using:
Ym = I1oc / V1oc
Gm = mV1oc2 / Poc
Bm = (Ym2 - Gm2)
Short Circuit Test
If a transformer with its secondary short-circuited is energised at a reduced primary voltage
which causes rated secondary current to flow through the short-circuit, then the input power
Psc represents the load loss (primary copper loss P1Cu, secondary copper loss P2Cu and stray
loss Pstray) of the transformer:
Psc = P1Cu + P2Cu + Pstray
Note that the temperature rise should be allowed to stabilise because conductor resistance
varies with temperature.
If the resistance of each winding is determined by winding resistance tests immediately after
the short circuit test, then the load loss of an m-phase transformer may be split into primary
copper loss P1Cu, secondary copper loss P2Cu and stray loss Pstray:
P1Cu = mI1sc2R1star
P2Cu = mI2sc2R2star
Pstray = Psc - P1Cu - P2Cu
If the stray loss is neglected, the per-phase star values referred to the primary of the total
series impedance Zs1, resistance Rs1 and reactance Xs1 of an m-phase transformer are
calculated from the short-circuit test results for the per-phase primary voltage V1sc, per-phase
primary current I1sc and input power Psc using:
Zs1 = V1sc / I1sc = Z1 + Z2(N12 / N22)
Rs1 = Psc / mI1sc2 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)
Xs1 = (Zs12 - Rs12) = X1 + X2(N12 / N22)
where Z1, R1 and X1 are primary values and Z2, R2 and X2 are secondary values

Winding Resistance Test

The resistance of each winding is measured using a small direct current to avoid thermal and
inductive effects. If a voltage Vdc causes current Idc to flow, then the resistance R is:
R = Vdc / Idc
If the winding under test is a fully connected balanced star or delta and the resistance
measured between any two phases is Rtest, then the equivalent winding resistances Rstar or
Rdelta are:
Rstar = Rtest / 2
Rdelta = 3Rtest / 2
The per-phase star primary and secondary winding resistances R1star and R2star of an m-phase
transformer may be used to calculate the separate primary and secondary copper losses P1Cu
and P2Cu:
P1Cu = mI12R1star
P2Cu = mI22R2star
Note that if the primary and secondary copper losses are equal, then the primary and
secondary resistances R1star and R2star are related by:
R1star / R2star = I22 / I12 = N12 / N22
The primary and secondary winding resistances R1 and R2 may also be used to check the
effect of stray loss on the total series resistance referred to the primary, Rs1, calculated from
the short circuit test results:
Rs1 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)

Induction Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed s of a machine with p
pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
s = 2fs / p = 2ns / 60
The per-unit slip s of an induction machine of synchronous rotational speed ns running at
rotational speed nm is:
s = (ns - nm) / ns
Rearranging for rotational speed nm:
nm = (1 - s)ns
Using angular speed instead of rotational speed n:
m = (1 - s) s
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / m = 60PM / 2nm
For an induction machine with Ns stator turns and Nr rotor turns running at slip s on a supply
of voltage Es and frequency fs, the rotor induced voltage and frequency Er and fr are:
Er = sEsNr / Ns
fr = sfs
For a rotor current Ir, the equivalent stator current Irs is:
Irs = IrNr / Ns
Note that the rotor / stator ratios are Ns / Nr for current, sNr / Ns for voltage and s for
frequency.
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:
Zr = Rr + jsXr

The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed s running at angular speed m and
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a gross
output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
An induction machine can be operated as a generator, a motor or a brake:
- for negative slip (speed above synchronous) the machine is a generator,
- for positive slip between 0 and 1 (speed below synchronous) the machine is a motor,
- for positive slip greater than 1 (speed negative) the machine is a brake,
In all cases the magnetizing current (at lagging power factor) is provided by the supply
system.
No Load Test
If an induction machine with its rotor unloaded is energised at rated voltage, then the input
power represents the sum of the iron loss and mechanical loss of the machine.
Locked Rotor Test
If an induction machine with its rotor locked is energised at a reduced voltage which causes
rated current input, then the input power represents the sum of the full load copper loss and
stray loss of the machine.
Stator Resistance Test
The resistance of the stator winding is measured using a small direct current.

Synchronous Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed s of a machine with p
pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
s = 2fs / p
The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:
Pm = sTm
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / s = PMp / 2fs = 60PM / 2ns
Synchronous Generator
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Synchronous Motor
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous

impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:

V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Note that the field excitation of a parallelled synchronous machine determines its power
factor:
- an under-excited machine operates with a leading power factor,
- an over-excited machine operates with a lagging power factor.
The field excitation of an isolated synchronous generator determines its output voltage.

Direct Current Machines

Shunt Generator
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and armature
resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt generator is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
Shunt Motor
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and armature
resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
Series Motor
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia, armature resistance
Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:

V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)

The field current is equal to the armature current.
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a series motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant induced voltage.
The airgap power Pe for a series motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia2

Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output power Pout and
power loss Ploss is:
= Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin
Rearranging the efficiency equations:
Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / = Ploss / (1 - )
Pout = Pin - Ploss = Pin = Ploss / (1 - )
Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - )Pin = (1 - )Pout /
For an electrical machine with output power Pout (proportional to current) and power loss Ploss
comprising a fixed loss Pfix (independent of current) plus a variable loss Pvar (proportional to
square of current) the efficiency is a maximum when Pvar is equal to Pfix.
For a transformer, Pfix is the iron loss and Pvar is the copper loss plus the stray loss.
For an induction machine, Pfix is the iron loss plus the mechanical loss and Pvar is the copper
loss plus the stray loss.
Energy Conversion
Comparing megawatt-hours and gigajoules, 1 MWh is equivalent to 3.6 GJ. For an energy
conversion process with a per-unit efficiency , 1 MWh of energy output is obtained from
(3.6 / ) GJ of energy input.

Temperature Rise
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature, and the
relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating temperatures. For a linear
relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at temperature 1 and R2 at temperature 2, then:
R1 / ( 1 - 0) = R2 / ( 2 - 0) = (R2 - R1) / ( 2 - 1)
where 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:
R2 / R1 = ( 2 - 0) / ( 1 - 0)

The average temperature rise of a winding under load may be estimated from measured
values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature 1 (usually ambient temperature) and
the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature 2, using:
= 2 - 1 = ( 1 - 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance Rpu relative to R1:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ( 2 - 1) / ( 1 - 0) = / ( 1 - 0)
Note that the resistance values are measured using a small direct current to avoid thermal
and inductive effects.
Copper Windings
The value of 0 for copper is - 234.5 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = ( 1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / ( 1 - 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 C is 0.00393 per degC.
Aluminium Windings
The value of 0 for aluminium is - 228 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = ( 1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / ( 1 - 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 C is 0.00403 per degC.
Note that aluminium has 61% of the conductivity and 30% of the density of copper, therefore
for the same conductance (and same resistance) an aluminium conductor has 164% of the
cross-sectional area, 128% of the diameter and 49% of the mass of a copper conductor.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor

If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system comprising
capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the voltage VR across RS and
the voltage VC across C due to the resulting current I are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
V = (VR2 + VC2)
The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the dielectric loss
angle between VC and V:
tan = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2fCRS
RS = XCtan = tan / 2fC
Note that an increase in the dielectric losses of a insulation system (from an increase in the
series loss resistance RS) results in an increase in tan. Note also that tan increases with
frequency.
The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtan = QCtan

The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase angle between VR and
V:
cos = VR / V
so that and are related by:
+ = 90
tan and cos are related by:
tan = 1 / tan = cos / sin = cos / (1 - cos2)
so that when cos is close to zero, tan cos

Note that the series loss resistance RS is not related to the shunt leakage resistance of
the insulation system (which is measured using direct current).