ASHRAE Journal May 2015

Sponsor of the May Digital Edition
ASHRAE Journal
MAY 2015
ASHRAE
JOURNAL
THE MAGAZINE OF HVAC&R TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
ASHRAE.ORG
Science for Sustainability
Beacon for Urban Waters

Automation Dashboards | UFAD Controls | Commercial Kitchen Ventilation Fire Mitigation
Inside | The Path to a Net Zero-Ready School
www.info.hotims.com/54428-18
CONTENTS VOL. 57, NO. 5, MAY 2015
STANDING COLUMNS
38
46 ENGINEERS NOTEBOOK
Control of Underfloor
Air-Distribution Systems
By Daniel H. Nall, P.E.
54 BUILDING SCIENCES
54
Vitruvius Does Veneers
72
By Joseph W. Lstiburek, Ph.D., P.Eng.
FEATURES
16
Commercial Kitchen
Ventilation Fire Mitigation
80 DATA CENTERS
The Digital Revolution,

Part 3
By Donald L. Beaty, P.E.; David Quirk, P.E.
By Stephen K. Melink, P.E.
28
Criteria for Building Automation

Dashboards
90 REFRIGERATION
Watts the Big Occasion?

By Andy Pearson, Ph.D., C.Eng.
By Frank Shadpour, P.E.; Joseph Kilcoyne, P.E.
62
Hydronics 101
By Jeff Boldt, P.E.; Julia Keen, Ph.D., P.E.
2015 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARDS
38
A Beacon for Urban Waters

By Matthew Longsine, P.E.
72
Net Zero-Ready School

By Brian Haugk, P.E.; Brian Cannon, P.E.
ASHRAE Journal (ISSN 0001-2491) MISSION STATEMENT | ASHRAE Journal reviews current HVAC&R technology of broad interest through publication of
application-oriented articles. ASHRAE Journals editorial content ranges from back-to-basics features to reviews of emerging technologies,
covering the entire spectrum of professional interest from design and construction practices to commissioning and the service life of
HVAC&R environmental systems. PUBLISHED MONTHLY | Copyright 2015 by ASHRAE, 1791 Tullie Circle N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329. Periodicals postage
paid at Atlanta, Georgia, and additional mailing offices. LETTERS/MANUSCRIPTS | Letters to the editor and manuscripts for publication should
be sent to: Fred Turner, Editor, ASHRAE Journal, fturner@ashrae.org. SUBSCRIPTIONS | $8 per single copy (includes postage and handling on
mail orders). Subscriptions for members $6 per year, included with annual dues, not deductible. Nonmember $79 (includes postage in
USA); $79 (includes postage for Canadian); $149 international (includes air mail). Expiration dates vary for both member and nonmember
subscriptions. Payment (U.S. funds) required with all orders. CHANGE OF ADDRESS | Requests must be received at subscription office eight weeks
before effective date. Send both old and new addresses for the change. ASHRAE members may submit address changes at www.ashrae.org/
address. POSTMASTER | Send form 3579 to: ASHRAE Journal, 1791 Tullie Circle N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329. Canadian Agreement Number 40037127.
ONLINE at ASHRAE.org | Feature articles are available online. Members can access articles at no cost. Nonmembers may purchase articles
at www.ashrae.org/bookstore. MICROFILM | This publication is microfilmed by National Archive Publishing Company. For information
on cost and issues available, contact NAPC at 800-420-NAPC or www.napubco.com. PUBLICATION DISCLAIMER | ASHRAE has compiled this
publication with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated and ASHRAE expressly disclaims any duty to investigate any product, service,
process, procedure, design or the like which may be described herein. The appearance of any technical data, editorial material or
advertisement in this publication does not constitute endorsement, warranty or guarantee by ASHRAE of any product, service, process,
procedure, design or the like. ASHRAE does not warrant that the information in this publication is free of errors and ASHRAE does not
necessarily agree with any statement or opinion in this publication. The entire risk of the use of any information in this publication and
its supplement is assumed by the user.
DEPARTMENTS
4
6
14
92
96
98
102
104
Commentary
Industry News
Meetings and Shows
InfoCenter
Special Products
Products
Classified Advertising
Advertisers Index
ABOUT THE COVER

At the Tacoma Center for Urban
Waters in Washington, cedar and
douglas fir snags along the waterfront provide staging, feeding
and nesting habitat for birds and
small animals. The LEED Platinum
laboratory won a first place 2015
ASHRAE Technology Award. The
article begins on Page 38.
M AY 2 0 1 5
ashrae.org
ASHRAE JOURNAL
COMMENTARY
1791 Tullie Circle NE
Atlanta, GA 30329-2305
Phone: 404-636-8400
Fax: 404-321-5478 | www.ashrae.org
PUBLISHER
W. Stephen Comstock
New Editor, But Youre in Charge
EDITORIAL
Editor
Jay Scott
jayscott@ashrae.org
Managing Editor
Sarah Foster
sfoster@ashrae.org
Associate Editor
Rebecca Matyasovski
rmatyasovski@ashrae.org
Associate Editor
Christopher Weems
cweems@ashrae.org
Associate Editor
Jeri Alger
jalger@ashrae.org
Assistant Editor
Tani Palefski
tpalefski@ashrae.org
You may have noticed a new name on

the masthead of this issue. Allow me
to introduce myself. Im Jay Scott, the
new editor of ASHRAE Journal, three
e-newsletters and High Performing
Buildings magazine.
Im replacing Fred Turner, who
retired in January after nearly 20 years
of service with ASHRAE. As the new
editor, I join the ASHRAE team as a
publishing veteran with over 30 years
of experience, both in the print and
online worlds.
Do I have expertise as an engineer?
No. Thats the beauty of ASHRAE; I dont
have to. You, the ASHRAE community,
lead the organization at every level. The
volunteers who contribute to our publications and the reviewers who confirm
every technical detail are the subject
matter experts. You, the readers, provide your own expertise with your
thoughtful comments and suggestions.
PUBLISHING SERVICES
Publishing Services Manager
David Soltis
Production
Jayne Jackson
Tracy Becker
ADVERTISING
Associate Publisher,
ASHRAE Media Advertising
Greg Martin
gmartin@ashrae.org
Advertising Production Coordinator
Vanessa Johnson
vjohnson@ashrae.org
CIRCULATION
Circulation Specialist
David Soltis
dsoltis@ashrae.org
ASHRAE OFFICERS
President
Thomas H. Phoenix, P.E.
President-Elect
T. David Underwood, P.Eng.
Treasurer
Timothy G. Wentz, P.E.
Vice Presidents
Darryl K. Boyce, P.Eng.
Charles E. Gulledge III
Bjarne W. Olesen, Ph.D.
James K. Vallort
Secretary & Executive Vice President
Jeff H. Littleton
POLICY GROUP
2014 15 Chair
Publications Committee
Michael R. Brambley, Ph.D.
Washington Office
washdc@ashrae.org
from you and meeting people at the

Annual Conference in Atlanta.
IN THIS ISSUE, our cover story
focuses on the challenges in building
the Tacoma Center for Urban Waters
laboratory in Tacoma, Wash. The threestory laboratory, built to maintain
the cleanliness of the bodies of water
throughout Puget Sound, was completed through a collaborative design
and construction process.
Laboratories traditionally use large
amounts of energy. The center, however, was designed with efficiency and
sustainability in mind from the start.
OTHER HIGHLIGHTS this month:

A look at Valley View Middle School
in Snohomish, Wash., a new three-story, 168,000 ft2 (15 600 m2) facility that
replaced a much smaller building. The
new school uses less energy than the
previous school that was half the size.
Engineers Notebook explores
THE EDITORIAL TEAM is here to
effective control strategies to solve comfacilitate content that will educate,
mon complaints with UFAD systems.
inform and advance the goals we all
An article in the Fundamentals at
strive for: serving the built environWork series explains the basics related
ment, creating value and recognizing
the accomplishments of others. Were to configuration, layout, and major
here to make sure you have a transpar- system components of hot water and
chilled water systems as an introducent editorial process that you drive
while advancing technical information tion to hydronics for those new to the
design industry.
and debate.
And the Building Sciences column
As the new editor, I hope to hear from
revisits the question: What should the
you when you have a suggestion, or a
complaint. I especially encourage let- air space or air gap be behind a cladters to the editor because they prompt ding and what should the venting
geometry be behind a cladding?
informed discussion of engineering
Enjoy the issue.
issues. You can reach me at jayscott@
Jay Scott, Editor
ashrae.org. I look forward to hearing
ASHRAE Journal reviews current HVAC&R technology of broad interest through publication of applications-oriented articles. Content ranges from back-to-basics features to reviews of emerging technologies.
ASHRAE JOURNAL
ashrae.org
M AY 2 0 1 5
INDUSTRY NEWS
Basanth Kumar stands next to Armstrongs Fluid Management system comprising of

Design Envelope pumps with sensor-less technology. It is designed as a plug-and-play
HVAC pumping solution for commercial, institutional and industrial buildings.
Indias Strength Pushes

ACREX to Sixth Spot
BANGALORE, IndiaThe
mood on the show floor at
ACREX, the Indian trade
fair for air conditioning and
refrigeration, held here in
February, did nothing to
dispel reports that Indias
economy is quickly ending its three-year slump.
Industrial expansion, new
building construction, the
need to limit energy consumption, and emphasis
on air quality are the drivers. All were in evidence at
ACREX.
The International
Monetary Fund in its latest
World Economic Outlook
report predicts Indias
annual economic growth
rate will be between 6.3%
and 6.5% over the next two
years, surpassing Chinas.
With the global economic
growth projected at around
3.5%, it is little wonder
manufacturers are targeting India.
6
Analysts say building

space in India will jump
from 86 billion ft2 in 2005
to a mind-boggling 450 billion ft2 by 2030. Nearly 70%
of the buildings in India
that will exist by 2030 have
yet to be built. To keep pace,
Indias energy production
must grow 6.5% per year,
an unsustainable number.
For that reason India ranks
in the top three countries
for green buildings with
over 2.5 billion ft2 of green
building footprint according to the Indian Green
Building Council.
Engineers say it just
makes good business sense
to build green in India
where the incremental
cost is only 3% to 5% for a
commercial green building and 1% for a residence.
With Indias energy costs
and availability of low-cost
green building products,
the additional cost gets paid
A S H R A E J O U R N A L a s h r a e . o r g M AY 2 0 1 5
CLIMAVENETA displayed
back within three to four
its line of centrifugal chillyears.
ers with inverter driven
The market potential for
compressors featuring maggreen building products
netic levitation technology.
and technologies is $100
The range includes water
billion, said Nirmal Ram,
cooled and air cooled units.
a consulting engineer in
The company also displayed
Bangalore. In India, many
its high precision air condinew products are being
tioning units, high density
introduced to meet the
solutions for data centers,
demand for green. Our
and VFD screw compressor
country is now one of the
chillers.
leading exporters of green
Anil Dev, chief techbuilding materials and
technologies. Ram is a past nical officer with
CLIMAVENETA, said he has
president of ISHRAE, the
noticed a growing awareassociation of engineers
ness in India for energythat organizes ACREX.
By the time ACREX ended, efficient and sustainable
products. Indian
more than 28,000
consumers are
visitors attended
becoming extremely
the three-day fair
aware of green
February 26 to 28,
building, Dev said.
viewing the 400
According to Dev,
exhibitors from 25
CLIMAVENETAs aircountries. Among
Dev
cooled screw chiller
them were industry
is its number one product
leaders like Carrier-UTC,
in India. We have been
Hitachi, Blue Star, Daikin,
very successful in the IT
LG, Bosch, Siemens, Voltas,
sector. One of the reasons
Climaveneta, Mitsubishi,
ebm-papst and Trane India. is that we have been able to
Visitors came from Canada, achieve the highest uptime
for our products. Uptime
China, Czech Republic,
commitments are very
France, Germany, Hong
important in the IT sector.
Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea,
LG Electronics showed
Netherlands, South Korea,
its full line of products,
Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey,
including the Multi-V IV.
Ukraine, UAE, United
Mounted with a high effiKingdom and the U.S.
ciency inverter compressor,
Among the exhibition
highlights was the dedicated the Multi-V IV yields a 4.79
COP, among the highest
Refrigeration & Cold Chain
energy efficiency ratings
Pavilion, which reflects the
for air conditioners sold in
industrys sunrise status
India. It raises energy effiin the country. With a compound annual growth rate of ciency by about 20% from
around 26%, the Indian cold existing models. The Ocean
Black Fin heat exchanger
chain industry is expected
in the unit is dual-layered
to reach nearly $10 billion
and double-sided with a
by 2017.
INDUSTRY NEWS
Its Mosquitos Away Technology at LGs ACREX stand. Some 28,000 visitors attended the
ACREX fair held in Bangalore.
black coating to shield it

from salt, sand and other
elements brought in by
strong sea winds along
Indias coast. Water drops
are prevented from forming
because of external environmental changes, a real
performance advantage in
the humid conditions that
prevail along Indias coast.
The coating also protects
the unit against the effects
of industrial pollution.
We have a big sea line,
and visitors want to know
more about our products
that can resist such things,
said Sohrab Zafferulla, area
head of LGs System AirConditioning Division.
Were excited about our
new HVAC solutions, which
will provide unprecedented
benefits to our existing
partners and prospects
seeking high-efficiency
commercial solutions.
LG is on track to lead the
Indian HVAC market with
our locally relevant business strategy, highly energy
efficient products as well
as its tradition of quality
8
ASHRAE JOURNAL
ashrae.org
M AY 2 0 1 5
engineering and reliable

customer service throughout the entire country,
said Mahendra Agarwal,
Vice President-System AirConditioners, LG India.
Another product attracting attention at the LG
stand was the Inverter
V air conditioner with
Mosquito Away technology. The unit emits ultrasonic waves, preventing
mosquitos from detecting
humans and protecting
occupants from mosquitoborne diseases. The technology works whenever
the unit is on, not just
when the AC is running.
The new Variable Tonnage
Technology used in LGs
Inverter V air conditioners adjusts the cooling by
automatically controlling
the compressor speed.
Cooling capacity is automatically increased to give
faster cooling until the
desired temperature is
reached and reduces the
tonnage after to provide
savings, sometimes by as
much as 66%.
INDUSTRY NEWS
Armstrong displayed its

configure to order solutions for fluid flow and heat
transfer applications. The
companys Design Envelope
IVS pumps reduce pumping costs through variable
speed, demand-based
operationconsuming only
the energy required based
on current system demand.
The pumps use a combination of optimized impeller
size and speed control for
energy efficient operation
within a given performance
envelope. The performance
envelopes are mapped for
the best pump efficiency
at 50% of the design flow
rate, where variable flow
systems operate most often.
This ensures a buildings
hydronic pumping system
consumes as little energy

possible and meets the
installation needs required
in ASHRAE/IES Standard
90.1 of a 70% energy savings
at 50% peak load.
Armstrong also displayed
its chilled water line of
Integrated Plant Packages.
The IPP-CHW solution is
an integrated factory built
system, optimized for quick
installation. The IPP-CHW
incorporates split coupled
pumps, oil-free frictionless
compressors, and an ultraefficient chilled water plant
control system.
Besides the need to limit
energy growth, India faces
another challenge. How to
improve air quality? And
solutions for that were on
display at ACREX.
Gwalior, and Raipurround

Of the worlds top 20 citout the top four, with
ies with the worlds worst
Karachi, Pakistan, the fifth
air, 13 are in India, accordworst. None of Chinas cities
ing to an analysis by the
came in the top 20. Beijing
World Health Organization
was 77th.
(WHO). Despite air quality
Business for indoor air
in Chinese cities receivparticle counters is growing more media attention,
ing, according to Keerthi
many of Indias cities are
actually worse when annual Satya, regional sales
manager of TSI
averages of fine airInstrumentsIndia.
borne particulates
While TSI offers
are considered.
particle counters
Particulate pollution
for cleanroom
is especially dangerapplications for
ous because parsemiconductor and
ticulates are permaMaheshwari
pharmaceutical
nently lodged within
industries, it also offers
the lining of the lungs.
dust monitoring instruSurveying 1,600 cities in 91
ments. What is the kind
countries, the WHO found
that New Delhis air was the of air we are breathing
indoors, whether it be our
worst in the world. Three
offices or our residences?
other Indian citiesPatna,
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M AY 2 0 1 5
ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED COMPANY
ashrae.org
ASHRAE JOURNAL
INDUSTRY NEWS
said Satya. TSI dust monitors can be used for commercial

and institutional applications, including hospitals. It
is good practice for the health-care segment to monitor
indoor air quality because of patients with compromised
immune systems.
Caryaire exhibited its air purification solution for the
residential and the school room markets, winning a
product innovation award. According to the company,
new building codes being considered in India for new
residential buildings include fresh air requirements
along with air purification. Were now talking about not
only energy conservation but also maintaining minimum
indoor air quality standards. Awareness is growing daily,
said Sachin Maheshwari, director at Caryaire. We have
stopped calling our new product an air purifier. We are
calling it a life-conditioner or health-conditioner. Its all
about saving your life.
The companys residential units displayed at ACREX have
been reconfigured for existing and new housing from the
commercial and industrial products. Chemical filtration
is offered to remove the VOCs and NOX from carbon and
sulfur in the air. We are quite positive the next five years
Walt Vernon and Dick Moeller presented ASHRAEs Designing High Performing
Healthcare Facilities course. The healthcare industry in India is said to be growing at an
annual rate of 15% due to a booming population with unmet medical needs and medical
tourism. Other ASHRAE courses covered developments in controls technology, data
center energy efficiency, and laboratory design.
are going to be a golden phase for India, said Maheshwari.

2004 through 2009 was a big boom phase for India. We see
the next jump year taking place next year through 2019 or
2020.
The next ACREX will take place Feb. 25 to 27, 2016, in
Mumbai.
10
ASHRAE JOURNAL
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M AY 2 0 1 5
Bacteria Shine
Light on Air
Quality Monitoring
the bacterias genome as the

microbial repair response,
scientists have created bacteria that glow in response
BEER SHEVA, Israel
Researchers have developed to chemicals that are toxic
to cells. Marks hopes that by
a simple and inexpensive
incorporating bacteria
device that uses
with different chemibioluminescent baccal sensitivities, he may
teria to monitor air
eventually be able to idenquality and alert to
tify which specific toxins
potentially unsafe
are in the air with
conditions. If bacthe device as well.
teria encounter hazThe research is pubardous substances
in the environment, Air quality device lished in the journal
Analytical Chemistry.
they launch a system
to repair damaged DNA
Data Center to
and maintain other funcHeat Swedish Town
tions, says Robert S. Marks
FALUN, SwedenA team
of Israels Ben-Gurion
of Swedish entrepreneurs
University of the Negev. By
adding the genes that make is partnering with a local
luciferasea glow-inducing energy company to build
proteinto the same part of a data center that will
SWECO ARCHITECTS AB/ NORDISK

KOMBINATION ARKITEKTER AB
INDUSTRY NEWS
Carbon negative data center in Sweden.
run entirely on a mix of

solar, wind, and hydro
power, along with waste
wood chips and sawdust,
rather than fossil fuels. The
EcoDataCenter is also
designed to convert the heat
generated by its servers into
energy for homes in Falun,
a city of around 37,000 in
central Sweden. The facility
will be linked to the towns
district heating system to
deliver hot water to warm
homes during winter. In
the summer, it will supply
district cooling, running
air-conditioning systems
that would otherwise use
electricity.
DOE, NIBS
Developing
Training Guidelines
WASHINGTON, D.C.The
U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) has partnered with
the National Institute of
Building Sciences (NIBS)
to develop new guidance
designed to enhance and
streamline commercial
building workforce training and certification
programs. The voluntary
Better Buildings Workforce
Guidelines provide a
national framework for
certification agencies across
the country to roll out consistent programs.
12
ASHRAE JOURNAL
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M AY 2 0 1 5
MEETINGS AND SHOWS
FULL CALENDAR: WWW.ASHRAE.ORG/CALENDAR
MAY
AHRI Spring Meeting, May 5 7, Crystal City, Va.
Contact Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute at 703-524-8800, ahri@ahrinet.org,
or www.ahrinet.org.
EE Global 2015, May 12 13, Washington, D.C.
Contact Becca Rohrer at Alliance to Save Energy at 202-530-2206, brohrer@ase.org, or www.
eeglobalforum.org.
AIA Convention 2015, May 14 16, Atlanta. Contact the American Institute of Architects at 800242-3837, infocentral@aia.org, or www.aia.org/
convention.
AIHce 2015, May 30 June 4, Salt Lake City. Contact
Lindsay Padilla at the American Industrial Hygiene
Association at 703-846-0754, lpadilla@aiha.org, or
www.aihce2015.org.
JUNE
ASHRAE Annual Conference, June 27 July 1,
Atlanta. Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723 or
meetings@ashrae.org.
Solar 2015, July 2830, State College, Pa. Contact 303443-3130, ases@ases.org, or http://solar2015.ases.org.
AUGUST
NAFA Annual Convention, Aug. 27 29. Key West,
Fla. Contact the National Air Filtration Association at 757-313-7400, nafa@nafahq.org, or www.
nafahq.org.
SEPTEMBER
I2SL Annual Conference, Sept. 21 23, San Diego.

Contact the International Institute for Sustainable
Laboratories, at 703-841-5484 info@i2sl.org, or
www.i2sl.org/conference.
SMACNA Annual Convention, Sept. 27 30, Colorado Springs, Colo. Contact the Sheet Metal and Air
Conditioning Contractors Association at 703-8032980, info@smacna.org, or www.smacna.org.
RETA Conference, Sept. 29 Oct. 2, Milwaukee.
Contact the Refrigeration Engineers and Technicians Association at 831-455-8783, info@reta.com,
or www.reta.com.
World Energy Engineering Congress, Sept.
30 Oct. 2, Orlando, Fla. Contact the Association of
Energy Engineers at 770-447-5083, info@aeecenter.
org, or www.energycongress.com.
2015 ASHRAE Energy Modeling Conference: Tools
for Designing High Performance Buildings, Sept.
30 Oct. 2, Atlanta. Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723,
meetings@ashrae.org, or www.ashrae.org/emc2015.
OCTOBER
IFMAs World Workplace, Oct. 7 9, Denver. Contact the International Facility Management Association at 713-623-4362, events@ifma.org, or www.
ifma.org.
AMCA Annual Meeting, Oct. 15 18, Ojai, Calif.
Contact the Air Movement and Control Association
International at 847-394-0150 or www.amca.org.
AHR Expo-Mexico, Oct. 20 22, Guadalajara, Mexico. Contact the International Exposition Company at 203-221-9232, info@ahrexpomexico.com, or
www.ahrexpomexico.com.
ASHRAE JOURNAL
ashrae.org
NOVEMBER
AHRI Annual Meeting, Nov. 15 17, Bonita Springs,
Fla. Contact Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute at 703-524-8800, ahri@ahrinet.
org, or www.ahrinet.org.
Greenbuild International Conference & Expo,
Nov. 18 20, Washington, D.C. Contact organizers at
866-815-9824, registration@greenbuildexpo.com,
or www.greenbuildexpo.com.
2016
JANUARY
Building Innovation 2016, Jan. 11 15, Washington,
D.C. Contact the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) at 202-289-7800, nibs@nibs.org, or
www.nibs.org/conference2016.
ASHRAE Winter Conference, Jan. 23 27, Orlando,
Fla. Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723 or meetings@
ashrae.org.
JULY
14
CTBUH 2015, Oct. 26 30, New York. Contact the

Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat at 312567-3487, info@ctbuh.org, or www.ctbuh2015.com.
International Air-Conditioning, Heating, Refrigerating Exhibition (AHR Expo), Jan. 25 27,

Orlando, Fla. Cosponsored by ASHRAE and AHRI.
Contact the International Exposition Company at
203-221-9232.
CALLS FOR PAPERS

ASHRAE JOURNAL
ASHRAE Journal seeks applications articles of 3,000 or fewer words. Submissions are subject to peer reviews and cannot have been published previously. Submit abstracts before sending articles to
journaleditor@ashrae.org.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FOR THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
ASHRAEs Science and Technology for the Built
Environment seeks papers on original, completed research not previously published.
Papers must discuss how the research contributes to technology. Papers should be
about 6,000 words. Abstracts and papers
should be submitted on Manuscript Central at www.ashrae.org/manuscriptcentral.
Contact Reinhard Radermacher, Ph.D.,
Editor, at raderm@umd.edu.
ASHRAE CONFERENCE PAPERS
For the 2016 Annual Conference in St.
Louis, technical papers are due September 14, 2015. For more information, contact 678-539-1137 or tcox@ashrae.org.
JUNE
ASHRAE Annual Conference, June 25 29,
St. Louis. Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723 or
meetings@ashrae.org.
JULY
Contact the Australian Institute of Refrigeration,

Airconditioning and Heating (AIRAH) at 613 8623
3000 or http://tinyurl.com/HVACFuture.
2016 Purdue Compressor/Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning and High Performance Buildings
Conferences and Short Courses, July 11 14, West
Lafayette, Ind. Contact Kim Stockment at 765-4946078, kstockme@purdue.edu, or http://tinyurl.
com/Purdue2016.
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
XIV Conbrava, Sept. 22 25, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Endorsed by ASHRAE. Contact organizers at (11) 3361
7266 ext. 207, conbrava@abrava.com.br, or http://
abrava.com.br.
ASPE Convention and Exposition, Oct. 27 Nov. 4,

Phoenix. Contact the American Society of Plumbing Engineers at 847-296-0002, info@aspe.org, or
www.aspe.org.
OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA

MAY
2015 International Conference on Energy and Environment in Ships, May 22 24, Athens, Greece.
Contact ASHRAE at 800-527-4723, meetings@
ashrae.org, or www.ashrae.org/Ships2015.
JULY
ISHVAC-COBEE 2015, July 12 15, Tianjin, China.
Endorsed by ASHRAE. Contact organizers at
ISHVAC_COBEE@tju.edu.cn or http://www.cobee.org.
AUGUST
IIR International Congress of Refrigeration, Aug.
16 22, Yokohama, Japan. Endorsed by ASHRAE.
Contact 81 3 3219 3541, icr2015@ics-inc.co.jp, or
www.icr2015.org.
The Future of HVAC 2015 Conference, Aug. 18 19,
Melbourne, Australia. Endorsed by ASHRAE.
M AY 2 0 1 5
Mostra Convegno Expocomfort Asia, Sept. 2 4,

Singapore. Contact Reed Expositions Singapore
at 65 6780 4671, fax 65 6588 3832, mce-asia@
reedexpo.com.sg or www.mcexpocomfort-asia.
com.
OCTOBER
8th International Cold Climate HVAC Conference, Oct. 20 23, Dalian, China. Endorsed by
ASHRAE. Contact organizers at 86 411 84709612,
hvac@dlut.edu.cn, or www.coldclimate2015.org.
11th International Conference on Industrial
Ventilation, Oct. 26 28, Shanghai. Endorsed by
ASHRAE. Contact 86 21 65984243, ventilation2015@
tongji.edu.cn, or www.ventilation2015.org.
NOVEMBER
13th Asia Pacific Conference on the Built Environment, Nov. 19 20, Hong Kong. Endorsed by
ASHRAE. Contact organizers at apcbe2015@gmail.
com or www.ashrae-hkc.org/APC2015.html.
Mostra Convegno Expocomfort Saudi, Nov.
30 Dec. 2, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Contact Reed
Exhibitions at 39 02 4351701, fax 39 02 3314348,
info@reedexpo.it or www.mcexpocomfort-saudi.
com.
$2,000
$1,500
Heat Pump
Oil
$1,000
$500
Gas
Estimated Annual Costs*
$2,500
$0
Estimated Cost by HVAC Type*
TM
TECHNICAL FEATURE
PHOTO 1 Grease exhaust fans with backdraft dampers locked in open position.
Maintenance personnel got tired of dealing with dampers found stuck in

the closed position.
PHOTO 2 Stretched, cracked and almost broken belt. This is common for restaurant
exhaust fans. Despite calls for proper maintenance by codes, this is often
ignored.
Commercial Kitchen
Ventilation Fire Mitigation
BY STEPHEN K. MELINK, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE
Food-service establishments are notoriously prone to kitchen fires that

emanate from high-energy cooking appliances and often spread to the hood
and duct system and sometimes beyond. This is why insurance companies classify such establishments in a higher-risk category than most other
commercial buildings. And, this is why a properly designed kitchen ventilation and fire suppression system for cooking equipment is required by code.1
According to the U.S. Fire Administration, cooking
was the leading cause of commercial building fires in
years 200711, averaging over 25,000 such fires per
year. The second leading cause averaged less than
10,000 fires per year. In addition, the dollar loss for
cooking-related fires averaged almost $50 million per
year during this five-year period. And, although deaths
and injuries are not shown for specific causes, there
were 3,005 deaths and 17,500 injuries due to all fires in
just 2011.2
Therefore, it is relevant to ask how engineers can
mitigate these costs and risks going forward. Do we
Stephen K. Melink, P.E., is president of Melink Corp. in Milford, Ohio.
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continue to design the way we always have and accept

the above statistics as outside of our control? Or do we
seek opportunities to improve fire safety in areas within
our control?
So often the emphasis gets placed on specifying the right
commercial kitchen hoods and fire suppression system.3
Yes, if a fire ever occurs, having a listed hood and fire suppression system is important. We want the fire properly
contained at the source and immediately extinguished.
However, the previous statistics suggest more is necessary.
The purpose of this article is to suggest that additional
emphasis should be placed on fire mitigation strategies.
TECHNICAL FEATURE
Fire suppression, by definition, is

FIGURE 1 Higher- and lower-risk designs of grease ducts.
about extinguishing a fire after it
has already started. Fire mitigation,
Higher Risk Design
on the other hand, is about reducLarge High S.P. Exhaust Fan
Belt-Driven (Weak Link)
ing risks so that a fire is less likely to
occur in the first place or less likely
Roof Line
to spread and cause subsequent
Between Roof & Ceiling: the Less Stuff
Clean-Out
90 Turn
the Better Because Out of Sight, Out of
damage/injuries.
Clean-Out Mind Often Prevails in the O&M World.
90 Turn
Looking at the entire heat/grease
90 Turn
Clean-Out
90 Turn
90 Turn
90 Turn
Clean-Out
system from the cooking equipment
Clean-Out
Damper
Damper
Damper
to the exhaust fan, the area with
the least published research and
most design variability from application to application is the grease
Typical Grease Duct Design with Single Exhaust Fan. Long duct runs, multiple 90-degree turns and dampers add
duct. While listed grease ducts are
significant resistance to airflowincreasing fan energy during most all operating conditions. Also, more expensive to install,
maintain and clean. Liability is also a concern with more surfaces and obstructions for grease to collect. Thus, clean-outs.
also available, they are usually only
Finally, one fan failure (belt/motor) can bring down the entire kitchen.
specified where reduced clearances
to combustibles dictate their use.4
Lower Risk Design
Otherwise, the more common practice is to custom design the grease
Smaller Low S.P. Exhaust Fans
ducts in accordance with codes.5 But
Direct Drive (Less Maintenance)
this is typically done out of habit or
Roof Line
to reduce construction costsand
Short & Straight Ducts
(No Obstructions)
not necessarily as a conscious effort
to improve fire safety.
Where there is custom design,
there is custom installation. And
where there is custom installation,
Improved Grease Duct Design with Dedicated Exhaust Fans. Short duct runs, without 90-degree turns and dampers,
there is a higher probability of field
reduce resistance to airflowminimizing fan energy. Also, very simple to install, maintain and clean. Liability is minimized
by creating a direct path for heat/smoke/grease to easily move up and out of the building. Finally, multiple fans provide safe
errors by the mechanical contracredundancy in case of any problems.
tor. This often includes using the
wrong sheet metal and leaving holes
in weld seams. There is also a tendency for engineers to
The engineer is uniquely positioned to ensure the
rely on codes as their sole basis of design and not fully
entire system is designed for optimal fire safetyas well
recognize improvement opportunities.
as energy efficiencyfor the life of the building. And
As many engineers already know, since commercial
though listed hoods for food-service applications are
kitchen ventilation (CKV) systems are a type of HVAC
widely available, there is more to designing than just
system, it would behoove our profession to educate
specifying listed equipment.
architects on the need to move CKV out of the foodNevertheless, the focus of this article is the portion
service section of the plans and specifications, and into
of the CKV system above the ceiling and how it can be
the mechanical section. The hoods are located in the
designed to improve fire safety. As such, following are
kitchen, but so are other HVAC components such as
six design practices to consider in order of priority for
grilles, registers, and diffusers. More importantly, the
your future projects.
food-service consultant usually has little or no knowl1. Design short, straight, and vertical grease ducts
edge of the V in CKV or HVAC, and should not be spec- whenever possibleand design horizontal ducts only
ifying hoods, controls, and other features to which they
if necessary. Grease, like oil, is a highly flammable submay not understand the consequences of their choices.
stance. If youve ever seen a grease fire along with its
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
PHOTO 3 Direct-Drive Exhaust Fan. No belt can fail and cause heat/smoke issues.
Also no belt drive losses and belt maintenance required.
thick black smoke, you understand the serious nature

of your work. Therefore, dont mess around. Design
the grease ducts so that they provide the shortest path
for the heat and smoke to travel outside the building as
possible.
Long ducts provide more surface area for this grease to
collect and eventually serve as a potential fuel source for
a fire. And horizontal ducts provide a surface for heavy
grease particles to fall out of the airstream and collect at
a higher rate than vertical surfaces.5 In fact, grease often
pools in horizontal grease ducts, and this is a major
reason why clean-outs need to be installed. Yes, these
ducts are required to be sloped to facilitate draining, but
such drainage does not always occur due to inadvertent
low spots in the duct, the high viscosity of grease, and/or
entrainment caused by the operating exhaust fan. And
yes, conventional practice is to blame the hood and duct
cleaner if this happens, but smart design should dictate
that you eliminate the potential for grease collection
in the first place. Moreover, a horizontal duct usually
involves at least two 90-degree turns, and this additional
resistance requires more fan energy to move the design
airflow. When you can design for both fire safety and
energy efficiency, all the better.
Though clean-outs are required for gaining access6
they introduce another potential weak link in the system. Not only can grease leak at these clean-outs due to
an improper sealand drip onto the hood and ceiling,
the covers are sometimes forgotten and left to allow
the exhaust air to short-cycle and cause impaired hood
performance. Moreover, if there is not a mezzanine with
proper access and lighting, leaving it up to duct cleaners
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PHOTO 4 Exhaust Fan with Grease on Roof. Indicates how extensively grease can
contaminate duct and fan system. Therefore best to keep them short,
straight and vertical.
to find a way to navigate a ceiling full of electric conduit, water lines, and cabling in the dark is a recipe for
problems.
Certainly, many existing buildings that are retrofitted
with commercial kitchens do not have the same design
flexibility as new construction. And even some new
construction has constraints on where the hoods, ducts,
and fans can be located. But to the degree designers have
influence on a project, we should speak to the architect
and owner with fire safety in mind, first and foremost.
Who knows, perhaps the discussion will open up new
possibilities. Perhaps the kitchen can extend to the side
of the main building on the first floor with the ducts and
fans immediately above it. Or perhaps the kitchen can
be moved to the top floor with better views and where
the ducts and fans can be positioned immediately above
it. Building owners do not want to incur undue risks and
liabilities, and so we need to speak up.
2. Eliminate obstructions such as dampers, filters,
coils, and 90-degree turns in grease ducts whenever
possible. Remember, the purpose of a kitchen ventilation system is to remove potentially dangerous heat
and smoke from the building as efficiently as possible.
And so designing obstructions in the duct only make
this more difficult.7 Yes, dampers, filters, coils, and
90-degree turns are a fact of life for most HVAC systemsbut grease ducts are a different animal. Most
HVAC systems are not prone to collecting a highly combustible substance and moving high-temperature air
through them. And, most HVAC systems are not as prone
to catching fire. So design the grease ducts as aerodynamically as practical.
TECHNICAL FEATURE
Think of your gas grille on the patio of your home.

Would you ever consider moving it into your kitchen
and installing a hood with modulating dampers, a bag
filter, heat exchanger, and four 90-degree turns before
it exits your second-floor roof? If not, why would you
do this for a hotel, hospital, or college with hundreds of
times more property value and occupant lives at stake?
And while you may be maintenance savvy as an engineer
what about the restaurant owner or his low-cost helper?
Energy efficiency is increasingly important in todays
world, but it should never come at the expense of fire
safety.
Another reason not to design long grease ducts with
multiple turns is the hood fire suppression system will
be less effective if the inside of the duct catches fire. A
single nozzle aimed into the grease duct will cover less
surface area if the duct is not short and straight.
3. Specify listed grease ducts. Factory-built systems
are designed with a double-wall construction and are
therefore stronger and more durable than single-wall
grease ducts. In addition, they are less apt to be installed
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with holes/gaps in the seams and allow grease leaks to

occur because the assembly and welding mostly takes
place in a controlled environment. Experience shows
that trying to weld a liquid-tight vessel above the ceiling
where it is dark and easy to miss holes/gaps is largely
dependent on the quality of the welder. And since the
low-bid mechanical contractor usually gets the job, the
owner usually gets what he paid for. Finally, factorybuilt systems are manufactured with stainless steel,
which has a higher temperature rating than black iron
sheet metal. This is important if/when a fire ever does
occur because if the grease duct fails, the fire will be able
to spread that much more quickly. Stainless steel buys
more time.
But if a listed grease duct cannot be specified and used
for whatever reason, then serious consideration should
be given to how the field-fabricated and welded grease
duct will be protected above and beyond the minimal threshold of code compliance. For example, even
if the required clearance to combustibles is met, the
grease duct should ideally be wrapped with insulation
or enclosed so that a fire inside the duct cannot easily
spread outside the immediate surrounding area. Again,
fire mitigation is about preventing a fire from spreading
and becoming an out-of-control fire.
4. Design redundancy in the kitchen ventilation
system by including more than one exhaust fan
where there are multiple hoods. As already stated, the
purpose of a kitchen ventilation system is to remove
heat and smokeand so when this vitally important
function stops because a single belt or motor fails, this
is as much a reflection of poor design as poor product quality and/or maintenance. Some functions are
so mission-critical that unless the associated system
components are 99.99% reliable in design, construction, operation, and maintenance, redundancy is a
best-practice. That is why IT companies have servers
located across the country. They cannot afford to lose
customer data if one natural disaster or terrorist attack
occurs. That is why airlines have at least two engines
on planes flying across the ocean. There are too many
lives at stake if a plane has just one engine and it fails
in mid-flight.
Yet, kitchen exhaust fans are almost as mission-critical in applications like hotels, hospitals, schools, and
high-rises occupied by hundreds of people. What do
you do if a hotel banquet kitchen is preparing food for
TECHNICAL FEATURE
hundreds of people on a Saturday night and there is

only one exhaust fan serving the kitchenand then
the motor burns out? From a safety standpoint, you
should turn off the cooking equipment and apologize
to your customers because a new motor will not be
able to be installed very quickly. But in reality, the
pressure to continue cooking could prevail as the
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staff would not necessarily be thinking about the possible risks.

And if a fire does start and overtake the hood and
duct due to a fan failure and the resulting heat buildup, then who is to blame? It would be easy to dismiss
our culpability as mechanical designers and blame
it on the motor manufacturer, maintenance staff,
kitchen cooks, or the fire suppression system. (Based on the statistics mentioned earlier, we should
not assume fire suppression systems will necessarily put out all
fires). But in this litigious society
in which we live, lawyers will not
necessarily see it that way.
If a second duct and fan had been
designed into the overall kitchen
ventilation system, it is possible
any smoke-related damage and
injuries/deaths could have been
avoided. This would not have prevented the initial fire inside the
hood with a motor failure, but it
could have provided sufficient ventilation through the other hoods to
keep smoke from reaching other
parts of the building and getting
into the eyes and lungs of kitchen
staff as they might try to put out
the fire or escape and call the fire
department.
5. Eliminate the weak link when
possible by specifying listed
direct-drive exhaust fans. The
fan belt is the infamous weak link
of most every kitchen ventilation
system out there. Its a relatively
cheap part that is prone to stretching, cracking, and eventually
breakingand causing untold lost
business revenue, employee wages,
customer loyalty, and building
damage and human injury/lives for
the reasons mentioned earlier. And
it often breaks at the most inopportune time when demand for food
and thus ventilation is at its highest
TECHNICAL FEATURE
and the availability for repair service is at its lowest.

Again, think Saturday night.
Conventional on/off motor starters add to the problem
because they provide nearly instantaneous acceleration
at start-up, which means these weak links are severely
stressedand stretchedevery day when the hoods are
turned on in the morning. And so before the belt actually breaks, it will gradually become loose within the
pulley grooves and slip, resulting in slower and slower
fan speeds over time.
The solution is to specify direct-drive exhaust fans
and variable-frequency drives (VFDs) when possible
to eliminate this problem. Conventional practice is
to point the finger at maintenance for not regularly
replacing these belts, but why not think proactively
and design more reliable systems? Fan manufacturers
have made major strides in recognizing this need and
opportunity by expanding their fan lines to include
direct-drive (up to approximately 3,000 cfm [1416
L/s], currently) over the last five to 10 years, and so it
is up to the mechanical designer to take advantage of
this when possible. Dont let a $10 part fail and cause
a potential fire because thats the way its always
been done.
And dont let the VFD become the next weakest link by
allowing a low-quality drive to be used. Specify a top-tier
brand with a national and preferably global reputation
for quality.
6. Specify a listed demand control kitchen ventilation (DCKV) system. This allows the customer to gain
more utility from the VFDs than just setting a fixed
speed on direct-drive fans. It also allows the customer
to gain more utility from minimally intelligent autostart systems now required by code. In fact, most codes
now require an electrical or thermal interlock between
the cooking equipment and hood fans to address the
possibility that cooks may forget to turn the system on
in the morning or off at night.6,8 With little or no extra
cost, the CKV system can be designed with DCKV capability and thereby modulate the exhaust and make-up
fan speeds based on temperature and/or smoke to save
energy.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
Fire-prevention features of a well-engineered DCKV

system include an audible alarm if the exhaust air temperature rises within 100F (38C) of the activation temperature of the fire suppression system. Similar to new
cars with sensors that tell you when you are getting too
close to another object, new hoods should be specified to
beep and tell you if the exhaust air temperatures are
getting dangerously high. Another possibility is an automatic gas/electric shut-off capability if the exhaust air
temperature continues to rise within, say, 50F (10C) of
the activation temperature. Why wait until the fire suppression system is activated to shut-off the fuel source?
In this day and age, intelligent hoods should monitor,
communicate, and control to prevent a potential disaster from occurring. Specify accordingly.
Summary
In conclusion, no food-service establishment is fireproof, but we can help design them to be more fire safe.
More specifically, design grease ducts so that they are
short, straight, and vertical whenever possible. Design
them without obstructions so that the heat and smoke

can exit the building in the most efficient manner possible. And, specify UL-listed grease ducts to provide
an extra barrier between the potential fire source and
combustibles. Furthermore, design the CKV system
with more than one exhaust fan so that there is a level of
redundancy in ventilation in case one fan goes down. To
minimize this possibility, eliminate the belt by specifying direct drive fans where applicable. Lastly, specify
a DCKV system so that the fans not only automatically
start upon the detection of heatbut so that temperature
alarms can signal if/when the exhaust temperature rises
above normal and/or safe levels.
These design practices are especially important in
buildings occupied by hundreds of people. And it is even
more important for systems that may receive little preventive maintenance. Anything designed above the ceiling is not only out of sightbut very often out of mind
until it fails.
Yes, there are some things outside of our control as the
mechanical designer when it comes to fire mitigation.
But there are also things within our control. The purpose
of this article was to highlight the latter and advocate
for a bias towards safety. The engineer should never
abdicate his professional responsibilities to the owner,
architect, manufacturer, contractor, or food-service consultant because thats the way its always been done.
Sleeping well at night might depend on it someday.
Notes
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1. NFPA. National Fire Protection Association Standard 96-2014,

Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking
Operations. Also the Uniform Mechanical Code, UMC 2012 borrows
most NFPA 96 requirements related to fire suppression for commercial cooking. Moreover, the International Mechanical Code,
IMC 2012 Chapter 5 covers this area.
2. U.S. Fire Administration. 2011. Restaurant Building Fires.
Topical Fire Report Series. U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
3. Griffin, B., M. Morgan. 2014. 60 years of commercial kitchen
fire suppression. ASHRAE Journal, June.
4. UL. UL Standard 1978, Grease Ducts. Covers factory-built grease
ducts and grease duct assemblies that are intended to be installed
at reduced clearances.
5. Gerstler, W.D. 2002. New Rules for Kitchen Exhaust. ASHRAE
Journal, November.
6. IAPMO. 2012. Uniform Mechanical Code and ICC. 2012. International Mechanical Code.
7. Duda, S.W. 2014. Fire & Smoke Damper Application Requirements. ASHRAE Journal, July. This states under Other Rules: Do not
put any dampers in Type 1 grease exhaust systems.
8. California Energy Commission. Title 24, Building Energy Efficiency Standards and ASHRAE Standard 90.1, Energy Standard for
Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings.
TECHNICAL FEATURE
Criteria for Building

Automation Dashboards
BY FRANK SHADPOUR, P.E., HFDP, FELLOW ASHRAE; JOSEPH KILCOYNE, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE
Can you imagine driving a car without a dashboard? The thought seems inconceivable today, yet in 1914, the Ford Model T series was introduced to the world without a
dashboard. In the early days of the automobile industry, system reliability and functionality were the primary concern. Speed, fuel economy, and alarms were secondary priorities, if considered at all. As time progressed, so did the needs of the average
driver. Cars manufactured today often come standard with dashboards that provide
real-time monitoring of fuel economy, and serve as the main interface for auxiliary
services such as GPS directions, phone calls, and car audio.
Building operations share similar principles with the
operation of a motor vehicle: both run on fuel, both
require continuous maintenance for proper operation
and longevity, and both can be optimized to operate
at greater efficiencies. However, while the automobile
dashboard has become a universal industry standard,
the majority of buildings still operate without the convenience and effectiveness of this valuable feature. It is
time for the building industry to catch up. This article
proposes a rational basis for evaluating the performance
criteria of building automation dashboards.
What is a Dashboard?
The term dashboard originally applied to a barrier
of wood or leather fixed at the front of a horse-drawn
carriage or sleigh to protect the driver from mud or

other debris dashed up by the horses hooves. The
term has gained popularity in the computing industry since the Hewlett-Packard Company released
Dashboard for Windows in 1992. While the specific
definition of the term varies by market, a commonly
accepted definition includes a visual display of the
most important information needed to achieve one
or more objectives; consolidated and arranged on a
single screen so the information can be monitored at a
glance.1
For most observers, the term energy dashboard
brings to mind images of sleek lobby displays for LEEDcertified buildings that tout green facts or total facility
emission reductions in terms of trees planted or cars
Frank Shadpour, P.E., and Joseph Kilcoyne, P.E., are principals at SC Engineers in San Diego, Calif. Shadpour is a member of TC 1.4, control theory and application.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
taken off of the road. While these items are certainly

eye-catching and intuitive to the casual observer, they
only scratch the surface of the potential of building
dashboards. Todays dashboard users have the ability to
acquire real-time customized data from sources never
available before and to make informed decisions to continuously optimize building operations.
Need for Classification

All dashboards are not created equal. The term dashboard today continues to be flaunted when marketing any screen-based display with flashy graphics and
energy related charts. But what do you get when you
decide to purchase a dashboard?
Prospective dashboard users should know:
Is the dashboard strictly related to facility energy
use or does it also provide insight into building automation systems?
Can the dashboard be individually customized for
my facilitys HVAC technician, as well as the building
manager, and CEO?
There are currently no universal dashboard classification standards that establish performance criteria for
rational evaluation of the requirements for energy or
building automation dashboards. A uniform reference
for comparing services and functionality is necessary
and would be an invaluable tool when choosing between
dashboard software packages. Unfortunately, this tool
does not exist today.
Three essential elements to consider when selecting
dashboard software include:
Intuitive Graphics. Are the graphics clear and intuitive so that they are easily understood without resorting to supplemental instructions?
Analytical Tools. Do the dashboard analytical tools
have the capability to integrate multiple live and historic
data sources to provide real-time decision-making
information?
Ease of Customization. Can the dashboard be easily customized to adapt to the program requirements
of maintenance, operations, and financial building
personnel?
This article presents a rational method for categorizing
building automation dashboards to indicate required
features at each level so that owners, operators, designers, and contractors can discuss their needs in the same
terms. The proposed classification is established with
The Industry Speaks

An original survey performed by the authors of more
than 100 HVAC professionals including facility managers, engineers, and control technicians was conducted
to gauge industry interest in dashboards for this
article. Participants were asked to list the dashboard
features that interest them the most. The following
list indicates the most popular features in prioritized
order:
Real-time energy costs;
Fault detection and diagnostics;
Integrated facility control;
Weather data;
Integrated lighting control;
Renewable energy system monitoring;
Trend analysis;
Remote access;
Manual override notification; and
Fire alarm system monitoring.
The same survey revealed that 73% of participants
indicated that the ability to customize a dashboard was
very important to them, and 58% indicated that they
would prefer a custom third party dashboard interface
to their existing HVAC control graphics.
levels similar to the ASHRAE categorization of the building energy audit process.2
The proposed method of classification includes four
dashboard levels. Each level contains the functionality
and toolsets provided in all lower levels.
Level 0: Static Data Dashboards

We start at Level 0 with dashboards that use static
data sets only. These dashboards are typically created by engineers to illustrate the relationship among
several potential conditions during the facility planning process. Level 0 dashboards can be thought of as
interactive reports. Instead of presenting a printed
report with fixed assumptions for projected rates and
tariffs, the Level 0 dashboards allow the user to see
how changes in rates or efficiencies will affect their
key performance indicators. The intent of the Level 0
dashboard is to provide an intuitive graphical interface that allows the user to quickly manipulate large
data sets and calculate a key variable such as payback
period, projected budget, or comparative life-cycle
costs.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
The proposed categories begin with Level

0 rather than Level 1 because the Level 0 is
not accessing or displaying any real-time
live data even though it may have the look
and features of a live data dashboard. Data
sources commonly used in Level 0 include
building energy simulation results, historic
interval meter data, and other large static
data sets from which valuable insight can
be derived. Level 0 dashboards are most
frequently used for master planning purposes when comparative what-if analyses
of building life cycle and projected construction costs allow an owner to make better informed capital planning decisions.
Figure 1 is a sample of a Level 0 dashboard
that shows an interactive campus master
energy plan.3 Comprehensive cost and
energy savings calculations are drawn upon
to provide a dynamic analysis of energy
efficiency and renewable energy opportunities. Projected inflation rates and financing rates can be adjusted to show how they
impact the bottom line.
FIGURE 1 Level 0 dashboards allow manipulation of static data sets. The relationship among multiple variables and options can be demonstrated in an intuitive display.
Level 1: Live Display Dashboards

The most commonly perceived version of
an energy dashboard is provided at Level 1
where live data sources are displayed. The
Level 1 dashboard will typically display realFIGURE 2 Level 1 dashboards typically display facility energy performance data streamed from
energy meters and the building automation system.
time energy data, building characteristics,
LEED performance, and green tips. These
building energy use down to sub-metered systems or
dashboards can exist as physical display kiosks located
equipment. Figure 2 shows a sample live data energywithin the building or as virtual displays to be accessed
efficiency dashboard.
over the internet. The goal of the Level 1 dashboard is to
Level 1 dashboards are intended for monitoring and
create occupant awareness through the display of actual
display
purposes only. Additional analysis is often not
building performance, demonstration of real-time sustainable design features, tips on how to be efficient, and available or limited to a few out of the box tools such as
utility rate or bill analysis engines.
other educational features.
Level 1 dashboard display data is typically derived
from sources such as energy meters, building automa- Level 2: Integrated Control and Analytics Dashboards
Level 2 dashboards introduce three additional capation systems, trend data, and LEED scorecards. The
bilities:
analytics, web services, and integrated controls.
Level 1 dashboard can display the energy use intensities of multiple buildings at an enterprise level or
Analytics
compare a single buildings current monthly energy
Perhaps the biggest buzzword in the building automause to the previous year. The level of detail for the data
tion
industry today is analytics. Promises of advanced
provided in a Level 1 dashboard can range from whole
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
analytics seem to be part of the marketing materials for

every building intelligence software proposal.
But what are analytics? The term analytics applies
to software that provides usable information resulting from systematic analysis of data and statistics.
Essentially, analytics are number crunching software
packages working behind-the-scenes to generate the
dashboard key performance indicators. While Level 1
dashboards may contain a few simple analytic functions, the Level 2 dashboard enables the programmer and user to produce customized analytical tools
to focus on specific elements relevant to individual
users.
For instance, if an HVAC technician is interested in
seeing if a central chilled water plant is operating more
efficiently after implementing a new chiller staging
sequence, the analytical function could be set up as
follows:
Use trend data from the building automation system to average chiller plant power usage per ton hour
delivered.
Leverage historical weather databases to normalize
the data per cooling degree day.
Once the analytic is produced, it is available to continue tracking the central plant performance or to be
applied to other central plants in additional buildings.
Web Services3
Web services establish standardized methods for integrating analytical applications over an internet protocol
network. They allow exchange of data and communication between electronic devices. The web services
are software systems designed to support machine-tomachine interaction over various networks.
Often, web services use eXtensible Markup Language,
or XML. XML provides a practical method to package
data so that it can be transferred between various internet applications. It is basically a data file protocol to simplify the process to package, tag, store, and find data.
Building automation systems may use simple object
access protocol (SOAP) to access XML and HTML files
from various web services to obtain the data necessary
to support the analytic programs. As the price of energy
rises, web services, XML and SOAP will likely play a significant role in reducing energy consumption cost by
providing the information required to make operating
decisions in a timely manner.
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Integrated Controls
The widespread use of open communications control
protocols such as BACnet in todays smart building systems has opened the marketplace to integration companies who offer a single source solution to integrated
supervisory control of field level equipment controllers
from different manufacturers.
With this advent of third-party software platforms that
can replace a DDC hardware manufacturers front end
graphics, building operators now have a choice to leave
their standard graphics behind and produce customized
building automation dashboards.
By adding the capability to send commands to digital
control systems, Level 2 integrated building automation dashboards can become the primary graphical user
interface for building monitoring and operation. Level 2
building automation dashboards offer the added advantage of being able to overlay energy usage, trend plots,
and other key performance indicators on top of standard
HVAC equipment graphics enabling users to diagnose
equipment operation at a glance. Additionally, building
automation dashboards which integrate other smart
building systems such as lighting control, fire alarm,
and CCTV offer the capability to display multiple building systems on the same graphic floor plan as shown in
Figure 3. With Level 2 dashboards, supervisory control
sequences which span several building systems become
possible. By assigning certain HVAC systems and lighting
circuits to each building occupants key card, access by a
single occupant during off hours can trigger the building automation dashboard to only enable those systems
required to light and condition the spaces occupied by
that tenant.
Level 3: Ongoing Commissioning Dashboards

Level 3 dashboards bring a third level of analysis to the
dashboard. It provides an instrument that continuously
mines the big data generated by smart building systems to optimize each system. The recent rapid increases
in building automation server power and storage capacities have led to a trend to store more and more historic
data. It is not uncommon today for facilities to trend
every point in their BAS at 15 minute intervals for an
entire year. Sorting through this data to look for patterns
simply isnt possible with conventional means.
This trend has led to the emergence of a market for
automated fault detection and diagnostics, or FDD. FDD
TECHNICAL FEATURE
consists of overlaying software platforms

which analyze historic databases with a
goal to identify faults and determine their
root causes. FDD can also document actions
taken to correct those faults and monitor the
resulting energy and cost savings. Enabled
with FDD software, a Level 3 dashboard can
automatically alert a user of system failures
and deviations, identify the root cause of an
issue, calculate deviations between actual
and optimal performance, and prioritize
remedies by importance and potential operating cost savings.
In an FDD application, a set of rules is created by which all network data points are
run through to continuously check for defiFIGURE 3 Level 2 dashboards can offer a single customized graphical user interface to monitor and
cient system operation or deviation from a
control multiple facility disciplines. Overlaying energy performance data and trend analytics on
operational interfaces gives operators the data required to run their facilities more efficiently.
particular sequence of operation. Most FDD
platforms available today come with a set of
standard rules to identify common HVAC system deficien Simultaneous heating and cooling;
cies such as:
Short cycling of equipment;
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
Degraded heating or cooling

functions;
Suboptimal economizer operation;
Non-functioning sensors;
Setpoints overridden; and
Equipment not operating with
schedules.
Custom rules can be developed
with a Level 3 dashboard to address
specific project requirements and
conform to unique sequences of
operations. An FDD program can
be programmed to not only identify
specific faults but document their
duration, evaluate their cause, and
determine the economic operating
costs associated with each fault. The
FIGURE 4 Level 3 dashboards can provide automated fault detection and diagnostics (FDD) software to
goal of these efforts is what induscontinuously identify and display conditions resulting in sub-optimal energy performance or thermal
comfort conditions.
try insiders call actionable intelligence to provide notifications of
conditions, which can be addressed
to immediately improve performance. Figure 4 shows a
dashboards continues to expand, there is an increassample FDD dashboard graphic.
ing need to provide a rational basis to classify standard
The fault detection and diagnostics market is still in
and advanced dashboard features. Rational building
its infancy. Most of the available platforms come from
automation dashboard classifications are necessary to
third party applications offered in a software-as-a-ser- allow an apples to apples comparison when choosing
vice (SaaS) model in which the software is licensed on a between platforms.
subscription basis and centrally hosted.
This article presents four levels of dashboards ranging
Many forward thinking owners are preparing for the
from interactive analysis of static data to ongoing conemergence of the mainstream market of FDD apps
tinuous analysis of live streams of building automation
by standardizing the protocols for labeling and storing
big data sets. Armed with a better notion of the overall
data. By organizing their historian databases in an open range of available dashboard toolsets and the required
relational database-management-system (DBMS) such
amount of effort to accomplish each Level, facility ownas standard query language (SQL) and providing a coners and operators can select an application which best
sistent point naming or tagging standard across their
suits their needs.
networks, they can significantly reduce the effort and
For the industry to see the full inherent value and
cost to map their point databases to any combination
possibilities in energy and building automation dashof ongoing commissioning and FDD applications they
boards, we must first provide the language and strucchose. The ultimate goal is a system configuration where ture to characterize them. This effort is long overdue.
multiple applications from several manufacturers are
References
accessing a facilitys DBMS server simultaneously and
1. Few, S. 2007. Dashboard confusion revisited. Visual Business
providing vendor-specific reports to accomplish indiIntelligence
Newsletter March.
vidual facility objectives.
Conclusion
As the market for energy and building automation
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2. ASHRAE. 2011. Procedures for Commercial Building Energy Audits,

Second Edition.
3. Shadpour, F. 2012. The Fundamentals of HVAC Direct Digital Control:
Practical Applications and Design, Third Edition.
2015 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARD CASE STUDIES
The 51,000 ft2 lab facility functions as a shared research facility for the City of Tacoma, the
University of Washington and
Puget Sound Partnership.
The facility was proposed to
maintain the cleanliness of the
waterway & help restore, protect
and maintain other water bodies
throughout the Puget Sound.
FIRST PLACE
COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS, OTHER INSTITUTIONAL, NEW
A Beacon
BEN BENSCHNEIDER
For Urban Waters

BY MATTHEW LONGSINE, P.E., ASSOCIATE MEMBER ASHRAE
BUILDING AT A GLANCE
Tacoma Center
For Urban Waters
Location: Tacoma, Wash.
Owner: National Development Council,
HEDC Public-Private Partnerships for
the City of Tacoma
Principal Use: Research
Includes: City of Tacoma office space
Employees/Occupants: 104
Gross Square Footage: 51,000
Conditioned Space Square Footage: 40,000
Substantial Completion/Occupancy: March 2010
Occupancy: Approximately 85%
The Tacoma Center for Urban Waters is a three-story

lab building that was envisioned by the City of Tacoma,
Wash., to be a beacon on the water; an icon that can be
seen from the downtown core; and an example of using
building and site sustainable strategies that can set the
direction for future projects in the city. The 51,000 ft2
(4738 m2) building functions as a shared research facility for the City of Tacoma, University of Washington, and
Puget Sound Partnership.
During the mid-1990s, the City of Tacoma, Wash., in
partnership with the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) undertook a major cleanup effort of the Theo
Foss Waterway, located just east of the citys bustling
downtown.
Matthew Longsine, P.E., is senior associate, Building Mechanical Systems at WSP, Seattle.
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ABOVE Typical lab space. Note the light fixBEN BENSCHNEIDER
tures placed over the work station, the green

piping chase to service the lab benches, and
the north facing access to daylight and views.
LEFT Mechanical penthouse showing chilled
water pumps with water-to-water heat pump.
It took nearly 12 years to undo decades of pollution

and sewage dumped directly into the waterway. At
the completion of this undertaking, a new facility was
proposed to maintain the cleanliness of the waterway
and help restore, protect and maintain other water
bodies throughout the Puget Sound.
This mix of scientists, engineers and policymakers helps implement best practices in serving the
environment. The lab focuses on receiving and analyzing water samples from the waterways of Tacoma
and surrounding areas, and 9,000 ft2 (836 m2) of
the building is dedicated to laboratory testing and
research.
This project was completed using an integrated, collaborative effort throughout design and construction
with ambitious sustainable goals, and is now certified as
a LEED v2.2 Platinum laboratory. The following design
features were all critical to the successful implementation of this project:
Ground loop geoexchange heating and cooling;
Heat recovery;
Energy efficient lighting;
Daylighting;
Natural ventilation;
Radiant floors;
Low-e glass and exterior operable shading;
VAV low-flow fume hoods;
Low-flow plumbing fixtures & rainwater
harvesting;
Green roof; and
Energy efficient HVAC components.
Mechanical Systems
The buildings central plant consists of a 200 ton (703
kW) ground source water-to-water heat pump that combines with a geoexchange loop with 84 bore holes at an
average of 280 ft (85 m) deep each. The water-to-water

heat pump can simultaneously produce hot and chilled
water that is pumped throughout the building. As a cost
saving measure, the ground loop was sized for 100%
of the heating load and only 75% of the cooling load.
Therefore, a 70 ton (246 kW) fluid cooler was provided
for peak cooling operation. After observing the buildings operation, the fluid cooler only operates two or
three times a year.
Given the mixed occupancy of lab and office space,
the building has been divided into two separate
spaces that are conditioned by two separate system
types. For the lab, a 60 ton (211 kW) variable air volume (VAV) air-handling unit (AHU) delivers 18,500
cfm (8731 L/s) of air to the space while two 21,000 cfm
(9911 L/s) VAV lab exhaust fans have been provided
that connect to the fume hoods, snorkels, bio-safety
cabinets and general exhaust. A runaround loop was
provided so the warm air from the exhaust system is
transferred via water and serves as a preheat coil for
the air handling unit.
For the office space, a 40 ton (140 kW) 100% outside air
AHU delivers 9,300 cfm (4389 L/s) to the space. This unit
also has been provided with a heat recovery enthalpy
wheel, so that all return air, including the toilet exhaust,
passes through the enthalpy wheel, which serves as preheat for the supply air (or precooling in summer).
The majority of the office floor plate is open, with few
enclosed offices or conference rooms. This, combined
with a narrow floor plate of 25 ft (7.6 m) wide, serves as
an ideal environment for a passive ventilation and cooling solution.
Operable windows are provided in combination with
room indicator lights that let the occupants know when
the most ideal outdoor air conditions are to open the
windows. For times when the windows are shut, the
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floor can be activated through a

radiant floor system that has been
sized for both the heating and cooling loads of the office. With the natural ventilation/radiant system, the
air-handling unit size was reduced
by nearly 80%, which opened up
ceilings and spaces.
Energy Efficiency
Traditionally, laboratories use
large amounts of energy for their
operations. Tacoma Center for
Urban Waters was designed with
efficiency and sustainability in mind
from the initial phases of the project
and was targeted during design to
use 32.8% less energy than ASHRAE/
IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 and
36.6% less cost savings.
We conducted energy and thermal simulations in the early design
stages to determine the most effective
strategies. According to the AIA 2030
Commitment Reporting Tool Design
Year 2010, the average lab building
energy use intensity (EUI) is 370.
From our modeling simulations, we
are able to determine a baseline EUI
of 122 with a design EUI of 82.
After one years occupancy, we
discovered that the Tacoma Center
for Urban Waters Project performs
slightly higher than which it was
designed, and has an actual EUI of 85.
The projects exemplary EUI reduction of 77% meets the 2030 Challenge.
Indoor Air Quality & Thermal Comfort

In accordance with ASHRAE
Standard 62.1-2004, each lab has
been provided with an air monitoring system that measures the varying quantities of supply and exhaust
in the room and adjusts to ensure
that these spaces are always negatively pressurized from the rest of
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the building, so chemical odors cannot migrate into surrounding spaces

affecting the occupants.
Three of the labs require an environment where the room must
be positively pressurized. In these
instances, an override button is provided at the labs exit to reverse the
pressurization in the event of a spill.
In addition to the labs, janitors closets and copy rooms are negatively
pressurized as well.
Air-handling units serving these
spaces provide 100% outside air with
no recirculation of air back to the
building. High occupancy density
non-lab spaces, consisting of conference and meeting rooms and rooms
with occupancies greater than 25
people per 1,000 ft2 (93 m2) are
equipped with CO2 sensors to help
track indoor environmental quality.
The building is located in an
industrial area of Tacoma, Wash.,
that is not conducive to a natural
ventilation solution. Given the sites
close proximity to water combined
with the prevailing winds, early site
studies were conducted to ensure
odors or contaminants from nearby
properties would not affect the air
quality inside the building.
The contractor also implemented
measures to maintain high indoor air
quality during construction including
temporary filters on equipment that
were replaced prior to occupancy and
a building flush out, earning EQc3 in
the LEED NC v2.2 rating system.
ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 is
based on the Predicted Mean Vote
(PMV) comfort model, which incorporates heat transfer models to
relate the personal activity levels,
clothing and environmental conditions, enabling us to calculate a
value on a thermal sensation scale.
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TABLE 1 Total building annual utility consumption.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
2013
ELECTRICITY
(KWH)
NATURAL GAS
(THERMS)
January
121,000
195
February
114,000
216
March
96,000
165
April
97,000
225
May
103,000
190
June
105,000
206
July
113,000
176
August
117,000
168
September
104,000
192
October
95,000
184
November
94,000
192
December
116,000
205
TOTAL ANNUAL
1,275,000
2,314
TABLE 2 Energy use intensity (EUI) summary.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
(KBTU/FT 2YR)
Baseline Design
122
Modeled Design
82
Actual Use
85
The scale ranges from 3 (cold)

to +3 (hot). A PMV of 0.5 to +0.5
meets Standard 55-2004. Standard
55-2004 does not specify minimum
humidity levels. The output from
the ASHRAE comfort model indicates that the indoor design conditions meet the Standard 55-2004
with a rating of 0.31 in the summer
and a 0.10 in the winter.
Innovation
The most innovative part of the
project is the use of the geoexchange
system. At depths below 12 ft (3.6 m),
the earth is typically at a relatively
constant temperature compared with
the surrounding air (approximately
55F [12.7C] in the Puget Sound
region). When feasible, this makes
it an ideal medium to either reject
heat from the building in the cooling cycle or draw energy

Center for Urban Waters
from the earth for heating the building. As mentioned
Sustainable Strategies
previously, 84 wells were provided as part of this system
2
1
with an average depth of 280 ft (85 m). The original design
3
called for 76 wells with depths of 300 ft (91 m).
11
Early on in the drilling of the wells, it was found that given
10
1 Green Roof
the sites proximity to the waterway, approximately 50 ft (15
2 Summer Sun
3 Winter Sun
m) on the west and 150 ft (46 m) on the south, the wells on
4
4 Water Storage Tanks
the north side of the site began to cave in on themselves at
5 Irrigation from Storage
7
Tanks
approximately 240 to 260 ft (73 to 79 m) as the soil became
5
6 Rain Garden
unstable. This was not an issue for the test well, which was
7 Natural Ventilation
drilled during the design phase of the project. It was later
8 Ground Source
9
Heat and Cool
7
6
found the test well was drilled on the north side of the proj9 Radiant Floor
ects site, where the soil was more stable and the originally
10 Excess Clean Water
8
From Labs
planned 300 ft (91 m) well depth could easily be achieved.
11 Flush Toilets from
To overcome the shortfall in capacity that would have
Storage Tanks
resulted from a reduced average borehole depth, eight
FIGURE 1 Overview of the sustainable features that have been provided at the
more wells were drilled on site to enable the well field to
Center for Urban Waters.
meet the buildings heating and cooling loads.
Baseline Potable Water Consumption
Water Conservation & Reclaim
Precipitation
425,600
Non-Conserving Fixtures
Baseline Gal./Yr.
Integrated design was a
498,500 Gal./Yr. 738,600
53,000
Irrigation
223,900 Conserving Fixtures
common theme through260,000
Runoff System
61,000
Toilet Flushing from Storage Tanks
53,000
Irrigation from Storage Tanks
738,600
Gal./Yr.
out the design process.
400,700
Gal./Yr.
The mechanical engineer
(46% Savings)
Storm
Waste Water
worked closely with the
Runoff Reject
Domestic
Toilets & Urinals
Irrigation
Toilet Supply
architect and the rest of
Rainwater Collection
100,000 Gal./Yr.
Water Storage Tanks
the design team to find
Runoff
(41,000 Gal./Ea.)
synergies between buildWaste Water
Water to
447,700 Gal./Yr.
Labs
ing envelope and the
Storm
Water
Runoff
mechanical systems to
398,500 Gal./Yr.
Reverse Osmosis
reduce system loads.
Water Treatment
System
One of those synergies
Domestic Water Main
Runoff Reject
was to provide a dynamic
Irrigation
130,000 Gal./Yr.
Storm Main
53,000 Gal./Yr.
Potable
Water
exterior shading system.
Waste Main
400,700 Gal./Yr.
A sun tracking device
FIGURE 2 Highlights of the buildings water use and reuse.
located on the roof of the
building monitors the
away from the windows access to natural light that they
suns position and brightness levels throughout the day.
wouldnt have in a standard office design.
Depending on the brightness level, a signal is sent to
A second synergy found between the lab planner and
exterior blinds located on the south faade of the buildengineer was on the function of the fume hoods located
ing that can raise, lower, open and close. If the building
occupants want more or less light, regardless of the out- in the labs. Historically, a typical design face velocity
used for fume hood design is 100 fpm (0.508 m/s). This
door conditions, an override switch is provided giving
practice had been rarely challenged until recent years,
the user control of their environment. In addition to
but studies have shown that a hood can be just as effecthe external shading, light shelves have been provided
tive in containing their environment at face velocities as
above the blinds to help introduce reflected sunlight
deep into the buildings space, giving occupants situated low as 60 fpm (0.305 m/s), depending on what and how
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Credit: Perkins + Will
Dry Bulb
Relative Humidity
Humidity Ratio
Wet Bulb
Dew Point
Humidity
25
20
15
10
30
67.2F
100.0%
19.3 lbw/klbda
73.5F
75.6F
21.1 Btu/lb
25
20
15
10
5
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
Dry-Bulb Temperature (F)
90
95
Humidity Ratio (lbw/klbda)
30
66.4F
100.0%
19.3 lbw/klbda
73.2F
75.6F
21.1 Btu/lb
Humidity Ratio (lbw/klbda)
Dry Bulb
Relative Humidity
Humidity Ratio
Wet Bulb
Dew Point
Humidity
0
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Dry-Bulb Temperature (F)
85
90
95
FIGURE 3 Summer indoor setpoint (left); winter indoor setpoint (right).
the fume hood is being used and provided the overall

room air distribution is properly specified. After deliberation with owner stakeholders, as a compromise, 75
fpm (0.381 m/s) was ultimately chosen for the design
face velocity on all fume hoods.
An exceptional calculation to ASHRAE/IESNA Standard

90.1-2004 was performed, which yielded an additional
3 to 4% energy savings for the building through the
reduction in face velocity at the hoods. This savings also
earned an additional LEED point under Credit EA 1.
Another innovative component of the project is the use
of rainwater harvesting and reuse for non-potable water
applications. Two 36,000 gallon (136 275 L) water storage
tanks sit outside the building and collect rain water and
deionized lab water to be used for toilet flushing and
irrigation. Combined with low flow plumbing fixtures,
this project sees a 46% reduction in water use relative
to the LEED baseline. To help building occupants and
visitors better understand the impact of these tanks, an
LED display located on the outside of each tank shows
how much water is stored throughout the year.
Operation and Maintenance
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For the first year of operation, the building did not perform as well as expected. Given the then limited experience
with centralized ground loop heat pump systems in the
Northwest, fine-tuning the equipment to operate at its full
potential took longer than expected by all parties involved.
The building engineer was engaged throughout the
process and understood how the mechanical systems
were supposed to operate and understood the benefits
that could be achieved and therefore was committed to
seeing the commissioning process through. Nearly one
year after occupancy, the building was fully commissioned, and now is performing as expected. Thus far,
the building management team appreciates the many
sustainable features for this project.

An interactive building energy dashboard is displayed
in the lobby of the building, giving the occupants the
chance to see how much energy and water is used on a
weekly, monthly and yearly basis. Comparisons to previous time frames can also be displayed to show how well
the building performs over time.
Cost Effectiveness
With any lab facility, cost for mechanical equipment is
at a premium. The total construction cost for this project
was $18.3 million ($359/ft2 [$3864/m2)], with $4.1 million
($80/ft2 [$861 m2]) dedicated to the HVAC and plumbing costs, which was on budget. Energy modeling for the
project was simulated for LEED Certification compliance
to demonstrate that the building performs 36.6% (energy
cost) better than a baseline building defined using the
Performance Rating Method in ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
90.1-2004, reducing significantly long-term operational
costs. In addition, the geoexchange ground loop will last
the life of the building without requiring replacement, or
any anticipated maintenance.
Environmental Impact
The multiple sustainable strategies involved with
the Tacoma Center for Urban Waters project helped it
achieve 57 points out of a possible 69 under LEED-NC
v2.2 resulting in a Platinum certification.
A significant reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions was achieved. Using the fuel emissions factor set
forth by ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1 (Natural
Gas 0.51 lbs carbon/kWh, electricity 1.67 lbs carbon/
kWh), Tacoma Center for Urban Waters reduces CO2
emissions from a baseline 3.66 million lbs carbon/kWh
to an actual use of 2.48 million lbs carbon/kWh. The
result is a 32.2% reduction in CO2 emissions.
Conclusion
Overall, the City of Tacoma is pleased with the performance of the facility and will continuously monitor the
buildings performance through the LEED EB program.
Occupant satisfaction remains a top priority with many
of the buildings comfort controls given to the end user.
The Tacoma Center for Urban Waters continues to be an
excellent example of integrative design.
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COLUMN ENGINEERS NOTEBOOK

Daniel H. Nall
Control of Underfloor
Air-Distribution Systems
BY DANIEL H. NALL, P.E., BEMP, HBDP, FAIA, FELLOW/LIFE MEMBER ASHRAE
Underfloor air-distribution (UFAD) systems have been designed and built in the
United States for more than 20 years with various degrees of success. The system
remains controversial, with both advocates and detractors, but has experienced
significant penetration in some markets. The most common complaint with these
systems, however, is that spaces are chronically over-cooled.1 Many critical factors
have been identified for avoiding this pitfall, but the implementation of effective
control strategies is arguably the most important step.
Underfloor air-distribution system typically refers to
an HVAC system that delivers conditioning air from an
air-handling unit through an access floor plenum to
multiple floor-located diffusers or terminals that modulate airflow to individual zones to maintain comfort.
Underfloor air is not a universal solution for all office
buildings. It is well-suited to open plan, single tenant or
owner-occupied buildings. In those buildings, the overall cost of the system, including available economies in
systems furniture and cable distribution and certain tax
advantages, is competitive with conventional overhead
air-distribution systems. For occupancies that require
many closed rooms, however, or where construction
costs are divided between landlord and tenant, UFAD
may be less attractive. Selection of the system should
follow a comprehensive review of the usage, goals and
configuration of an occupancy and extensive discussion
with the occupants and owner of the project.
Differences between this system and a conventional
single duct overhead delivery VAV system include:
Air distribution is primarily through an open plenum under an access floor, rather than through closed
ductwork above the ceiling.
Air delivery from the floor-mounted diffusers is
intended to be semi-displacement rather than full mixing and, therefore, the design supply air temperature to
the space is much higher (~62F vs. ~55F [17C vs. 13C])
and diffuser face velocity is significantly lower than with
overhead systems.
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Because floor registers are immediately accessible

to occupants, manually adjustable diffusers are often
used in interior workstations instead of thermostatically
operated diffusers or terminals.
Air temperature distribution in the space is usually
markedly different with a UFAD system than with an overhead mixing system, showing significant stratification.
Many of the parts of an UFAD system are conventional
and familiar, although some require some special modifications for UFAD. Primary air-handling units are similar to those of overhead systems, although, in humid
climates, air-handling units supplying directly to the
plenum will require a coil bypass so that return air may
be redirected around the cooling coil to raise the supply air temperature to the space while maintaining the
required apparatus dew-point temperature. All humid
outside ventilation air is directed across the coil to
ensure that the supply airstream has an adequately low
dew-point temperature to control space humidity.
Many UFAD systems provide supply air for both interior and perimeter zones from the same source through
the same supply plenum. Provision of a separate supply
plenum or a separate, often hydronic, cooling source
for perimeter zones usually is often ruled out because
of operational or first cost considerations. Serving both
the perimeter zones and interior zones from the same
underfloor supply plenum requires a control sequence
Daniel H. Nall, P.E., FAIA, is vice president at Syska Hennessy Group, New York.
Sprinkler Branch Line
Recessed Light Fixture
Recessed
Sprinkler Head
Warm Return Air
Return Air
Ceiling Return Plenum
Light Fixture
Thermal Plume
Perimeter Heating/
Cooling Updraft Supply
Multi-Slot Perimeter
Floor Diffuser
Stratification Boundary Level

Variable Speed Fan with
Hydronic Heating Coil
Swirling Supply Air
Multi-Service Floor Box

with Power/Tele/Data
Floor Mounted
Swirl Diffuser
Flexible Conduit Whip
Supply Air Floor Plenum

Power Junction Box
Run at Floor Slab
Supply Cooling Air

Power Conduit Run at Floor Slab
High Performance Glass Faade
FIGURE 1 Configuration of the underfloor air-distribution system.
that enables comfort control for both types of zones

simultaneously.
Supply air temperature degradation due to heat transfer across the access floor into the supply air and across
the floor slab from the return air plenum below is a
significant issue with UFAD systems. Many strategies
have been developed to deal with this issue, but they are
beyond the scope of this article. A well-designed underfloor plenum system using all of the known strategies to
avoid thermal degradation should have a temperature
rise across the plenum ranging from 2F (1C) to no
more than 6F (3.4C). These strategies include location
of supply air insertion points for the plenum to avoid
lengthy or circuitous pathways to the most remote outlets and controlling insertion velocity to minimize the
generation of large scale vortices under the floor.
The fundamental hypothesis of UFAD systems is that
loads in the open plan area served by the system will vary
uniformly over time. Control schemes can be applied to
the entire distribution system to handle the load variation
that does occur in this space. Individual manual control
can be applied to the floor diffusers to trim air delivery
to individual workstations or to handle an extraordinary
load event. Frequent manipulation of the floor diffusers
is not considered to be a necessary component for maintaining comfort. A necessary corollary of this hypothesis
is that comfort control for spaces not part of the general

open plan can occur independently of the control stratagems imposed on the overall air-distribution system.
These spaces might include closed offices, conference
rooms and perimeter spaces. This corollary has significant implications for the design of the system to avoid
conflict between comfort control in these separate spaces.
Figure 1 shows typical UFAD system with both interior and
perimeter zones served by the same floor supply plenum.
System Control for Maximized Comfort

Historically, UFAD systems have been designed and
installed with various arrangements and control strategies with varying levels of success compared to conventional overhead systems.2 Many times the projects physical
form will guide the equipment locations and strategies, but
in all cases, engineers should ensure that the systems are
arranged to maximize occupant comfort and realize the
other benefits possible with UFAD systems. Prior to committing to any control strategy, it is critical that the design
team focus on creating system arrangements that minimize
thermal decay and air leakage, promote air stratification
and facilitate independent control of different space types
served by the air-distribution system.
Block loads in the interior zones of office spaces are not constant. Even in an open plan area with uniform work station
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Airflow
Fan Speed
density, the block load may demonstrate a varia130F

Maximum Fan Speed
tion across the day. Following a warm night or
Discharge Air
weekend, the cooling load will experience a
Design Airflow
Design Fan Speed
Temperature
peak during morning cool-down as the system
Setpoint
Airflow
overcomes high temperatures that result from
the overnight deactivation of the HVAC system.
In cooler weather, early morning cooling loads
30% Design
30% Design
may be almost non-existent as the heat gain
Fan Speed
Airflow
Fan
Speed
from lights, equipment and people must warm
Lowest Possible
up the thermal mass of the space before the heat
Fan Speed
(~15% Maximum
gain shows up as cooling load. A fundamental
Minimum
Fan Speed)
Airflow (Due
60F
requirement for maintaining comfort is accomTo Pressurized
modation of these basic load profiles, while mainPlenum)
Heat Loop Output
Deadband
Cooling Loop Output
taining flexibility to meet loads in other spaces.
FIGURE 2 Fan operation and airflow for perimeter fan terminals.7
Generally recognized schemes for tracking the
block load profile of the open plan interior zone
cooling demand increases, the floor pressure falls to
are to reset the positive pressure setpoint of the
supply plenum with respect to the space and reset of the sup- reduce airflow to interior spaces to reducing overcooling.
ply air temperature in the floor plenum.3 Each of these alterThese reset protocols require several temperature
natives has implications for comfort control in the non-open sensors mounted in the open office area.3 The authors
plan spaces. Reset of the plenum pressure setpoint requires experience is that mounting these sensors approximately 6 ft (1.8 m) above the finished floor is an effective
that airflow to the zones that are not interior open-plan be
strategy. Several sensors, spaced around the open plan
independent of plenum pressure or that the air outlets in
area, are used, and they can be averaged to determine
those spaces are sized for design airflow at a pressure lower
than the maximum setpoint. Reset of supply air temperature whether or not reset is necessary. The setpoint temperature for these sensors, approximately at head height,
implies that the air outlets be sized to meet design cooling
should be a few degrees warmer than the ideal comfort
loads with a higher supply air temperature than the minimum setpoint. Reset of supply air temperature also implies
temperature for seated chest height. These sensors
that the dew-point of the supply air is relatively independent should be identified on the documents as temperature
of the supply air dry bulb temperature in order to maintain
sensors, as opposed to control thermostats, so as not to
space humidity control in humid climates. Supply temperaevoke Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requireture downward reset should also be limited to a minimum of ments for location.
60F (15.6C) to avoid thermal asymmetry discomfort (cold
Using differential pressure reset as a control stratagem is
feet, warm head) for space occupants.
dependent upon two factors. The first of these is that the
Figure 2 is a control scheme that has been found successful pressure sensors used have the sensitivity and accuracy
for several different projects:
to measure very low pressures. Inadequate sensors will
Reset supply plenum static pressure setpoint based
not be able to deliver sufficiently fine control to modulate
on interior space temperature. The logic resets the pres- capacity in response to load variation. The sensor range
sure setpoint to maximum design pressure (e.g., 0.1 in.
should be as low as possible to capture the maximum
w.g. [25 Pa]) when the interior spaces are warm down to
design pressure. Sensors with accuracy as low as 0.5% of
0.01 in. w.g. [2.5 Pa] when they are cold.
full scale are readily available at reasonable cost.
Reset supply air temperature to satisfy the perimThe second requirement is somewhat more subtle
eter zone that requires the coldest air. The best reset
and it is that the pressure drop across the floor from
strategy is trim and respond, which easily allows the
the plenum to the space be sufficiently high to allow an
user to ignore some non-critical zones from the logic.4
adequate control range for re-setting the plenum presThe two strategies together can help prevent overcoolsure differential. Airflow through the floor from the pleing: as supply air temperature falls when perimeter zone num to the space is composed of both leakage through
the floor and flow through the various diffusers and terminal units that control airflow to the space. Excessive
leakage through the floor or deployment of too many
floor diffusers can result in lower than anticipated pressure drop through the floor at design airflow. If design
airflow is achieved at a much lower pressure differential
across the floor than 0.05 in. w.g. (12.5 Pa), then the
control range for floor pressure reset may be too small to
achieve the required flow modulation to accommodate a
varying load profile for the interior zones.
In general, leakage from the supply plenum is classified as Type I, Leakage to Unoccupied Spaces (including
outdoors, core and return air plenum), and Type II,
Leakage to Occupied Spaces. While Type I leakage may
represent energy waste, either fan energy for moving air
directly from the supply plenum to the return plenum,
or both fan and cooling energy by moving air out of the
conditioned area, Type II leakage presents a more subtle
controllability problem that may lead to overall occupant dissatisfaction with the building.
Avoidance of this problem requires several different
steps. The first is a robust performance specification for
air leakage through the floor, accompanied by requirements for verification that the specified measures have
been implemented. Recent testing data has indicated
that leakage levels, at a pressure differential of 0.05 to
0.06 in. w.g., (12.5 Pa to 15 Pa) of less than 5% for Type I, and
less than 7.5% for Type II, may be achieved.5 Performance
specification and testing requirements will enable the
owner to require remediation should the floor system fail
to comply. The second step is an accurate load calculation
to determine the maximum amount of supply airflow
that will be required to condition the area served by the
underfloor plenum. The third step is to allocate the number of passive floor diffusers such that design flow will
only be achieved when plenum pressure is at or above the
target pressure differential. Sizing of air terminals and
determination of the number and location of passive diffusers should recognize that Type II leakage will contribute
a significant amount of uncontrolled conditioning air to
the space. The author has often limited passive diffusers to
workspace locations, completely eliminating them from
transient areas such as passageways and congregation
areas, in order to maintain an adequate pressure drop from
the plenum to the space. If building commissioning reveals
that airflow is achieved at a lower pressure differential than
desired, then some of the floor diffusers may be closed off.
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Use of plenum pressure reset as a means of tracking the

block load of the interior space means that other types of
zones must be able to track their individual loads independently of plenum pressurization. For enclosed private
offices or small conference rooms this may mean the use
of thermostatically controlled floor diffusers that are sized
to deliver design airflow at lower than design pressure.
Thermostatic controls can restrict flow through the diffuser during periods of lower part loads in the space or of
higher pressurization of the supply plenum. Areas with
more intense cooling loads such as large interior conference rooms and perimeter zones require thermostatically
controlled fan forced air supply to those zones. Variable
speed fan terminals convey air from the plenum to the
space independently of plenum pressurization, fully isolating perimeter zone temperature control from load tracking
in the interior zone. Ideally, the heating mechanism for the
perimeter zones is completely separated from the underfloor air system, for example, under-window convectors,
but rarely is this solution architecturally acceptable. As a
result, the fan terminals usually incorporate hydronic coils
or electric resistance coils to provide heat to the perimeter
zones. The fan terminal control scheme in Figure 2 recommended to be compliant with ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1
restrictions on reheat of previously cooled air.6
Large conference room variable speed fan terminals
follow a similar control scheme except that the fan does
not shut off in the deadband in order to fully comply
with ASHRAE Standard 62.1. CO2 sensors can be used
to dynamically reset the minimum airflow setpoint.
Because CO2 emission from occupants can cause CO2 to
rise faster than occupant heat gain causes space temperature to rise, reheat coils may be required to maintain
the room within the required temperature range.
If reduction of supply plenum differential pressure
proves inadequate to avoid overcooling the interior zones
of the space, the second stage of capacity control for the
interior zones is raising the supply air temperature setpoint. Unfortunately, upward reset of supply air necessarily
impacts system cooling capacity for the perimeter zones.
This strategy should be avoided except during periods
when perimeter or conference room loads are very unlikely
to be at design levels, such as during nighttime partial
occupancy. In most cases, occupied periods with the lowest
internal zone cooling loads, possibly required supply air
temperature reset, are the same periods that will likely
have lower conference room and perimeter zone loads.
Conclusion
Many projects have demonstrated that UFAD systems
are an appropriate and successful HVAC system selection for some office building applications. Successful
design of UFAD systems requires reconciling passive
comfort control in the interior open-plan zones with
active comfort control in perimeter and enclosed
zones. The most common comfort complaint in UFAD
systems is overcooling in the open plan interior areas.
Successful temperature control in these areas requires
control schemes that allow the system to track interior
zone load profiles without inordinately curtailing system capacity at the perimeter zones. Achievement of
this goal can be accomplished through the following
control measures:
Use plenum pressure control as the primary means
of tracking interior zone cooling loads.
Use sensors that are sufficiently sensitive and accurate, precisely to control plenum pressurization.
Ensure that supply air temperature reset does not
compromise required cooling capacity at exterior zones,
private offices or conference rooms.
Use capacity modulation methods in perimeter and

enclosed spaces that are relatively independent of supply plenum pressure.
These goals can be achieved with either a common or
a separate cooling source for perimeter and exterior
zones. Success will be determined by rigorous recognition of how the control sequences interact to maintain
comfort in both types of zones.
References
1. Lee, E.S., et al. 2013. A Post-Occupancy Monitored Evaluation
of the Dimmable Lighting, Automated Shading, and Underfloor Air
Distribution System in The New York Times Building. Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, pp. 4950.
2. Woods, J. 2004. What real-world experience says about the
UFAD alternative. ASHRAE Journal 46(2).
3. Megerson, J.E., et al. 2013. UFAD Guide: Design, Construction and
Operation of Underfloor Air Distribution Systems. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
4. Hydeman, M., et al. 2014. Final Report: ASHRAE RP-1455
Advanced Control Sequences for HVAC Systems, Phase I.
5. Anticknap, S., M. Opalka 2011. Testing for leaks in underfloor
plenums. ASHRAE Journal 53(12).
6. ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2013, Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, p 52.
7. Lee, K. H., et. 2011. Lessons Learned In Modeling Underfloor
Air Distribution Systems. Center for the Built Environment.
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COLUMN BUILDING SCIENCES

Joseph W. Lstiburek
Drilling into Cavities
Vitruvius Does Veneers

BY JOSEPH W. LSTIBUREK, PH.D., P.ENG., FELLOW ASHRAE
Vitruvius had it right 2,000 years ago: if a wall is in a state of dampness all over,
construct a second thin wall a little way from itat a distance suited to the circumstanceswith vents to the open airwhen the wall is brought up to the top, leave air
holes there. For if the moisture has no means of getting out by vents at the bottom and
at the top, it will not fail to spread all over the new wall.*
In Vitruviuss discussion on methods of building walls
he points out: this we may learn from several monuments in the course of time, the mortar has lost its
strength and so the monuments are tumbling down
and going to pieces, with their joints loosened by the
settling of the material that bound them together. He
who wishes to avoid such a disaster should leave a cavity behind the facings, and on the inside build walls two
feet thick, made of red dimension stone or burnt brick
or lava in courses, and then bind them to the fronts by
means of iron clamps and lead.
Kind of humbling, eh? And so where are we two millennia later? Arguing about a distance suited to the
circumstances. What should the air space or air gap be
behind a cladding and what should the venting geometry be behind a cladding? We looked at this earlier
(Mind the Gap, Eh?, ASHRAE Journal, January 2010, and
Hockey Pucks & Hydrostatic Pressure, ASHRAE Journal,
January 2012). Apparently we need to look at it again so
that we can all stop arguing.
It is instructive to look at the evolution of walls from a

water management perspective. We pretty much started
with mass walls a couple of thousand years ago. A typical old mass wall consisted of several wythes of brick
(Figure 1). Rainwater would hit a mass wall, much of the
water would drain off the face. Some would be absorbed
and some would enter the wall via cracks and gaps in
the mortar. How much would enter? Ah, good question. With brick, less than 1% of the rainwater incident
on the wall would get past the first layer of brick. Then,
less than 1% of the 1% would get past the second layer
then less than 1% of the 1% of the 1% would get past the
third layeryou get the idea. The first big improvement
in mass walls to handle rain was to stucco them. And,
over a couple of centuries this stucco rainwater control
approach caught on. The Greeks did it. The Romans did
it. Lots of cultures took credit for the idea.
Then, we got Vitruvius and the cavity wall. This was
revolutionary. An air space or gap behind the first
wythe to allow drainage of penetrating rainwater was
* Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote in the time of Augustus (63 B.C. 14 A.D.) and it is believed that he wrote this around 15 B.C.1
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, De Architectura, Book II, Chapter VII, Methods of Building Walls, 15 B.C.
This is my take on this based on being an old guy who has been around. We know today, based on measurements, that less than 1% of rainwater gets past a single layer of brick: a brick veneer wall. And
todays brick veneer walls are pretty crappy workmanship compared to bricks laid 100 or 200 or more years ago.
Vitruvius did not invent the cavity wall. He just was the first to write about it. We dont know who invented it. This happens all the time. Someone who had nothing to do with the original idea writes about it,
gets it published in a peer-reviewed journal, everyone else references the paper, and the original creator gets nada credit.
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a phenomenal concept
Multi-Wythe
Veneer
Outer
Inner
Masonry
Veneer
Mass Wall
(Figure 1). The air space or
Wall
Wall
Backup
Wall
gap also acted as a capilFrame Wall
lary break and allowed
(Steel Stud or
airflow to redistribute
Wood Stud)
the penetrating absorbed
Cavity Insulation
water and subsequently
vent it out of the assembly.
Sheathing
(Gypsum Board,
Drainage, ventilation and
Plywood or OSB)
a capillary break all in one.
Water Control Layer
Amazing.
FIGURE 1 Cavity Wall Evolution. Cavity walls over time evolved into two equal load bearing layers tied together structurally. The gap
Cavity walls over time
was typically limited to 2 to 3 in. (51 to 76 mm) based on the structural limitations of the ties. Over time the outer wythe of brick
became a non-load-bearing veneer coupled with a masonry backup wall that was structurally more robust. When steel and
evolved into two equal
concrete frame buildings were introduced, the backup walls no longer needed to be load bearing. The masonry backup walls
load bearing layers tied
got less and less robust and over time were completely replaced with frame walls constructed with steel studs. For much of the
together structurally. The
evolution described above, the water control approach was the air gap. Water control layers were an alien concept and did not get
introduced until the last half of the last century. With cavity wall construction, we did not see them until after the 1960s.
gap was typically limited
to 2 to 3 in. (51 to 76 mm)
based on the structural limitations
Rain has always been a big thing
of the ties. Two wythes of brick tied
once you get over the structure and
together this way tended to be pretty fire thing. First, make sure buildlimiting structurally, and structural
ings dont fall down. Second, make
engineers are known to not like
sure they dont burn. Then, keep
being limited. It did not take much
the rain out of the inside. Pretty
time for things to change. The outer
fundamental. The gap was the rain
PHOTO 1 Mortar Droppings. The gap was the rain
wythe of brick became a non-loadcontrol thing in the original cavity
control thing in the original cavity walls. And, the key
to the gap was to keep the mortar out of the gap.
bearing veneer coupled with a
walls. And, the key to the gap was to
The bigger the gap, the easier it was to keep the
masonry backup wall that was
keep the mortar out of the gap (Photo
mortar out of it. A 2 in. (51 mm) gap worked great.
structurally more robust (Figure 1). 1). The bigger the gap, the easier it
And then, things got even more
was to keep the mortar out of it. A
details. This is how I was taught to
interesting structurally. We got steel 2 in. (51 mm) gap worked great. It
do it. Everyone in my generation was
and concrete frame buildings where had other benefits. Most folks dont
taught to do it this way. Everything
the backup walls no longer needed remember thisthe 1960s had a lot
is flashed to the exterior face of the
to be load bearing. The masonry
to do with it#but you could lay up
both the inner and outer walls from
outer wall. If you have no water
backup walls got less and less
the inside. You did not need to scafcontrol layer on the outside face of
robust and over time were comfold the building. Think of the cost
the inner wall you absolutely have
pletely replaced with frame walls
to flash everything to the outside.
constructed with steel studs (Figure 1). savings of not having to scaffold the
building. When both the inner and
Remember this for later. If you have
For much of the evolution laid
outer walls were done this way from no water control layer on the outside
out in Figure 1, the water control
the inside, the 2 in. (51 mm) gap was face of the inner wall you absolutely
approach was the air gap. Water
have to have a 2 in. (51 mm) air
control layers were an alien concept essential for mortar dropping conspace. Remember this for later.
and did not get introduced until the trol and hence rain control.
Check out Figure 2 and 3 from
The big, big, really big thing
last half of the last century. With cavCanadian Building Digest 21. These
(aside from the structural thing)
ity wall construction, we did not see
represent the classic cavity wall
that occurred with the introduction
them until after the 1960s.
# The saying goes if you can remember the 1960s you did not
live them.
Joseph W. Lstiburek, Ph.D., P.Eng., is a principal of Building Science Corporation in Westford, Mass. Visit
www.buildingscience.com.
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of steel frame backup

Spandrel Beam
Outer Wall
Inner Wall
Outer Wall
walls was the use of build2 in. Air Space
Metal Tie
ing paper as a rain con2 in. Air Space
Flashing to Form
trol layer. This meant a
Weep Hole
Brick
Cavity Gutter
couple of things: you did
Shelf Angle; Galvanized
Inner Wall
Mortar Joint
Steel, Bolted to Beam
not need as big an air gap
Weep Hole (Mortar
Metal Tie
and you no longer needed
Omitted)
to flash everything to the
Foundation Wall
outside face of the outer
FIGURE 2 (LEFT) Classic Cavity Wall. From Canadian Building Digest 21.2 This is how I was taught to do it. Everyone in my generation was
layer. There were huge,
taught to do it this way. Everything is flashed to the exterior face of the outer wall. FIGURE 3 (RIGHT) Classic Cavity Wall. From Canadian
huge, huge implications
Building Digest 21.2 If you have no water control layer on the outside face of the inner wall, you absolutely have to flash everything to the
with this. Things could get
outside. If you have no water control layer on the outside face of the inner wall, you absolutely have to have a 2 in. (55 mm) air space.
easier and less expensive
to construct. You would think that
mortar droppings. This drainage
folks would embrace this? Ha!||
mat can be as small as 1/4 in. (6
It was not practical to install buildmm). This drainage mat also acts as
ing paper over a masonry backup
a capillary break.
wall. You cant staple it, you cant nail
Even more magic happens if I
it. What are you going to do? Glue it?
replace the drainage mat with a
What did we have available at first? We draining insulation. I got my first
PHOTO 2 Mastic Water Control Layer. It was not
practical to install building paper over a masonry
used mastics (Photo 2)basically below real education in draining insulabackup wall. You cant staple it, you cant nail it.
grade waterproofingand then peel
tions in the late 1970s doing exterior
What did we have available at first? We used masticsbasically below grade waterproofingand then
and stick membranes were develfoundation insulation using fiberpeel and stick membranes were developed. Today,
**
oped. Today, we have fluid-applied
glass roofing insulation (Photo 3).
we have fluid-applied and spray-applied water conand spray-applied water control layers Today, rock wool (stone wool) is
trol layers to go over masonry backup walls.
to go over masonry backup walls.
commonly used as a draining insuSo what does a water control layer
lation below grade on the exterior of mortar droppings. When you add a
on a masonry backup wall allow
foundations (Photo 4). If you can use drainage mat that maintains a continuous drainage space, you dont need
us to do? I have already mentioned
rock wool/stone wool below grade
an additional air cavity beyond what
the smaller air gap and the flashing
you certainly can use it above grade
thing. So what happens if you now
(Photo 5). What about other draining is provided by the drainage mat. A
good dimension for the drainage mat
also control hydrostatic pressure?
insulations? You can use extruded
is 1/4 in. (6 mm) or greater. When you
Magic happens. We talked about
polystyrene (XPS) and expanded
some of this magic before (Hockey
polystyrene (EPS) (Photos 6, 7 and 8). replace the drainage mat with drainPucks & Hydrostatic Pressure,
Figure 4 lays out the evolution of water ing insulation, you do not need any
additional air cavity. It is good to have
ASHRAE Journal, January 2012). We
control with water control layers on
a draining insulation that drains on
need to go there again.
masonry backup walls. With only a
both the front and back surfaces of the
I do not have to care about mortar
water control layer on the masonry
insulation layer.
droppings in a cavity if I install a
backup wall, you need an air cavity
So, guess what? With draining
drainage mat over the water control
that is drained. A good dimension for
insulations you do not need an air
layer. The drainage mat maintains
the air cavity is 1 in. (25 mm). And,
gapexcept when you do. Huh?
a drainage space regardless of the
you have to keep the cavity free from
II Who hated steel frame backup walls? The brick and masonry folks. Duh! They were losing out big time. They only got to keep the outer wallthe veneer. They lost the masonry backup wall. They were
ticked. And they did everything to make life miserable for anyone who dared to construct frame walls with veneers. One of the major miseries they inflicted on everyone was the continued insistence on a
2 in. (51 mm) gap. Think of why? To install a water control layer on the exterior of a masonry backup wall requires you to construct the backup wall first. Then you install the water control layer over this
masonry backup wall. And then finally you construct the veneer. You cant construct both walls at the same time from the inside. You now need scaffolding. This was a huge impact on costs. So the brick
and masonry folks continued to insist on a 2 in. (51 mm) gap even though you did not need one if you had a water control layer, and the brick and masonry folks continued to insist on flashing everything to
the exterior even though you did not need to if you had a water control layer. They continue to cling to this 2 in. (51 mm) gap to this day; they are bitter clingers.
** We should have called them stick and peels because the early ones tended to peel off until we figured out that we needed to prime the masonry surfaces first.
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ADAPTED FROM REFERENCE 2
PHOTO 3 (LEFT) Below Grade Draining Insulation. Fiberglass. I got my first real education in draining insulations in the late 1970s doing exterior foundation insulation using fiber-
glass roofing insulation. Yes, that is Professor John Timusk on a job site in Brampton, Ontario, in 1979, trimming the exterior basement draining insulation.
PHOTO 4 (CENTER) Below Grade Draining Insulation. Rock wool/stone wool. Today, rock wool (stone wool) is commonly used as a draining insulation below grade on the exterior of foundations. PHOTO 5 (RIGHT) Above Grade Draining Insulation. Rock wool/stone wool. If you can use rock wool/stone wool below grade, you certainly can use it above
grade on the exterior of a water control layer.
PHOTO 6 (LEFT) Above Grade Draining Insulation. Extruded polystyrene (XPS). The stone veneer is installed with no gap against the exterior face of the draining XPS. The grooves
are covered with a filter fabric to keep mortar out of the grooves. PHOTO 7 (CENTER) Drainage Grooves and Filter Fabric. Grooves are covered with a filter fabric to keep mortar out of
the grooves. It is good to have a draining insulation that drains on both the front and back surfaces of the insulation layer. So double-sided groovy is a pretty cool thing.
PHOTO 8 (RIGHT) Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Draining Insulation. This comes to us from our friends in New Zealand. Apparently, the physics are similar south of the equator.
Pay attention here.

Veneer
Veneer
Masonry Wall
Veneer
Masonry Wall
Masonry Wall
This part is important. I
have just gone through a
pretty convincing argument to eliminate the air
gap if I use a drainage
mat or draining insulaWater Control
Water Control Layer
Water Control Layer
tion. One part I have not
Layer
discussed. Freeze-thaw
damage to veneer claddings. In places where it
Drainage Insulation
Air Cavity (Drained)
Drainage Mat
is cold and where it rains
FIGURE 4 Evolution of Water Control. Water control layers are now standard for masonry backup walls. With only a water control
(think IECC Climate Zone
layer on a masonry backup wall, you need an air cavity that is drained. A good dimension for this air cavity is 1 in. (51 mm).
5 and higher and modAnd, you have to keep the cavity free from mortar droppings. When you add a drainage mat that maintains a continuous drainage space, you dont need an additional air cavity beyond what is provided by the drainage mat. A good dimension for the drainerate or higher rainfall
age mat is 1/4 in. (6 mm) or greater. When you replace the drainage mat with draining insulation, you do not need any addiover 20 in. (508 mm) per
tional air cavity. It is good to have a draining insulation that drains on both the front and back surfaces of the insulation layer.
year) you need to keep
the water off brick and help the brick dry when it gets insulation in places where it is cold and wet (as defined
wet. In highly insulated wall assemblies, helping the
above). How big an air gap? Not 2 in. (51 mm) for sure. My
brick dry can only be done by back ventilating the
experience tells me 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) with vent openings
brick.
top and bottom. If you dont want to go with my experience
So we need a vented air gap behind even a draining
argument, check out Straube and Smegal.3
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Is there any other reason

Veneer
Veneer
Veneer
for an air gap, now that I
have said we dont need
Frame Wall
Frame Wall
Frame Wall
(Steel Stud or
(Steel Stud or
(Steel Stud or
onebesides the freezeWood Stud)
Wood Stud)
Wood Stud)
thaw thing? Actually, a
Cavity Insulation
Cavity Insulation
Cavity Insulation
really, really important one.
Sheathing
A reason that folks who do
Sheathing (Gypsum
Sheathing (Gypsum
(Gypsum Board,
Board, Plywood or
Board, Plywood or
AutoCAD and never get
Plywood or OSB)
OSB)
OSB)
out into the real world and
Water Control Layer
Water Control Layer
Water Control Layer
look at real buildings going
Draining Insulation
up never understand. In
Draining
Draining Mat
Insulation
AutoCAD World everything
Air Cavity (Vented)
is straight and right-angled
FIGURE 5 Frame Wall Water Control. For a frame wall backup wall you can use a drainage mat or a draining insulation with no
additional air cavity. Except in IECC Climate Zone 5 and higher and moderate or higher rainfall over 20 in. (508 mm) per year.
and planes are flat and
Then go with a minimum 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) air cavity with vent openings top and bottom.
everything fits. Ha! Double
ha! The air gap behind
Fully Adhered
claddings has a huge role to
Flashing
Flashing Extending to Extending Into
Sealant
play in construction tolerthe Exterior Face of
Opening
the
Veneer
ances. The backup wall is
never completely flat. But
Frame Wall
Frame Wall
the exterior has to be comWeep
pletely flat because folks
Cavity Insulation
Cavity Insulation
Weep
can see it.
Sheathing
Sheathing
(Plywood or OSB)
(Plywood or OSB)
We need gaps to reconcile
Veneer
Veneer
Water Control Layer
Water Control Layer
the alignment of the steel
framing and concrete and
the brick veneer. Small gaps
Water Control Layer
work for small buildings.
Flashing
You need big gaps for big
Extending
Sheathing
Sheathing
Across
buildings3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
(Plywood or OSB)
(Plywood or OSB)
Cavity Into
Water Control Layer
works for a one-story house
Steel Angle
Fully Adhered
(Fully
Adhered or Liquid
Flashing Tape
but would never work for a
Applied)
Weep
six-story commercial buildOpening
ing with 14 ft (4 m) floor to
Steel Angle
Steel Angle
Sealant
ceiling heights.
What if we use a frame
FIGURE 6 (TOP) Flashing at Sills. With a water control layer over a sheathing, the sill flashing does not have to extend to the
exterior face of the brick veneer as shown on the left. FIGURE 7 (BOTTOM) Flashing at Heads. With a water control layer over a
wall as the backup wall
sheathing the head flashing does not have to extend into the steel angle as shown on the left.
rather than masonry?
Check out Figure 5. You
can use a drainage mat or a draining insulation with
References
1. Pollio, Marcus Vitruvius. 1914. De Architectura. The Ten
no additional air cavity. Except in IECC Climate Zone 5
Books on Architecture, Book VII, Chapter IV, On Stucco Work in
and higher and moderate or higher rainfall over 20 in.
Damp Places. Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan. Cambridge,
(508 mm) per year. Then go with a minimum 3/8 in.
Mass: Harvard University Press.
2. Ritchie, T. 1961. Cavity Walls, Canadian Building Digest 21,
(9.5 mm) air cavity with vent openings top and bottom.
One last thing. With a water control layer in the assem- National Research Council of Canada.
3. Straube, J., J. Smegal. 2007. The Role of Small Gaps Behind
bly, you do not need to flash to the exterior. Check out
Wall Claddings on Drainage and Drying. 11th Canadian Conference
Figures 6 and 7. Easier. Works. Enjoy.
on Building Science and Technology.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE | Fundamentals at Work
Hydronics 101
BY JEFF BOLDT, P.E., HBDP, MEMBER ASHRAE; JULIA KEEN, PH.D., P.E., HBDP, BEAP, MEMBER ASHRAE
Authors note: This article focuses solely on the basics related to configuration, layout, and major system components of hot water and chilled water
systems as an introduction to hydronics for those new to the design industry.
The first documented hydronic cooling systems were connected to the Roman aqueducts, in which water was routed through brick walls of homes of the affluent. Hydronic
heating became prevalent in buildings as the source of hot water expanded. The first
commercial hot water boilers became available in the 1700s. Gravity hot water or steam
heating systems were the norm in buildings until the mid-1900s.
The operation and design of these systems were greatly
advanced with the introduction of water pumps early in
the 20th century. Post-World War II, hydronic systems
experienced significant competition with the development of forced air systems. Today, hydronic heating
and cooling coils are frequently used in conjunction
with forced air systems. More recently there has been
a resurgence of hydronic applications at the zone
level as a result of the increased emphasis on energy
conservation.
Definition of Hydronics
This article uses the definitions of hydronics, open
system, and closed system from ASHRAE Terminology
on ASHRAE.org, which defines hydronics as science of
heating and cooling with water. Open systems are open
to the atmosphere in at least one location. Systems that

employ cooling towers as their heat rejection method
are one of the most common examples of open hydronic
systems. Closed systems, on the other hand, are not
open to the atmosphere, except possibly at an expansion/compression tank.
Advantages of Hydronic Systems

Hydronic systems have several advantages:
They require little space when compared to air
systems. A 3 in. diameter pipe is needed to convey
1,000,000 Btu/h of heating or cooling energy when a 70
in. 46 in. duct would be necessary to accomplish the
same task with air.
(Assume a T = 20F and friction loss of 0.08
in./100 ft length for air and 4 ft/100 ft length for pipe.
Jeff Boldt, P.E., is a principal and director of engineering at KJWW Engineering in Monona, Wis. He is a member of standards committees 90.1, 189.1 and 215. Julia Keen, Ph.D., P.E.,
is an associate professor at Kansas State University in Manhattan, Kan. She is past chair of TC 6.1, Hydronic and Steam Equipment and Systems.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
100 gpm = 1,000,000 Btu/h/[500(20F)] and 46,000 cfm

= 1,000,000 Btu/h/[1.086(20F)].)
Energy loss due to pipe leakage is almost nonexistent.
Transport energy is very low. For example, transporting 1,000,000 Btu/h of cooling in a ducted air system
may require 100 hp of fans, whereas a typical hydronic
system would require about a 2 hp pump.
1,000,000 Btu/h/(20F 1.086) = 46,000 cfm 90.1
limit + allowances @ 60 to 120 bhp.
1,000,000 Btu/h/(20F 500)= 100 gpm 50 ft of head
0.0002525/70% pump efficiency = 1.8 bhp.
Noise complaints are less common than in air
systems, as long as established pipe sizing principles are
followed.
How Many Pipes?

Closed hydronic systems commonly are referenced
based on the number of pipes within the system:
one-, two-, three-, and four-pipe. One-pipe systems
have one supply pipe and return from each coil connected back into that same pipe. The advantage of
one-pipe systems is reduced piping cost. The disadvantage is a loss of exergy because of blending of temperatures in the supply main. One-pipe systems are
rare, but sometimes seen in geothermal heat pump
systems or individual floors of buildings with heating
water systems.
A two-pipe system is depicted in Figure 1. It has one
supply pipe and one return pipe. This type of system
can heat, or it can cool, but it cannot do both simultaneously because it is using the same distribution piping
but opening and closing valves to isolate the heat source
(i.e., boiler) or heat sink (i.e., chiller). This is the main
disadvantage of a two-pipe changeover system. A building must be fully in cooling or fully in heating, which is
unlikely to make all occupants comfortable, especially
during moderate climatic conditions. Deciding when to
change from heating to cooling can be a major issue with
two-pipe systems.
Three-pipe systems have a separate supply pipe for
hot water and chilled water but a common return pipe
for both. This system allows for simultaneous heating
and cooling with reduced length of installed piping but
at the sacrifice of energy. Therefore, three-pipe systems
are not permitted by modern energy codes. The energy
consumption of three-pipe systems is very high because
the mixing of chilled and heated return water creates
Safety Relief Valve or

Relief Valve
Pressure Reducing Valve
Cooling Tower
Water Meter
Expansion Tank
M
AS
Chiller
Air
Separator
Three-Way
Valve (Rare)
Pump
Heat Transfer
NO
NC
To Floors Below
Two-Way
Valve (Normal)
FIGURE 1 Chilled water closed system with cooling tower open system. Feed water
components are not shown for the cooling tower (condenser) loop.
a much greater temperature differential at the heat

source or sink, requiring more work.
Four-pipe systems as depicted in Figure 2 have separate
supply and return pipes for hot water and chilled water.
Four-pipe systems can provide heating to some coils while
simultaneously routing cooling to other coils. This makes
them very versatile and provides for much greater occupant comfort, but the first cost of the piping is higher than
that for the other piping system arrangements.
Direct vs. Reverse Return

In addition to the number of pipes used in a system,
the piping configuration must also be considered. There
are two configurations: direct and reverse return. Direct
return systems use less piping and are depicted in Figure
1. Reverse return systems require more return piping,
but simplify the balancing of systems, because the pipe
length to each coil is approximately the same (Figure 3).
A single piping system can combine direct and reverse
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TECHNICAL FEATURE | FUNDAMENTALS AT WORK
Chiller
Boiler
Boiler
FIGURE 2 Four-pipe systems have a separate supply and return pipe for hot water
and chilled water.
return. Combining the configurations is commonly

done to reduce the first cost of the system while reaping most of the benefits of a reverse return system. In
a large multi-story building, direct return may be used
to minimize the large piping (such as the main supply
and return risers), but to make balancing easier reverse
return may be used to serve small coils located on each
floor. (A complete analysis of direct and reverse return
can be found in Reference 1.)
Hydronic Components
Both hot water and chilled water systems have common components that serve similar purposes. The
components that are common include: piping, pumps,
air separators, expansion tanks, fill accessories, valves,
and accessories. The following section will discuss each
of these components and the purpose they serve in the
system. This will be followed by a discussion of the differences between hot water and chilled water system
component layouts.
Piping and pump selection, sizing, and layout are critical to the proper design of a hydronic system. The piping
will have a direct impact on pump selection because it
will influence the pump head and energy required to
move the water through the system. There are many different factors to consider when designing and laying out
the piping as well as when selecting the pump to apply to
a hydronic system. Piping design must consider the pipe
material, flow rate, water velocity, fittings, and friction
loss. The flow rate depends on the load and temperature
differential selected for the pumped fluid. The pump
type (inline, base mounted, etc.), pump arrangement
(primary, primary-secondary, etc.), and pump controls
must all be decided and will have a significant impact
on the energy consumed over the life of the building.
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FIGURE 3 Two-pipe reverse return systems require more return piping, but sim-
plify the balancing of systems.
(These topics require far more discussion and detail

than can be contained in this article; therefore it is
encouraged that the ASHRAE Handbook, Chapters 13, 44
and 47, be consulted when beginning design.)
Air separators remove entrained air from hydronic
systems. If this is not done, corrosion rates may be high
and noise may become prevalent when air is lodged in
equipment near occupied areas. Air separators should
be located where air is least soluble in waterthis
depends on two factors the hottest water temperature
and the lowest system pressure. Curves are available to
describe the exact relationship between pressure, temperature, and solubility. (See 2012 ASHRAE Handbook
HVAC Systems and Equipment, Chapter 13, Figure 3.)
Centrifugal separators are very common, but competing
designs are making inroads.
Expansion tanks control the system pressure and
absorb the expansion/contraction of water as the temperature changes. Today, most expansion tanks include
a bladder or diaphragm, allowing the water to be
totally separated from atmospheric air, minimizing the
introduction of oxygen that contributes to corrosion.
Expansion tanks are sized based on the total volume
of the system, maximum temperature variation, and
maximum and minimum pressures that are acceptable
at the tank location.
Fill accessories include water meters, pressure reducing valves, backflow preventers, and safety relief valves
(SRVs), and pressure relief valves (modulating relief
valves, as opposed to popping safety valves). Water
meters measure the amount of makeup water. Tracking
the amount of makeup water is important because
it reveals how many gallons of fresh water, including fresh oxygen, were added to the system. Makeup
water is needed regularly to keep the piping full in
closed systems because water is drained in the blowing down of strainers, draining of coils in the winter,
improperly operating automatic air vents, and system
leaks. Minimizing makeup water maximizes system
life because it limits the introduction of oxygen to the
system.
Pressure reducing valves are included to reduce the
water pressure entering the system from the building potable water system, which is often higher than
that of the hydronic system. Plumbing codes require
backflow preventers to prevent backflow of chemicals,
biological growth, etc., from hydronic systems to potable
water systems. The pressure reducing valve is normally
selected to maintain 5 psig (34 kPa) of positive pressure
at the lowest pressure portion of the system (normally
the return side of the system on the top floor). A rule of
thumb is 5 psig plus 5 psig (34 kPa plus 34 kPa) per floor
of building height. A small SRV is often located downstream of the pressure reducing valve. The purpose of
the SRV is to relieve excess pressure from the system
when outside the desired conditions. This very small
SRV located at the system fill location is added to avoid
operation of the much larger SRVs at each major boiler
or heat source.
Valves are used to control water flow. Many different
valve types are used in hydronic piping applications. The
decision as to the type of valve depends on its size and
use. Ball valves are probably the most common form of
on-off or modulating two-way valve used today.
Advances in elastomer technology have made ball
valves economical and reliable. Butterfly valves dominate the market in applications larger than 2.5 in. (64
mm) because ball valves become more expensive in
large sizes. Once common, gate and globe valves have
had much reduced market share in recent decades
because ball (smaller size) and butterfly (larger size)
valves are less expensive. Three-way valves are another
valve type commonly used in the past. These have
become less popular as technology has allowed system
water flow to be variable, rather than constant, which
results in reduced energy use (encouraged by energy
codes). Three-way valves are sometimes necessary in
systems that use equipment that requires a minimum
water flow rate. Check valves are installed to prevent
reverse water flow.
Multi-function or triple-duty valves are ubiquitous on
pump discharge piping. They provide the functions of a
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balancing valve, shutoff valve, and check valve at a low

cost and in a compact configuration. The disadvantage of
the triple-duty valve relates to its balancing function. In
variable speed pump applications often used today, the
balancing function is not desired at the pump and can
waste significant pumping energy if discharge valves are
throttled. In addition to not needing all the functions, the
pressure drop for a triple-duty valve is higher than for
most combinations of check valve, flow measuring device,
and shutoff valve. Therefore, in some applications it may
be more appropriate to use a separate check valve, shutoff
valve, and flow measuring device in lieu of a triple-duty
valve.
Besides the many necessary pieces of a hydronic system for operation and control, there are a number of
accessories that are typically installed to more easily
monitor the system and troubleshoot when there is a
problem. Pressure gauges often wear out far sooner
than expected. All manufacturers recommend closing
the shutoff valves when readings are not being taken
to reduce wear on the movement mechanism, which is
usually a bourdon tube with a rack and pinion assembly.
However, most operators leave the valves open continuously. Therefore, snubbers are recommended on all
gauges.
Snubbers dampen pressure changes so that gauges
read a steady average pressure instead of bouncing wildly. Where gauges arent needed continuously
but occasional readings of pressure or temperature
are needed, test plugs or pressure/temperature plugs
are installed. These plugs allow for instruments to be
installed as needed without having to interrupt the system operation. It is helpful to locate a plug near all DDC
pressure or temperature sensors to aid in calibration.
Hydronic Heating System Layout and Components

Many common components exist between chilled
water and hot water systems, but the position of the
components within the piping system is different. Figure
4 depicts the normal location for boilers in hydronic systems. Boilers are commonly the heat source in a heating
hot water system. The two classifications of boilers used
in commercial hydronic systems are fire-tube and water
tube. (A discussion comparing the different boiler types
and their application is too extensive to be included in
this article, and it is recommended that the information
be obtained from the ASHRAE Handbook, Chapter 32.)
Most hydronic components are rated for at least 125 psi

(862 kPa) of differential pressure between the interior pressure and the exterior (atmospheric) pressure. Cast iron
flanges and fittings are generally rated at 125 psi (862 kPa).
Steel flanges and fittings are rated at 150 psi (1034 kPa).
Often, the boiler is the lowest pressure-rated item in the
system, with 15 psi (103 kPa) steam/30 psi (207 kPa) water
matching the ASME definition of a low-pressure system.
Because of this, the boiler is generally placed immediately
upstream of the expansion tank, which controls system
pressure and is the point where pressure remains relatively
constant. It is also directly upstream of the air separator
because the water leaving the boiler is the hottest water in
the system and, therefore, can hold the lowest concentration of entrained air. Water pressure also affects air separation. Therefore, when the boiler is in a basement, it may be
preferable to have the air separator at the top floor.
M
AS
Boiler
NO
NC
To Floors Below
FIGURE 4 Hydronic system with a boiler in the typical location.
Hydronic Cooling System Layout and Components

The obvious difference between a hydronic heating
and cooling system is the production of hot or chilled
water. In lieu of a boiler, in a hydronic cooling system a chiller is used. There are many types of chillers;
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reciprocating, scroll, helical rotary, centrifugal, and

variations that recover heat from one process to transfer to another. (A discussion comparing the different
chiller types and their application is too extensive to be
included in this article, and it is recommended that the
information be obtained from the ASHRAE Handbook,
Chapters 42 and 43.)
There are some differences between the system layout of
heating and cooling hydronic systems. Cooling hydronic
systems have expansion tanks, but they can be much
smaller than in heating systems because of the much
lower temperature difference between the maximum and
minimum fluid temperatures.
Theoretically, the fill water is warmer than the normal
chilled water temperature, resulting in makeup water
being added to the system to fill the piping when the
chilled water is brought down to operational temperature. Some designers delete air separators in cooling
hydronic systems, although this is not recommended.
Heating systems, on the other hand, need much larger
expansion tanks and air separation is a more critical
design concern because air more easily separates from

heated water (watch bubbles form when you heat a pan
filled with water).
Summary
Hydronic systems are a staple of our industry. They
provide large amounts of heat transfer with low first
costs and energy costs for transporting energy. This
article provides only a basic overview and introduction to hydronic system design, layout, and
components. For more information, on the topic of
hydronic systems, the ASHRAE Handbook is an excellent reference.
We plan to cover many other hydronic topics: condensing boilers, valve-coil-heat transfer, pressure independent control valves, etc., in future articles.
References
1. Taylor, S., J. Stein. Balancing variable flow hydronic systems.
ASHRAE Journal 8.
2. 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment, Chapters
32, 36, 43, and 44.
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FIRST PLACE
EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES, NEW
A ground source water-towater heat pump (WWHP)

allowed the design team to
use displacement ventilation,
which requires very tight discharge air temperature control,
to maintain occupant comfort
only achievable with a WWHP
system.
Net Zero
Ready School
BY BRIAN HAUGK, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE; BRIAN CANNON, P.E., ASSOCIATE MEMBER ASHRAE
BUILDING AT A GLANCE
Valley View
Middle School
Location: Snohomish, Washington
Owner: Snohomish School District
Architect: Dykeman
Engineer: Hargis
Principal Use: Public middle school, grades
7&8
Includes: Geothermal heating, 90% heat
recovery, displacement ventilation, natural cooling, radiant heating, rainwater
harvesting, and advanced lighting and
controls
Valley View Middle School in Snohomish, Wash., is a new

three-story, 168,000 ft2 (15 600 m2) facility that replaced
a much smaller and outdated building. Mirroring the
districts commitment to resource conservation, the
design team used the Living Building Challenge as a
guide for defining its sustainable approach. The team
strategized on harnessing the greatest contributors to
resource conservation: renewable energy sources to be
implemented; capturing and reusing emitted energy
to offset draw from the grid; reducing consumption
through system selection; and supporting behavioral
changes inspired through monitoring and reporting.
Employees/Occupants: 100 staff/ 950 students

Gross Square Footage: 168,000
Conditioned Space Square Footage: 148,938
Substantial Completion/Occupancy: Sept. 2012
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Brian Haugk, P.E., is a principal and Brian Cannon, P.E., is an associate principal at Hargis Engineers in Seattle.
M AY 2 0 1 5
ABOVE View of the classroom wing with day-
light harvesting and rooftop-water collection

system in bottom left-hand corner.
LEFT Aerial of site (August 2012) with overlay
of pre-existing buildings. The old buildings used

1,325,514 kWh/yr combined while the new
building only uses 1,239,965 kWh/yr.
The school, owned by the Snohomish School District,

houses 950 students and uses less energy than the previous 1981 school that was half the size.
Design Collaboration
library and lecture hall. Applying the functional goals,

the professional team developed options for meeting
the performance and programmatic objectives. Building
placement played an important role in influencing the
design approach and upholding the conservation goals.
The project was the first for the district to consider the
Living Building Challenge for a net zero-ready school. At Energy Efficiency
The school capitalizes on three strategic approaches
the time, schools built prior to Valley View were too new
to have adequate data to provide a benchmark for previ- to maximize system efficiency and reduce the overall
building energy consumption:
ous sustainable initiatives. It also presented an oppor Reduce: infusing higher efficient systems that align
tunity to further define and measure its sustainable
with performance objectives;
approach goals, objectives and performance.
Reuse: redirecting typically wasted energy/resourcThe districts sustainable management goals balance
es back into the buildings operations; and
and encompass facilities, operations and health of the
Renew: introducing new sources to the site without
buildings occupants. Their approach incorporates using
durable materials and integrating building components requiring further demands on mass utilities.
Table 1 outlines the energy conservation approach in
and systems to withstand the wear and tear, targeting
relationship to the schools triple bottom line. Note that
a 50-year plus life cycle, reducing maintenance and
over the last year the school operated at 26 EUI.
operations costs, reducing the use of resources and
energy consumption beyond code and state requireInnovation
ments, and providing excellent indoor air quality and
The geographical location presented opportunities
comfort. They also wanted to create a space embraced by
for technical innovations for this type of facility. Sited
the community.
A committee was engaged to represent a cross-sector of community
FIGURE 1 Valley View Middle School: Site and building characteristics.
and school district stakeholders.
Street presence, maximized views,
Performance Art
Library &
Auxiliary
classroom orientation for optimum
Center, Band &
Administration
Gym
Gym
Choir Rooms
Offices
Classrooms
Commons
daylighting, promotion of commuRoof
75,000 Gal. Water-to-Water Geothermal
Water
nity use after-hours, functionality,
Cistern
Field
Heat Pump
Storage
visibility and security were articulated design criteria by this group.
Community-accessible spaces were
configured within the campus to
accommodate outdoor athletic
fields, two gyms, commons area,
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in western Washington, this building is predominantly in a heating environment. Year after year
of continuous heating operation
will slowly lower the temperature of the ground degrading the
capacity to absorb heat from the
ground, impacting the efficiency
of the water-to-water heat pump
(WWHP). As part of the design,
cooling loads were used to offset
this inherent load imbalance, the
24/7 cooling spaces (main electrical, distributed transformer rooms
and MDF and IDF telecom spaces)
are all served by the central plant
system to effectively recharge the
ground loop. Immediate impacts
of this approach will not be seen as
the temperature change of a well
field is subtle, providing long-term
energy savings. The ground loop
return water temperatures are
being monitored.
TABLE 1 Energy conservation approach in relationship to the schools triple bottom line.
Thermal Dynamics of Water

The WWHP/displacement ventilation (DV) system combination
affords greater control in maintaining occupant comfort. This project was one of the first to use this
product in conjunction with displacement ventilation
in the region. The ground source heat pump system
was sized for 100% of the central plant heating and
cooling capacity. Integrating the WWHP was critical
to the DV approach, as it requires very tight discharge
air temperature (DAT) control to maintain occupant
comfort. During design, water-to-air heat pumps on
the market were unable to achieve the DAT control
required.
Reducing Energy, Improving IAQ

The classroom DV system uses a custom toe kick
space supply grille under the casework as opposed to
conventional grilles provided by major manufacturers.
CFD model simulations and actual installed systems
have vetted this custom approach that improves the
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integration in a typical classroom layout. Hydronic heating water convectors were used at the exterior under the
windows. The library integrated benches at the windows
with DV as well as internal wall style conventional DV
grilles. The DV system in the administrative spaces used
wall DV manufacturer style grilles with radiant floor at
the perimeter.
Customizing and Integrating Low-Traffic Spaces

An opportunity was identified to use energy efficiency in toilet rooms and copier rooms. General
exhaust fans serving these spaces are interlocked with
lighting control systems occupancy sensors to control the exhaust fans operation. Systems that provide
exhaust for multiple spaces include motorized dampers that isolate the unoccupied spaces and have either
The Last word

in efficiency
Xcelons technology is
engineered for innovation.
With a combination of condensing boiler technology and advanced air distribution, Xcelon is the
most efficient make-up air unit in the market. It maximizes energy utilization to provide efficiencies
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FIGURE 2 EUI chart and timeline.
400
2012 13 School Year
kWh (In Thousands)
350
300
Standard 90.1 Model (Energy Baseline = 57 EUI)
250
200
VVMS Actual Energy Use
152
100
50
2013 14 School Year
Projected Design (Energy Model= 26 EUI)

Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
School Opens
School is operational while
construction is ongoing.
Contractors work swing-shift hours
to finish the library, main gym and
performance arts center through
January 2013.
Mar
Apr
May
Jun Jul
Aug
Commissioning Fully Functional

With construction winding down
around the campus the additional
energy usage begins to drop. Cx
begins January 2013 with functional
performance starting March 2013
and completed July 2013.
VFDs or ECM motors to control fan speed for the variable exhaust volumes. This approach also optimized
the quantity of air going through the heat recovery
system.
Simplifying the Complex
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Value of M&V Realized

Refinement of the central
WWHP, dimming controls and
motorized shades. Energy
savings produces immediate
budget relief through net bill
savings.
Mar
Apr
May Jun
Jul Aug
Design Intent Actualized

The facilities energy performance is now
within 5% (+/). This comes despite
the additional usage of the school due
to reallocation of district meeting and
community activities moved to this
location to take full advantage of the
new facilities lower operating costs.
Total Cost of Ownership

Total cost of ownership was a driving factor in the
sustainable discussions. The district was savvy to
understand that while sustainable systems are possibly more expensive upfront, they can reduce a
buildings lifetime operating costs significantly. First
costs for construction on the ground source WWHP,
DV, VAV reheat, radiant floor heating and 90% effective energy recovery unit systems were the greatest
value to the owner. Energy usage and costs show the
district would end up spending less money on annual
utility and maintenance costs compared to the baseline alternative and ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1. The
design is more cost effective in total yearly costs, as
well as a Washington State required 30-year life-cycle
cost analysis when compared to other systems. Total
cost of ownership was reviewed to ensure that the
sum of the lowest maintenance and energy costs combined would be realized.
Indoor Air Quality and Thermal Comfort
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Upholding the districts final goal for occupant comfort,

the DV system was adopted. The DV system is a proven
approach to enhance energy performance through an
extended economizer range and reduced fan energy
while improving indoor air quality. The design firm
designed and is tracking the performance of these systems
in more than 40 k12 schools constructed since 2006. Air
is supplied down low, conserving energy by only heating
or cooling the air near the occupants. The introduction of
TABLE 2 Environmental components and their contributions.
Environmental, Social and Behavioral Impact

Responsive to constituents adoption of sustainability,
public institutions are using facilities as an opportunity to
express their conservation philosophy and commitment.
Environmental design elements utilizing integrated
strategies included reduced energy demand via envelope
design, solar technology, geothermal technology, rainwater harvesting and integrated value messaging.
The school fulfilled the communitys criteria, as well
as becoming a source of operational efficiency for the
district. The district uses Valley View to host a majority of
the off-hour functions as energy and maintenance dollars are approximately half of the districts other comparable pre-1990s facilities.
Table 2 outlines the environmental components and
their contribution to the sustainable development.
An EMS-based energy dashboard system with touch
screen monitors at multiple locations allows staff and
students to learn about the sustainable features of the
building. The system is also web-based, allowing faculty
to use the system as a teaching tool. To further spark students interest, the EMS metering design of the lighting,
plug and HVAC systems allowed for competitive zones
to be created in six classroom pods. This allows students
to interact with the building systems to see what kind of
impact they have on the overall energy usage. The dashboard was also integrated with the support of the staff to
allow for the integration of lunch menus, sports scores,
way-finding, school events, etc.
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FIGURE 3 Metering for the campus energy usage by category over the course of a
week in October of 2013 to support Cx process.

2,500
Electricity Consumption (kWh)
fresh air and removal of pollutants

at the ceiling level is at a minimum, 50% better than a comparable overhead air-distribution system. Specifically, a district where
the design firm has completed six
schools to date with DV, has also
shown 3% to 6% improvement in
attendance that can be attributed
to a healthier building due to
improved ventilation.
DV also exceeds the noise criteria dictated by the Washington
State health department. From a
sound level code value of NC-35,
the teaching environment is
improved to a NC level less than 20.
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Sun
Mon
Tue
Central Water-to-Water Heat Pump

Plug Loads
Computer Loads
Wed
Thu
Fri
HVAC
Lighting
Kitchen Equipment
Sat
Telecom
Committed to energy conservation and the

sustainability of the site, the interaction of competitive zones and interpretive signage throughout
the school are being used as a teaching tool to educate occupants on the sustainable design elements
and new technologies integrated into the building
and site. These teaching components will continue
throughout the life cycle of the building to inform
and guide generations of children and staff that
pass through its doors, providing them with a better
understanding of their environment well beyond the
teams M&V involvement.
COLUMN DATA CENTERS
Part Three, Digital Health-Care Planning
The Digital Revolution

BY DONALD L. BEATY, P.E., FELLOW ASHRAE; DAVID QUIRK, P.E., MEMBER ASHRAE
The explosion of online health-care data is not an accident, but rather has been driven by
both regulatory forces and the increased availability of technology platforms to support it.
Most of us can now access a significant portion of our health-care information online.
Portals exist that allow us to receive and store data from hospitals, our primary care
physician, our specialists, our pharmacy, and even data that weve uploaded ourselves,
such as home monitoring of weight, blood pressure and blood sugar.
Once the data is placed in these portals, it is not only
stored, but can be trended for ready use and interpretation for our next doctors visit, or made quickly available
to doctors in emergency situations.
This column provides an understanding of the legislation that has driven this digital health revolution, with
some glimpses into the future. For data center design
engineers, this is significant in terms of the approaches
to design facilities with the ability to scale for these loads
in health-care data center applications.
Health-Care Regulations
There have been several major legislative initiatives
at the federal level over the past three decades, starting
with the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation
Actof 1985 (COBRA), and continuing with the Health
Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996
(HIPAA), the Health Information Technology for
Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009 (HITECH),
and the Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA). Of these, the
two with the biggest impact on digital records and privacy are HIPAA and HITECH.
The first major legislative act to impact digital (and
other) personal health-care records was the Health
Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996,
commonly known as HIPAA. A primary goal of this legislation was to help people keep their health insurance
as they transferred from one job to another regardless of
pre-existing conditions.
It also, however, introduced the concept of protected
health information (PHI), which is generally defined as
any information concerning health status, provision of
health care, and associated payment information that can
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be linked to an individual. Upon request by an individual,

this information must be provided within 30 days.
PHI can also be released to law enforcement officials
under subpoena or court order, and can be released to
other entities to facilitate treatment, payment, or other
health-care operations, though only the minimum
amount of necessary information can be shared. HIPAA
also requires doctors and pharmacies to ask you how best
to communicate with you (cell vs. home vs. work phone
number) to ensure confidentiality.
The privacy provisions of HIPAA took effect in 2003.
Though in the original legislation PHI was protected
indefinitely, with revisions made in 2013, our PHI is now
only protected 50 years after our death. This has significant impacts to digital storage requirements.
The second major legislative act to impact digital
health records was the Health Information Technology
for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009, or
HITECH. HITECH, as its name implies, was enacted
partly as a stimulus package for the recession that
occurred after the housing market collapse that started
in 2006. It also, however, incentivized the use of electronic health records (EHRs).
In addition to creating and storing records electronically, hospitals and doctors also needed to demonstrate
meaningful use of these records to qualify for stimulus
funding. Meaningful use can take on many forms, and
broad categories include improved care coordination,
better engagement of patients and their families, and
improving public health.
Donald L. Beaty, P.E., is president and David Quirk, P.E., is vice president of DLB
Associates Consulting Engineers, in Eatontown, N.J. Beaty is publications chair and Quirk
is the chair of ASHRAE TC 9.9.
A fairly simple example of meaningful use would be the use of a

computerized system to check for
drug-drug and drug-allergy interactions with medication and prescription orders. As of 2015, medical facilities that do not have EHR
implemented are actually penalized
in terms of Medicare payments.
Several provisions of HIPAA and
HITECH impact data operations for
health-care providers and associated
organizations, such as the healthinsurance industry. These requirements can be grouped into storage,
access, encryption, backup and
recoverability, and periodic testing of
data recovery.
While detailed discussion of each
of these requirements is beyond the
scope of this article, the net result
of all these requirements is a significant increase in the quantity of
records kept, and increased regulation on how it is stored, backed up,
and used. There are requirements
relating both to physical access and
electronic access to the computer
systems and records containing PHI.
An interesting statistic is that of
privacy violations reported during
the first 10 years of HIPAA, only about
6% were data compromises by hackers. Data breaches involving more
than 500 people are required to be
reported to the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, as well
as to the news media.
Big Data Research vs. Patient Privacy

One potential conflict in using
Electronic Health Records is to what
extent private data can be used for
public purposes, such as medical
studies. In some ways, the increased
privacy of medical records has
made research more challenging.
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COLUMN DATA CENTERS
For instance, recruitment of subjects for medical trials has, in some

instances, been made much more
difficult by regulations covering
confidentiality of medical conditions. In some cases, follow-up surveys of patients has also dropped,
partly because the informed consent forms associated with the surveys are required to be so lengthy.
Big data research of medical
records has become an increasingly
important and profitable topic.
Patient privacy regulations are serving as a throttle to the explosive
growth of big data medical research.
Growth Drivers of Digital Records

While the impetus for much
of todays EHR infrastructure is
regulatory, the free market has

stepped in in many other ways, and
is driving a lot of the industry growth.
At least one internet service provider,
for instance, has adopted a passwordprotected storage and trending platform that allows individuals to place
all information related to their health
in a single location.
This potentially provides great
value to the individual, but essentially doubles the amount of storage
needed for EHR since it is stored
both by the individuals health-care
providers, and also by the individuals
themselves. Some medical records,
such as MRI results, can be quite
large (on the order of 100 MB each).
Available data for input into an
individuals storage system can, of
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course, also include much more than

doctor and lab records. An individual
can also record home-based data,
such as weight, blood pressure, and
exercise activity, so that these can be
readily accessed by health-care professionals between visits.
Perhaps these home health records
will even be trended with other
home and/or ambient environmental data, such as humidity and air
quality levels, to allow health-care
providers to better understand and
tailor the individuals home environment for optimal health. This
topic will be addressed in more
detail in a future column article.
The movement away from providing episodic care has been enabled
by smartphones. The ability to
monitor various items such blood
pressure, blood sugar shows promise to help improve the health of
those with chronic conditions such
as hypertension, diabetes, etc. As
sensor technology for smartphones
grows, the application of active
patient management for healthier
lives will improve. Using this technology and approach has helped
keep people out of hospitals and
improved individual lifestyles.
While its helped decrease the flow of
people to hospitals, it has increased
the flow of digital data storage.
Smart technology and algorithms are helping reduce the
risk of complications and errors
in care delivery. The ability for
computerized pharmacy systems
to look at the entire drug regimen of patients, and flag potential
complications or dosing errors,
has helped improve complex drug
therapy and has reduced interactions and side effects. Similarly lab
systems are contacting responsible
COLUMN DATA CENTERS
parties immediately using smartphones or other devices

immediately when abnormal lab test results occur, thus
speeding interventions and reducing workload and
errors.
These are just a select few examples of the growth drivers of digital records.
Data Center Solutions for Digital Health Care

The decision, on the part of a health-care provider,
of where to store and manage their data, is complex. It
needs to consider all of the regulatory requirements as
well as other attributes specific to their organization.
There are a range of data center solutions including (as
discussed in Nov. 2012 column, Cooling as a Service):
Cloud Computing;
Retail colocation;
Wholesale colocation; and
Build your own data center.
There is a full range of regulatory, as well as, hardware
and software considerations for digital health records
retention. Due to uncertainty in the growth rate for

EHR, data center solutions need to be very scalable.
Future growth trends are largely unknown. They can be
impacted by:
Future regulation changes;
Data privacy trends;
Trend toward consolidation of health-care providers;
Tele-health trends; and
Big data analytics.
If remote data storage and management is used, there
is a need to make sure that these facilities have the hard
and soft protection environments that are required by
HIPAA and HITECH.
Closing Comments
The regulatory environment has incentivized a transformation in digital record keeping in an industry that
currently accounts for about 17% of our gross domestic
product. This has provided meaningful improvements
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I-P version: www.ashrae.org/iphvaccs
SI version: www.ashrae.org/sihvaccs
8 6Fund ofAHVAC
S H RControl
A E J OSystems
U R N half-page.indd
A L a s h r a e1. o r g
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11/18/2014 10:31:53 AM
COLUMN DATA CENTERS
in the way health-care records are stored and used, but

also challenges from a privacy perspective.
Health-care research, by way of big data analytics, represents another frontier of significant advancements in
medical science. Privacy regulations are currently throttling the expansive application of this big data research,
but may change with future regulation changes.
Regulations have played a big part in digital healthcares big data boom. The explosion of online healthcare data is not an accident, but rather has been driven
by these regulatory forces.
Data center designers, owners, and operators need
to fully understand the regulations associated with the
use of EHR before making decisions on the location and
management of digital records. As seen, a combination
of regulatory actions and technology enablers have created an enormous growth in health-care data center
needs.
Designers need to plan accordingly for the future scaling needs of health-care data centers. To do otherwise is
an accident waiting to happen.
WEB RESOURCES
HIPAA is the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996. The Office for Civil Rights enforces the
HIPAA Privacy Rule, which protects the privacy of individually identifiable health information; the HIPAA Security Rule,
which sets national standards for the security of electronic
protected health information; the HIPAA Breach Notification
Rule, which requires covered entities and business associates
to provide notification following a breach of unsecured protected health information; and the confidentiality provisions
of the Patient Safety Rule, which protect identifiable information being used to analyze patient safety events and improve
patient safety. www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy
The Health Information Technology for Economic and
Clinical Health (HITECH) Act was signed into law in 2009, to
promote the adoption and meaningful use of health information technology. Subtitle D of the HITECH Act addresses the
privacy and security concerns associated with the electronic
transmission of health information, in part, through several
provisions that strengthen the civil and criminal enforcement of the HIPAA rules.www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/
administrative/enforcementrule/hitechenforcementifr.html
The Affordable Care Act expands Medicaid coverage to millions of low-income Americans. www.hhs.gov/healthcare
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COLUMN REFRIGERATION APPLICATIONS

Andy Pearson
Watts the Big Occasion?

BY ANDY PEARSON, PH.D., C.ENG., MEMBER ASHRAE
James Watt, the Scotsman in the trio of famous names from Aprils column, was the oldest
of the three, being born in 1736, over 80 years before Joule and Kelvin. He also lived the
longest and arguably had more impact on the industrialization of society than any other.
His life is a mixture of contradictions, and he is frequently misunderstood and misrepresented. Like James Joule, Watt had no formal university education but relied on personal
contact with the leading academics of his day to formulate and develop his ideas.
PHOTO: BAROQUE FLUTE BY BOAZ BERNEY,

AFTER AN ORIGINAL BY THOMAS LOT, 1740.
Watt trained as an instrument maker, specializing in

Sir Humphrey Davy, a colleague in many of these chemimaking laboratory instruments for Glasgow University
cal experiments, said he was equally distinguished as a
and the shipping trade. His workshop was set up within
natural philosopher and a chemist, and his inventions
the precincts of the university after Watt completed his
demonstrate his profound knowledge of those sciences,
craftsmans apprenticeship in one year rather than the
and that Watt had that peculiar characteristic of genius,
usual seven years. Commissions included laboratory
the union of them for practical application. However, Watt
instruments and navigational aids such as quadrants,
himself confessed that he was not a businessman, writparallel rules, barometers and telescopes as well as
ing, I would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an
musical instruments including wooden flutes, fifes and
account. This is where Matthew Boulton played his part,
pipe organs. This led to a post of astronomical instrumanaging the business side of Boulton & Watt, leaving his
ment maker for the university where he worked with
partner free from the financial worries that had filled his
Joseph Black and John Anderson.
early career and allowing him to mix
How to fund the R&D budget for next year.
One of his repair jobs for the univerwith the finest scientific minds in
sity was reconditioning a model of a
Britain and Europe. Watt more than
Newcomen steam engine, but even after
held his own in such elevated comrepair he found it would barely work
pany despite his humble origins.
because the efficiency was so low. Watts
A footnote to Watts early career
big idea came to him in an instant
was found in the contents of his
while strolling on Glasgow Green in
Birmingham workshop gifted to
May 1765. It took four years to get this ideathe separate
Londons Science Museum over 100 years after his death.
condenserdesigned, tested and patented. Watt partnered Among the wide range of woodworking tools were several
with Matthew Boulton who ran a factory in Birmingham,
specialist pieces required for the manufacture and repair
England, and their compact steam engines delivered up to
of flutes, dating back to his early years in Glasgow. These
five times more power than the previous design.
tools include a manufacturers stamp bearing the legend
Although Watt is often credited with inventing the
T LOT, clearly intended to give the impression the instrusteam engine and many of its accessories, this is clearly
ment was made by leading French manufacturer, Thomas
not so. He took an existing poor design and transformed Lot, the Stradivari of flutes. This adds an intriguing twist
it into a practical and beneficial reality. However, it is
to young Watts financial predicament. Fortunately, his
also wrong to see him merely as a mechanic using his
association with Joseph Blacks chemistry department and
skill with machines and tools to effect improvements.
its needs for ingenious instrument repair kept him out of
Despite his lack of higher education, he absorbed knowl- prison and enabled him to take that fateful, inspirational
edge from a wide range of fields and was instrumental in stroll on Glasgow Green exactly 250 years ago.
the development of many chemical advances in bleachAndy Pearson, Ph.D., C.Eng., is group engineering director at Star Refrigeration in Glasgow, UK.
ing, dyeing and the separation of gases.
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INFO CENTER
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INFO CENTER
MUNTERS OASIS OPTIMUM DCIE
Munters Oasis Optimum DCIE data center cooling system is

a modular design that achieves PUEs less than 1.1. Fresh air is
drawn across wetted polymer heat exchanger tubes, while filtered
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ASHRAE JOURNAL
95
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
DATA CENTERS
To receive FREE info on the products in this section, visit the Web
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The Babel Buster BB2-7010-02 gateway from

Control Solutions, St. Paul, Minn., enables
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Chillers
Oklahoma City-based ClimaCool offers a line

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Steam Generator
The SuperSteam clean steam unfired steam
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Towaco, N.J., provides steam for clean applications including data center humidification, sterilization, and pharmaceutical
applications.
Remote Building Management System

Diamond Controls Solution from Mitsubishi
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enables building managers to control
multiple mechanical systems, including
non-HVAC equipment, through a single
interface. The product includes design,
installation and integration services from
the companys Professional Services Group.
Evaporative Cooler/Humidifier
optiMist from Carel USA, Manheim, Pa., is
an evaporative cooler and humidifier for efficient management of direct evaporative
cooling, indirect evaporative cooling and
adiabatic humidification.
Chiller
By ClimaCool
BACnet Gateway
By Control Solutions
Mixed-Flow Fan
The model VMBL mixed-flow fan from
Carnes, Verona, Wis., is designed to deliver
low energy consumption and long life. It features heavy-duty construction.
Smoke Control Calculations

Just Got Easier.
Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering,
now with AtriumCalc
ASHRAEs comprehensive smoke control resource

now includes AtriumCalc, a Microsoft Excel
application that lets engineers perform complicated
smoke control calculations in minutes.
$129 ($109 ASHRAE Member)
www.ashrae.org/smokecontrol
96
ASHRAE JOURNAL
ashrae.org
M AY 2 0 1 5
PRODUCTS
PRODUCT SHOWPLACE
Damper
To receive FREE info on the

products in this section, visit
the Web address listed below
each item or go to
www.ashrae.org/freeinfo.
A
Industrial Evaporative Condensers
SPX Cooling Technologies and SGS Refrigeration,

Overland Park, Kan., have collaborated to
develop the Marley Cube industrial evaporative condensers. The series includes a
range of forced-draft and induced-draft
models.
B
Building Automation System
Tracer Concierge from Trane, Piscataway,

N.J., is a packaged system of building HVAC
and lighting controls. It is designed to be a
simple, turnkey system that is preconfigured
and preprogrammed for each of a projects
standard floor plans. The system consists of a
factory-programmed Tracer SC system controller, wireless communications interfaces
between devices, a touchscreen user display,
and an optional power meter.
C
Continental Fan, Buffalo, N.Y., offers the IRIS

damper for supply and exhaust tracking
control, individual comfort control, and
airflow regulation. Its design allows for
airflow to be measured and controlled at
a single station to save time and money in
initial installation and commissioning.
Makeup Air Units

Minneapolis-based Valent introduces the DGR
direct-fired and IGR indirect-fired lines of
heat-only makeup air units for commercial
or industrial facilities where high outdoor air
volumes are needed but cooling and humidity control are not required.
Redundant Drives
ACH550 Redundant Drives from ABB, New
Berlin, Wis., consist of a pair of ABB ACH550
drives integrated into a NEMA-rated enclosure. The redundant drives feature singlepoint control connections, which eliminate
the need to duplicate control wiring to primary and secondary systems.
The M50A modular packaged air-conditioning system from Coolerado, Denver, features
the companys indirect evaporation system, which provides greater efficiency compared to conventional AC units and does not
use chemical refrigerants. The system is designed to add no moisture to conditioned air.
Geothermal Heat Pump
GEA Refrigeration Technologies, Bochum,

Germany, offers the GEA Bock HG46 CO2
T semi-hermetic, six-cylinder compressor
for transcritical CO2 applications with
operating pressures of up to 130 bar (13 000
kPa). It features a large displacement of 21.8
m/h to 30.2 m/h (770 ft3/h to 1,070 ft3/h).
WaterFurnace, Fort Wayne, Ind., introduces the

5 Series 504W11 hydronic geothermal heat
pump, which features the companys OptiHeat vapor injection technology. While most
hydronic geothermal systems generate 130F
(54C) water, OptiHeat creates exiting water
temperatures up to 150F (66C) via an additional heat exchanger that diverts excess heat
and reinjects it into the system.
Harmonic Filters
HVLS Fans
Schaffner EMC, Edison, N.J., introduces the

ECOSine 60 Hz line of passive harmonic filters to protect motors in a variety of applications. Tuned to a specific harmonic order,
these filters remove harmful harmonics before they can damage protected load.
MacroAir, San Bernadino, Calif., offers the

Airvolution-D (AVD) line of HVLS fans. The
four models in the line feature a direct-drive
motor with a gearless design to deliver improved airflow capacity in a smaller, lighter,
and less noisy motor.
Semi-Hermetic Compresssor
ASHRAE JOURNAL
Building Automation System

By Trane
Packaged AC
Zone Valves
Belimo Americas, Danbury, Conn., announces the ZoneTight line of zone valves for
pressure-dependent and pressure-independent zoning applications in tight spaces. The valves feature a zero-leakage ball
valve design that minimizes energy losses,
is resistant to clogging, and consumes up
to 95% less energy than conventional zone
valves.
98
Industrial Evaporative Condensers

By SPX Cooling Technologies and SGS Refrigeration
ashrae.org
M AY 2 0 1 5
Zone Valve
By Belimo Americas
Rooftop Fans
Tjernlund Products, White Bear Lake, Minn.,
offers the RT-Series rooftop fans. The fans
are available with an optional Constant Operating Pressure Control (COP2), which includes a VFD and transducer to deliver precise draft or exhaust by modulating fan
speed to maintain a constant negative pressure within a vent or exhaust system as draft
or exhaust loads change.
Fume Hood Exhaust Blowers

HEMCO, Independence, Mo., offers a line
of fume hood exhaust blowers designed
to exhaust corrosive fumes, humid or polluted air, gases and odors. The blowers are
available in coated steel or PVC, in standard or explosion proof models, all with a
smooth interior surface that reduces static
pressure loss and chemical waste buildup.
kBIM Template and Library

Standardized Tools to Reduce Autodesk Revit Implementation Costs
kBIM Template and Library for Autodesk Revit is a package of standardized Revit
tools designed to provide large-firm capabilities to smaller firms and improve drawing
development efficiency.
kBIM Template and Library includes a Revit template, customized Revit library, and
supporting help documentation, all designed to enhance the building information
modeling (BIM) process for mechanical, electrical, plumbing, fire protection, and
technology disciplines.
www.info.hotims.com/54428-XX
Provides large-firm capabilities to smaller firms

Custom view templates
Standard and customizable device symbols
Equipment and fixture schedules and families
Custom schedules and tags
Standard pipe systems and filters
Design checks as visibility and graphical settings
Custom drawing annotation styles and device tags
Equipment clearance representation
Device annotation offset for drawing clarity
Find demos, examples, and purchasing information at www.ashrae.org/kbim.
Autodesk and Revit are registered trademarks of Autodesk, Inc., in the USA and other countries.
CLASSIFIEDS
RATE SCHEDULE:
OPENINGS
BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES
Classifieds are accepted in the

categories of Job Opportunities,
Rentals, Business Opportunities, and
Software.
HVAC ENGINEERS
All levels. JR Walters Resources, Inc., specializing in
the placement of technical professionals in the E & A
field. Openings nationwide. Address: P. O. Box 617, St.
Joseph, MI 49085-0617. Phone 269-925-3940. E-mail:
jrwawa@jrwalters.com. Visit our web site at www.
jrwalters.com.
ADIBATIC AIR INLET COOLING
Closing date:
Copy must be received by the classified department by the 3rd of the
month preceding date of issue.
To place an ad in ASHRAE Journal
Classifieds contact:
Vanessa Johnson
Atlanta, GA 30329
Phone 678-539-1166
Fax 678-539-2166
E-mail: vjohnson@ashrae.org
FOR RENT
INSTRUCTOR IN HVAC AND ALTERNATIVE

RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
DESCRIPTION OF DUTIES: The Department
of Mechanical and Energy Technologies at
SUNY Canton seeks candidates for a tenure
track faculty position beginning in the fall
semester 2015. The successful candidate
will teach courses in the following areas:
HVAC - domestic and commercial systems
& design, load calculations, equipment
selection & building automation; Alternative &
Renewable Energy Systems fuel cells, solar
energy, photovoltaic, solar hot water, passive
solar & biofuels.
QUALIFICATIONS: Relevant teaching experience preferred, applied industrial experience will be given emphasis in the selection
process. The successful candidate should
have a desire to mentor and advise students
to ensure their academic success. The ability
to present material in a clear and understandable manner is a must. This position requires
a Masters degree in engineering or engineering technology and a P.E. License or PhD in a
related field.
Persons interested in the above position
should apply online at https://employment.
canton.edu/ Review of applications will begin
immediately and will continue until the position is filled. Prior to a final offer of employment, the selected candidate will be required
to submit to a background check including,
but not limited to, employment verification,
educational and other credential verification,
and criminal background check.
CLOSING DATE FOR RECEIPT OF APPLICATIONS: Review begins immediately and
will continue until the position is filled.
SUNY Canton, a unit of the State University
of New York, is an affirmative action, equal
opportunity employer. SUNY Canton is building
a culturally diverse and pluralistic faculty and
staff and strongly encourages applications
from minority and women candidates.
To place an ad contact:
Vanessa Johnson
Advertising Production &
Operations Coordinator
Atlanta, GA 30329
Phone: 678-539-1166
Email: vjohnson@ashrae.org
102
ASHRAE JouRnAl
ashrae.org
Improving the performance of Air Cooled Chillers, Dry Coolers and

Condensers and Refrigeration Plants. EcoMESH is a unique mesh and
water spray system that improves performance, reduces energy
consumption, eliminates high ambient problems, is virtually maintenance
free and can payback in one cooling season.
Standard
Installation
EcoMESH
Addition
Water
Spray
that
season.
Cooler
Air Intake
EcoMESH Benefits
Reduced Running Cost
Reduced Maintenance
Easy Retrofit
Improved Reliability
Increased Capacity
Self Cleaning Filter
Shading Benefit
No Water Treatment
Longer Compressor Life
Before
EcoMESH Adia batic Sys tems Ltd.
www.ecomesh.eu
THERMAL ENERGY
(1) STORAGE
Phase Change Materials between 8C(47F) and 89C(192F)

release thermal energy during the phase change which releases
large amounts of energy) in the form
of latent heat. It bridges the gap between
energy availability and energy use and
load shifting
Improving the performance of Air Cooled Chillers, Dry Coolers and
capability.
Condensers and Refrigeration Plants. EcoMESH is a unique mesh and
water spray system that improves performance, reduces energy
consumption, eliminates high ambient problems, is virtually maintenance
free and can payback in one cooling season.
ADIBATIC AIR INLET COOLING
+8C
(47F)
Standard
Installation
EcoMESH
Addition
Water
Spray
Cooler
Air Intake
EcoMESH
Benefits
BENEFITS
Reduced Running Cost

EASY RETROFIT
Reduced
Maintenance
LOW RUNNING
COST
Easy Retrofit
REDUCED
MACHINERY
Improved
Reliability
INCREASED CAPACITY
Increased Capacity
Self Cleaning Filter
Shading Benefit
No Water Treatment
Longer Compressor Life
GREEN SOLUTION
REDUCED MAINTENANCE
FLEXIBLE SYSTEM
STAND-BY CAPACITY
Overduring day
that
season.
Before
PCM Products
www.pcmproducts.net
(1)
EcoMESH Adia batic Sys tems Ltd.
www.ecomesh.eu
ASHRAE
THERMALJournal
ENERGY STORAGE
(4)
Classified Ads
Classified ads are
Phase Change Materials between +8~20C(47~68F)
can be simply charged using a free cooler over-night without the
use of a chiller and later the stored FREE energy can be used to
handle the day-time sensible
building loads.
ALWAYS
productive.
M AY 2 0 1 5
+13C
(55F)
The Foremost
Medium for Reaching
Engineering Professionals
FREE COOLING BENEFITS
LOWER INSTALLATION COST
REDUCED MAINTENANCE
SIGNIFICANT ENERY SAVING
FLEXIBLE SYSTEM
GREEN SOLUTION
STAND-BY CAPACITY
utilising
(PCM)
SOFTWARE
Everything Your Reps Need

...to increase sales
For All HVAC Products

Selection
Pricing / Configuration
Submittals
Parts
Customer Support
mep
The power of BIM for MEP design

Calculations directly from the BIM model
Automatic generation of all the case study
results Automatic generation of the final set of
drawings (plan views, vertical diagrams,
axonometric diagrams, Piping/Ducting Networks
in 2D and 3D and others) Complete documentation of results (detailed calculation sheets,
Technical Reports, Bill of Materials and many
more) IFC import/export to ensure collaboration with other BIM applications.
FineHVAC - HVAC Design
More...
HVAC Loads (Ashrae 2013), Chilled and Hot

Water piping, Airduct Sizing, Psychrometric
Analysis (includes also design for Merchant
and Naval Surface Ships - Ashrae ch. 13.1 & 13.3).
www.bcatech.com
407407-659659-0653
FineFIRE - Fire Fighting Design
NFPA 13 fully calculated systems for tree,

gridded or looped systems (includes also EN
12845, BS 9251, FM, CEA 4001 & AS 2118
regulations)
FineSANI - Plumbing Design
Water supply and Sewerage design
FineELEC - Electrical Design

FineGAS - Gas Network Design
FineLIFT - Elevator Design
info@4msa.com, www.4mbim.com, www.4msa.com
ASHRAE Journal Classified Ads

The Foremost Medium for Reaching Engineering Professionals
To place an ad contact:
Vanessa Johnson
Advertising Production &
Operations Coordinator
Atlanta, GA 30329
Phone: 678-539-1166
Fax: 678-539-2166
Email: vjohnson@ashrae.org
M AY 2 0 1 5
ashrae.org
ASHRAE JouRnAl
103
ADVERTISING SALES
Advertisers Index/Reader Service Information
ASHRAE JOURNAL
Two fast and easy ways to get additional information on

products & services in this issue:
1. Visit the Web address below the advertisers name for the ad in this issue.
2. Go to www.ashrae.org/freeinfo to search for products by category or
company name. Plus, link directly to advertisers Web sites or request
information by e-mail, fax or mail.
*Regional
Company
Web Address
Page
Company
Page
Web Address
Company
Web Address
Page
AAON, Inc .........................................................19

info.hotims.com/54428-1
Data Aire, Inc ...................................................45

Parker Boiler Co. .............................................96

AAON, Inc .........................................................95

Distech Controls ..............................................93

Petra Engineering ...........................................57

Accurex .............................................................21
Ebtron, Inc ...............................................3rd Cvr

Pottorff ..............................................................94
Aerionics, Inc./Macurco.................................88
Emerson Network Power ...............................67

Raypak, Inc .......................................................65

AHR Expo Orlando 2016 .................................51

Evapco Inc ........................................................92

Reliable Controls ...............................................2

A-J Mfg. Co. .....................................................68

Fujitsu General America.................................77

Reliable Controls .............................................92

ASHRAE HVAC Control Systems ...................86

Goodway Technologies ...................................82

Renewaire, LLC ................................................33

ASHRAE kBIM .................................... 100 101

Greenheck Fan Corp .......................................27

Rinnai America Group.....................................49

*ASHRAE PCBEA.............................................97
Greentrol Automation .....................................53

Rotor Source, Inc. ...........................................20

ASHRAE Smoke Control .................................96

Harsco Industrial, Patterson-Kelley.............61

Rotronic Instrument Corp ..............................12

ASHRAE Std. 90.1-13 UM ..............................95

Aurora Pump/Pentair ......................................70
Bard Manufacturing Co..................................99
Bluebeam Software ........................................83
Bosch Thermotechnology Corp.....................59
CaptiveAire .......................................................79
CaptiveAire .......................................................25
Carlo Gavazzi Inc.............................................44
Carrier Corp......................................................31
Carrier Corp......................................................85
ClimaCool Corp ................................................92
Heat Pipe Technology Inc ..............................52

Hurst Boiler & Welding Co. Inc.....................22
LTG Incorporated .............................................84
MacroAir Technologies.....................................7
Mestek/KN Series ...........................................13
Mestek/RBI Water Heaters...........................37
Mestek/Xcelon ................................................75
Metraflex ..........................................................82
Mitsubishi Electric & Electronics USA Inc...15
*Mitsubishi Electric Sales Canada, Inc ......97
Movin Cool/DENSO Products and Services43
Selkirk ...............................................................24
Sentech Corp ...................................................94
Shortridge Instruments .................................42
Southland Industries ......................................94
Specific Systems.............................................95
Spectronics Corp...............................................9
Taco....................................................................87
Taco....................................................................35
Thybar Corp ......................................................92
Titus...................................................................11
Tjernlund Products, Inc..................................93
MTU Onsite Energy .......... Insert Btwn 40 41
Topog-E Gasket Co. .........................................93

Climatemaster .................................................81
Multistack, LLC ...............................................34

Trane ....................................................................5
Climatemaster .................................................95
Munters Corp ...................................................95

Unilux Advanced Mfg, LLC.............................94

Component Hardware .....................................69

Munters Corp ..........................................4th Cvr

Unilux Advanced Mfg, LLC.............................86

Control Solutions Inc ......................................93

Munters Corp ...................................................23

Vaisala Inc. .........................................................8

Daikin North America LLC .............................95

Onicon, Inc .......................................................71

Xylem, Inc .........................................................89

Daikin North America LLC ............... 2nd Cvr-1

Ontrol A.S..........................................................26
Yaskawa America Inc .....................................91

ClimaCool Corp. ...............................................76

104
ASHRAE JOURNAL
ashrae.org
M AY 2 0 1 5
1791 Tullie Circle NE | Atlanta, GA 30329

(404) 636-8400 | Fax: (678) 539-2174
www.ashrae.org
Greg Martin | gmartin@ashrae.org
Associate Publisher, ASHRAE Media Advertising
Vanessa Johnson | vjohnson@ashrae.org
Advertising Production Coordinator
NORTHEAST
Nelson & Miller Associates
Denis OMalley
5 Hillandale Ave., Suite 101
Stamford, CT 06902
(203) 356-9694 | Fax (203) 356-9695
sales@nelsonmiller.com
SOUTHEAST
Millennium Media, Inc.
590 Hickory Flat Road
Alpharetta, GA 30004
Doug Fix (770) 740-2078 | Fax (678) 405-3327
Lori Gernand (281) 855-0470 | Fax (281) 855-4219
dfix@bellsouth.net; lg@lindenassoc.com
EASTERN CANADA
Nelson & Miller Associates
Denis OMalley
5 Hillandale Ave., Suite 101
Stamford, CT 06902
(203) 356-9694 | Fax (203) 356-9695
sales@nelsonmiller.com
OHIO VALLEY
LaRich & Associates Tom Lasch
512 East Washington St.
Chagrin Falls, OH 44022
tlasch@larichadv.com
(440) 247-1060 | Fax (440) 247-1068
MIDWEST
Kingwill Company Baird Kingwill; Jim Kingwill
664 Milwaukee Avenue, Suite 201
Prospect Heights, IL 60070
(847) 537-9196 | Fax (847) 537-6519
barry@kingwillco.com; jim@kingwillco.com
SOUTHWEST
Lindenberger & Associates, Inc.
Gary Lindenberger; Lori Gernand
7007 Winding Walk Drive, Suite 100
Houston, TX 77095
(281) 855-0470 | Fax (281) 855-4219
gl@lindenassoc.com; lg@lindenassoc.com
WEST
LaRich & Associates Nick LaRich, Tom Lasch
512 East Washington St.
Chagrin Falls, OH 44022
nlarich@larichadv.com
tlasch@larichadv.com
(440) 247-1060 | Fax (440) 247-1068
KOREA
YJP & Valued Media Co., Ltd YongJin Park
Kwang-il Building #905, Dadong-gil 5
Jung-gu, Seoul 100-170, Korea
+82-2 3789-6888 | Fax: +82-2 3789-8988
hi@YJPvm.kr
CHINA, HONG KONG & TAIWAN
China Business Media
Sean Xiao
6-310 Xinchao No.162 Liaoyuan Road
Fuzhou, Fujian, China
86 186 5099 7133
sean@cbmmedia.com
INTERNATIONAL
Steve Comstock
(404) 636-8400 | comstock@ashrae.org
RECRUITMENT ADVERTISING AND REPRINTS
ASHRAE Greg Martin
(678) 539-1174 | gmartin@ashrae.org

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Science for Sustainability

Beacon for Urban Waters

Inside | The Path to a Net Zero-Ready School

CONTENTS VOL. 57, NO. 5, MAY 2015

Vitruvius Does Veneers

By Joseph W. Lstiburek, Ph.D., P.Eng.

The Digital Revolution,

By Stephen K. Melink, P.E.

Criteria for Building Automation

Watts the Big Occasion?

By Frank Shadpour, P.E.; Joseph Kilcoyne, P.E.

2015 ASHRAE TECHNOLOGY AWARDS

A Beacon for Urban Waters

Net Zero-Ready School

ABOUT THE COVER

New Editor, But Youre in Charge

You may have noticed a new name on

from you and meeting people at the

OTHER HIGHLIGHTS this month:

Basanth Kumar stands next to Armstrongs Fluid Management system comprising of

Indias Strength Pushes

Analysts say building

black coating to shield it

engineering and reliable

Armstrong displayed its

consumes as little energy

Gwalior, and Raipurround

OPTIMAX 400 LED Leak Detection Flashlight

Power comparable to high-intensity 150-watt lamps!

To learn more, scan QR code, call 1-800-274-8888

ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED COMPANY

said Satya. TSI dust monitors can be used for commercial

are going to be a golden phase for India, said Maheshwari.

the bacterias genome as the

SWECO ARCHITECTS AB/ NORDISK

Carbon negative data center in Sweden.

run entirely on a mix of

MEETINGS AND SHOWS

FULL CALENDAR: WWW.ASHRAE.ORG/CALENDAR

I2SL Annual Conference, Sept. 21 23, San Diego.

CTBUH 2015, Oct. 26 30, New York. Contact the

International Air-Conditioning, Heating, Refrigerating Exhibition (AHR Expo), Jan. 25 27,

CALLS FOR PAPERS

Contact the Australian Institute of Refrigeration,

2016 Purdue Compressor/Refrigeration and Air

ASPE Convention and Exposition, Oct. 27 Nov. 4,

OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA

Mostra Convegno Expocomfort Asia, Sept. 2 4,

Estimated Annual Costs*

Estimated Cost by HVAC Type*

Maintenance personnel got tired of dealing with dampers found stuck in

Food-service establishments are notoriously prone to kitchen fires that

continue to design the way we always have and accept

Fire suppression, by definition, is

Also no belt drive losses and belt maintenance required.

thick black smoke, you understand the serious nature

Think of your gas grille on the patio of your home.

with holes/gaps in the seams and allow grease leaks to

hundreds of people on a Saturday night and there is

staff would not necessarily be thinking about the possible risks.

and the availability for repair service is at its lowest.

Fire-prevention features of a well-engineered DCKV

them without obstructions so that the heat and smoke