Traffic and

Transportation
Engineering
Pre-timed Signal Timing and

By

Godfrey Mwesige
BSC (Civil Eng.), Mak; MSC (Trans. Eng.), Illinois, USA

Department of Construction Economics and Management

Faculty of Technology, Makerere University

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1

PRE-TIMED SIGNAL DESIGN.....................................................................................................1-1

1.1

Introduction....................................................................................................... 1-1

1.2

Estimation of Traffic Demand............................................................................1-1

1.3

Design Period..................................................................................................... 1-1

1.4

Existing Junction Condition...............................................................................1-1

1.5

Design Procedure..............................................................................................1-2

1.6

Junction Phase Layout Design Considerations...................................................1-6

CO-ORDINATION OF CLOSELY SPACED SIGNALIZED JUNCTIONS...................2-1

2.1

Introduction....................................................................................................... 2-1

2.2

Key Requirements.............................................................................................. 2-1

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES........................................................................3-1

3.1

Introduction....................................................................................................... 3-1

3.2

Maintenance Activities......................................................................................3-1

3.3

Record Keeping.................................................................................................. 3-1

3.4

Maintenance Staff Requirements......................................................................3-1

3.5

Signal Timings Optimization and Continuing Evaluations.................................3-2

1 PRE-TIMED SIGNAL DESIGN

1.1 Introduction
The procedure to develop signal phase designs is based on the
methodology described in Traffic Engineering, Fourth Edition by Roess,
Prassas

&

McShane

(2004).

Ministry

of

Works,

Housing

and

Communications (2005) Road Design Manual, Vol. 1; Section 8 does not

detail the process of signal timing and design. The procedure by Roess et
al is for pre-timed control systems using time-budget concept for
development of phase plans for signalized intersections. Time-budget
concept is the allocation of green times to individual phases according to
traffic demand. A phase is a combination of non-conflicting movements
using the same green time. The time between two successive green times
of the same phase is equal to the cycle length.
1.2 Estimation of Traffic Demand
Development of phase plans requires estimation of demand at the
junctions. In practice, estimation of demand is through traffic counts at
the junction in 15-minute periods over identified peak periods. The peak
days peak hour volume is used for development of signal phases.
1.3 Design Period
The peak hour demand obtained by traffic counts represents existing
traffic condition. A design year is proposed and future demand estimated
based on existing demand and annual traffic growth rate at the junctions.
The design year should preferably be 15, 20 or 25 years and the traffic
growth factor at the junctions from records. The estimated future
demand is used to develop phase plans.
1.4 Existing Junction Condition
A condition diagram showing existing lane configurations, width, road
reserve and other restrictions is important in determining the final
1

configuration of the improved junction. Quite often, there is need for lane
addition to cater for different movements at the junction that were nonexistent. Particularly, existing lane configurations, movements and traffic
demand are a starting point for determining the cycle length and then
green times.
1.5 Design Procedure
1) Develop a reasonable phase plan from existing lane and movement
configurations. As a starter, determine whether protected rightturn (RT) lanes are required. Equations 1.1 and 1.2 are a guide to
decision-making process. The phase plan also depends on the
junction layout and operational characteristics.

VRT 200

VRT *

[1.1]

Vo
50, 000
N o

[1.2]

Where; VRT = Right-turn volume, vph, Vo = Conflicting through

traffic volume, vph, and No = Number of lanes used by conflicting
through

traffic

stream.

However,

for

safety

considerations

protected right-turn phases should be as part of the design.

Protected right-turn phase is where right-turn movements are
made from separate lanes and allocated own green times. The
Highway Capacity Manual 2000, Chapter 10 recommends addition
of single exclusive right-turn lane if demand is 100 veh/h or more
and double lanes if demand is 300 veh/h or more.
2) Convert all right-turn and left-turn traffic into equivalent through
vehicle units.

This is because turns consume more time than

through movements, and therefore this has to be accounted for in

design. If protected right-turn is proposed, the equivalent factor is
1.05. The left-turn factor depends on conflicting pedestrian
volumes as follows; 1.18 (0 peds/h), 1.21 (50 peds/h), 1.32 (200
peds/h), 1.52 (400 peds/h), and 2.14 (800 peds/h).
2

3) Draw a ring diagram for the proposed phase plan, inserting lane
volumes in (tvus) for each set of movements. Determine the critical
path through the signal phasing, and determine the sum of critical
volumes for the critical path. The sum of critical volumes (V c) used
to compute the cycle length. Typical numbering of lane movements
in a four-legged junction and two-lane approach is shown in Figure
1-1, and typical ring diagram and four phases in Figure 1-2.

N
5 2

8
3
7
4

6 1

Figure 1-1: Typical Four-Legged Junction and Movement Numbering

Figure 1-2: Ring Diagram and Possible Phase configurations

4) Determine the yellow or amber (y) and all-red (ar) intervals for
each signal phase using Equations 1.3 and 1.4 respectively. The
yellow also known as change interval is a function of breaking
distance, speed, and grade of the approach. All-red also known as
clearance interval is a function of the junction width.
yt

S85
2a 2 g *0.01G

[1.3]

Where; y = length of yellow interval, seconds, t = driver reaction

time, assumed at 1.0 seconds, S85 = 85th percentile speed of
approaching vehicles or speed limit in metres per second, a =
deceleration rate of vehicles assumed at 3.045 m/s2 (10 ft/s2), G =
grade of the approach, percent, and g = acceleration due to gravity
taken as 9.81 m/s2.

W L P L
ar max
,

S
S15
15

[1.4]
Where; w = distance from departure stop line to the far side of the
farthest conflicting traffic lane, metres, p = distance from the
departure stop line to the farthest conflicting cross walk, metres, L
= length of the standard vehicle assumed 5.4 -6 metres, and S15 =
15th percentile speed of the approaching traffic or speed limit in
metres per second.

5) Determine the lost time per phase using Equations 1.5 through 1.7.
The lost time is used to compute the desirable cycle length under
time-budget concept.

l2 Y e

[1.5]

Y y ar

[1.6]

t L l1 l2

[1.7]

Where; l1 = start-up lost time, 2.0 second/phase, e = motorist use

of

all-red,

2.0

seconds/phase,

l2

clearance

lost

time,

seconds/phase, tL = total lost time per phase, seconds/phase, ar =

length of all-red clearance interval, seconds, y = length of yellow
change intervals, second, and Y = total length of change +
clearance interval, seconds.
6) Determine the desirable cycle length, C as in Equation 1.8. The
computed cycle length is then rounded-up to reflect the nearest
denominations of cycle length programmed into the controller. The
peak hour factor (PHF) estimated from traffic counts and a
reasonable demand to capacity ratio (V/C) assumed for the model.

Cdes

Vc
1615* PHF *(V / C )

[1.8]

Where; Cdes = desirable cycle length in seconds. It should not

preferably exceed 120 seconds, L = total lost time in a cycle,
Seconds, which is also the sum of all lost times per phase, PHF is
the peak hour factor, and (V/C) = is demand to capacity ratio
assumed at 0.80-0.95 for good operation, and 0.90 common, and V c
= sum of critical volumes, veh/h. If Equation 1.8 returns a negative
cycle length, it means that either Vc has to be reduced by lane
addition at movements with high critical volume, or use a higher
5

(V/C) ratio. However, often it is lane addition that should be

considered, and it is when the number of lanes is increased for
through or right-turn traffic. As a rule of the thumb (Highway
Capacity Manual 2000, Chapter 10), enough lanes should be
provided to keep lane volumes to within 450 veh/h. The value 1615
is the saturation flow rate in through vehicle equivalent units.
7) Allocate the available effective green time within the cycle in
proportion to critical lane volumes to each phase as in Equations
1.9 and 1.10.

gTOT C L

[1.9]

Vci

Vc

gi gTOT

[1.10]

Where; gTOT = total effective green in seconds, gi = effective green

time allocated to a phase, seconds, Vci = critical lane volume for a
given phase, veh/h. Other variables as defined before.
8) Check the pedestrian timing requirements and adjust the signal
timing to suit pedestrian demand using Equations 1.11 or 1.12.

L
N ped
2.7 *

, WE 3m
S p
WE

[1.11]

L
0.27 * N ped , WE 3.0m
S

[1.12]

G p 3.2

G p 3.2

Where; Gp = minimum pedestrian crossing time, seconds, L =

length of the crosswalk, Sp = average walking speed, m/s, assumed
at 1.2 m/s, Nped = number of pedestrians crossing per phase in a
single crosswalk, and WE = width of the cross walk in metres.
9) Draw final phase layout indicating the green and yellow per phase
in addition to crossing WALK, Flashing- DONT WALK and
6

DONT WALK times for pedestrians. The final lane configurations

are then drawn and fitted onto the condition diagram. The
minimum green time computed with Equations 1.11 or 1.12 should
be less or equal to the sum of green and yellow times for subject
vehicular movement. The minimum pedestrian times are computed
using Equations 1.11 or 1.12 by considering the first and third
components only. The Flashing DONT WALK is computed using the
middle term of either equations appropriately.
1.6 Junction Phase Layout Design Considerations
Junction phase and layout design involves development of suitable
phases, movements and timing based on projected traffic demand in the
design year and annual traffic growth. Phase plans developed basing on
the traffic demand, have to be related to the geometric drawing to
determine the actual position of the lanes and other structures. The
design year is normally 20 years as in Federal Highway Administration
(2004, p.106), Signalized Intersections: Information Guide, and annual
traffic growth factor assumed at 8-percent (Annual average increase in
number of registered vehicles in Uganda since 2000). This yields a
compound growth adjustment to existing traffic demand of 4.66 for a
design year traffic demand. That is, in 20 years, traffic at the junctions
will have increased five folds. However, the authority may choose to
reduce the design period based on budget and other constraints.

Shaping the roadway, removal

of rocks

2 CO-ORDINATION OF CLOSELY SPACED SIGNALIZED

JUNCTIONS
2.1 Introduction
Closely spaced (within one kilometre) signalized junctions compel vehicles to
arrive at downstream junctions in platoons or groups in a short time period. As
a result, queues build-up at the downstream signal that may spill over into the
upstream junction if the distance is rather short. To overcome the queue buildups and spillback effects, such signals should be coordinated.

2.2 Key Requirements

Coordination requires signals to have equal cycle length and if possible
equal green times allocated to the phases in the direction of progression.
This is to ensure the beginning of green occurs at the same time relative
to the green at the upstream and downstream junctions. To effectively coordinate two or more signals, a time-space diagram is drawn, and ideal
offsets determined.
The time-space diagram shows the position of a vehicle, in metres and
time in seconds. The time expressed in terms of signal cycle length and
distance corresponds to the distance between the signals as shown in
Figure 2-3. At t= t1, the signal turns green at Junction 1 and vehicles
start to move down the road, and reach the second junction at t=t 2. The
difference between two green initiation times is the signal offset. The
ideal offset is the ratio of the distance and travel speed between the two
intersections as given by Equation 4.1.

tideal

d
s

[4.1]

Where; tideal = ideal offset, d = distance between junctions, metres, and S

= average travel speed between the two junctions. The actual offset
would include the start-up lost time if vehicles had been initially stopped.

Figure 2-3: Time-space diagram for signal coordination

The other important factor to consider is the bandwidth, defined as the time
difference between the first vehicle that can pass through the entire system of
coordinated junctions without stopping and the last vehicle that can pass
through without stopping, measured in seconds. This is illustrated in Figure 2-

3. The bandwidth determines the capacity and progression of the coordinated

system.

3 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES

3.1 Introduction
Traffic control signals to remain effective after installation, they must be
maintained and operated. Immediate traffic problems result when a
signal is not operating or when there is a malfunction. Therefore,
preventive maintenance must be planned and performed to preserve the
intended working condition of the control system. Signal operation and
maintenance includes; inspections, cleanings, replacements, testing,
record keeping, signal timings optimization and continuing evaluations,
and inventories. A program and budget plan must be set up to operate
and maintain the installation throughout the service life. There should be
consideration on installation of microprocessor-based control equipments
other than electro-mechanical control equipments, and the controls
should be based on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) technology. LED lenses
consume less power and have a long service life of at least five (5) years.
3.2 Maintenance Activities
There are two types of signal maintenance; preventive (planned on a
periodic basis) and emergency response. A good plan substantially
reduces the need for more costly emergency or maintenance activities.
The major activities carried out during preventive maintenance include;
inspection/testing of signal control equipment, alignment of signal heads,
replacement of burnt out lenses, cleaning of lenses and protective
paintings, replacement of damaged parts.
3.3 Record Keeping
Maintenance of traffic signals involves a major investment in labour,
materials, and funds; it therefore requires a high degree of management.
Service reports should be kept for the entire period, by a responsible
department or contractor. The service reports become a basis for
planning, design and maintenance decisions for future application. The

records should include as built drawings, signal-timing charts and any

changes thereafter and maintenance activities since installation.
3.4 Maintenance Staff Requirements
Well-trained maintenance personnel are essential for any effective
maintenance program, and the training is a pre-requisite to the program.
The training is on the basic traffic engineering and operation of
signalized junctions as well as the working environment of the control
system. As part of the procurement process, the manufacturer or supplier
may be required to perform training sessions on the operation and
maintenance of the control equipment. However, training on the basic
traffic engineering and operation of signalized junctions is from
institutions or short-term lectures from experienced personnel. It is
important

that

maintenance

staff

understand

the

basic

traffic

engineering knowledge prior to control equipment operation training.

However, contracting maintenance work to a larger agency or private
contractor is another possible option practiced all over the world. The
advantages of contracting maintenance are; easy implementation of
minor improvements without formal bidding process, the authority does
not need to maintain an inventory or replacement parts as this rests with
the contractor, the contractor assumes greater liability role if failure to
perform or respond within reasonable limits of time, and reduction in
staff and testing equipment requirements. The major drawback to
contracting maintenance works is costs involved compared to in-house
operations although this is offset by perceived efficiency derived from
contracting. The contractors costs include profits, overheads, and labour
that are not included in in-house operations.
3.5 Signal Timings Optimization and Continuing Evaluations
After a signal is installed and operated over time, field evaluations should
be conducted to determine whether the signal is operating correctly and
efficiently. The objective of signal timing is to alternate the right of way

between traffic streams so that the average delays to all vehicles and
pedestrians are minimized. The growth pattern of the neighbourhood
over time may increase demand significantly on one approach than the
other necessitating re-timing to cater for the demand. Signal timing
optimization is a continuous effort requiring periodic (at least 2 years)
measurement of traffic volume patterns for purposes of re-computing
green times.
Before and after studies should be conducted to determine whether
newly installed signal is operating efficiently and that there are no
conflicts

in

the

movements.

The

studies

serve

to

define

traffic

characteristics before and after installation of the signal. The major areas
of study include; traffic volumes, spot speed, travel time and delay,
junction delay, capacity and crashes.