Halogen

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the chemical series. For other uses, see Halogen (disambiguation).
Halogen
s

chalcoge
ns
noble
gases

IUP
AC
grou
p
num
ber
Nam
e by
elem
ent

17

flu
ori
ne
gro
up
Trivi hal
al
og
name ens
CAS VII
A
group
numb
er
(US,
pattern
A-BA)

old
IUPA
C
numb
er
(Europ
e,
pattern
A-B)

VII
B

 Period

Fluorine
(F)
9 Haloge
n

Chlorine
(Cl)
17 Halog
en

Bromine
(Br)
35 Halog
en

Iodine (I
)
53 Halog
en

Astatine
(At)
85 Halog
en

Legend
primord
ial
element
element
from
decay
Atomic
number
color:
black=so
lid, gree
n=liquid
, red=ga
s

The halogens or halogen elements (/hldn/) are a group in theperiodic

table consisting of five chemically
related elements: fluorine (F),chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). The
artificially created element 117 (ununseptium) may also be a halogen. In the
modernIUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17.
The name 'halogen' means 'salt-producing'. When halogens react with metals they
produce a wide range of salts, including calcium fluoride, sodium chloride (common
salt), silver bromide and potassium iodide.

The group of halogens is the only periodic table group that contains elements in three of
the four main states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens
form acids when bonded to hydrogen. Most halogens are typically produced
from minerals or salts. The middle halogens, that is chlorine, bromine and iodine, are
often used asdisinfectants. Organobromides are the most important class of flame
retardants. Elemental halogens are lethally to dangerously toxic.
Contents
[hide]

1History
1.1Etymology

2Characteristics
o

2.1Chemical

2.2Physical and atomic

3Production

4Applications

5Biological role

6Toxicity

7Superhalogen

8See also

9Notes

10References

11Further reading

History[edit]
The fluorine mineral fluorospar was known as early as 1529. Early chemists realized that
fluorine compounds contain an undiscovered element, but were unable to isolate it. In
1869, George Gore, an English chemist, ran a current of electricity through hydrofluoric
acid and discovered fluorine, but he was unable to prove his results at the time. In
1886, Henri Moissan, a chemist in Paris, performed electrolysis on potassium
bifluoride dissolved in waterless hydrofluoric acid, and successfully produced fluorine. [1]
Hydrochloric acid was known to alchemists and early chemists. However, elemental
chlorine was not produced until 1774, when Carl Wilhelm Scheeleheated hydrochloric
acid with manganese dioxide. Scheele called the element "dephlogisticated muriatic
acid", which is how chlorine was known for 33 years. In 1807, Humphry
Davy investigated chlorine and discovered that it is an actual element. Chlorine was used
as a poison gas during World War I.[1]

Bromine was discovered in the 1820s by Antoine-Jrme Balard. Balard discovered

bromine by passing chlorine gas through a sample of brine. He originally proposed the
name muride for the new element, but the French Academy changed the element's name
to bromine.[1]
Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois, who was using seaweed ash as part of a
process for saltpeter manufacture. Courtois typically boiled the seaweed ash with water
to generate potassium chloride. However, in 1811, Courtois added sulfuric acid to his
process, and found that his process produced purple fumes that condensed into black
crystals. Suspecting that these crystals were a new element, Courtois sent samples to
other chemists for investigation. Iodine was proven to be a new element by Joseph GayLussac.[1]
In 1931, Fred Allison claimed to have discovered element 85 with a magneto-optical
machine, and named the element Alabamine, but was mistaken. In 1937, Jajendralal
De claimed to have discovered element 85 in minerals, and called the element dakine,
but he was also mistaken. An attempt at discovering element 85 in 1939 by Horia
Hulublei and Yvette Cauchois via spectroscopy was also unsuccessful, as was an
attempt in the same year by Walter Minder, who discovered an iodine-like element
resulting from beta decay of radium. Element 85, now named astatine, was produced
successfully in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, K.R. Mackenzie, and Emilio G. Segr, who
bombarded bismuth with alpha particles.[1]

Etymology[edit]
In 1842, the Swedish chemist Baron Jns Jakob Berzelius proposed the term "halogen"
(hls), "salt" or "sea", and - (gen-), "to produce" for the four elements (fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, and iodine) that produce a sea-salt-like substance when they form
a compound with a metal.[2] The word "halogen" had actually first been proposed in 1811
by Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger as a name for the newly discovered
element chlorine, but Davy's proposed term for this element eventually won out, and
Schweigger's term was kept at Berzelius' suggestion as the term for the element group
that contains chlorine.[3]
Fluorine's name comes from the Latin word fluere, meaning "to flow". Chlorine's name
comes from the Greek wordchloros, meaning "greenish-yellow". Bromine's name comes
from the Greek word bromos, meaning "stench". Iodine's name comes from the Greek
word iodes, meaning "violet". Astatine's name comes from the Greek wordastatos,
meaning "unstable".[1]

Characteristics[edit]
Chemical[edit]
The halogens show trends in chemical bond energy moving from top to bottom of the
periodic table column with fluorine deviating slightly. (It follows trend in having the highest
bond energy in compounds with other atoms, but it has very weak bonds within the
diatomic F2 molecule.) This means, as you go down the periodic table, the reactivity of
the element will decrease because of the increasing size of the atoms.[4]
Halogen bond energies (kJ/mol)[5]
X

X2

H
X

BX3 AlX3 CX4

15
9

57
4

645

582

456

Cl

24
3

42
8

444

427

327

19

36

368

360

272

15
1

29
4

272

285

239

Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to biological
organisms in sufficient quantities. This high reactivity is due to the highelectronegativity of
the atoms due to their high effective nuclear charge. Because the halogens have seven
valence electrons in their outermost energy level, they can gain an electron by reacting
with atoms of other elements to satisfy the octet rule. Fluorine is one of the most reactive
elements, attacking otherwise-inert materials such as glass, and forming compounds with
the usually inert noble gases. It is a corrosive and highly toxic gas. The reactivity of
fluorine is such that, if used or stored in laboratory glassware, it can react with glass in
the presence of small amounts of water to form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). Thus, fluorine
must be handled with substances such as Teflon (which is itself
an organofluorine compound), extremely dry glass, or metals such as copper or steel,
which form a protective layer of fluoride on their surface.
The high reactivity of fluorine allows paradoxically some of the strongest bonds possible,
especially to carbon. For example, Teflon is fluorine bonded with carbon and is extremely
resistant to thermal and chemical attack and has a high melting point.
Molecules[edit]
Diatomic halogen molecules[edit]
The halogens form homonuclear diatomic molecules (not proven for astatine). Due to
relatively weak intermolecular forces, chlorine and fluorine form part of the group known
as "elemental gases".
d(XX) / pm
(gas phase)

d(XX) / pm
(solid phase)

F2

143

149

chlorine

Cl2

199

198

bromine

Br2

228

227

iodine

I2

266

272

halogen

molecule

fluorine

structure

model

The elements become less reactive and have higher melting points as the atomic number
increases. The higher melting points are caused by stronger London dispersion
forces resulting from more electrons.

Compounds[edit]
Hydrogen halides[edit]
All of the halogens have been observed to react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides.
For fluorine, chlorine, and bromine, this reaction is in the form of:
H2 + X2 2HX
However, hydrogen iodide and hydrogen astatide can split back into their constituent
elements.[6]
The hydrogen-halogen reactions get gradually less reactive toward the heavier halogens.
A fluorine-hydrogen reaction is explosive even when it is dark and cold. A chlorinehydrogen reaction is also explosive, but only in the presence of light and heat. A brominehydrogen reaction is even less explosive; it is explosive only when exposed to flames.
Iodine and astatine only partially react with hydrogen, forming equilibria.[6]
All halogens form binary compounds with hydrogen known as the hydrogen
halides: hydrogen fluoride (HF),hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen
bromide (HBr), hydrogen iodide (HI), and hydrogen astatide (HAt). All of these
compounds form acids when mixed with water. Hydrogen fluoride is the only hydrogen
halide that forms hydrogen bonds. Hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid,
and hydroastatic acid are all strong acids, but hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid.[7]
All of the hydrogen halides are irritants. Hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride are
highly acidic. Hydrogen fluoride is used as an industrial chemical, and is highly toxic,
causing pulmonary edema and damaging cells.[8] Hydrogen chloride is also a dangerous
chemical. Breathing in gas with more than fifty parts per million of hydrogen chloride can
cause death in humans.[9] Hydrogen bromide is even more toxic and irritating than
hydrogen chloride. Breathing in gas with more than thirty parts per million of hydrogen
bromide can be lethal to humans.[10] Hydrogen iodide, like other hydrogen halides, is toxic.
[11]

Metal halides[edit]
Main article: Metal halides
All the halogens are known to react with sodium to form sodium fluoride, sodium
chloride, sodium bromide, sodium iodide, and sodium astatide. Heated sodium's reaction
with halogens produces bright-orange flames. Sodium's reaction with chlorine is in the
form of:
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl[6]
Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to form Iron(III) halides. These reactions
are in the form of:
2Fe + 3X2 2FeX3[6]
However, when iron reacts with iodine, it forms only iron(II) iodide.
Iron wool can react rapidly with fluorine to form the white compound iron(III) fluoride even
in cold temperatures. When chlorine comes into contact with heated iron, they react to
form the black iron (III) chloride. However, if the reaction conditions are moist, this
reaction will instead result in a reddish-brown product. Iron can also react with bromine to
form iron(III) bromide. This compound is reddish-brown in dry conditions. Iron's reaction
with bromine is less reactive than its reaction with fluorine or chlorine. Hot iron can also
react with iodine, but it forms iron(II) iodide. This compound may be gray, but the reaction
is always contaminated with excess iodine, so it is not known for sure. Iron's reaction with
iodine is less vigorous than its reaction with the lighter halogens.[6]
Interhalogen compounds[edit]
Main article: Interhalogen

Interhalogen compounds are in the form of XYn where X and Y are halogens and n is
one, three, five, or seven. Interhalogen compounds contain at most two different
halogens. Large interhalogens, such as ClF3 can be produced by a reaction of a pure
halogen with a smaller interhalogen such as ClF. All interhalogens except IF7 can be
produced by directly combining pure halogens in various conditions.[12]
Interhalogens are typically more reactive than all diatomic halogen molecules except
F2 because interhalogen bonds are weaker. However, the chemical properties of
interhalogens are still roughly the same as those of diatomichalogens. Many
interhalogens consist of one or more atoms of fluorine bonding to a heavier halogen.
Chlorine can bond with up to 3 fluorine atoms, bromine can bond with up to five fluorine
atoms, and iodine can bond with up to seven fluorine atoms. Most interhalogen
compounds are covalent gases. However, there are some interhalogens that are liquids,
such as BrF3, and many iodine-containing interhalogens are solids.[12]
Organohalogen compounds[edit]
Many synthetic organic compounds such as plastic polymers, and a few natural ones,
contain halogen atoms; these are known as halogenated compounds or organic halides.
Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the halogens in seawater, and the only one
needed in relatively large amounts (as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride
ions play a key role in brain function by mediating the action of the inhibitory
transmitter GABA and are also used by the body to produce stomach acid. Iodine is
needed in trace amounts for the production of thyroid hormones such asthyroxine. On the
other hand, neither fluorine nor bromine is believed to be essential for humans.
Organohalogens are also synthesized through the nucleophilic abstraction reaction.
Polyhalogenated compounds[edit]
Polyhalogenated compounds are industrially created compounds substituted with
multiple halogens. Many of them are very toxic and bioaccumulate in humans, and have
a very wide application range. They include PCBs, PBDEs, and perfluorinated
compounds (PFCs), as well as numerous other compounds.
Reactions[edit]
Reactions with water[edit]
Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O2) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):
[13]

2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) O2(g) + 4 HF(aq)

Chlorine has maximum solubility of ca. 7.1 g Cl2 per kg of water at ambient
temperature (21 C).[14] Dissolved chlorine reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and hypochlorous acid, a solution that can be used as a disinfectant orbleach:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water,[15] but it slowly reacts to
form hydrogen bromide (HBr) andhypobromous acid (HBrO):
Br2(g) + H2O(l) HBr(aq) + HBrO(aq)
Iodine, however, is minimally soluble in water (0.03 g/100 g water at 20 C)
and does not react with it.[16] However, iodine will form an aqueous solution in
the presence of iodide ion, such as by addition of potassium iodide (KI),
because the triiodide ion is formed.

Physical and atomic[edit]

The table below is a summary of the key physical and atomic properties of
the halogens. Data marked with question marks are either uncertain or are
estimations partially based on periodic trends rather than observations.

Halo
gen

Standarda Melti Melti

tomic
ng
ng
weight
point point
(u)[n 1][18]
(K)
(C)

Boili
ng
poin
t
(K)
[19]

Densi
Boili
ty
ng
(g/cm
point
3
at
(C) 25 C
[19]
)

Electroneg
ativity
(Pauling)

Firstioniz
ation
energy
(kJmol1)

Coval
ent
radiu
s
(pm)
[20]

Fluori
ne

18.998403
2(5)

53.53

219.
62

85.0
3

188
.12

0.001
7

3.98

1681.0

71

Chlor
ine

[35.446;
35.457][n 2]

171.6

101.
5

239.
11

34.
04

0.003
2

3.16

1251.2

99

Brom
ine

79.904(1)

265.8

7.3

332.
0

58.8

3.102
8

2.96

1139.9

114

126.90447( 386.8
3)
5

113.7

457.
4

184.3

4.933

2.66

1008.4

133

302

?
610

?
337

?
6.2
6.5[21]

2.2

? 887.7

Iodin
e

Astati
ne

[210][n 3]

575

Isotopes[edit]
Fluorine has one stable and naturally occurring isotope, fluorine-19.
However, there are trace amounts in nature of the radioactive isotope
fluorine-23, which occurs via cluster decay of protactinium-231. A total of
eighteen isotopes of fluorine have been discovered, with atomic masses
ranging from 14 to 31. Chlorine has two stable and naturally
occurring isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. However, there are trace
amounts in nature of the isotope chlorine-36, which occurs via spallation of
argon-36. A total of 24 isotopes of chlorine have been discovered, with
atomic masses ranging from 28 to 51.[1]
There are two stable and naturally occurring isotopes of bromine, bromine79 and bromine-81. A total of 32 isotopes of bromine have been discovered,
with atomic masses ranging 67 to 98. There is one stable and naturally
occurringisotope of iodine, iodine-127. However, there are trace amounts in
nature of the radioactive isotope iodine-129, which occurs via spallation and
from the radioactive decay of uranium in ores. Several other radioactive
isotopes of iodine have also been created naturally via the decay of uranium.
A total of 38 isotopes of iodine have been discovered, with atomic masses
ranging from 108 to 145.[1]
There are no stable isotopes of astatine. However, there are three naturally
occurring radioactive isotopes of astatine produced via radioactive decay
of uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. These isotopes are astatine-215,
astatine-217, and astatine-219. A total of 31 isotopes of astatine have been
discovered, with atomic masses ranging from 193 to 223. [1]

Production[edit]
Approximately six million metric tons of the fluorine mineral fluorite are
produced each year. Four hundred-thousand metric tons of hydrofluoric acid
are made each year. Fluorine gas is made from hydrofluoric acid produced
as a by-product of phosphoric acid manufacture. Approximately 15,000
metric tons of fluorine gas are made per year.[1]
The mineral halite is the mineral that is most commonly mined for chlorine,
but the minerals carnallite and sylvite are also mined for chlorine. Forty
million metric tons of chlorine are produced each year by
the electrolysis of brine.[1]
Approximately 450,000 metric tons of bromine are produced each year. Fifty
percent of all bromine produced is produced in the United States, 35%
in Israel, and most of the remainder in China. Historically, bromine was
produced by adding sulfuric acid and bleaching powder to natural brine.
However, in modern times, bromine is produced by electrolysis, a method
invented by Herbert Dow. It is also possible to produce bromine by passing
chlorine through seawater and then passing air through the seawater.[1]
In 2003, 22,000 metric tons of iodine were produced. Chile produces 40% of
all iodine produced, Japan produces 30%, and smaller amounts are
produced in Russia and the United States. Until the 1950s, iodine was
extracted fromkelp. However, in modern times, iodine is produced in other
ways. One way that iodine is produced is by mixingsulfur
dioxide with nitrate ores, which contain some iodates. Iodine is also
extracted from natural gas fields.[1]
Even though astatine is naturally occurring, it is usually produced by
bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.[1]

From left to right: chlorine, bromine, and iodine at room temperature. Chlorine is
a gas, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. Fluorine could not be included in
the image due to its high reactivity.

Applications[edit]
Both chlorine and bromine are used as disinfectants for drinking water,
swimming pools, fresh wounds, spas, dishes, and surfaces. They
kill bacteria and other potentially harmfulmicroorganisms through a process
known as sterilization. Their reactivity is also put to use in bleaching. Sodium
hypochlorite, which is produced from chlorine, is the active ingredient of
most fabric bleaches, and chlorine-derived bleaches are used in the
production of some paper products. Chlorine also reacts with sodium to
create sodium chloride, which is another name for table salt.
Halogen lamps are a type of incandescent lamp using a tungsten filament in
bulbs that have a small amounts of a halogen, such as iodine or bromine
added. This enables the production of lamps that are much smaller than

non-halogen incandescent lightbulbs at the same wattage. The gas reduces

the thinning of the filament and blackening of the inside of the bulb resulting
in a bulb that has a much greater life. Halogen lamps glow at a higher
temperature (2800 to 3400 Kelvin) with a whiter color than incandescent
bulbs. However, this requires bulbs to be manufactured from fused
quartz rather than silica glass to reduce breakage.[22]
In drug discovery, the incorporation of halogen atoms into a lead drug
candidate results in analogues that are usually more lipophilic and less
water-soluble.[23] As a consequence, halogen atoms are used to improve
penetration through lipid membranes and tissues. It follows that there is a
tendency for some halogenated drugs to accumulate in adipose tissue.
The chemical reactivity of halogen atoms depends on both their point of
attachment to the lead and the nature of the halogen. Aromatic halogen
groups are far less reactive than aliphatic halogen groups, which can exhibit
considerable chemical reactivity. For aliphatic carbon-halogen bonds, the CF bond is the strongest and usually less chemically reactive than aliphatic CH bonds. The other aliphatic-halogen bonds are weaker, their reactivity
increasing down the periodic table. They are usually more chemically
reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. As a consequence, the most common
halogen substitutions are the less reactive aromatic fluorine and chlorine
groups.

Biological role[edit]
Fluoride anions are found in ivory, bones, teeth, blood, eggs, urine, and hair
of organisms. Fluoride anions in very small amounts are essential for
humans. There are 0.5 milligrams of fluorine per liter of human blood.
Human bones contain 0.2 to 1.2% fluorine. Human tissue contains
approximately 50 parts per billion of fluorine. A typical 70-kilogram human
contains 3 to 6 grams of fluorine.[1]
Chloride anions are essential to a large number of species, humans
included. The concentration of chlorine in thedry weight of cereals is 10 to 20
parts per million, while in potatoes the concentration of chloride is 0.5%.
Plant growth is adversely affected by chloride levels in the soil falling below 2
parts per million. Human blood contains an average of 0.3% chlorine.
Human bone typically contains 900 parts per million of chlorine. Human
tissue contains approximately 0.2 to 0.5% chlorine. There is a total of 95
grams of chlorine in a typical 70-kilogram human.[1]
Some bromine in the form of the bromide anion is present in all organisms. A
biological role for bromine in humans has not been proven, but some
organisms contain organobromine compounds. Humans typically consume 1
to 20 milligrams of bromine per day. There are typically 5 parts per million of
bromine in human blood, 7 parts per million of bromine in human bones, and
7 parts per million of bromine in human tissue. A typical 70-kilogram human
contains 260 milligrams of bromine.[1]
Humans typically consume less than 100 micrograms of iodine per day.
Iodine deficiency can cause intellectual disability. Organoiodine
compounds occur in humans in some of the glands, especially the thyroid
gland, as well as the stomach, epidermis, and immune system. Foods
containing iodine include cod, oysters, shrimp, herring, lobsters,sunflower
seeds, seaweed, and mushrooms. However, iodine is not known to have a
biological role in plants. There are typically 0.06 milligrams per liter of iodine
in human blood, 300 parts per billion of iodine in human bones, and 50 to
700 parts per billion of iodine in human tissue. There are 10 to 20 milligrams
of iodine in a typical 70-kilogram human.[1]

Astatine has no biological role.[1]

Toxicity[edit]
The halogens tend to decrease in toxicity towards the heavier halogens. [24]
Fluorine gas is extremely toxic; breathing fluorine gas at a concentration of
0.1% for several minutes is lethal. Hydrofluoric acid is also toxic, being able
to penetrate skin and cause highly painful burns. In addition, fluoride anions
are toxic, but not as toxic as pure fluorine. Fluoride can be lethal in amounts
of 5 to 10 grams. Prolonged consumption of fluoride above concentrations of
1.5 mg/L is associated with a risk of dental fluorosis, an aesthetic condition
of the teeth.[25] At concentrations above 4 mg/L, there is an increased risk of
developing skeletal fluorosis, a condition in which bone fractures become
more common due to the hardening of bones. Current recommended levels
in water fluoridation, a way to prevent dental caries, range from 0.7 to
1.2 mg/L to avoid the detrimental effects of fluoride while at the same time
reaping the benefits.[26] People with levels between normal levels and those
required for skeletal fluorosis tend to have symptoms similar to arthritis.[1]
Chlorine gas is highly toxic. Breathing in chlorine at a concentration of 3
parts per million can rapidly cause a toxic reaction. Breathing in chlorine at a
concentration of 50 parts per million is highly dangerous. Breathing in
chlorine at a concentration of 500 parts per million for a few minutes is lethal.
Breathing in chlorine gas is highly painful.[24]Hydrochloric acid is a dangerous
chemical.[1]
Pure bromine is somewhat toxic, but less toxic than fluorine and chlorine.
One hundred milligrams of bromine is lethal.[1] Bromide anions are also toxic,
but less so than bromine. Bromide has a lethal dose of 30 grams.[1]
Iodine is somewhat toxic, being able to irritate the lungs and eyes, with a
safety limit of 1 milligram per cubic meter. When taken orally, 3 grams of
iodine can be lethal. Iodide anions are mostly nontoxic, but these can also
be deadly if ingested in large amounts.[1]
Astatine is very radioactive and thus highly dangerous.[1]

Superhalogen[edit]
Main article: Superatom
Certain aluminium clusters have superatom properties. These aluminium
clusters are generated as anions (Al
n with n = 1,2,3,...) in helium gas and reacted with a gas containing iodine.
When analyzed by mass spectrometry one main reaction product turns out
to be Al
13I
.[27] These clusters of 13 aluminium atoms with an extra electron added do
not appear to react with oxygen when it is introduced in the same gas
stream. Assuming each atom liberates its 3 valence electrons, this means 40
electrons are present, which is one of the magic numbers for sodium and
implies that these numbers are a reflection of the noble gases.
Calculations show that the additional electron is located in the aluminium
cluster at the location directly opposite from the iodine atom. The cluster
must therefore have a higher electron affinity for the electron than iodine and
therefore the aluminium cluster is called a superhalogen (i.e., the vertical
electron detachment energies of the moieties that make up the negative ions
are larger than those of any halogen atom).[28] The cluster component in
the Al

13I

ion is similar to an iodide ion or a bromide ion. The related Al

13I
2 cluster is expected to behave chemically like the triiodideion.[29][30]

See also[edit]
Look up halogen in
Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.

Pseudohalogen

Halogen bond

Halogen lamp

Interhalogen

Notes[edit]
1.

Jump up^ The number given in parentheses refers to the measurement

uncertainty. This uncertainty applies to the least significant figure(s) of the
number prior to the parenthesized value (i.e., counting from rightmost digit
to left). For instance, 1.00794(7)stands for 1.007940.00007,
while 1.00794(72) stands for 1.007940.00072.[17]

2.

Jump up^ The average atomic weight of this element changes depending
on the source of the chlorine, and the values in brackets are the upper and
lower bounds.[18]

3.

Jump up^ The element does not have any stable nuclides, and the value in
brackets indicates the mass number of the longest-livedisotope of the
element.[18]

References[edit]
1.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Emsley, John (2011). Nature's

Building Blocks. ISBN 0199605637.

2.

Jump up^ Online Etymology Dictionary halogen.

3.

Jump up^ Snelders, H. A. M. (1971). "J. S. C. Schweigger: His

Romanticism and His Crystal Electrical Theory of Matter". Isis 62 (3):
328. doi:10.1086/350763. JSTOR 229946.

4.

Jump up^ Page 43, Edexcel International GCSE chemistry revision guide,
Curtis 2011

5.

Jump up^ Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 804.

6.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e Jim Clark (2011). "Assorted reactions of the halogens".

Retrieved February 27, 2013

7.

Jump up^ Jim Clark (2002). "THE ACIDITY OF THE HYDROGEN

HALIDES". Retrieved February 24, 2013

8.

Jump up^ "Facts about hydrogen fluoride". 2005. Retrieved February 2013

9.

Jump up^ "Hydrogen chloride". Retrieved February 24, 2013

10. Jump up^ "Hydrogen bromide". Retrieved February 24, 2013

11. Jump up^ "Poison Facts:Low Chemicals: Hydrogen Iodid".
Retrieved 2015-04-12.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b Saxena, P. B (2007). Chemistry Of Interhalogen
Compounds. ISBN 9788183562430. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
13. Jump up^ "The Oxidising Ability of the Group 7 Elements".
Chemguide.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-12-29.
14. Jump up^ "Solubility of chlorine in water". Resistoflex.com.
Retrieved 2011-12-29.
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Further reading[edit]

Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the

Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.ISBN 0080379419.