NUMBER THEORY

11:30 12:30 (TTHS) P405

FIRST SEMESTER, A.Y. 2015 2016

BALAGAN, Nathaniel
BOLINGET, Reynald
ESLAVA, Ian Anderson
LIGTINEN, Rojan Lee
NABUA, Megan
PASADILLO, Rendylfred
TIMIDAN, Sony Teeve
TOMBOC, Aurelio
WAGLISON, Fidel
ZUNIGA, Venno Mitch
AMBALES, Marcela
AQUINO, Bernadine
ATETEO, Kimberly
BAEK, Koung Sun
BAYADANG, Myrtle

CACAYAN, Sonia
CO, William Mhae
DE GUZMAN, Kristine Joy
DONGUIZ, May Joy
FORAYANG, Alyssa
GUMPIC, Aury Lauree
LARDIZABAL, Crystal Mae
MALAGGAY, Febie
MARCOS, Marianne
MOGA, Bryll
MORARENG, Ivy
ORYAN, Zeila Mei
POLON, Mia Grail
SILAROY, Rina Marie
TONGYOFEN, Keren Rose

BRYAN A. HIDLAGO MAMED.

Course Facilitator

CHAPTER ONE
Theorem 1.1
Given integers a, b, and c, if a|b and b|c, then a|c.
PROOF I

i.

By definition,

ii.

By definition, is an integer because b|c.

iii.

Multiplying and leads to , is an integer.

iv.

Because is an integer, then a|c.

is an integer because a|b.

NOTE: We say a|b if there exist an integer c such that b = ac.

PROOF II
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Because a|b, then there exist an integer r such that b = ar.

Because b|c, then there exist an integer s such that c = bs.
Since b = ar, then c = ars.
Because a|ars, rs , then a|c.

Or Since = = rs , r , then a|c.

Theorem 1.2
Given integers a, b, and c if a|b and a|c then a|bx + cy for any integers x and y.
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

By definition, if a|b, then b = ar for any integer r.

By definition if a|c, then c = as for any integer s.
Because b = ar and c = as, then bx + cy = arx + asy.
Since bx + cy = arx + asy = a(rx + sy), then a|a(rx + sy), (rx + sy) .
Because a|a(rx + sy), then a| bx + cy.

Theorem 1.3
Given integers a 0, b 0, and m, if a|m and b|m, then [a,b]|m.

Conclusion: [,] is an integer.

PROOF:

i.

Assume that [,] is not an integer.

ii.

If

is not an integer, then [,] = q + r for some integer q and real number r such
[,]

that 0 <r < 1.

iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.

Multiplying[,] = q + r and 0 < r < 1 by [a,b] leads to m = q [a,b] + r [a,b] and 0 <
r[a,b]< [a, b] .
Notice r [a,b] = m q [a,b] is an integer.
If we let x = r [a,b], then x = m = q [a,b] and 0 < x <[a,b], x is an integer.
By hypothesis, a|m and a|[a,b], by definition of lcm, then a|x by Theorem 1.2.
By hypothesis, b|m and b|[a,b], by definition of lcm, then b|x by Theorem 1.2.
Because a|x and b|x, x is a common multiple.
Because x is a common multiple, then 0 < x < [a,b] contradicts the fact that [a,b] is the
least common multiple of a and b.

Then [,] is an integer.

Theorem 1.4
Suppose a and b are integers, a > 0. Then there exist unique integers q and r, 0 r < a, such that
b = aq + r.
PROOF:
Part I
NTS: q and r exist ( Existence )

i.
Suppose the real numbers is q + , where q is an integer and 0 < 1.
ii.
Then, b = aq + a , 0 < a
iii.
Set a = r. Thus, b = aq + r, and 0 r < a.
Part II
NTS: q and r are unique (Uniqueness)
i.
Suppose b = aq + r , 0 r < a
b = aq + r ,0 r < a
ii.
Subtract the two equations and transposing r r in one side yields to
r r = a(q q)
iii.
Multiplying to -1, leads to a - 0. Adding a - 0 and 0 - a and dividing by a, yields to
[ a r - a] a
- 1 1 ; r = r
- 1 q q 1 ; q = q
Theorem 1.5
If a and b are positive integers, then (a,b)[a,b] = ab.

Rewrite: [a,b] = (,)

PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

(,)

(,)

(,)

(,)

is positive.
is an integer.
is a multiple of a and b.

[a,b] and (,) [a,b].

Part I:
i.

By hypothesis ab>0, and (a,b) >0 by definition of gcd, then

(,)

is positive.

ii.

Because (a,b) | a and (a,b) | b, then (a,b) | abby definition of (a,b). Then,(,) is an integer.

iii.

Because

iv.

Because

Part II:
i.

[,]

[,]

=(,) is an integer, then(,) is a multiple of b.

= (,) is a multiple of a and b, then

(,)

[a,b].

By hypothesis, ab>0 and by definition of [a,b], [a,b] is positive, then[,] is positive.

ii.

By Theorem 1.3, [,] is an integer.

iii.

Because

iv.

Then,[,]divides a.

v.

Because

vi.

Then, [,] divides b.

vii.

Then, [,] is a common divisor of a and b so that [,] (a,b) or ab (a,b) [a,b].

viii.

Then, (a,b) [a,b] = ab.

[,]

[,]

is an integer by definition of [a,b], then

is an integer by definition of [a,b], then

[,]

[,]

is an integer.

is an integer.

Lemma 1.6
For any integers a >0, b, c, and k, if a = bk + c, then (a,b) = (b,c)
Let (a,b) = d, 0< a < b
b = aq + r , 0 < r < a
Show that (a,b) = (a,r). Therefore, show that d divides r.
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

If (a,b) = d, then d divides a and b.

If b = aq + r , 0 < r < a, then r = b aq.
By Theorem 1.2 d divides r, x = -aq and y = b.
Since r <a, and (a,r) divides a and b, then (a,r) = (a,b) = d.

Theorem 1.7 (Euclidean Algorithm)

Let a and b be integers, a 0.
b = aq1 + r1 , 0 r1 a
a = r1q2 + r2 , 0 r2 r1
r1 = r2q2 + r3 , 0 r3 r2
rn 2 = rn 1 qn + rn 0 rnrn 1 ,
rn = rnqn + 1
Let rn be the last nonzero remainder. Then (a,b) = rn.

Theorem 1.8
If a and b are integers such that (a,b) is defined then there exist integers x and y such that
(a,b) = ax + by.
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Let a and b be integers such that (a,b) = ax + by, (a,b) is defined.

If (a,b) is defined, then there exist a d such that d = (a,b).
If d is a GCD of a and b, then d|a and d|b and there exist r and s such that
a = dr and b = ds.
Since d|a and d|b, then d| ax + by or d| d (rx) + d (sy) by Theorem 1.2.
Then, there exist integers x and y such that (a,b) = ax + by.

Theorem 1.9
Let a, b, m, and d be integers.
1. If m is any common multiple of a and b, then [a,b] divides m.
PROOF:
i.
Let a, b, and m be integers, and m is any common multiple of a and b where m =
[a,b]
ii.
Let m be the smallest of all positive that are multiples of a and b, then
m = [a,b].
iii.
If m = [a,b], then m = m but m is the smallest of all positive multiples of a and b.
iv.
Thus, by definition of LCM [a,b] divides m.
2. If d is any common divisor of a and b, not both of which are 0, then d divides (a,b).
PROOF:
i.
Let a, b, and d be integers and d is any common divisor of a and b, not both of which
are 0, then d = (a,b)
ii.
Let d be the largest of all integers dividing both a and b, then d = (a,b).
iii.
If d = (a,b), then d = d but d is the largest of all integers dividing both a and b .
iv.
Therefore, d divides (a,b) by definition of GCD.
Theorem 1.10
Given integers a, b, and c with a and b not both 0, there exist integers x and y such that ax + by = c
if and only if (a,b)|c.
PROOF:
a. There exist x and y such that ax + by = c if (a,b)|c.
i.
If ax + by = c, and by Theorem 1.8 ax + by = (a,b), then c = k(a,b).
ii.
If c = k(a,b), then c = a(kx) + b(ky).
iii.
Then, there exist x and y such that ax + by = c. (Theorem 1.8)
b. There exist x and y such that ax + by = c only if (a,b)|c.
i.
If there exist x and y such that ax + by = c, then c = (a,b) by Theorem 1.8.
ii.
Since c = (a,b), then (a,b)|c.

Corollary 1.11
Let a and b be integers. There exist integers x and y such that ax + by = 1 if and only if (a,b) = 1.
PROOF:
a. There exist integers x and y such that ax + by = 1 if (a,b) = 1.
i.
If ax + by = 1 and by Theorem 1.8 ax + by = (a,b) , then a and b are relatively prime.
b. There exist integers x and y such that ax + by = 1 only if (a,b) = 1.
Corollary 1.12
Let a, a, and b be integers. If (a,b) = 1 and (a,b) = 1, then (aa,b) = 1.
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.

Let ax + by = 1 and ax + by = 1.
Adding the two equation leads to aaxx+ abxy + abxy + bbyy or
aa (xx) + b (axy + axy + byy).
Since aa (xx) + b (axy + axy + byy), then (aa,b) = 1.

Theorem 1.13
If a, b, and c are integers such that (a,b) = 1 and a|bc, then a|c.
PROOF
i.
ii.
iii.

Since (a,b) =1 , we have ax + by = 1 for x, y, Z.

If ax + by = 1, then c = acx + bcy is true, c Z.
Then, since a|bc, a|c

Theorem 1.14

If a and b are any integers and (a,b) = d, then and are relatively prime.
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Let a and b be integers with (a,b) = d.

Assume that e is a positive integer such that e | and e |.

Then there are integers k and l with = ke and = le, so that a = dek and b = del.
Hence, de is a common factor of a and b.
Since d is the GCD of a and b, then de d.

Thus, e must be 1. Consequently, and are relatively prime.

Theorem 1.15
Suppose a 0, b 0, and c are integers. Let x0 , y0 be a particular solution to ax + by = c. Then all

solutions are given by = 0 + , = 0 as t runs through integers, where d = (a,b).

PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.

iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Suppose a 0, b 0, and c are integers and x0 , y0 is a particular solution to ax + by =

c. Then, ax0 + by0 = c.
Suppose that x and y is other solution to ax + by = c.
By subtracting ax + by = c by ax0 + by0 = c leads to a(x - x0) = b(y0 - y).
ax + by = c
ax0 + by0 = c
a(x - x0) + b(y0 - y) = 0
a(x - x0) = b(y0 - y)
Then, a| b(y0 - y) by Theorem 1.13.
Since a and b may or may not be relatively prime, (a,b) = d 1.

If (x0 - x) = (y0 - y), where ( ,) = 1, | (y0 - y).

If

| (y0 - y), then y0 y = t, for some integer t, by definition of divisibility.

viii.

If y0 y =

ix.

Solving for x, x - x0 =

x = x0 + t
x.

t, then a(x - x0) = b ( t).

t .

Solving for y when X = x0 + t

a(x0 + t x0) = b(y0 - y)

a t = b(y0 - y)

t = y0 y

y = y0 t
Theorem 1.16
Let a, a, b, b, c, d, and m be integers, with d >0 and m >0.
i. Always a a (mod m)
Proof:
i. a a (mod m)m| a a
m|0, n >0
ii. Since m|0, then a a (mod m).
ii.

If a b (mod m), then b a (mod m)

Proof:
i. If a b (mod m), then b a (mod m)
m|(b a) b a = mk, k
a b = m ( -k)
ii. Since m|a b, then b a (mod m)

iii.

If a b (mod m) and b c (mod m), then a c (mod m)

Proof:
i. If a b (mod m) and b c (mod m) then m|(b a) and
m|(c b).
ii. By Theorem 1.2, m|(b a) + (c b) and by performing the operation
leads to m| a + c.
iii. Since m|c a then a c (mod m).

iv.

If a b (mod m) and a b (mod m), then a+a b+b (mod m)

Proof:
i. If a b (mod m) and a b (mod m), then
a + a b + b (mod m).
ii. If m|(b a) and m|(b a), then m|(b - a) + (b- a).
m|(b + b) - (a + a) a + a b + b (mod m)

v.

If a b (mod m) and a b (mod m), then aa bb (mod m)

Proof:
i. If a b (mod m) and a b (mod m), then m|(b a) and m|(b a).
ii. It follows that m|(b a) b m|(b a) a
iii. m|(b a) b + (b a) a
iv. m|(bb ab) + (ab aa)
v. Since m| bb aa aa bb (mod m).

vi.

If a b (mod m) and d|m, then a b (mod d)

Proof:
i. If a b (mod m), then m|(b a).
ii. If d|m, then d|(b a) by Theorem 1.1
iii. If d|(b a),then a b (mod d).

Theorem 1.17
Let m> 0
i. If r and b are integers such that r b (mod m) and 0 r <m, then r is the least residue of
b modulo m.
ii. Two integers are congruent modulo m if and only if they have the same least residue
modulo m.
Proof of i:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

If r b (mod m), then m|b r.

It follows that b r = mq.
Then, b = mq + r, 0 r < m.
By Euclidean Algorithm, r is the remainder when m|b, and r is unique.
Therefore, r is the least residue of b modulo m.

Proof of ii:
a. If b and b have the same remainder, then b b (mod m).
i.
If b and b have the same remainder, then b = mq + r and b = mq + r.
ii.
It follows that b mq = b mq.
iii.
Then b b = q(q q).

iv.
v.

It follows that m |b b.
Therefore, b b (mod m) ~ b b (mod m).

b. If b b (mod m), then b and b have the same remainder.

i.
If b b (mod m) and b = mq + r, then m|b b and b = mq + r. Therefore, r b
(mod m).
ii.
It follows that r b (mod m).
iii.
Therefore, b and b have the same remainder.
Theorem 1.18 (Cancellation Theorem)
If a, b >0, x, and x are integers such that (a,b) = 1, then ax ax (mod b) implies x x (mod b).
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

If ax ax (mod b) and (a,b) = 1, then b| ax ax.

It follows that ax ax = bk.

Then x- x = b().
It follows that b| x- x.
Therefore, x x (mod b)

Theorem 1.19
If a , b > 0, d, x, and x are integers such that (a,b) = d, then ax ax (mod b) if and only if

( ).

PROOF:

a. If ( ), then ax ax (mod b)

i.

If ( ), then | x x.

ii.

If | x- x, then x - x = (k)

iii.
iv.

Then multiplying a in both sides leads to ax - ax= b () k.

Since b| ax - ax, then ax ax (mod b).

b. If ax ax (mod b), then ( ).

i.
If ax ax (mod b), then b| ax - ax or b| a(x x).
ii.
It follows that a(x x ) = bk.

iii.
By Theorem 1.13, (x x) = (k).

iv.

Since (a,b) = d, then ( , ) = 1 by Theorem 1.14

v.

Then | x x.

vi.

Therefore, ( ).

Theorem 1.20
If a > 0, b, and b are integers such that b b (mod a), then (a,b) = (a,b).
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

If b b (mod a), then a|b b.

If a|b b, then b b = aq.
It follows that b = aq + b.
Then (a,b) = (a,b) by Lemma 1.6

Theorem 1.21
If a, b, and m >0 are integers such that a b (mod m), then an bn (mod m) of all positive integers n.
P(n): If a, b, and m >0 are integers such that a b (mod m), then an bn (mod m) of all positive integers
n.
PROOF:
Part I.
NTS:P(1) is true, i.e, n = 1 is true.
a1 b1 (mod m)
P(1) is true.
Part II.
Assume that n = k is true, i.e, ak bk (mod m).
NTP:P(k+1) is true, i.e, ak+1 bk+1 (mod m)
ak bk (mod m)
ak a bk b (mod m)
ak+1 bk+1 (mod m)
P(k+1) is true.
Theorem 1.22
If the integers a1, a2, a3,,an are all relatively prime to b, then so is their product a1a2.an.
PROOF:
Part I.
NTS: n = 1 is true
(a,b) = 1
n = 1 is true.
Part II.
Assume that n = k is true, i.e, a1, a2, a3,,ak and ak+1 are relatively prime to b.
NTP: (a1, a2, a3,,ak and ak+1 , b) = 1
i.
By induction hypothesis (ak+1 , b) = 1
ii.
Since (ak+1 , b) = 1, then (a1, a2, a3,,ak and ak+1 , b) = 1
iii.
Therefore (a1, a2, a3,,ak and ak+1 , b) = 1
Theorem 1.22 is true.

Theorem 1.23
For any real numbers A and R1 and positive integers n
A + AR + AR2 + + ARn-1 ==
PROOF:

( 1 )
1

Part I.
NTS: n = 1 is true.
( 11 )

A = 1 .
A=A
n = 1 is true.
Part II.

( 1 )

Assume that n = k is true, i.e, A + AR + AR2 + + Ak-1 =

NTP:P(k+1) is true, i.e, A + AR + AR2 + + Ak-1 + ARk=
( 1 )

A + AR + AR2 + + Ak-1 =
=A(
=A(
=

1+( +1 )
1

1+( 1)

( +11 )

( +1 1)
1

k + 1 is true.
Theorem 1.23 is true.

CHAPTER TWO
Theorem 2.1
Suppose n>1. Then n can be written as the product of primes.
PROOF:
Part I.
NTS: n = 1 is true.
NOTE: There is nothing to prove because n>1.
Part II.
Assume that n = k is true, i.e, n = 1, 2, 3, . , k
NTP: k + 1 can be expressed as product of primes
i.
k + 1 = dd (if not prime), where 1 < d < k + 1 and 1 < d < k + 1.
ii.
By induction hypothesis d is at most k and d is at most k.
iii.
Therefore, k + 1 can be expressed as product of primes.
Theorem 2.1 is true.

Theorem 2.2
Let A =

(5+1)

. Then fn+2 > An for all positive integer n.

PROOF:
Part I.
NOTE: x2 x 1 = 0 , then A + 1 = A2
NTS: n = 1 is true.
F1+2 > A1
(5+1)

F3 >

2
(5+1)

2> 2 .
n = 1 is true.
Part II.
Suppose for some integer k > 1 the inequality holds for n = 1, 2, 3k
NTP: f(k+1)+2 > Ak+1
f(k+1)+2 = f(k+2) + f(k-1)+2 >Ak +Ak-1 = Ak-1 + (A + 1) = Ak-1 (A2)
= Ak A = Ak+1
f(k+1)+2 > Ak+1
True for all integer n.
Theorem 2.3
Let P(x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients, and let u1v1 and m > 0 be integers such that u
v (mod m). Then P(u) P(v) (mod m).
PROOF: (It is expected that P(x) = anxn + an-1 xn-1 ++ a0
Part I.
NTS: n = 1 is true.
a1 a1 (mod m)
a1u a1v (mod m)
a0 a0 (mod m)
a1u + a0 a1v + a0 (mod m)
P(u) P(v) (mod m)
n = 1 is true.
Part II.
Assume the statement is true for all polynomials with degrees k.
NTP: P(x) = ak+1 xk+1 + akxk + ak-1 xk-1 ++ a0
Q(u) Q(v) (mod m)
ak+1 ak+1 (mod m)
u v (mod m)
uk+1 vk+1(mod m) (Theorem 1.21)
ak+1 uk+1 ak+1 uk+1 (mod m) (Theorem 1.16)
ak+1 uk+1 + Q(u ak+1 uk+1 + Q(v) (mod m)
P(u) P(v) (mod m)
n = k + 1 is true.

Theorem 2.4
Suppose a and b are integers p is prime and p|ab. Then p|a or p|b.
PROOF:
i.

Suppose p a. Then since p is prime, k has factors p and 1 only and p|ab. Thus p|b
because of Theorem 1.13.
Suppose p b. Then since p is prime, k has factors p and 1 only and p|ab. Thus p|a
because of Theorem 1.13.

ii.
Theorem 2.5

Any integer greater than 1 has factorization into primes. This factorization is unique to the order
of the factors.
PROOF:
i.
ii.
iii.

Let P1|q1 or P|qs.

Because of Theorem 2.4, if P1 q1 then P1 must divide the remaining qs.
Then P1|qi , qi is a factor of n.

Exercises:
1. Find all solutions with x and y positive: 9x+6y=150.
9= 6(1) +3
6= 3(2) + 0
(9, 6) = 3

y= y0- t
d

x= x0 + d t
9

150 -3t
150 2t > 0

-150 + 3 t

-2t > -150

-150 + 3t > 0

T > 75, t is an element of integers

3t > 150
t> 50 , t is an element of integers
n

2. Show that 22 + 1 = 5 (mod 12) for all positive integers n.

PART I:
NTS: P (1) is true, i.e.
1

22 + 1 5 (mod 12)
4 + 1 5 (mod 12)
5 5 (mod 12)
Therefore, P (1) is true.

PART II: Assume that n = k, i.e.

22 + 1 5 (mod 12)
NTS: n=k+1, i.e.
+1

22

+ 1 5 (mod 12)

Proof:

22 + 1 5 (mod 12)

22 22 + 1 5 (mod 12)
+1

22

+ 1 5 (mod 12)

Therefore, P (k+1) is true.

Therefore, P (n) is true for all positive integers n.