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The aim of the Project is to find out the geo-engineering properties of fly ash, which can
act as a stabilizer to many soils in geo-engineering field. The project describes the use of
local fly ash in construction industry in a way to minimize the industrial waste. Their
been serious shortage of natural material, which are used in Highway or Earth dam
construction. Due to soil excavation, deforestation occurs which affects the biodiversity. Industrial waste such as fly-ash, slag etc can be effectively used in soil
stabilization. Several geo engineering Labrotory experiments were performed on fly ash
to determine its properties, which may be used in road construction, earth dam
construction, soil stabilization etc. If these materials can be used in highway or dam
construction, it will be a great effort in minimizing the industrial pollution. Fly ash was
collected from captive power plant from the dump pad of Rourkela steel plant. These are
stored in air tight container after being oven-dried. Experiments such as determination of
compaction properties, CBR analysis, Un-confined compressive strength test,
permeability etc are done in order to determine the geo-engineering properties of fly ash,
which can taken account in the construction field. A brief comparison is made between
fly ash and other soil properties which are used as sub-grade, base in Highway
construction.
Introduction
Electricity is the key for development of any country. Coal is a major source of fuel for
production of electricity in many countries in the world. In the process of electricity
generation large quantity of fly ash gets produced and becomes available as a byproduct
of coal-based power stations. It is a fine powder resulting from the combustion of
powdered coal - transported by the flue gases of the boiler and collected in the
Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP).
Conversion of waste into a resource material is an age-old practice of civilization. The
fly ash became available in coal based thermal power station in the year 1930 in USA.
For its gainful utilization, scientist started research activities and in the year 1937, R.E.
Davis and his associates at university of California published research details on use of
fly ash in cement concrete. This research had laid foundation for its specification, testing
&usages.
Any coal based thermal power station may have the following four kinds of ash:
Fly Ash: This kind of ash is extracted from flue gases through Electrostatic Precipitator
in dry form. This ash is fine material & possesses good pozzolanic property.
Bottom Ash: This kind of ash is collected in the bottom of boiler furnace. It is
comparatively coarse material and contains higher unburnt carbon. It possesses zero or
little pozzolanic property.
Pond Ash: When fly ash and bottom ash or both mixed together in any proportion with
the large quantity of water to make it in slurry form and deposited in ponds wherein
water gets drained away. The deposited ash is called as pond ash.
Mound Ash: Fly ash and bottom ash or both mixed in any proportion and deposited in
dry form in the shape of a mound is termed as mound ash.
As per the Bureau of Indian Standard IS: 3812 (Part-1) all these types of ash is termed as
Pulverized FuelAsh (PFA).
Fly ash produced in modern power stations of India is of good quality as it contains low
sulphur & very low unburnt carbon i.e. less loss on ignition. In order to make fly ash
available for various applications, most of the new thermal power stations have set up
dry fly ash evacuation & storage system. In this system fly ash from Electrostatic
Precipitators (ESP) is evacuated through pneumatic system and stored in silos. From
silos, it can be loaded in open truck/closed tankers or can be bagged through suitable
bagging machine. In the ESP, there are 6 to 8 fields (rows) depending on the design of
ESP. The field at the boiler end is called as first field & counted subsequently 2 , 3
onwards. The field at chimney end is called as last field. The coarse particles of fly ash
are collected in first fields of ESP. The fineness of fly ash particles increases in
subsequent fields of ESP.
Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by
electrostatic precipitators or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while
suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and
range in size from 0.5 m to 300 m. The major consequence of the rapid cooling is that
only few minerals will have time to crystallize and that mainly amorphous, quenched
glass remains. Nevertheless, some refractory phases in the pulverized coal will not melt
(entirely) and remain crystalline. In consequence, fly ash is a heterogeneous material.
SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and occasionally CaO are the main chemical components present
in fly ashes. The mineralogy of fly ashes is very diverse. The main phases encountered
are a glass phase, together with quartz, mullite and the iron oxides hematite, magnetite
and/or maghemite. Other phases often identified are cristobalite, anhydrite, free lime,
periclase, calcite, sylvite, halite, portlandite, rutile and anatase. The Ca-bearing minerals
anorthite, gehlenite, akermanite and various calcium silicates and calcium aluminates
identical to those found in Portland cement can be identified in Ca-rich fly ashes. The
above concentrations of trace elements vary according to the kind of coal combusted to
form it. In fact, in the case of bituminous coal, with the notable exception of boron, trace
element concentrations are generally similar to trace element concentrations in
unpolluted soils.
Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash.
The chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and
iron content in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by
the chemical content of the coal burned (i.e., anthracite, bituminous, and lignite).
Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the
application, this may not be necessary.Ash used as a cement replacement must meet
strict construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been
established in the United States. 75% of the ash must have a fineness of 45 m or less,
and have a carbon content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In
the U.S., LOI needs to be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash is very
often fluctuating constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the
boiler performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in an optimal way to
replace cement in concrete production, it needs to be processed using beneficiation
methods like mechanical air classification. But if fly ash is used also as a filler to replace
sand in concrete production, unbeneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used.
4
20 to 30 percent by mass
20 to 35 percent by mass
35 to 50 percent by mass
The total content of clay and silt may preferably be not less than 50 percent by mass.
8
A number of measures are being taken to encourage various sectors to utilize fly ash.
The targets of ash utilization are primarily governed by the MoE&F Notification dated
14th September, 1999 and its amendment Notification dated 27th August, 2003 &
3rd November, 2009 as well as Honble High Court of Delhi directions vide its
judgments dated 4th December, 2002, 10th March, 2004 as well as 5th August, 2004.
Suitability of mixing fly ash with clay for producing fired bricks
Two cases are being presented here related to production of clay-fly ash fired clay
bricks:
Case 1: TIFAC in their report on Fly ash bricks has mentioned that with regard to
requirements of fly ash for brick manufacture, it is desirable that the oxide composition
should be similar to ordinary brick clays the silica content should be over 40%,
aluminium oxide not less than 15%, iron oxide not less than 5% and sulphide and
soluble sulphite content should be insignificant. The report further mentions that the
range of chemical compositions of Indian fly ashes indicates that they are suitable for
brick making. However, not all the clays and fly ashes are suitable for brick making. Fly
ash addition as a smaller constituent (8% - 20%) to the alluvial soil or as a larger
constituent (25% - 40%) with sticky plastic alluvial red and black soils has been found
advantageous to improve workability, green and fired strength and to modify drying
behaviour of soils so as to check the incidence of cracking and fuel value of residual
carbon. The characteristics of clay-fly ash bricks manufactured using alluvial, black and
red soil region/ sites is provided in the following table:
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Brick
Proportion
manufacturing
of fly ash
site / soil
(w/w %)
group
Alluvial Soil
Red soil
Black soil
Water
Bulk density
strength
absorption
(g / cc)
(kg/cm2)
(%)
Haridwar
8 - 10
140 - 170
10 - 16
1.6 1.75
Roorkee
8 - 10
135 - 170
10.5 - 16
1.62 1.75
Faridabad
15 - 20
100 - 150
12 - 15
1.6 1.7
Delhi
15 - 20
116 - 160
11 - 16
1.6 1.75
Kanpur
15 - 20
170 - 200
10.5 - 12
1.68 1.77
Korba
30 35
160 - 175
11.3 - 16
1.6 1.74
Ramagundam
30 - 35
65 - 82
13.5 18.5
1.62 1.7
Obra
20 - 25
150 - 160
16.4 18.3
1.65 1.72
Singrauli
25 - 30
100 - 150
12 - 15
1.75 1.85
Barauni
40
250 - 300
14 15
1.41
Patratu
25
120 - 125
16 - 17
1.45 1.6
Bokaro
40
100 - 125
20- 21
1.2
Kargali
25 - 40
75 - 120
19 - 20
1.5 1.7
Haldia
10
180 - 200
15 17
1.65 1.7
Patherdih
25 40
85 - 100
16 - 20
1.5 1.7
Durgapur
25 - 35
85 - 120
15 17
1.45 1.65
Nasik
33 40
130 - 155
13.5 15.7
1.65 1.75
Indore
33 - 35
65 - 80
14.5 18
1.58 1.7
Waste material is utilized. 30 40 tonne per lakh bricks in case of alluvial soils and 100
125 tonnes per lakh bricks in case of red and black soils
Clay saving in brick manufacture is 10% - 40% by weight
Case 2: Aligarh Muslim university (AMU) carried out a feasibility study for mixing fly
ash into the manufacture of fired clay bricks. AMU took samples of soil from the three
brick kiln sites of Aligarh and Hathras districts of Uttar Pradesh. The fly ash sample
was collected from the Kasimpur TPS that was within the designated distance of brick
kilns as per the 1999 notification of MoEF. During the study the fluash was mixed with
sol in different proportions 5%, 10% and 20% by weight and the bricks were moulded
under usual working conditions (same workmen , drying and firing conditions). The
following observations were made:
Fly ash and soil mix requires more water and labour in comparison to soil without
fly ash for making brick.
Bricks moulded from soil and fly ash mix requires three times the longer duration to
dry in comparison to bricks without fly ash
Breakage in handling of green bricks was more in case of soil containing 20% fly
ash
A distinct change in colour was noticed in bricks containing 20% fly ash as
compared to bricks without fly ash. The reddishness in colour was less in bricks with
20% fly ash.
For the three soil samples collected from Uttar Pradesh, the following change in
properties were found while comparing with properties of the bricks without fly ash :
10 % Fly ash
5 % Fly ash
Sample 1: 72.4 %,
Sample 1: 42 %,
39 %, 59.57 %,
Sample 2: 82.5 %,
Sample 2: 64.7 %,
Sample 1: 39 %,
Sample 3: 58.65 %
Sample 3: 1 %
Sample 2: 59.57 %,
Sample 3: increase by
18.6 %
Increase in
water
absorption
Efflorescence
Sample 1: 91.4 %,
Sample 1: 66.3 %,
Sample 1: 83.9 %,
Sample 2: 119.12 %,
Sample 2: 71.98
Sample 2: 87.52 %,
Sample 3: 17 %
%, Sample 3: Not
Sample 3: Not
significant
significant
During the study, the black cotton soil using fly ash from the Virudhu Nagar district of
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Tamil Nadu was also included and fly ash was mixed in the proportion of 40 70 % by
weight. It was found that up to 50 % mixing of fly ash the compressive strength
increased and water absorption decreased and with increased proportions of flay ash
compressive strength decreased and water absorption increased.
The following conclusions were drawn from the study:
The percentage of fly ash by weight that can be mixed in soil for manufacturing
fired clay bricks depends upon the physical properties of soil and it should not be mixed
arbitrarily
On the basis of tests carried out in three sites in Aligarh and Hathras districts, the
maximum percentage of fly ash by weight that can be mixed in soils is not more than 5
10 %. It may further reduce depending on the physical properties of soil.
Determination of physical properties of soil is essential before mixing fly ash with
soil for manufacture of burnt clay fly ash bricks.
The use of fly ash in brick making has many advantages and TIFAC has undertaken
many initiatives to promote the use of fly ash in brick making. However, most of the
brick kilns in the Indo-Gangetic belt have not used fly ash for manufacturing bricks due
to following possible reasons:
The hand-moulding process is generally used for green brick making in this
region and mixing of fly ash with clay is difficult by hand moulding. Further, brick kiln
owners felt that no appropriate technology is available for mixing of clay and fly ash at
the scale that is presently being produced by hand moulding.
Difficulty in logistic arrangements by individual brick kiln entrepreneur for
procurement of less quantity from Thermal Power plant and transportation of fly ash to
the brick making sites.
Increase in the cost of the product due to increase in transportation and mixing cost
with no additional premium being fetched by fly ash product in the market.
Market perception of requirement of red coloured bricks also discouraged the brick
kiln owners to start producing fly ash bricks that generally have grey colour of final
product.
Non-availability of reliable and low-cost technology for clay-fly ash brick making
The use of fly ash for brick making is quite popular in few States like Maharashtra
where the soil quality is such that the addition of fly ash improves the properties of soil
for brick making.
The benefits from the manufacture and use of fly ash bricks result in reduced energy
use, conservation of top soil and qualifying under clean development mechanism etc.
But in spite of these benefits, barriers on account of non-availability of reliable clay-fly
ash bricks making machinery, mindset of users, lack of awareness etc. pose significant
barriers in tapping the potential of brick making as a gainful use of fly ash.
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The reaction of C3A with water takes place in presence of sulphate ions supplied by
dissolution of gypsum present in OPC. This reaction is very fast and is shown as
under:
14
Surplus Lime
+
Fly ash
Additional Cementitious
Material
Cementitious Material
15
Reduction in heat of hydration and thus reduction of thermal cracks and improves
soundness of concrete mass.
Improved workability / pumpabilty of concrete
Converting released lime from hydration of OPC into additional binding material
contributing additional strength to concrete mass.
Pore refinement and grain refinement due to reaction between fly ash and liberated lime
improves impermeability.
Improved impermeability of concrete mass increases resistance against ingress of
moisture and harmful gases result in increased durability.
Reduced requirement of cement for same strength thus reduced cost of concrete.
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17
18
Workability of Concrete
Fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and reduces the water requirement for
a given slump. The spherical shape helps to reduce friction between aggregates and
between concrete and pump line and thus increases workability and improve
pumpability of concrete. Fly ash use in concrete increases fines volume and decreases
water content and thus reduces bleeding of concrete.
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Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attacks in concrete occur due to reaction between sulphate from external
origins or from atmosphere with surplus lime leads to formation of etrringite, which
causes expansion and results in volume destabilization of the concrete. Increase in
sulphate resistance of fly ash concrete is due to continuous reaction between fly ash and
leached out lime, which continue to form additional C-S-H gel. This C-S-H gel fills in
capillary pores in the cement paste, reducing permeability and ingress of sulphate ions.
Corrosion of steel
Corrosion of steel takes place mainly because of two types of attack. One is due to
carbonation attack and other is due to chloride attack. In the carbonation attack, due to
carbonation of free lime, alkaline environment in the concrete comes down which
disturbs the passive iron oxide film on the reinforcement. When the concrete is
permeable, the ingress of moisture and oxygen infuse to the surface of steel initiates the
electrochemical process and as a result-rust is formed. The transformation of steel to
rust increases its volume thus resulting in the concrete expansion, cracking and distress
to the structure. In the chloride attack, Chloride ion becomes available in the concrete
either through the dissociation of chlorides- associated mineralogical hydration or
infusion of chloride ion. The sulphate attack in the concrete decomposes the chloride
mineralogy thereby releasing chloride ion. In the presence of large amount of chloride,
the concrete exhibits the tendency to hold moisture. In the presence of moisture and
oxygen, the resistivity of the concrete weakens and becomes more permeable thereby
inducing further distress. The use of fly ash reduces availability of free limes and
permeability thus result in corrosion prevention.
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Fly ash concrete was used in Prudential Building the first tallest building in Chicago
after World war II.
About 60,000 cum of fly ash concrete with an Estimated saving of 3,000 tonne of
Ordinary Portland Cement was used in Lednock Dam construction in UK during the
year 1955
About 60,000 m3 of fly ash concrete with 80/20 Ordinary Portland Cement/fly ash
having average slump of 175 mm was used in the piles and the foundation slab to meet
the requirement of sulphate resistance concrete of Ferrybridge C power station in UK
during 1964
Fly ash concrete was used for all the tunnel lining and slip formed surge shafts at the
Dinorwig Pumped Storage Scheme in the year 1979 & 1980 in UK mainly to provide
increased resistance to attack from aggressive water.
In the 1980's, in Sizewell B Nuclear Power station fly ash has been used in about
3,00,000 m3 concrete to improve workability for pumping, reduce temperature rise
and increased resistance to chlorides and reduced risk of alkali aggregate reaction
In India
In India calcined clay pozzolana as a mineral admixture was used in mass concrete work
of Bhakra and Rana Pratap sagar dam works in late fifties and early sixties. A special
plant was set up to produce calcined clay pozzolana in 1957 at Bhakra dam site to meet
requirement of pozzolana for mass concrete work.Some of the examples of
application of fly ash as a pozzolana in mass concrete works are Rihand Dam and
Narora Barrage in UP, Jawahar Sagar Dam in Rajasthan and Chandil Dam in Bihar
when it has became available at thermal power stations. The use was limited because of
non-availability of good quality fly ash in thermal power station.
With increasing awareness, availability of good quality fly ash in modern
efficient thermal power station and concept of Ready Mixed Concrete, the use of fly
ash as part replacement of cement and sand is showing increasing trends. Few
examples wherein fly ash has been utilized in cement concrete are as under:
1.
Fly ash from NTPC's Dadri Thermal power stations is being utilized in prestigious
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) works at New Delhi. : More than 60,000
tonne of fly ash has been utilized in the work so far. In this project, the requirement of
cement concrete was high strength, high durability (less shrinkage and & thermal
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crakes), low heat of hydration, easy placement, cohesiveness and good surface finish.
Use of fly ash in concrete has fulfilled the entire above requirements. In this work the
concrete of M-35 and above were used in structural works. The typical mix used for M-35
grade concrete is given below :
Ingredients for M-35 grade
(Kg/ Cum of concrete)
Cement
364
300
Fly ash
120
637
611
421
406.6
Fine aggregates
546
442.4
Stone dust
237
300.9
Water (liter)
163.8
168
Superplasticizer (liter)
3.64
2.52
Replacing cement by fly ash has (i) reduced the peak temperature by 80C, (ii) the time
attaining peak temperature has been extended and (iii) heat generation pattern was
more uniform and gradual.
2.
Fly ash concrete (M-30 grade and high performance M-60 grade) was utilized for
tremie seal concrete and pile cap concrete in Bandra Worli Sea link project. Fly ash was
taken from Dahanu thermal power station, Mumbai.
The mixture proportion used in this work are as under:
Ingredients
180
300
Fly ash
220
196
Micro silica
40
Water
135
136
W/cm
0.34
0.25
20 mm
550
577
10 mm
450
500
Crushed sand
465
423
Natural Sand
465
327
22
Admixture
2.5% HRWRA
Collapse
Collapse
180 mm
165
10.2
36.5
47.2
13.4
39.3
74.66
80.89
Self-Compacting concrete using fly ash from Kota thermal power station has been
utilized for structural members of Rajasthan Atomic Power Project. Self-compacting
concrete was used due to difficulties in placing concrete in
structures having heavily congested reinforced bars and openings.
The details on the mix proportion used in this work are as under:
Ingredients
Mix Proportion
(Kg/m3)
250
Fly ash
200
Water
180
W/cm
0.4
20 mm
250
10 mm
374
Crushed sand
562
Natural Sand
426
Superplasticizer
3.8
Retarder
0.45
0.45
11.5
35
41.5
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24
25
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The proposed road alignment passes through waterlogged area. The water table in the
area is very shallow and rises up to or above the ground during the rainy season. The
subsoil at site generally consisted of silty clay or clayey soil up to a considerable depth.
Such soils settle even under smaller loads imposed due to embankment of low height.
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However, if a lightweight material like pond ash is used in place of soil, the amount of
settlement would certainly reduce.
The results of the stability analysis indicated improvement in factor of safety when fly
ash was adopted as fill material. Results of stability analysis are given in table below.
Keeping in view the site conditions, availability of materials near the construction site,
it was suggested that after dewatering, geotextile wrapped sand or bottom ash layer of
0.5 m thickness be laid as base of the embankment. Pond ash embankment protected
with 1.5 m thick soil cover was designed as given in figure below. However due to
contractual constraints, the embankment was constructed by mixing pond ash and sand
in ratio of 85:15 and subgrade was constructed using pond ash and soil in the ratio of
75:25
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29
30
Advantages considered
Due to following advantages, it was decided to use flyash to the extent of two- thirds
requirement of the earthwork:
Utilization of soil in place of flyash would have resulted in erosion of topsoil from a
large area of agricultural land and resultant degradation of land.
Disposal of flyash is a big problem for thermal power stations, hence scientific disposal
of flyash by DMRC will pave the way for large scale utilization of flyash in the
construction of earthen embankment for roads and rails.
Due to quick draining characteristics, work can be continued in monsoon.
Being a friction material, (no cohesion) proper compacted flyash shows very small
long-term settlement.
Construction speed is faster as compaction vs moisture content curve is more even
resulting in wider range of moisture content for compaction.
Lower density than soil, hence low overburden pressures for the same height of
embankment, hence less chances of toe failure.
Assured availability free of cost.
The cost of transportation of flyash was less as compared to soil. Flyash being lighter
material, required less haulage and hence was economical.
Availability of good quality soil in such huge quantities was difficult.
Embankment Design
Embankment was designed on the same line as for soil embankment. A base layer of
soil varying from 1.2 m to 1.6 m was provided over which 2 m thick layer of flyash was
provided with intermediate soil layer of 0.4 m. On both sides of embankment, soil
shoulder of 4.47 m width was provided for ensuring minimum soil cover of 2 m at all
the locations. On the top, a minimum soil cover of 400 mm with 300 mm cover of
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blanket material has been provided for ensuring no erosion of flyash. A typical curve of
embankment is shown in figure below -
The side slopes of the embankment have been kept to two horizontal to one vertical.
The average height of embankment varies from 6 m to 9 m. Wherever height is more
than 6 m, a 3 m berm has been provided at a depth of 6 m below the top. Soil and flyash
are fixed as 98% and 95% of modified proctor test ( IS-2720) respectively. Figure
below shows typical compaction vs moisture content curve for soil and flyash.
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Description of work
The project site is situated in national capital of Delhi near Kashmere Gate, ISBT in the
flood planes of river Yamuna and within the eastern marginal bund or Shahdara
marginal bund. The work was started in Oct.1998 and full site was under standing water
of a few cm to 1.0 m. Large scale dewatering by high discharging pumps and a network
of drains was planned to make the ground dry. The top layer of soil having vegetation or
poor soil was removed and ground was compacted by sheep foot roller of 10 to 12 tons
with 8 to 10 passes so as to achieve a minimum dry density 95% of modified dry
density. After the base layer of soil was laid and compacted in layer thickness of 15 cm,
98% of modified dry density was achieved. Base soil layer of 1.2 m to 1.6 m was laid
before starting laying of flyash layer of 15 cm thickness each. The embankment
designed as shown in figure above was completed by laying layers of soil and flyash as
per the requirement of design.
During the winter season, the moisture content in the pond ash was very high and due to
non availability of sun-shine consecutively for many weeks, moisture content could not
be kept near OMC. Hence, stacking and rehandling of material was done to achieve the
desired compaction level of 95% of modified dry density.
During transportation, there were chances of spillage of fly ash, if it is dry even after
keeping the dumpers fully coverd by tarpulin and in case of higher moisture content, fly
ash used to flow from the opening in the dumper body as it liquefies very quickly.
Hence extensive dewatering was done in ash ponds at loading point itself.
On the onset of summer, the peculiar problem of flying of flyash was encountered at ash
pond as well as site. A very elaborate arrangement of net work of nine bore wells was
developed for sprinkling water continuously over the exposed flyash slopes and top and
in addition to that,12 tankers of 6000 to 10000 litres capacity were deployed during
peak requirement to sprinkle water at all the roads on which machinery was moving.
During summer, it was observed that rate of loss of water from the compacted layer was
very high resulting into loss of compaction, which used to get aggregated by movement
of dumpers which came for dumping of flyash. This problem was solved by increasing
thickness of compacted layer of fly ash from 150 mm to 300 mm. This helped in
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speeding the construction, reducing the open area of flyash and reduced loss of moisture
and compaction.
Spillage of flyash on roads during transportation is an area of great concern and
carelessness can create a very serious pollution problem within the city. Hence
preventive and corrective measures were taken to control this menace. On daily basis, it
was ensured that all dumpers carrying flyash were fully covered by tarpulin overloading
of dumpers was strictly not allowed.
Quality control
A self contained fully equipped soil-testing laboratory was established before starting
the work. Some of the tests were Sieve analysis, Moisture content determination,
Modified proctor test as per IS 2720, Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit. Following were
the main considerations as part of the quality assurance programme Each source of soil flyash was decided and approved before bringing the material at
site.
Field control on compaction was achieved by ensuring moisture contents near OMC,
adequate plain and vibro passes of compactor and compaction level by core cutter
method were ensured.
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35
given to the lateral pressure exerted during placement; lightweight pipes, etc may need
to be anchored to prevent flotation.
Mixes
CLSM mixes should be designed for the particular flowing characteristics required as
well as the compressive strength necessary. As indicated previously aggregates are
chosen more for their compatibility with the CLSMs flowing characteristics than their
contribution to strength.
A wide range of fine aggregates including sands, gravels and quarry waste material can
be used to produce satisfactory CLSM mixes. It is not necessary for aggregate to
comply with AS 2758.11985. Aggregates should, however, be free of reactive or
expansive materials. Coarse aggregates are not normally included in CLSM.Types gB
or gP cement in accordance with AS 3972 can be used in the production of CLSM.
Where fly ash is used to improve flowability it should be noted that early strengths will
be reduced. A maximum 28-day strength of 0.5 MPa is suggested where future hand
excavation is likely and 1.52 MPa for mechanical excavation. Slumps that will suit
most applications of CLSM are around 200 mm.
37
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References
Fly Ash for Cement Concrete- Resource For High Strength and Durability of Structures
at Lower Cost
NTPC Fly Ash division, NTPC Limited,Noida
Study Report On Use Of Coal Ash In Railway Embankments
Report No GE:0-S005, Feb 2003
Geo-technical Engineering Directorate,
Research Designs and Standards Organisation
Manak Nagar, Lucknow 11
Feasibility of mixing Fly ash in Manufacture of burnt clay bricks Report by Aligarh
Muslim University
TERI report No. 2006RD25 Policy, Institutional and legal barriers to economic
utilisation of fly ash
Fly Ash bricks, Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council
(TIFAC), DST, New Delhi
http://www.wikipedia.com/fly_ash
http://www.wikipedia.com/concrete
http://www.civil-resources.blogspot.in/2010/06/fly-ash.html
www.bis.org.in
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