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Abstract
This paper reviews current understanding of mercury induced liquid metal embrittlement (LME) and the mechanism of failure in aluminium
heat exchangers. Natural gas can be contaminated with low levels of mercury, which can concentrate in cryogenic heat exchangers. There have
been several instances where LME has led to major failures and gas leakage in gas processing plant.
q 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Liquid metal embrittlement; Mercury; Aluminium heat exchangers; Natural gas
1. Introduction
0308-0161/$ - see front matter q 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpvp.2006.02.022
R. Coade, D. Coldham / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 83 (2006) 336342
337
(7)
(6)
Fig. 1. Schematic view of cryogenic heat exchanger showing the manifolds (6)
and nozzles (7).
3.1. Amalgamation
Amalgamation is the process by which mercury forms liquid
solutions with various metals, primarily Al, Au, Ag and Zn. In
the case of aluminium, the concentration of aluminium in the
amalgam is low and thus the depth of attack is limited.
Furthermore, aluminium is generally prevented from contact
with mercury by the Al2O3 protective surface oxidefor the
amalgam reaction the mercury must wet the aluminium metal
surface. The oxide on aluminium is not homogeneous and
contains numerous defects, but in general mercury will not
migrate through these microscopic cracks and defects to reach
the underlying metal. However, if the extent or severity of such
defects is increased by thermal or mechanical stresses, abrasion
or some chemical environments there is increased risk of
mercury damage.
3.2. Amalgam corrosion
Amalgam corrosion is the combined action of mercury and
moisture producing a corrosion process that propagates with
miniscule amounts of mercury. The reaction is:
Hg C Al/ HgAl amalgam
(1)
(2)
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R. Coade, D. Coldham / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 83 (2006) 336342
R. Coade, D. Coldham / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 83 (2006) 336342
339
Fig. 2. Photograph showing the surface of the longitudinal crack and the
delamination cracks, which are more visible in the macroscopic view of a
section through the primary crack after polishing showing the nature and length
of cracking.
Fig. 4. Examples of delamination cracking that has deviated and intersected the
internal surface, with alumina whiskers clearly exposing the cracks.
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R. Coade, D. Coldham / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 83 (2006) 336342
Fig. 6. Cracks at the outer surface of the circumferential weld and within the
weld showing extensive branched intergranular cracking. 100!95/141!.
R. Coade, D. Coldham / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 83 (2006) 336342
Fig. 8. Longitudinal fracture surface at the top of one of the ridges showing
lamellar cracking and a more detailed views of the substructure of the fracture
showing additional cracking across the lamellar cracking and tearing with some
boundaries visible and possible sites where second phase particles have been
removed.
7. Discussion
Liquid metal embrittlement and cracking of aluminium
alloys by mercury requires the presence of mercury in the
liquid state, tensile stress above a threshold value, which can be
as low as 5% of the yield stress under some conditions for
5083-0 aluminium alloys in mercury, and wetting of the
aluminium substrate by the liquid metal, which requires rupture
of oxide films between the substrate and liquid metal. The
fracture surfaces exhibited droplets of mercury throughout, and
these occur after superficial oxidation leads to de-wetting of the
surface. Associated with this is the formation of alumina
whiskers. Both these features when observed on fracture
surfaces provide strong support for LME as the failure
mechanism.
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