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24.1 Photons
24.2 Wave-particle duality
24.3 Atomic structure
24.4 X-rays
24.5 Nanoscience
Objectives
Objectives
(e
Objectives
Objectives
Objectives
24.1 Photon
Photoelectric effect:
When electromagnetic radiation is incident to
the surface of a metal, electrons are ejected
from the surface.
Photoelectrons:
The electrons emitted by this effect.
Visible light
UV
Photoelectrons
Metals
Visible light
Photoelectrons
No photoelectrons
Alkali Metals
Photon
A packet or bundle of energy is called a
photon.
hc
Energy of a photon is E = hf =
Properties of photons
A photon travels at a speed of light c in vacuum.
(i.e. 3 x 108 m/s)
It has zero rest mass. i.e. the photon can not exist
at rest.
E
h
The kinetic mass of a photon is, m =
=
c
c2
E
h
p=
=
c
where h
f is the frequency of the radiation or photon,
c is the speed of light (e.m. wave) and
is the wavelength.
Properties of photons
Wavelength of the photon changes in
different media; so, velocity of a photon is
different in different media.
Photons are electrically neutral.
Photons may show diffraction under given
conditions.
Photons are not deviated by magnetic and
electric fields.
Photoelectric Effect
UV
Photoelectrons
Visible light
Photoelectrons
Metals
Visible light
No photoelectrons
Alkali Metals
Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly
metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X rays,
rays, UV rays, Visible light and even Infra Red rays) of
suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect.
The electrons emitted by this effect are called
photoelectrons.
The current constituted by photoelectrons is known as
photoelectric current.
Note: Non metals also show photoelectric effect.
Liquids and gases also show this effect but to limited
extent.
UV light
W
C
A
A
+
K
Metallic cathode
Metallic Anode
Quartz Window
- Photoelectron
Intensity (L)
2) Effect of Potential on
Photoelectric Current:
For a fixed frequency and
intensity of incident light,
the photoelectric current
increases with increase in
+ve potential applied to the
anode.
When all the
photoelectrons reach the
plate A, current becomes
maximum and is known as
saturation current.
2) Effect of Potential on
Photoelectric Current:
When the potential is
decreased, the current
decreases but does not
become zero at zero
potential.
This shows that even in the
absence of accelerating
potential, a few
photoelectrons manage to
reach the plate on their
own due to their K.E.
I
A
Saturation
Current
L2
L1
L2 > L1
VS
Potential of A (V)
I
A
Saturation
Current
L1
L2 > L1
VS
Potential of A (V)
2) Effect of Potential on
Photoelectric Current:
When ve potential is
applied to the plate A w.r.t.
C, photoelectric current
becomes zero at a
particular value of ve
potential called stopping
potential or cut-off
potential.
Intensity of incident light
does not affect the stopping
potential.
I
A
Saturation
Current
L2
L1
L2 > L1
VS
Potential of A (V)
A
2>
1
VS2
VS1 0
Potential of A (V)
4) Effect of Frequency of
Incident Light on Stopping
Potential:
For a fixed intensity of
incident light, the
photoelectric current
increases and is saturated
with increase in +ve
potential applied to the
anode.
However, the saturation
current is same for
different frequencies of the
incident lights.
4) Effect of Frequency of
Incident Light on Stopping
Potential:
When potential is
decreased and taken below
zero, photoelectric current
decreases to zero but at
different stopping
potentials for different
frequencies.
Saturation Current
A
2>
1
VS2
VS1 0
Potential of A (V)
Saturation Current
I
A
2>
1
VS2
VS1 0
Potential of A (V)
5) Threshold Frequency
The graph between stopping
potential and frequency does not
pass through the origin.
VS (V)
It shows that there is a minimum
value of frequency called threshold
frequency below which photoelectric
emission is not possible however
0
0
high the intensity of incident light
may be.
It depends on the nature of the metal
emitting photoelectrons.
Saturation Current
L2
+ mv2max
= hf0 + mv2max
Photon h
mv2max
mv2max = h ( f - f0 )
Photoelectron
=h
Metal
mv2max = h (
Automatic switching of
street lights
To control the
temperature of furnace
Photometry
Beauty meter To
measure the fair
complexion of skin
Light meters used in
cinema industry to check
the light
Photoelectric sorting
Photo counting
Meteorology
mv2max = h (
Photoelectric Threshold
Binding Energies
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Photon energy: 15
Photon in
Photoelectric Threshold
Photoelectric Threshold
Binding Energies
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Photon energy: 15
NO
Binding Energies
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Photon energy: 25
NO
NO
Photon in
Photoelectric Threshold
Photon in
Photoelectric Threshold
Binding Energies
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Photon energy: 25
YES
NO
NO
Binding Energies
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Photon energy: 25
A
Photon in
Photon in
Photon energy: 22
Photoelectric Threshold
1
P.E. ~ ----------energy3
Photoelectric Threshold
Binding Energies
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Photon energy: 55
Binding Energies
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Photon energy: 55
YES
YES
Photon in
Photoelectric Threshold
NO
Photon in
Photoelectric Threshold
Binding Energies
Photon energy: 105
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
Binding Energies
Photon energy: 105
YES
K: 100
L: 50
M: 20
YES
Photon in
YES
Photoelectric Threshold
Photoelectric Threshold
When photon energy just reaches binding
energy of next (inner) shell, photoelectric
interaction now possible with that shell
1
P.E. ~ ----------energy3
Photoelectric interactions
decrease with increasing photon
energy
Photon energy: 49
Photon energy: 51
YES
YES
YES
Binding Energies
K: 50
L: 25
NO
Photoelectric Threshold
Photoelectric Threshold
L-shell
interactions
possible
L-shell
binding
energy
K-shell
binding
energy
Interaction
Probability
L-edge
K-edge
K-shell
interaction
s possible
Photon Energy
Photon Energy
de Broglie wave
According to de Broglie, a moving material
particle can be associated with a wave. i.e. a
wave can guide the motion of the particle.
The waves associated with the moving material
particles are known as de Broglie waves or
matter waves.
So
h
mc
E = mc2
or
where p = mc
is momentum of a photon
h
p
h
mv
Conclusion
h
mv
Electron Gun
F
C
A
Crystal Lattice
Nickel Crystal
= 180
= 65
h
mv
Electron Gun
F
C
A
Crystal Lattice
Nickel Crystal
Electron Gun
F
C
A
Incident Beam
+ 50 +
Conclusion
Crystal Lattice
Nickel Crystal
Incident Beam
the photon is
Incident Beam
Incident Beam
= 50
2dsin = n gives
= 1.65
h
2meV
or
12.27
V
de Broglie wavelength of
moving electron at V = 54
Volt is 1.67 which is in
close agreement with 1.65 .
Intensity vs
Diffraction
pattern after
100 electrons
10 15
20
25
Diffraction
pattern after
3000 electrons
Diffraction
pattern after
70000 electrons
electron
atom
SF027
66
atom.
nucleus
electron
electron
e
e
+Ze
+Ze
energy loss
energy loss
L
mvr
where
nh
2
nh
2
and
Fe
+e
m vr
(11.1)
e 4 me
4 (4
0)
n12
n22
E : change of energy
h : Planck's constant
Ef : final energy state
Ei : initialenergy state
If Ef > Ei
Absorption of EM radiation
If Ef < Ei
Emission of EM radiation
+
e
Fe
electrostatic force
mv 2
r
rn
n 2h 2
me 2
n2
n2 h 2
4 2
m 2v 2 r 2
mv 2
e2
0r
4
2
n h
me 2
and
electrostatic
constant
1
0
4 k
1
4 k
h2
; n 1, 2 , 3 ...
4 mke 2
(11.5)
a0
rn
n2h2
4 2
m2v2r 2
Fc centripetal force
mv 2
and Q 1 Q 2 e
r
e2
(11.3)
4 0r
Q1Q 2
r2
1
4
nh
2
mvr
(11.6)
6 . 63 10
4
9 . 11 10
5 . 31 10
Unit conversion:
11
31
34 2
9 . 00 10 9 1 . 60 10
OR
19 2
0.531 (angstrom)
1 = 1.00 10
10
and
h2
4 2 mke 2
a0
of hydrogen
1 2
e
mv but mv 2
2
4 0r
1
e2
1
where
k
2 4 0r
4 0
1 ke 2
2 n 2 a0
and
ke 2
n 2a0
En
ke 2 1
2a0 n 2
kQ1Q 2
r
ke 2
n 2 a0
where
Q1
nucleus
e; Q 2
and
n 2a0
electron
(11.8)
ke 2 Z 2
(11.11)
2 a0 n 2
where Z : a to m ic n u m b e r
Using numerical value of k, e and a0, thus the eq. (11.10) can be
2
written as
9 . 00 10 9 1 . 60 10 19
1
En
11
2 5 . 31 10
n2
18
2 . 17 10
1
eV 2
1 . 60 10 19
n
13 . 6
En
eV; n 1,2,3,...
(11.12)
n2
th
where E n : e n ergy le v el o f n s tate (o rb it)
Note:
En
(11.9)
En
by
(11.7)
1 ke 2
2 n 2a0
(11.10)
n 2 a0
Eqs. (11.10) and (11.12) are valid for energy level of the
hydrogen atom.
The negative sign in the eq. (11.12) indicates that work has to
be done to remove the electron from the bound of the atom to
infinity, where it is considered to have zero energy.
The energy levels of the hydrogen atom are when
n=1, the ground state (the state of the lowest energy level) ;
13 . 6
E1
eV
13 .6 eV
2
1
13 . 6
E2
eV
3 .40 eV
n=2, the first excited state;
2
2
13 . 6
E3
eV
1.51 eV
2
n=3, the second excited state;
3
13 . 6
E4
eV
0 .85 eV
2
n=4, the third excited state;
4
n= , the energy level is 13 . 6
electron is completely
E
eV 0
2
removed from the atom.
Line spectrum
The emission lines correspond to the photons
of discrete energies that are emitted when
excited atomic states in the gas make
transitions back to lower energy levels.
E n (eV )
0 .0 Free electron
Figure 11.4
5
4
3
Ionization energy
is defined as the
energy required
2
by an electron in
the ground state
to escape
completely from
the attraction of
the nucleus.
An atom
becomes ion.
13 . 6 Ground state
is defined as
the energy
levels that
higher than
the ground
state.
is defined as the
lowest stable
energy state of
an atom.
Line spectrum
Figure below shows line spectra produced by
emission in the visible range for hydrogen
(H), mercury (Hg) and neon (Ne).
Figure 11.5
Hydrogen Spectrum
= 656, 486, 434, 410 & 397 nm, what is the pattern?
0 . 0 Free electron
5
4
3
2
th
Pfund series00 .. 85 54 4rd excited state
3 excited state
Brackett series
1 . 5 1 2nd excited state
Paschen series
Balmer series
Lyman series
Stimulation 11.1
1 3 . 6 Ground state
hc
rd
1
hc
ke 2 1
2 a 0 nf 2
1
hc
ke 2 1
2 a 0 nf 2
E
hc
hc
ke 2
1
2 hca 0 n f 2
can be written as
1
1
hc
E nf
E ni
where
and
E nf
ke 2 1
2 a 0 nf 2
E ni
ke 2 1
2 a 0 ni 2
1
where
RH
nf 2
ni 2
ke 2 1
2 a 0 ni 2
1
ni 2
1
ni
E
hc
and
ke 2
2 hca 0
RH
(11.14)
Note:
1
1
1
Brackett series( nf=4 )
1
Pfund series( nf=5 )
RH
1
12
1
ni 2
RH
1
22
ni
RH
1
32
ni
RH
1
42
ni
RH
1
52
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
Energy Levels
1
ni
Transitions
Spectra
Figure 11.7 No magnetic field
24.4 X-ray
cannot explain the Zeeman effect
Zeeman effect is defined as the splitting
of spectral lines when the radiating
atoms are placed in a magnetic field.
2
Energy Levels
Transitions
1
Spectra
No magnetic field
Magnetic field
Magnetic field
Review: Atoms
Review: Atoms
Atoms
In their normal state, atoms are electrically
neutral
If an atom has an extra electron or has had an
electron removed, it has been ionized.
Atoms
Electrons can only exist
in certain shells that
represent electron
binding energies
K, L, M shells (K is
closest to the nucleus)
The closer an electron
is to the nucleus, the
higher the binding
energy (strength of
attachment to the
nucleus).
Interacts
with
electrons!
E=h
-34
Js)
Electromagnetic radiation
Properties of a wave
Wave
=c/
(c=300.000 km/s)
X-Rays
X-Rays
A. Machines
32
15 P
->
32
16 S
+ X-ray
e-
X-ray tube
X-rays
2. Electrons are
Electron beam
accelerated in
electric field
Tungsten
Filament
1. W filament is
heated, electrons
Bremsstrahlung
radiation), produces a continuous spectrum of Xray wavelengths
a) Incoming electron
knocks inner shell
electron out of its
place
b) Empty site is filled by
an electron from a
higher shell
Production of X-rays
Continuous radiation
= Bremsstrahlung
radiation
Characteristic radiation is
used in XRD, which
requires monochromatic
radiation
(eg. CuK = 1.5418 )
Production of X-rays
These freed electrons
are accelerated toward
a dense metal target
The target is held at a
higher potential than the
filament
e V
hc
max
min
min
hc
e V
A current in the
filament causes
electrons to be emitted
Characteristic X-Rays
When a metal target is
bombarded by high-energy
electrons, x-rays are
emitted
The x-ray spectrum
typically consists of a broad
continuous spectrum and a
series of sharp lines
The lines are dependent
on the metal of the target
The lines are called
characteristic x-rays
X-ray Spectrum
Characteristic X-Rays
The details of atomic structure can be used to explain
characteristic x-rays
A bombarding electron collides with an electron in the
target metal that is in an inner shell
If there is sufficient energy, the electron is removed
from the target atom
The vacancy created by the lost electron is filled by an
electron falling to the vacancy from a higher energy
level
The transition is accompanied by the emission of a
photon whose energy is equal to the difference
between the two levels
A modern Diffractometer
X-ray tube
sample
Detector
= 2 d sin
Identification of minerals
Quantification of minerals
Determination of crystal structure
Unit-cell dimensions, symmetry, atom
Determination of grain sizes, strain
Typical samples
Minerals, rocks, corals, shells
Cl
+
+
-
Coherent Scatter: elastic collision between a photon (Xray) and and electron (in crystal)
- outgoing photons (X-ray) have same wavelength,
Positive
Interference
Negative
Interference
Incoming wave
Every electron/atom in structure acts as a
scattering center, and is a source of spherical
waves of the same wavelength and frequency as
the incoming wave.
X-rays
in phase!
Diffraction
some X-rays to experience positive (or
constructive) interference in crystals. This is
called diffraction.
radiation coherently, the concerted
constructive interference at specific angles is
called diffraction
Diffraction in crystalline materials is best
described with
= 2 dhkl sin
= 2 dhkl sin
dhkl
hkl
X-Ray Diffraction
Bragg Equation
sin
d
Crystal solid such
as sodium
dsin
Constructive interference:
2dsin
d 0.5nm in NaCl
For =.017nm
= (n )/2d
= angle of incidence
= wavelength
d = interplane distance of crystal
X-ray
Bragg Equation
Bragg Equation
Incident angle
Reflected angle
Wavelength of X-ray
The line CE is
equivalent
to the distance
between the two
layers (d)
2
Total Diffracted
Angle
2
DE
d sin
Bragg Equation
The length DE is the same as EF, so the total
distance traveled by the bottom wave is expressed
by:
EF
d sin
DE
d sin
DE
EF
2d sin
2d sin
2d
2d sin
1892 1962
Discovered the Compton
effect
Worked with cosmic rays
Director of the lab at U of
Chicago
Shared Nobel Prize in 1927
Compton Scattering
Compton Scattering
h
(1 cos )
mec
Sample
Sample
sample
(001)
sample
(001)
24.5 Nanoscience
Nanotechnology
Nanoscale
Facts
CMOS TECHNOLOGY
(released March 2004):
150 million transistors
90 nm design rules
3.4 GHz clock frequency
DRAM chips:
4 Gb chips demonstrated
(~ 109 transistors/cm2)
Now chips based on the
design rules of 22 nm are on
the way.
- 130 nm) processor
In 2004 we were
already inside nanotechnology!
Introduction
178
Applications/Products
limited), nanoparticles are being used in a
number of industries. Nanoscale materials are
used in electronic, magnetic and
optoelectronic, biomedical, pharmaceutical,
cosmetic, energy, catalytic and materials
applications. Areas producing the greatest
revenue for nanoparticles reportedly are
chemical-mechanical polishing, magnetic
recording tapes, sunscreens, automotive
catalyst supports, biolabeling,
Nanomaterials
Numerous products featuring the unique
properties of nanoscale materials are available
to consumers and industry today. Most
computer hard drives, for instance, contain
giant magnetoresistance (GMR) heads that,
through nano-thin layers of magnetic
materials, allow for a significant increase in
storage capacity. Other electronic applications
include non-volatile magnetic memory,
automotive sensors, landmine detectors and
solid-state compasses
Nanorods
Nanotube
Medical uses
Protective and glarereducing coatings for
eyeglasses and cars
Sunscreens and
cosmetics.
Longer-lasting tennis
balls.
Light-weight,
stronger tennis
racquets.
Stain-free clothing
and mattresses.
Ink.
Bibliography
http://www.nsf.gov/news/overviews/nano/ind
ex.jsp
http://www.nanoscience.com/education/inde
x.html
http://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/index.jsp?prio
_area=10