WFRE Boot Camp E-Book

WiMAX forum
rf
rf Network
Network engineer
engineer
Certification
Certification Boot
Boot Camp
Camp
Ron Bellavich
Ron Olexa
2008
The WIMAX RF Network Engineer certification boot camp is co-authored by:

Ron Olexa, author and consultant. Olexa is author of Implementing 802.11, 802.16 and 802.20
Wireless Networks: Planning, Troubleshooting and Operations. Many of the principles taught in
this boot camp are drawn from that text. Olexa is in high demand for consulting on mobilenetwork RF engineering for complex networks around the world. Now an independent, his work
history includes employment at LCC.
Ron Bellavich is a 30-year-experienced RF engineer, instructional designer, course author and
instructor. Bellavich has worked literally across the spectrum, in applications including all
generations of cellular, fixed, satellite, military, civilian, public, private and municipal networks.
WiMAX
WiMAX rf
rf Design
Design Considerations
Considerations
Co$t
Complexity
Coverage
64-QAM
16-QAM
QPSK
BPSK
C/(I+N)
Users
Traffic
Capacity
Link
Concentrator
2008
One principle taught in this class is that network design requires a balancing of the Five Cs:
Coverage
Carrier to Interference and Noise Ratio
Complexity
Cost
Capacity
Our course runs in a general sequence through these five Cs:
The RF Principles material essentially teaches how to manage Coverage and C/(I+N).
The RF Design for WiMAX material teaches how to manage Complexity and Cost.
And the Capacity and Oversubscription lesson provides an introduction to Capacity
management.
Course
Course outline
outline
1.
2.
WiMAX Network Design Options

Review of RF Fundamentals
3.
Antennas for WiMAX
4.
RF Design Considerations for WiMAX
5.
6.
Performing a WiMAX Link Budget

WiMAX Path Loss Modeling
7.
WiMAX Frequency Reuse
8.
9.
Timing and Synchronization for WiMAX Networks

WiMAX Performance and Coverage
10. WiMAX Modeling Tools

11. Capacity and Oversubscription
2008
The first lesson is a WiMAX overview, addressing the many variations of the WiMAX standard.
At the completion of this section, well have three lessons on the principles of RF relevant to
WiMAX RF design and deployment.
Lessons 5 through 10 apply the RF Principles to WiMAX Design.
Structure
Structure of
of the
the WiMAX
WiMAX Boot
Boot Camp
Camp
Core
Network
Base
Station
(BS)
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Lesson 1:
WiMAX Options
Lesson 5:
WiMAX Link Budget
Lesson 8:
Timing and Synchronization
for WiMAX Networks
Lesson 2:
RF Basics Review
Lesson 6:
Path Loss Modeling
Lesson 3:
Antennas for WiMAX
Lesson 7:
WiMAX Frequency Reuse
Lesson 9:
WiMAX Performance
and Coverage
Day 4 Morning
Lesson 11:
Capacity and
Oversubscription
Review
Day 4 Afternoon:
Certification Testing
Opportunity
Lesson 10:
WiMAX Modeling Tools,
with case study
Lesson 4:
RF Design Considerations
2008
By noon on Day 4, we will have completed the WiMAX Network Design material, and be ready
for a review and the testing opportunity.
Tools
Tools Used
Used in
in this
this Course
Course
To provide a hands-on learning experience, we will
be employing the following tools in many of the exercises:
Calculator
Excel Spreadsheets
EDX SignalPro
The Analysis Toolpak

must be activated!
Mastery of the spreadsheet tools is required to pass the certification exam.

Mastery of the other tools is not required.
2008
The calculator for this course is a TI-30XA. We find it helpful if all students use the same
calculator, unless you are a whiz at the RF engineering already and know your calculator
keystrokes well. With the TI-30, the instructor can teach and demonstrate one set of keystrokes
for performing the case examples.
The accompanying CD has all of the spreadsheets used in this course. Make sure that you have
the Microsoft Excel Analysis Toolpak add-in box checked. (Please open Excel, click on Tools
on the main menu, click on Add Ins on the drop-down menu, and select Analysis ToolPak. You
may be prompted to insert your original Excel CD.)
EDX SignalPro is a propagation modeling tool that will be used to build a WiMax system later in
this course. You will not be tested on EDX SignalPro!
Mastery of the spreadsheet tools is required to pass the certification exam.
Mastery of the other tools will be helpful, but not required to pass the exam.
Course
Course Objectives
Objectives
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
Describe major implementation issues for Fixed and Mobile WiMAX
Estimate system performance based on channel bandwidth, modulation
scheme and Forward Error Correction
Discuss the benefits of MIMO and Adaptive Arrays for WiMAX
Perform a WiMAX link budget using equipment specifications
Describe path impairments for different morphological areas
Estimate path loss using analytical and empirical models

Describe OFDMA techniques for improving C/I for Mobile WiMAX
Describe the timing options available for WiMAX deployments
Perform a Flat-Earth analysis to evaluate RF design viability
Perform a WiMAX system layout using a propagation modeling tool
Evaluate a WiMAX deployment by studying C/(I+N) vs Modulation/FEC
Describe the concept of oversubscription using traffic engineering rules
2008
Lesson
Lesson 1:
1:
Wimax Network
Design options
2008
As a WiMAX Introduction, we like to think of WiMAX as having many faces. It was written as a
broad standard that can support point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, and mobile applications.
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
List typical applications of WiMAX technology
Match each application to its WiMAX specification,
frequency band, and architecture
Describe 802.16e Mobile WiMAX enhancements
Compare Mobile Wimax and 3G air interface and
core network
2008
BROADBAND
BROADBAND WIRELESS
WIRELESS
MIWAX
MIWAX APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
Hotspot
With 802.16
Backhaul
Mobile Station (MS)
Residential
Customer
Coffee Shop
Hotspot
Base
Station
(BS)
Multi-tenant
Customers
Wireless
Backhaul
Enterprise
Customer
Base
Station
(BS)
Core
Network
WiMAX Backhaul
For Mesh Nodes
Base
Station
(BS)
Wired
Backhaul
2008
This figure shows various applications of Broadband Wireless. Although many possible applications (e.g.,
SOHO, home access, and mobile) and configurations (e.g., backhaul, point-to-multipoint and mesh) are
shown in a single network, most real-world deployments may be focused on just one or two applications,
especially at first. For example, a deployment may consist only of a point-to-multipoint (PMP) broadband
wireless access network. Alternatively, a deployment may consist of PMP access and mobile access in the
same network.
In general, broadband wireless refers to any wireless communication or technology with transmission rates
greater than 256 kbps, although that number is somewhat arbitrary. A broadband wireless solution may be
used to replace any wired broadband network, if there is a business justification. In addition, broadband
wireless networks can be used to provide access in areas where no wired infrastructure exists. The
broadband wireless network may also be considered for only mobile access, where a fixed wired
infrastructure exists.
Therefore, the suitability and success of broadband wireless in a particular market segment or application
depends on a variety of factors such as the market demand and technical and business rationale.
The figure also shows some key components of a broadband wireless system that will be discussed in
detail later. A Base Station, commonly referred to as BS in 802.16 or BTS (Base Transceiver Station) in the
literature, is the central component of a broadband wireless system. The BS serves as a layer 2 distribution
point for other wireless devices operating in the same layer 2. The BS typically has at least one additional
network interface, which may be wired or wireless, to connect to the core network.
There are many types of wireless devices that connect to a BS. In fixed wireless system, the devices are
referred to as SS (Subscriber Station) in 802.16, or CPE (Customer Premises Equipment) in the literature.
If the wireless devices are mobile, they are referred to as MSS (Mobile Subscriber Stations) in 802.16, or
simply handsets or mobile terminals in the literature.
802.16:
802.16: Lots
Lots of
of choices
choices
Modulation Schemes:
BPSK
QPSK
16-QAM
64-QAM
Operating Frequencies:
10 66 GHz
2 11 GHz
Future: 700 MHz
Duplex Techniques:
FDD
TDD
Half - Duplex
Operating Bandwidths:
1.25 MHz
3.5 MHz
5 MHz
7 MHz
8.75 MHz (WiBro)
10 MHz
14 MHz
20 MHz
25 MHz
28 MHz
Physical Layers:
Single Carrier
256 OFDM
2048 OFDMA
Scalable OFDMA
2008
Due to the large number of variables associated with the 802.16 standard, knowledge of RF
fundamentals is critical to the success of deployments.
10
10
700MHz
700MHz BAND
BAND for
for WiMAX
WiMAX
FCC
FCC AUCTION
AUCTION 73
73
Good News
Over 60 MHz of 700 MHz licenses in different geographic areas:
w 352 Economic Area licenses (176 A and 176 E)
w 734 Cellular Market Area licenses (B)
w 12 Regional Economic Area licenses (C)
w One nationwide license (D)
Beneficial in low customer density deployment areas due to improved coverage
Low penetration loss, relative to current NLOS spectrum for WiMAX
WiMAX Forum working on equipment profilesequipment may be available as early as 2009
Allows for more competition for high-speed mobile data using WiMAX
Bad News
High noise floor, due to man-made and natural noise, relative to current NLOS spectrum for Mobile
WiMAX (2 4 GHz)
Coverage radius for high customer density deployments may be determined by the customer
demandnot the environment
Adaptive Arrays and MIMO, if used, will be scaled up in size
Auction 73 update as of March 24, 2008
The auction is over
D block didnt make the reserve price!
Top 3 Winners:
Verizon (25 A, 77 B, 7 C), $9,363,160,000
AT&T(227 B), $6,636,658,000
Echostar (168 E), $711,871,000
2008
11
The FCC spectrum auction 73 (currently scheduled for Jan/Feb 2008) includes 1099 licenses in
the 700 MHz band:
Block
Frequencies
Bandwidth
Pairing
Area
# of Licenses
698-704, 728-734
12 MHz
2 x 6 MHz
EA
176
704-710, 734-740
12 MHz
2 x 6 MHz
CMA
734
722-728
6 MHz
unpaired
EA
176
746-757, 776-787
22 MHz
2 x 11 MHz
REAG
12
758-763, 788-793
10 MHz
2 x 5 MHz
Nationwide
11
THE
THE WiMAX
WiMAX STANDARD
STANDARD
TWO
TWO SEPARATE
SEPARATE STANDARDS,
STANDARDS, REALLY
REALLY
802.16-2004:
w Started with one option for 10-66 GHz
point-to-point links
w Added 2-11 GHz Standard for non-lineof-sight
802.16e-2005: Mobility Amendment
2008
WiMAX is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard. There are three major releases of the 802.16
standard, and the next several slides will compare and contrast them.
12
12
W
WiiMAX
MAX 1010- 66
66 GH
GHzz
This was the original WiMAX standard (802.16)
Envisioned a point-to-multipoint, high capacity metro
area microwave system
w Specified a Single-carrier
w
w
w
w
w
Specified Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Line-of-Sight (LOS) only
Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multi-Point
High Capacity: Supports up to 270 Mbps
25 to 28-MHz-wide channel
2008
13
WiMAX was first introduced as a high-capacity metro area microwave system. If our theme
is the Many Faces of WiMAX, this first face is one of line-of-sight systems only. Its
certainly not the type of WiMAX we see frequently now.
In USA, this is the only spectrum licensed for multipoint operation. Majority of spectrum
owned by First Avenue Networks and IDT.
13
W
WiiMAX
MAX 2-11
2-11 GH
GHzz
An expansion of the original WiMAX specification
(802.16a and later 802.16d)
Added operation for Non-Line-of-Sight paths using lower
frequencies
w
w
w
w
w
w
Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

Operates in Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) paths
Indoor or outdoor CPE
Supports up to 70 Mbps
Channel bandwidth of 5+ MHz
TDD timing supports paths to 30 Miles (50 Km)
w Propagation at these frequencies will limit
coverage to a few kilometers
2008
14
The second face of WiMAX is a lot more familiar. OFDM allows Non-Line-of-Sight propagation,
which is required for the residential service that is the most common mass-market service.
14
Coverage
Coverage vs.
vs. Capacity
Capacity
ONE
ONE OR
OR THE
THE OTHER
OTHER
Coverage
While the WiMAX spec supports

~70 Mbps maximum bit rate and
30 mile (50 Km) range, these are
maximum capabilities that can not
be simultaneously met!
Capacity
w The 30 mile range is a timing limit for TDD

w The 70 Mbps is based on maximum channel
size, and best modulation/FEC scheme
2008
TDD = Time Division Duplex
15
The 30 mile range is the timing limit of the WiMAX TDD frame. It has nothing to do with the
actual achievable coverage
70 Mbps is based on maximum channel size, and best modulation/FEC (64QAM/ 3/4), which
would not be achievable at 30 miles
15
MOBILE
MOBILE W
WiiMAX
MAX
Optimized for narrow (5 to 10 MHz) channels
Optimized for robust error-free operation
w Trades off capacity for coverage quality
Uses spectrum below 5 GHz
w Most commonly 2.3, 2.5 or 3.5 GHz
w Requires a large number of base stations with
overlapping coverage
w Considered to be an alternative to 3G or 4G
cellular standards
2008
16
The final Face of WiMAX is Mobile WiMAX. In the US, Mobile WiMAX will initially be
deployed by Clearwire and Sprint Nextel. It is expected to be the dominant form of WiMAX
worldwide, due to fixed or mobile capability, but products wont be certifiable by the WIMAX
Forum until 2008.
The Non-Line-of-Sight Point-to-Multipoint implementations of Fixed WiMAX do support
significant portability (the ability to move from location A to location B and have broadband
service at both sites). However, they dont support a handoff while moving through a coverage
area. Mobile WiMAX was designed to support true mobility, allowing for handoff while moving
through a coverage area.
The radio interface of Mobile WiMAX is not backward compatible with the earlier versions of
WiMAX.
16
New
New MAC
MAC MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
MESSAGES
MESSAGES from
from 802.16e
802.16e
Additional MAC management messages for mobility:
w Sleep request/response
w Traffic indication and neighbor advertisement
w Scanning interval allocation request/response
w BS Handover (HO) request/response
w MS Handover request/indication
w Scanning result report and BS broadcast paging
w Power control mode change request/response
2008
17
The message types added to Mobile WiMAX are consistent with messages required for mobility
management in cellular networks.
17
Mobile
Mobile Wimax
Wimax and
and cellular
cellular
AIR
AIR INTERFACE
INTERFACE COMPARISON
COMPARISON
Cellular
Technology
Operating
Frequencies
Channel
Bandwidth*
Reuse
Modulation
Schemes
Duplex
Techniques
GSM/GPRS
900 MHz,
1900 MHz
200 KHz
Frequency
4/12
GMSK/8-PSK
FDD
CDMA2000:
1x-RTT and
1x-EV-DO
900 MHz,
1900 MHz
1.25 MHz
PN Code
QPSK, 8-PSK,
16-QAM
FDD
UMTS:
W-CDMA
and HSPA
900 MHz,
1900 MHz
3.84 MHz
PN Code
QPSK, 16-QAM
FDD, TDD
1.25 MHz,
3.5 MHz,
5 MHz,
7 MHz,
8.75 MHz,
10 MHz,
20 MHz
Frequency,
Potential
for reuse
factor
of 1/3 or
1/1
BPSK,
QPSK,
16-QAM
64-QAM
FDD, TDD
Mobile
WiMAX
2.3 GHz,
2.5 GHz,
3.5 GHz
Future:
700 MHz
2008
* Occupied Bandwidth
18
This table is presented to illustrate the complexities of Mobile WiMAX relative to GSM/GPRS,
CDMA2000 and UMTS. It is not presented as a comprehensive comparison of 3G and WiMAX.
18
3G
3G network
network architecture
architecture
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: CDMA
CDMA 2000
2000
Radio Access Network (RAN)
Core Network
Packet-Switched
Domain
HA
Router
BTS
GRE Tunnel
for user data
IP-in-IP Tunnel
for user data
Internet
FA
PDSN
BSC
Other BSC
Circuit-Switched
Domain
BTS
HLR
PSTN
MSC
2008
19
WiMAX uses Mobile IP within its core network, similar to CDMA2000, but unlike UMTS that uses
GPRS in its core network. Once the user has been authenticated and authorized for service with
the HLR (via the MSC), packet-based access requires another authentication process with a
AAA server.
19
3G
3G network
architecture
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: UMTS
UMTS
Radio Access Network (RAN)
Core Network
Packet-Switched
Domain
FA
Internet
GGSN
Node B
GTP Tunnel
for user data
SGSN
RNC
HLR
Other RNC
Circuit-Switched
Domain
Node B
PSTN
MSC
2008
GTP = GPRS Tunneling Protocol
20
Users attach to a Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and acquire packet-based services
through a Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) via GPRS Tunneling Protocol. The GGSN can
act as a Mobile IP Foreign Agent for interoperability. Notice that the packet-switched domain is
autonomous, since both SGSNs and GGSNs can access the HLR/HSS directly.
20
Wimax
Wimax network
architecture
FIXED,
FIXED, PORTABLE
PORTABLE AND
AND MOBILE
MOBILE OPERATION
OPERATION
Access Services Network (ASN)
Connectivity Services Network (CSN)
AAA
BS
FA
HA
ASN
Gateway
Other
ASN Gateway
Internet
Router
GRE Tunnel
for user data
BS
2008
21
WiMAX core network provides packet-switched services via an IMS (IP Multi-media Subsystem).
WiMAX benefits from new technologies, such as IMS and SDR/SOC (more later). This will allow
for flexible, modular and easily upgradeable deployments.
21
Mobile
Mobile Wimax
Wimax and
and cellular
cellular
CORE
CORE NETWORK
NETWORK COMPARISON
COMPARISON
Cellular
Technology
Architecture
Data
Mobility
Protocol
Authentication/
Authorization
Evolution
GSM/GPRS
Circuit Switched Voice,

Packet Switched Data
GPRS/
Mobile IP
HLR/HSS
To All-IP
and IMS
CDMA2000
1x-RTT

Mobile IP
HLR/HSS
To All-IP
and IMS
CDMA2000
1x-EV-DO
Packet Switched Data*
Mobile IP
HLR/HSS
To All-IP
and IMS
UMTS
W-CDMA

GPRS/
Mobile IP
HLR/HSS
To All-IP
and IMS
UMTS
HSPA
Packet Switched Data*
GPRS/
Mobile IP
HLR/HSS
To All-IP
and IMS
Mobile
WiMAX
Packet Switched
Voice and Data
Mobile IP
AAA Server,
RADIUS
IMS for
Services
2008
* Packet-based voice is also possible.
22
GSM and UMTS use GPRS in the core network, but the GGSN (GPRS Gateway Support Node)
can act as a Mobile IP Foreign Agent for network interoperability.
22
current
current OPERATORS
OPERATORS and
and 802.16e
802.16e
THREAT
THREAT OR
OR OPPORTUNITY?
OPPORTUNITY?
Cellular
Operators
Fixed-Wireless
Operators
w A threat?
w An opportunity for a new or larger
market, if laptops are pre-shipped
with the 802.16e adapters
w Another radio interface on their
heterogeneous network
w A new business opportunity
w Perhaps, the only protocol they
need for both fixed and mobile
2008
23
Cellular companies have several broadband wireless technologies from which to choose:
Mobile WiMAX
LTE (Long-Term Evolution)
UMB (Ultra-Mobile Broadband)
Sprint and Clearwire seem committed to Mobile WiMAX. Verizon and AT&T Wireless are both
considering LTE. Time will tell.
23
HANDOVER
HANDOVER
Two additional optional handover methods*:
Macro Diversity
Handover (MDHO)
Transmit/receive to and
from multiple Base Stations
at the same time
Fast BS Switching (FBSS)
Transmit/receive to and
from anchor Base Station,
which may change within
a diversity set
2008
* 1/1 and 1/3 frequency reuse
24
MDHO; In the downlink two or more base stations may provide synchronized transmission of MS
downlink data such that diversity combining can be performed by the MS. In the uplink, the
transmission from a MS is received by multiple BSs such that selection diversity of the
information received by multiple BSs can be performed.
FBSS: Both MS and BS maintain a list of BSs called Diversity Set, with one of them being
defined as an anchor BS. When operating in FBSS, the MS only communicates with the anchor
BS for both uplink and downlink. Transition from one anchor BS to another or fast switching is
performed without invocation of the regular handover process. Instead a faster anchor update
mechanism is used to switch between BSs.
24
DUPLEX
DUPLEX SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
FIXED
FIXED AND
AND MOBILE
MOBILE WIMAX
WIMAX
Frequency
Division
Duplex
(FDD)
Requires separate frequencies for transmit

and receive
Inherently Symmetrical
Time
Division
Duplex
(TDD)
Uses a single channel split between the

Uplink (CPE to Base) and Downlink (Base
to CPE)
Does not require symmetry (Base to CPE often
has more time assigned than CPE to Base)
2008
25
WiMAX has lots of flexibility. Another face or flexible attribute of WiMAX is its ability to support
both FDD and TDD.
TDD is the current approach for Mobile WiMAX. It supports the native asymmetry of data
applications quite well, and it is easier for operators to employ if they do not have paired
spectrum.
25
Duplex
Duplex Techniques
Techniques
F
U
L
L
D
U
P
L
E
X
H
A
L
F
D
U
P
L
E
X
Time Division Duplex
Frequency Division Duplex

Downlink
Channel
Uplink
Channel
Downlink/Uplink
Channel
BW
2 x BW
Paired Carriers
BW
Downlink/Uplink
Channel
BW
FDD:
Paired spectrum required
Separation > 50 MHz
Tx/Rx Simultaneously
Half Duplex:
Single channel
Alternating transmission
at the data rate
TDD:
Single channel
Tx at twice the rate,
for half of the time
2x channel BW means
noise floor increase of 3 dB
2008
26
FDD and TDD both provide full duplex connectivity. They both use the same amount of
spectrum, but in different ways.
FDD requires a minimum distance between carrier pairs. This is required to keep the duplexers
as small as possible. This also makes FDD spectrum typically more expensive than TDD.
TDD allows for less expensive spectrum, even unlicensed spectrum, but the cost is increasing
the power amplifier output by 3 dB. The average power of both techniques is the same, but
since TDD has twice the carrier bandwidth for the same bit rate, the noise floor increase of 3 dB
requires a power increase of 3 dB for similar coverage.
Half-duplex is shown because this is an option within the WiMax standard. Using half duplex
means that the combined U/L and D/L bit rate is cut in half.
26
wimax
wimax SERVICE-LEVEL
SERVICE-LEVEL SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS
Equivalent Service-type
Data Access or Backbone:
100 Mb/s Ethernet
WiMax Solution
Only 10- 66 GHz systems
w10-66 GHz systems
w 2-11 GHz systems
Data Access:
10 Mb/s Ethernet
Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL) Equivalent
2-11 GHz systems
Mobile systems
2.3, 2.5 or 3.5 GHz systems
2008
WiMAX can address a wide range of applications. However, each application can not be
delivered by all of the WiMAX faces or implementations. The highest-bandwidth applications
are provided by the 11-66 GHz initial WiMAX, for example. The DSL-equivalent service is
provided by the 2-11 GHz fixed WiMAX system.
27
27
WiMAX
WiMAX FORUM
FORUM CERTIFIED
CERTIFIED
PRODUCTS
PRODUCTS
WiMax
Standard
Status
802.16-2001
10 - 66 GHz
No WiMAX Profiles exist for this PHY

standard; little interest
802.16-2004
2 - 11 GHz
The WiMAX Forum currently lists many

companies as certified vendors
802.16e-2005 Area of furious activity, but products still

going through the process Still Waiting!
Mobile
2008
28
The WiMAX Forum is a global group of manufacturers and ecosystem members, which provides
the WiMAX Forum Certified designation for products that mutually interoperate. The WiMAX
Forum runs several test labs around the world.
The WiMAX Forum certifies products that comply with the 802.16-2004 specification right now,
but in 2007, they are creating test scripts for mobile WIMAX certification.
28
W
WiiMax
Max FUTURE
FUTURE EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
LOOKING
LOOKING BRIGHT
BRIGHT
Developing countries and rural areas

may use Fixed WiMAX instead of wired
DSL-like communications
Developed countries: The future rests with the
decisions of existing spectrum owners
w Embrace Fixed or Mobile WiMAX for lower cost
or
w Choose other 4G solutions (LTE or UMB)
Rapid adoption and falling costs are key to the
success of WiMAX as a 4G technology
LTE = Long Term Evolution
UMB = Ultra Mobile Broadband
2008
A comparison of Mobile WiMAX with LTE or UMB reveals the following:

They all use OFDMA
They all use Adaptive Modulation and Coding
They all have flexibility in deploying at different Bandwidths and Operating Frequencies
They all can use FDD or TDD
They all can use MIMO or Adaptive arrays
The main difference: WiMAX is here, NOW!
29
29
WiMAX
WiMAX Forum
Forum profiles
profiles
FIRST
FIRST ROUND:
ROUND: FIXED
FIXED WIMAX
WIMAX
Frequency
Band (MHz)
Carriers
Duplexing
TDD
3400 - 3600
256level
OFDM
FDD
5725 - 5850
TDD
Channelization
(MHz)
3.5
7.0
3.5
7.0
10
Only for Fixed Point-to-Multipoint Systems

Profiles were chosen with both North American and European regulatory and
channelization constraints in mind
3.5 GHz is a licensed band around most of the world
5.8 GHz is license-exempt in the United States, but not in all regulatory domains
The profiles specify a Time Division Multiple Access uplink, with the option of
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexed Access
TDD Time Division Duplex
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
2008
So WiMAX has many faces and a lot of flexibility. The WiMAX Forum issues profiles as a
way to coalesce the industry around a more-narrow set of options.
Here are the first set of WiMAX Forum profiles. Most of the WIMAX activity to date has been
implementation of the 3.5 GHz, TDD option with 3.5 and 7 MHz channels.
30
30
Initial
Initial WiMAX
WiMAX Forum
Forum
MOBILE
MOBILE WIMAX
WIMAX PROFILES
PROFILES
Frequency Band (GHz)
2.3 - 2.4
2.305 2.320
2.345 2.360
Channel Sizes (MHz)

8.75 (WiBro), 5, 10
3.5, 5, 10
2.469 2.69
5, 10
3.3 3.4
5, 7, 10
3.4 3.8
5, 7, 10
2008
Here are the proposed Mobile WiMAX profiles that the WiMAX Forums Certification and
Marketing Working Groups considered at the July 2006 meeting.
31
31
802.16e
802.16e ADOPTION
ADOPTION FORECAST
FORECAST
2008-2010
2007
2007
2006
Commercial releases
Issues:
Pace of infrastructure construction
Availability of cost effective and
power-efficient handsets
Backward compatibility concerns with
fixed 802.16
Early handsets, handhelds, and laptops
802.16e Chipsets available

compatibility testing
2008
32
32
EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT AND
AND MANUFACTURERS
MANUFACTURERS
Types of equipment:
Base station
Customer Premise Equipment (CPE)
w Internal mount
w In computer (PCMCIA)
w Desktop (USB or Ethernet)
w External mount
w Rooftop
2008
Well talk about base stations and subscriber equipment throughout the course.
33
33
Two
Two W
WiiMAX
MAX Chip
Chip Implementations
Implementations
System on a Chip (SoC)
Software Defined Radio (SDR)
Less expensive up front
Less expensive to upgrade
More expensive to upgrade
More expensive up front
Chips: Intel, Fujitsu, Motorola
Chips: Sequans, Picochip
Equipment: Aperto, Alvarion
Equipment: Airspan, Navini
Must be combined with radio

chip
Radio programmed in software
2008
34
Chip vendors are following two different paths for design of WiMAX chipsets.
The System on a Chip approach offers low-cost silicon that implements one specific design.
The Software Defined Radio approach is designed for flexibility. A general-purpose
microprocessor is programmed with the implementation of one or more radio designs. That
general-purpose microprocessor may be re-programmed as the technology evolves, or as an
operator chooses to implement new services. Some of the software-defined-radio vendors claim
upgradeability to mobile WIMAX.
That completes our introduction to WiMAX, and prepares us for network design discussions.
34
Lesson 2:
Review of RF
Fundamentals
2008
35
The next four lessons cover RF fundamentals. They are designed for students who do not work
in RF on a daily basis, but need the tutorial lessons to prepare for the WiMAX Forum RF
Network Engineer certification exam.
35
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
Calculate power levels in dBm and Watts
Discuss the application of decibels (dB) and when
they should not be used
Apply Nyquist and Shannon observations to
calculation of the bandwidth of channels
Detail WiMAXs adaptive modulation and coding
Approximate the bit rate of a channel given bandwidth,
modulation scheme and FEC overhead
2008
36
36
Information
Information Transfer
Transfer
General
Source
Medium
Sink
Wireless
external noise
Air Interface
Transmitter
Receiver
distortion
attenuation
interference
internal noise
2008
37
The wireless medium is the most hostile environment for the transport of digital information. All
of the factors list must be considered when designing a wireless link. Even when these factors
are considered strong techniques for handling bit errors must be employed. The added overhead
reduces the maximum throughput of a channel in order to improve error performance.
37
Wireless
Wireless Link
Link Reference
Reference points
points
Transmitter Output
Transmission Line
Tx Antenna Output
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

Isotropic Receive Level (IRL)
Rx Threshold
Receiver Input
Transmission Line
Wireless Medium
Tx output power
Rx Antenna Input
2008
38
The EIRP is the signal power level (typically stated in dBm) at the transmit antenna output. The
IRL is the signal power level (typically stated in dBm) at the input to the receive antenna. The
difference between the EIRP and the IRL is the loss over the wireless medium. This loss is
typically referred to as the Path Loss.
There are actually two types of IRLs:
1. Required IRLthe minimum IRL that must be seen at the receive antenna in order to
provide the minimum level of performance
2. Actual IRLthe IRL that is actually seen at the receive antenna input
When the actual IRL is greater than the required IRL, the link is up!
38
Wireless
Wireless Link
Link Considerations
Considerations
TX
Information
Source
Modulator
Output Power
Watts, Milliwatts
dBm, dBW
Loss @ Oper. Freq.
dB/length
Amp
Operating Frequency (MHz, GHz)

Bandwidth (KHz, MHz)
Signaling Rate (Ksps, Msps)
Modulation (X-PSK, X-QAM)
Error Correction Overhead
Information
Sink
RX
Demodulator
Sensitivity*
Threshold (dBm)
C/N (dB)
C/I+N (dB)
Eb/N0 (dB)
Amp
Gain (dB)
NFdB
Antenna
Xmission Line
L
I
N
K
Gain (directivity)
dBi or dBd
Diversity
Loss (dB)
Operating Freq. (MHz, GHz)
Distance (km, miles)
Environment
Time Dispersion (sec, nsec)
Fading (selective, flat)
Inter-symbol interference
Antenna
Xmission Line
Loss @ Oper. Freq.
dB/length
NFdB
Gain (directivity)
dBi or dBd
Diversity
2008
* Based on specific modulation technique @ 10-6 BER
39
The point of this slide is to introduce much of the vocabulary that well understand by the end of
today. This slide also allows the instructor to survey the class for existing understanding.
We dont explain every term on the slide at this point of the class, but it gives us a basis for
discussion and for the information that follows.
39
Basic
Basic References
References
RF Spectrum
Decrease
Increase
Engineering Notation
10n
1012
109
106
103
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
PREFIX
Tera
Giga
Mega
Kilo (or k)
milli
micro(m)
nano
pico
802.16-2001
802.16-2004
802.16e-2005
Not relevant
to WiMAX
EHF
30 GHz to 300 GHz
SHF
3 GHz to 30 GHz
UHF
300 MHz to 3 GHz
VHF
30 MHz to 300 MHz
HF
3 MHz to 30 MHz
MF
300 KHz to 3 MHz
LF
30 KHz to 300 KHz
VLF
3 KHz to 30 KHz
2008
40
Due to its propagation characteristics, the mid-to-upper portion of the UHF spectrum (700 MHz
to 3 GHz) is preferred for Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) radio. The low end of the SHF spectrum
can still be employed for NLOS, but as the frequency increases above 6 GHz, Line-of-Sight
(LOS) becomes the major propagation mode. Frequencies at the mid to upper end of the EHF
spectrum begin to take on the propagation characteristics of light.
40
Bits,
Bits, Bauds*
Bauds* and
and Bandwidth
Bandwidth
HARRY
HARRY NYQUIST
NYQUIST
Certain Topics in Telegraph Transmission Theory -- 1928
This paper addressed the relationship between the number of current
values sent per second and the bandwidth (N) required for recovering
the information. It was determined that all sinusoidal components
greater than N (the fundamental) were redundant and that at a
sample rate of 2N current values per second, all information could be
recovered.
Today, this relationship is stated as a ratio of signaling rate (Baud rate)
to bandwidthat baseband: 2 Baud/Hz
2008
* Emille Baudot, inventor of TDM
41
41
The
The Fundamental
Fundamental Frequency
Frequency
When Harry Nyquist developed his rule for minimum
required bandwidth for information transfer, his
limiting factor was inter-symbol interference. In other
words, he asked this question: What is the minimum
amount of bandwidth that will still allow for recovery
of the distinct signaling states?
The Answer: 1 Hz per 2 Signaling States.

signaling
state
t
r
a
n
s
i
t
i
o
n
transition
time
2008
42
It is important to remember that Harry Nyquist was describing the minimum amount of bandwidth
required for recovery of baseband information. When applying the Nyquist rule to modulated
data, the Nyquist rate is 1 Hz per signaling state. This is due to the sidebands generated when
modulating digital data on an RF carrier. This 1 Hz per Baud also assumes a brick wall filter, a
perfect filter, is used to filter out all of the higher frequency components of the digital data.
Although this filter does not actually exist, modern filter implementations come very close.
In calculations of bandwidth for various channel sizes in this course, we will assume a factor of 1
baud per hertz for modulated data.
42
Capacity
Capacity and
and Noise
Noise
CLAUDE
CLAUDE SHANNON
SHANNON
The Mathematical Theory of Communications -- 1948

Claude Shannon considered channel capacity as a function of the
number of signaling states that could represent bits in a bandlimited channel. Shannons Rule states a corollary between the S/N
ratio (SNR) and the maximum number of signaling states possible for
relatively error-free transmission. Shannon did not stipulate the
expected error rate or the error correction techniques that would
allow for attaining his Limit. Thanks Claude!
C = BW log2 1 + S N
Where:
C = Channel capacity in bps
BW = Bandwidth of channel in Hz
S/N = Linear signal to noise power ratio--not stated in dBs
Example:
S/N = 12 dB (16:1)
BW = 2.4 KHz
C = 2400 log 2 (1 + 16 )
= 2400 4 = 9600 bps
2008
43
43
Before
Before Going
Going Further
Further
AA QUICK
QUICK DECIBEL
DECIBEL REVIEW
REVIEW
Number
Power of Ten
Base 10 LOG
106
103
10-4
10-6
1,000,000
1,000
0.0001
0.000001
Gain (dB)
6
3
-4
-6
Power Out
GaindB = 10 log10
Power In
60 dB
30 dB
-40 dB
-60 dB
Power In
Loss dB = 10 log10
Power Out
Examples:
Amplifier Input = 10 mW
Amplifier Output = 10 W
10 W
10
Gain = 10 log10
= 10 log10
= 30 dB
10m W
0.01
Transmitter Output = 100 W

Antenna Input = 25 W
25
25 W
Gain = 10 log 10
= -6 dB
= 10 log10
100
100 W
2008
44
The system of Base 10 logarithms (log10) is referred to as the system of common logarithms.
Uses of Logarithms:
Multiplication of numbersaddition of logarithms
Division of numberssubtraction of logarithms
Raising to a powermultiplication of the logarithms
Gain is a statement of an increase, loss is a statement of a decrease.
It is common to use a negative sign when referring to negative gains (losses), but a value of
-10 dB gain means a negative gain of 10 dB, not a loss of -10 dB!! This implies a negative loss
which is actually a gain.
Do not use the negative sign when referring to loss!
44
Decibel
Decibel Reference
Reference Levels
Levels
MOST
MOST COMMON
COMMON REFERENCES
REFERENCES
dBm
dBW
dBi
dBd
=
=
=
=
Decibels Relative to 1 mW
Decibels Relative to 1 W
Decibels Relative to an Isotropic Source
Decibels Relative to a Dipole antenna
Power
Decibel Reference = 10 log10
Reference *
Examples:
Power Level = 25W
Reference Level = 1W
25 W
Absolute Power Level = 10 log10
= 10 log10 (25 ) = 14 dBW
1W
Rx Carrier Level = 0.02 pW

Reference Level = 1 mW
0.02 10 -12
0.02 pW
Rx Carrier = 10 log10
= 10 log10
-3
1 mW
1 10
2008
* Typically a power value or reference gain
The most commonly used references are listed above.

There are other decibel references:
dB-Hz = decibels relative to 1 Hz
dB-K = decibels relative to 1 Kelvin
45
= -107 dBm
45
Exercise:
Exercise: Decibels
Decibels
1.
2.
dBm vs. dBW
Convert the following:

26 dBm
a. 400 mW ____
-64 dBm
b. 0.0004 W ____
25.1 mW
c. 14 dBm ____
37 dBm
d. 7 dBW ____
- 6 dBW
e. 250 mW ____
Determine the gains (in dB) for the following:

a. Output 10 milliwatts
- 30 dB
Input
10 Watts
______
b. Output
Input
50 W
400 mW
+40 dBm
+10 dBW
+30 dBm
+0 dBW
+20 dBm
-10 dBW
+10 dBm
-20 dBW
+0 dBm
-30 dBW
21 dB
______
2008
46
Instructions:
Use your calculator , or build a spreadsheet, to solve for the unknown value and fill in the blanks.
46
Decibels:
Decibels: Do
Do Them
Them in
in Your
Your Head!
Head!
The 1, 3, 10 Rule for converting between whole
decibels and actual powers without a calculator!
dB Change
Increase
Decrease
1 dB
x 1.25 (up 1/4)
x 0.8 (down 1/5)
3 dB
x2
x 0.5
10 dB
x 10
x 0.1
Example:
Try it:
35 dBm = 30 dBm + 3 dB + 3 dB 1 dB
250 mW
1. Convert 24 dBm to ________
= 1000 mW x 2 x 2 x 0.8
37 dBm
2. Convert 5 W to _______
= 4000 mW x 0.8
8 W
3. Convert 39 dBm to _____
= 3200 mW or 3.2 W
2008
Instructions:
Try doing decibels in your head, without your calculator! Use the 1, 3, 10 rule to solve for the
unknown values.
47
47
Decibels:
Decibels: To
To add
add or
or not
not to
to add
add
THAT
THAT IS
IS THE
THE QUESTION
QUESTION
Power in dBm
Power in milliWatts
5,000 mW
Output = ________
5 mW
X 1000
37 dBm
Output = _____
7 dBm
7,500 mW
Output = _______
30 dB
Gain
Combiner
10 mW
X 1000
38.76 dBm
Output = ______
Combiner
10 dBm 30 dB
Gain
10,000 mW
Output = ________
Loss = 3 dB
Output = _____
40 dBm
2008
The above drawing provides examples of when you can and cant add decibels. When adding
(accumulating) power levels, do not add decibels!!!!
48
48
When
When NOT
NOT to
to add
add Decibels
Decibels ??
A:
A: WHEN
WHEN ACCUMULATING
ACCUMULATING POWER
POWER
B:
B: WHEN
WHEN ADDING
ADDING RATIOS
RATIOS
Accumulating Power Values
I+N
Interference
Noise
C/(I+N)
-95.23 dBm (0.3 pW)
-97 dBm (0.2 pW)
C/I
-100 dBm (0.1 pW)
C/N
2008
16 dB (40:1)
C/(I+N) = 11.23 dB
13 dB (20:1)
Carrier
-84 dBm (4 pW)
11.23 dB (13.3:1)
Carrier
Adding Ratios
You will need to calculate C/(I+N) for WiMAX network design, and for the certification exam.
Remember!!!
Decibels are added when determining decibel gains or decibel losses.
When power values or ratios must be added, the value in dBs must first be converted to actual
power value or ratio.
Examples:
Adding ratios in dB
C/N + C/I: 17 dB + 17 dB = 14 dB (not 34 dB)
Adding power values in dBm
17 dBm + 17 dBm = 20 dBm (not 34 dBm)
49
49
Decibels:
Decibels: Adding
Adding Ratios
Ratios and
and
Power
Power Values
Values
Adding Two Power Values
1. Convert to actual values (or ratios)

2. Add together
3. Convert back to decibels
Example:
Adding ratios (C/N, C/I): 16 dB and 20 dB
- RatiodB
Ratio actual = 10 10
Delta
Change
0 dB
3 dB
2 dB
2.12 dB
4 dB
1.45 dB
Example:
Combining powers: 22 dBm and 30 dBm
6 dB
0.97 dB
8 dB
0.64 dB
10 dB
0.41 dB
- 20
-16
0.035
Added = 10 10 + 10 10 = ________
1 14.55
RatiodB = 10 log10
= _______ dB
0.035
Value
Value actual = 10 10 1
30
22
2
1158.5
Added = 10 10 + 10 10 = ________
30.64 dBm
3 ValuedB = 10 log10 (1158.5 ) = _______
dB
2008
Overview:
When accumulating actual power levels, you must first change from dBs to the actual values
before adding the power levels together.
An example of adding two power levels: -130 dBm added to -130 dBm = -127 dBm
Notice that the delta of these two values is 0 dB, therefore when the actual (linear) values are
added, the actual power level is double the original value. When adding several power values
together, each dB value must first be converted to the actual value before adding them. Once
the values are summed, they are converted back to decibel form. This approach is used for
adding noise and interference, determining total power out of a combiner and combining C/N
values in a receiver (repeaters).
Remember! Decibels are added when multiplying actual values. Example: A 50 dB amplifier
has a -20 dBm signal input. The output of the amplifier would be
-20 dBm + 50 dB (gain) = +30 dBm.
50
50
Back
Back to
to Harry
Harry and
and Claude
Claude
RELEVANT
RELEVANT TO
TO WIRELESS
WIRELESS
Harry says,
Bandwidth is directly related to signaling rate!
Never modulate a square wave, infinite BW required!
For maximum spectral efficiency, filter all frequency
components above the fundamental before modulation!
Claude says,
OK, bandwidth is directly related to signaling rate!
Multiple information bits can be represented by a
single change in signaling state!
The S/N ratio limits the number of signaling states
for error-free transmission.
2008
51
The Nyquist rule applies to baseband data (DC levels representing binary values). The common
approach for modulating baseband data is to use a bandwidth efficient baseband line code, such
as Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ), then filter frequency components above the fundamental.
Modulation generates sidebands, doubling the amount of bandwidth required (relative to
baseband). So, consider the Nyquist rule to state a minimum bandwidth requirement of 1 HZ per
Baud when modulated.
51
Basic
Basic Modulation
Modulation Schemes
Schemes
1
ASK
FSK
PSK
2008
52
Amplitude Shift Keying is bandwidth efficient because required bandwidth is only a function of
the signaling rate. It is not power efficient because in the presence of noise, it becomes difficult
to distinguish between the different levels.
Frequency Shift Keying is power efficient. It is not bandwidth efficient because the required
bandwidth is a function of the signaling rate and the frequencies used to represent binary data.
Phase Shift Keying is both bandwidth efficient and power efficient. The required bandwidth is
only a function of the signaling rate and even in the presence of noise, the difference between
phases is easy to detect.
Greater bandwidth efficiency is attained by combing ASK and PSK schemes. These high level
modulation techniques are called QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).
52
BPSK
BPSK
0
vs.
vs.
1
QPSK
QPSK
1
Bits
BPSK
QPSK
2008
53
Bandwidth efficiency of PSK can be further increased by increasing the number of bits
represented by phase changes. However, the power efficiency will be reduced. QPSK is twice
as bandwidth efficient as BPSK, but less power efficient.
53
Polar
Polar Plots
Plots
(CONSTELLATIONS)
(CONSTELLATIONS)
90
Power
180
Phase
QPSK
Q
BPSK
270
10
00
0
11
01
2008
54
In order to illustrate other modulation schemes, it is necessary to show the patterns in the form of
polar plots instead of the waveform drawings. Since more bandwidth efficient modulation
schemes use a combination of phase and amplitude changes to represent a number of bits, the
use of polar plots makes it easier to envision the individual changes.
54
Some
Some Modulation
Modulation Schemes
Schemes
SPECIFIC
SPECIFIC TO
TO WiMAX
WiMAX
BPSK
10
QPSK
00
Free Distance
11
01
Power h
BW h
64-QAM
16-QAM
1111
2008
55
Polar plots of BPSK and QPSK are show for reference. As the number of points increases, the
number of bits represented per signaling element increases. Therefore, bandwidth efficiency
increases.
As the number of points increases, the difference between them becomes smaller. In order to
discern the difference between signaling points (free distance) in the presence of noise, the
power level must be higher than for constellations with greater free distance. Therefore, power
efficiency decreases.
55
Modulation
Modulation Techniques
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
QPSK
C/N
C/N 30
30 dB
dB
135
16-QAM
90
90
135
45
180
45
0 180
225
225
315
315
270
270
2008
1000 points mapped
Noise is manifested in the form of phase and power variations. This means that from one
signaling change to the next, the amount of variation from the proper constellation point
increases as the carrier to noise level decreases. The above illustration shows a 30 dB C/N.
Both of these modulation schemes perform well with this C/N.
The points were generated randomly using a Gaussian distribution. Mapping only 1000 points
means that the highest BER that can be evaluated is 10-3.
56
56
Modulation
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
QPSK
C/N
C/N 15
15 dB
dB
135
16-QAM
90
90
135
45
180
45
0 180
225
225
315
315
270
270
2008
1000 points mapped
57
As the C/N degrades, the variations in the constellation point location will have minimal effect on
QPSK. The higher level modulation scheme (16-QAM) will have degraded performance.
57
Modulation
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
QPSK
C/N
C/N 10
10 dB
dB
135
16-QAM
90
90
135
45
180
45
0 180
225
225
315
315
270
270
2008
1000 points mapped
Notice that the 16-QAM constellation is unrecoverable by this time. The QPSK constellation
should have a BER better than 10-3, but how much better is not shown.
58
58
Modulation
Techniques
and
and Noise
Noise
QPSK
C/N
C/N 66 dB
dB
135
16-QAM
90
90
135
45
180
45
0 180
225
225
315
315
270
270
2008
1000 points mapped
59
The C/N is now at approximately 6 dB. The QPSK constellation appears to have a BER around
10-3.
59
Fix
Fix Those
Those Bit
Bit Errors
Errors with
with
Convolutional
Convolutional Encoding
Encoding
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: K=3,
K=3, RATE
RATE == 1/2
1/2
0010
Modulo-2 Addition
K = 3:
Constraint length = 3 shift registers
(7,5)
Rate 1/2:
1 bit in, 2 coding symbols out
100% Overhead
Data in
0110
P to S
10101100
WiMAX Values:
K=7
Rate = 3/4, 2/3, 1/2, 5/6*
Modulo-2 Addition
1110
2008
* Mobile WiMAX
60
The greater the depth of the convolutional coder (number of shift registers), the more unique is
the pattern generated. Therefore, the greater the number of errored bits that can be recovered.
This also applies to the amount of overhead rate provides better error correction than
rate.
60
WIMAX
WIMAX Bits
Bits per
per Baud
Baud
BASED
BASED ON
ON MODULATION
MODULATION SCHEME
SCHEME AND
AND FEC
FEC RATE
RATE
Modulation
Scheme
Raw Bits
per Baud
FEC
Rate
Coded Bits
per Baud
BPSK
1/2
0.5
QPSK
1/2
3/4
1.5
16-QAM
1/2
3/4
1/2
2/3
3/4
4.5
64-QAM
2008
61
You will notice that 16-QAM, 3/4 rate and 64-QAM, 1/2 rate have the same bandwidth efficiency.
WiMAX does not employ 64-QAM, 1/2 rate.
61
Modulation
Modulation and
and Coding
Coding
COMPARING
COMPARING Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi and
and WiMAX
WiMAX
The BER for a given C/N can be improved by increasing

the FEC coding overhead (adding coding gain) or by
decreasing the number of constellation points.
WiMAX and Wi-Fi (802.11a/g) have similar modulation
and coding schemes, but Wi-Fi framing does not scale
well for distance. WiMAX does!
Wi-Fi Modem
Dynamically
Adjusted
16-QAM, 3/4 rate
Modulation and Coding
1/2 Conditions
rate
Based QPSK,
on Link
64-QAM, 3/4 rate
One Client
BPSK, 1/2per
rate Frame
WiMAX Modem
64-QAM, 16-QAM, QPSK, BPSK,

3/4 rate 1/2 rate 1/2 rate 1/2 rate
64-QAM, QPSK,
64-QAM,
BPSK,
Dynamically
Adjusted
Modulation and Coding
QPSK,
16-QAM,
BPSK,
BasedQPSH,
on Link
Conditions
1/6-QAM, 16-QAM, QPSK, QPSK,
Multiple
Clients per Frame
2008
62
The 802.11 standard allows for only one user per frame with a requirement for a per frame
acknowledgement. This requirement for frame acknowledgement, combined with the random
access technique CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance), causes a
dramatic reduction in throughput with distance. The combination of traffic scheduling and
multiple users per frame allows WiMAX to provide high throughput at greater distances than WiFi.
Increasing overhead for error correction decreases the data rate, but it can also allow for a more
bandwidth efficient modulation scheme.
62
Approximating
Approximating the
the Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
BASED
BASED ON
ON BANDWIDTH,
BANDWIDTH, MODULATION
MODULATION AND
AND FEC
FEC
Assumptions:
A Single carrier
Nyquist Limit for RF (1 Baud/Hz)
Filter Roll-off Factor (a) = 0*
Process:
1. Determine Baud rate based on bandwidth
2. Determine raw bit rate based on Baud rate
and modulation scheme
3. Factor FEC overhead to determine data bit rate
* This is a Brick-wall filter roll-off. Typical a values range from 0.1 to 1.
63
2008
63
Bit
Bit Rate:
Rate: A
A Worked
Worked Example
Example
Example:
Determine the bit rate of a 5 MHz wide carrier using
64-QAM with rate FEC.
1. Baud rate = Bandwidth = 5 MBaud
2. Raw bit rate = bits/Baud = 6 5 Mbaud = 30 Mbps
3. Data bit rate = FEC rate raw bit rate = 0.75 30 Mbps
= 22.5 Mbps bit rate*
* This is not the Throughput seen by a user! Other overhead (guard time,
frame OH, higher layer protocol OH) further reduce actual throughput.
2008
The example above provides the best-case (theoretical) bit rate for a 5 MHz WiMAX single
carrier channel. This theoretical case assumes a brick-wall filter (a = 0). In a real-world
implementation, the filter roll-off factor would be > 0.
64
64
Exercise:
Exercise: Determine
Determine the
the Raw
Raw
Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
The original 802.16 standard (10 to 66 GHz) states the following
single carrier parameters:
Maximum Channel Bandwidth = 28 MHz
Filter roll-off factor (a) = 0.25
Highest Modulation Scheme = 64-QAM
Instructions:
Use the information above and the Baud rate formula
below to determine the raw bit rate of the single carrier
WiMAX solution.
Rs =
1+a
Maximum raw* bit rate = 134.4

______ Mbps
Where:
Rs = Symbol (Baud) rate
B = Channel Bandwidth
2008
* FEC is not considered in calculation.
65
Overview:
It is commonly stated the single-carrier WiMax standard can provide 270 Mbps. Given the
values from the standard how is this possible?
The 802.16 standard for 10-66 GHz provides the roll-off factor (a) of 0.25. This refers to the rolloff of a raised cosine filter. The perfect filter, commonly used when determining the Baud
rate based on the bandwidth, has an a of 0. This is commonly referred to a a Brick Wall
Filter. While the Brick Wall filter does not actually exist, modern filter a values of < 0.2 are
typical. There is a price to be paid for a low a. Decreasing a reduces occupied bandwidth
of a channel (good news), but increases the sensitivity to timing jitter.
Instructions:
1.
Determine the Maximum Baud rate (Rs) using the provided formula and the channel
bandwidth.
2.
Multiply the Baud rate (Step 1.) times the bits per Baud for the modulation scheme to
determine the raw bit rate.
65
Lesson 3:
Antennas for wimax
2008
66
66
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
Compare the two references for antenna gain
List three antenna diversity techniques
Describe the operations of two basic types of
MIMO systems
Describe the operations of Adaptive Array
Antenna Systems
Describe the benefits of MIMO and Adaptive
Arrays in a WiMAX deployment
2008
67
67
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Waves
Waves
y
Determines antenna polarization
(wavelength)
c
Freq (Hz)
Freq (Hz) =
x
z
Exercise:
1.
Wavelength = 0.15 m
Frequency = ________
2000 MHz
2.
Frequency = 5.8 GHz

Wavelength = _______
0.0517 m
2008
c = 3 x 108 meters/sec
68
As you can see, the E-plane (electric field) and the H-plane (magnetic field) are perpendicular to
each other. When defining an antennas polarization, the E-plane is the reference.
The wavelength is a statement of how far the electromagnetic wave propagates during a
complete cycle (360 phase change). Since the wavelength is based on propagation velocity,
the common reference is RF propagation velocity (c) through the air. Notice that the wavelength
and frequency are inversely related. So, as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases.
68
A
A Quick
Quick Look
Look at
at Antennas
Antennas
Antenna
Source
Transmission Line
Expanding Wavefront
2008
69
An antenna is an intentional radiator of electromagnetic radiation. Many devices radiate

unintentionally, but an antenna is optimized for radiation. The slide illustrates how a source
generates the RF energy, the transmission line contains and transports the energy to the
antenna and the antenna radiates the energy. In its simplest form, an antenna is a transmission
line that has been split apart.
69
SOME
SOME General
General Antenna
Antenna Types
Types
Dipole
End-fed
Yagi - Uda
Collinear Array
Aperture Antenna
Folded Dipole
(Example: Prime Focus)
2008
70
Dipole: A center-fed antenna with equal length elements.

End-fed: Many antennas are end-fed as well. As the length varies, so does the gain. Common
end-fed antennas: 1/2, 5/8 and 3/4 wavelength.
Folded Dipole: A dipole antenna that is continuous.
Yagi Uda: An array with a single driven element (typically a dipole or folded dipole) and
parasitic elements that focus the energy.
Collinear Array: An axially stacked and phased set of antenna elements. The above illustration
show a set of folded dipoles in the collinear array. A common collinear antenna is called a
coaxial collinear antenna. This type of antenna uses stacked wavelength coaxial sections to
provide gain.
Aperture: High gain antenna used for LOS deployments. Energy is captured over the area of
the antenna and focused to a feed point.
70
Panel
Panel and
and slot
slot array
array Antennas
Antennas
LOW
LOW PROFILE
PROFILE ARRAYS:
ARRAYS: MEDIUM
MEDIUM TO
TO HIGH
HIGH GAIN
GAIN
Patch Array Antenna
Broadside Array
with reflector
Phased foil pattern

etched on dielectric
Slotted Array
Phased set
of l/2 slots
2008
Panel antennas and slotted arrays provide medium to high gain in minimum space, relative to
older antenna systems.
71
71
Antenna
Antenna Gain
Gain
RELATIVE
RELATIVE TO
TO AA REFERENCE
REFERENCE VALUE
VALUE
Two Reference Values for Antenna Gain:
1. Isotropic Source
Typically used in the microwave region (above 1 GHz)
Unit of gain is the dBi (decibels relative to an Isotropic
Source)
2. Dipole Antenna
Commonly used for Mobile Communications
Unit of gain is the dBd (decibels relative to a dipole
antenna)
Provides 2.14 dB of gain over an Isotropic source
2008
72
72
The
The Isotropic
Isotropic Radiator
Radiator
AA REFERENCE
REFERENCE
Definition:
A Source that radiates
equally in all directions
Creates a spherical wave front

Does not actually exist
Provides a reference for
Antenna Gain: dBi
2008
dBi = decibel gain relative to an Isotropic Source
73
73
The
The Dipole
Dipole Antenna
Antenna
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
Smallest Self-resonating Antenna

Typically a Half wavelength long
Center-fed Antenna
l
2
Provides 2.14 dBi of gain

Reference for other antennas (dBd)
Typically used below 1 GHz
2008
dBd = decibel gain relative to a dipole antenna
74
The dipole antenna is typically used as a reference (dBd) for antennas operating below 1 GHz.
This is not a rule, just a convention. It is always important to know the reference used when
determining antenna gain.
74
Dipole
Dipole Radiation
Radiation Patterns
Patterns
Elevation
Azimuth
2008
75
Assuming a vertically polarized antenna, viewing the antenna from the side (making a vertical
slice through the pattern) shows the elevation pattern. Viewing the antenna from the end point (a
point directly above the antenna) provides a view of the azimuth pattern.
75
Antenna
Antenna Reciprocity
Reciprocity
Antenna Reciprocity:
The ability of an antenna to transfer energy from the
atmosphere to its receiver with the same efficiency with
which it transfers energy from the transmitter to the
atmosphere.
It is common practice to describe most
antenna characteristics from the point
of view of a transmitting component!
What?
2008
76
76
Diversity
Diversity Techniques
Techniques
IMPROVING
IMPROVING AA SIGNAL
SIGNAL IN
IN AA FADING
FADING ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
Space Diversity: Spatially separating antennas for
reception of a signal over multiple uncorrelated paths
w Switched diversity for LOS links
w Switched or Combining diversity for a NLOS multipath environment
Time Diversity: Transmitting the same data multiple
times, separated in time enough that the channel
fading is de-correlated
Polarization Diversity: Using Cross-polarized antennas
for reception of a signal that, due to multiple
reflections over uncorrelated paths, arrives having
different polarizations (not to be confused with
Polarization Isolation)
2008
Whenever multiple copies of an original signal arrive in an uncorrelated manner, diversity gain
can be employed to increase signal reliability and improve C/N performance. Diversity
techniques can be employed individually or in combination.
77
77
Diversity
Diversity Gain
Gain and
and Aperture
Aperture Gain
Gain
Two factors to Diversity Gain:
1. Aperture Gain: Combining signals from separate
antenna inputs to improve Rx gain
2. De-correlation Gain: Based on amount of multi-path
de-correlation
Configuration
Two Branch
Aperture Gain
3.0 dB
De-correlation Gain
0.5 to 1.5 dB
Total Potential Gain
3.5 to 4.5 dB
De-correlation gain is a function of and multi-path environment.

De-correlation gain is only realized when fade margin is part of the link budget.
Only aperture gain is typically factored into a link budget.
2008
Aperture gain can only be realized when signals on antennas a summed together. Switched
diversity provides not aperture gain.
De-correlation gain varies based on antenna separation, operating environment and height
above clutter.
78
78
Diversity
Diversity Gain
Gain and
and the
the Environment
Environment
Example:
Base Station with
two-branch diversity
viewed from above
Signals arriving at each branch

constantly vary in strength due
changes in the environment and
mobile orientation and motion
2008
79
79
Space
Space Diversity
Diversity Reception
Reception
MOST
MOST COMMON
COMMON DIVERSITY
DIVERSITY TECHNIQUE
TECHNIQUE
Physical separation requirements: >1/2 l

Required separation increases with mounting height
Diversity gain is greatest in the directions perpendicular to the
plane of the antennas
Viewed from Above
Maximum
Diversity Reception
Example: 2-branch Diversity
> 1/2 l
Minimum
Diversity Reception
Minimum
Diversity Reception
> 1/2 l
Maximum
Diversity Reception
Antenna Platform
2008
80
80
Polarization
Polarization Diversity
Diversity
WHEN
WHEN SPACE
SPACE IS
IS AT
AT AA PREMIUM
PREMIUM
Ant 1 Ant 2
Not good for NLOS:

Cross-polarized
@ 90 and 0
Uses:
to horizon
In place of space diversity
In limited space locations (rooftops)
In High multi-path environments (Urban)
Where users have hand-held devices
Good for NLOS:

Cross-polarized
@ 45 to horizon
Considerations:
May provide less de-correlation gain in
some areas due to dominance of vertically
polarized signal
May not have as high of a front-to-back
ratio as vertically polarized antennas
Ant 1 Ant 2
2008
81
81
Diversity
Diversity Combining
Combining Techniques
Techniques
BENEFITING
BENEFITING FROM
FROM SIGNAL
SIGNAL DE-CORRELATION
DE-CORRELATION
Switched Diversity
w Compares multiple inputs and selects best C/N
w Common on microwave P-P systems
w Simple to implement
Equal Gain Combining
w Co-phases and sums inputs from multiple
antenna elements
Maximal Ratio Combining
w Co-phases, weights and sums inputs from
multiple antenna elements
w Most complex of the diversity approaches
w Typically provides the best performance
2008
82
82
Simple
Simple Diversity
Diversity Techniques
Techniques
SPACE
SPACE DIVERSITY
DIVERSITY ILLUSTRATED
ILLUSTRATED
Switched Diversity
Equal Gain
Combining
Maximal Ratio
Combining
Signal Detector
Selector Switch
Phase Detector
Phase Detector
Receiver
Receiver
Receiver
Complexity and Performance

2008
83
Diversity combining is illustrated above using space diversity, but polarization diversity can also
be used.
83
Advanced
Advanced Antenna
Antenna Systems
Systems
ENHANCING
ENHANCING WIMAX
WIMAX PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE
MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output) Systems

and Variants
w Space - Time Diversity Coding (Matrix A)
w Spatial Multiplexing (Matrix B)
w SIMO vs. MISO
w Collaborative MIMO
Adaptive Arrays
2008
Multiple Input: Input to the RF channel (to the air interface)
Multiple Output: Output from the RF channel (into the receiver)
84
84
Multi-antenna
Multi-antenna Terminology
Terminology
Number of Antennas
Input (Tx)
Single In
Single In
Output (Rx)
Single Out
SISO
Multiple Out
SIMO
AIR INTERFACE
Multiple In
Multiple In
Single Out
MISO
Multiple Out
MIMO
2008
85
SISO provides no benefit from de-correlation and is used only as a baseline for antenna system
performance improvement.
85
MIMO
MIMO Antenna
Antenna Systems
Systems
BENEFITING
BENEFITING FROM
FROM MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH
Space-Time Diversity Coding

w Codes, interleaves and distributes the
same symbol over multiple antennas
w Antennas transmit on co-channels
Spatial Multiplexing
w Codes, interleaves and distributes
different symbols over multiple antennas
w Antennas transmit on co-channels
2008
86
86
MIMO:
MIMO: Benefiting
Benefiting from
from Multi-path
Multi-path
SPACE-TIME
SPACE-TIME DIVERSITY
DIVERSITY CODING
CODING WITH
WITH MIMO
MIMO
Using Space-Time Diversity Coding in a multi-path environment improves C/N.
RF Channel
MIMO Tx (NT = 4)
Sub-streams
Serial
Tx data
Stream
0110
1:N
Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Coding/
Modulation
MIMO Rx
NR = 2
Tx
Theoretical C/N improvement = NT x NR
Example: NT = 4 and NR = 2
Where:
NT = number of transmit antennas
NR = number of receiver antennas
C/N improvement = 10 x log(4 x 2) = 9 dB
2008
87
87
MIMO
MIMO Space-Time
Space-Time Diversity
Diversity Coding
Coding
SPACE-TIME
SPACE-TIME BLOCK
BLOCK CODING:
CODING: MATRIX
MATRIX AA
1. Increased Range: Combining multiple

time-displaced copies of the same symbol
increases the C/N ratio, increasing range
2. Increased Data Rate: Due to the improved
C/N, spectrally efficient modulation schemes
(16 and 64-QAM) will have increased range
3. Reduced # of Base Stations: Due to increased
range and data rate, BS count is reduced
2008
88
88
MIMO:
MIMO: Benefiting
Benefiting from
from Multipath
Multipath
SPATIAL
SPATIAL MULTIPLEXING
MULTIPLEXING WITH
WITH MIMO
MIMO
In a multipath environment, the data rate increase due to

MIMO is equal to the minimum number of MIMO antennas!
RF Channel
MIMO Tx (NT = 4)
Sub-streams
Serial
Tx data
Stream
0110
Demux
Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Coding/
Modulation
Tx
Coding/
Modulation
Tx
MIMO Rx
NR = 2
Example: NT = 4 and NR = 2
Theoretically, capacity increases at a

linear rate by minimum N (NT or NR).
Capacity increase = NR = bit rate x 2
Where:
NT = number of transmit antennas
NR = number of receiver antennas
2008
89
Spatial multiplexing takes advantage of multi-path to increase the bit rate of a channel. The bit
rate improvement is proportional to the number of antennas.
Issue!
Spatial multiplexing needs multi-path to get any benefit.
89
MIMO
MIMO Spatial
Spatial Multiplexing
Multiplexing
SPATIAL
SPATIAL MULTIPLEXING:
MULTIPLEXING: MATRIX
MATRIX B
B
1. Increased Range: BPSK with four MIMO

antennas (NT = 4 and NR = 4) is equivalent
to 16-QAM with one antenna
2. Increased Data Rate: 64-QAM with four
MIMO antennas (NT = 4 and NR = 4)
provides 4x the data rate
3. Reduced # of Base Stations: Due to increased
range and data rate, BS count is reduced
2008
90
90
SIMO
SIMO vs.
vs. MISO
MISO
Common to the Uplink
SIMO example:
Two Rx antennas used
for diversity reception
Single
antenna
client
SIMO is Diversity Reception!

Base Station
Deployed on the Downlink
MISO example:
Two antennas sending the
same data on co-channels,
providing transmit diversity
Single
antenna
client
MISO employs Space-Time Coding

(Matrix A) to improve C/N at a client
Base Station
even with one antenna!
2008
91
91
Collaborative
Collaborative MIMO
MIMO
SPATIAL
SPATIAL DE-MULTIPLEXING
DE-MULTIPLEXING (MATRIX
(MATRIX B)
B)
Scenario:
The Base Station assigns the same uplink time slot and sub-channels to spatially
separate users with single antennas. The Base Station uses Matrix B capability to
separate the individual traffic streams. The users are unaware of the process.
This approach has the potential to increase

the capacity of a Base Station even with
client equipment that does not have
MIMO capability.
This is also referred

to as Virtual MIMO
2008
There are currently several uses for the terms Virtual MIMO and Cooperative MIMO.
Different equipment manufacturers may apply these terms to different approaches, so use
caution in your interpretation.
92
92
Smart
Smart Antennas
Antennas for
for WIMAX
WIMAX
Adaptive Antenna Systems
Multiple antenna element arrays
Individual user signal on each element is
correlated to provide gain to or from the client
FDD requires a feedback mechanism for phase
adjustment in the downlink direction
2008
93
93
Adaptive
Adaptive Arrays
Arrays
MOBILE
MOBILE AND
AND FIXED
FIXED WiMAX
WiMAX SERVICES
SERVICES
Uplink Example:
Beam tracking as users move
through the coverage area
Theoretical gain over conventional antenna:
Downlink gain = 20 x log(N)
Uplink gain = 10 x log(N)
Multi-element
Antenna Array
Where:
N = number of antenna elements
F F F F
Example:
Element gain = 15 dBi
Number of elements (N) = 4
Downlink array gain = 15 dBi + 20 x log(4) = 27 dBi
Uplink array gain = 15 dBi + 10 x log(4) = 21 dBi
Phasing Network
(one for each beam)
F F F F
Tx/Rx 1
Tx/Rx 2
2008
Theoretical downlink gain is greater than uplink due to coherently combining power from each
transmitter.
94
94
Enhancing
Enhancing performance
performance
POTENTIAL
POTENTIAL FOR
FOR ADAPTIVE
ADAPTIVE ARRAYS
ARRAYS
Spatial Filtering for Interference Reduction (SFIR)
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Multiple co-channel stations on adjacent cells

Extreme, dynamic sectorization
Allows for lower mobile station Tx power
Increased battery life for mobile stations
Statistical reduction of inter-cell co-channel interference
Increased range
Increased system capacity
95
Simultaneous access of multiple co-channel stations

Statistical reduction of intra-cell co-channel interference
Increased site capacity
Complex approach relative to SFIR
2008
95
Lesson
Lesson 2/3
2/3 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz
1. According to Harry Nyquist, the minimum bandwidth required for a
4 _____
Mega- Baud is 2 MHz.
signaling rate of ___
2. Shannons Law states that the bit rate of a channel is a function of
bandwidth and the ________.
SNR
the __________
29 dBm.
3. Convert 800 mW to _____
4. Given values of a channel: C/N = 15 dB, the C/I = 15 dB
12 dB
What is the C/(I+N) of the channel? _____
bandwidth efficient than 16-QAM.
5. QPSK is less ___________
6. As the number of constellation points of a modulation scheme
baud increases and the free distance
increases, the bits per ______
decreases
__________.
7. A 10 MBaud signaling rate using 16-QAM and 1/2 rate FEC can
provide a maximum bit rate of _____
20 Mbps.
0.1
8. Given a frequency of 3 GHz, what is the wavelength? ______
meters
9. A 10 dBi gain antenna is equivalent to a _____
7.86 dBd gain antenna.
A MIMO can increase the bit rate of a channel in a multi-path
10.Matrix ____
environment by improving C/N performance.
2008
96
96
Lesson 4:
RF Design
considerations
for wimax
2008
97
97
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
Describe sources of noise, based on bandwidth
and operating frequency of the channel
Determine the system noise floor based on
bandwidth and Noise Figure
Determine system performance based on C/N
and C/(I+N)
2008
98
98
RF
RF Link
Link Considerations
Considerations
Operating Band
Amount of Allocated Spectrum
Channel Bandwidth
Duplexing Technique
Sources of Noise: External vs. Internal
Sources of Interference
System Limiting Factors
2008
99
99
RF
RF Spectrum
Spectrum Issues
Issues
LOSS
LOSS vs.
vs. FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
Considerations
Material Type
Building Penetration Loss
Building/Terrain Roughness
Scattering Loss
Region, Drop Size, Polarization
Rain Loss
Humidity Level
Atmos. Loss
UHF
300 MHz
700 MHz
Fu
SHF
3 GHz
t ur
WiMAX LOS
30 GHz
WiMAX NLOS
2008
100
100
Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise
Definition:
Noise generated by thermal agitation of molecules at temperatures
above absolute zero (0 Kelvins). The noise generated is independent
of frequency and proportional to temperature.
Fading carrier
Faded Receive Sensitivity
Fade Margin
Static carrier
Static Receive Sensitivity
C/N
Min. C/N
System Noise Floor
NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor

(Warm Earth @ 290 K)
2008
101
Two main sources of thermal noise:

1. The Warm Earth generates a background temperature of 290 K. Antennas in terrestrial
communications see this noise and transfer it to receivers.
2. Ohmic losses in receive equipment generate noise which is added to the Warm Earth. The
amount of noise contribution is called the Noise Figure of the receiver.
101
Quantifying
Quantifying Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise Power
Power
USE
USE DECIBELS,
DECIBELS, ITS
ITS EASY
EASY
Nt = k T0 B
Where:
k = Boltzmanns Constant
T = Ambient temperature (in Kelvins)
B = Bandwidth (in Hz)
NdB = 10 log 1.3803 10 -23 W/K/Hz + 10 log(290K ) + 10 log(B)
NdB = -198.6 dBm/K/Hz + 24.6 dBK + dBHz

= - 174 dBm/Hz + dBHz
Exercise:
Given the following, determine the thermal noise power:
Ambient temperature = 290 K (Warm Earth)
Bandwidth
1. 3.5 MHz
2. 10 MHz
1. Noise power = ________
-108.5 dBm
2. Noise power = ________
-104 dBm
2008
102
Overview:
When determining the thermal noise floor of a receive system, the common approach is to add
the decibel form of the values. The above calculation is used to determine the amount of thermal
noise seen by the antenna.
In decibels:
Boltzmans Constant = -198.6 dBm/K/Hz
or
-228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Reference temperature = 24.6 dBK

Bandwidth = 10 log10(Bandwidth [in Hz])
Instructions:
Using decibels, determine the noise power for the stated bandwidths.
102
Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise Floor
Floor
COMPARING
COMPARING CELLULAR
CELLULAR AND
AND WIMAX
WIMAX
Thermal Noise and Bandwidth
-98
WiMAX (NLOS)
Thermal Noise Floor (dBm)
-100
-102
-104
-106
W-CDMA
-108
-110
-112
CDMA 2000
-114
-116
-118
-120
GSM
-122
0.1
0.5 1.25 2.5
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
Bandwidth (MHz)
2008
103
Narrow band signals, such as GSM (200 KHz wide), allow for greater path loss and lower signal
levels due to the lower noise floor. Wide bandwidth channels require a higher absolute signal
level for the same C/N ratio of a lower bandwidth signal.
103
Receive
Receive System
System Noise
Noise Figure
Figure
The Base Station Noise Figure is a function of the
design configuration and component parameters:
Cable losses
Duplexer losses (FDD systems)
Combiner losses (multi-cxr systems)
Splitter losses
Amplifier gains
Receiver NFdB
System Noise Floor = Thermal Noise Floor + NFdB
2008
104
104
Noise
Noise Factor
Factor and
and Noise
Noise Figure
Figure
NOISE
NOISE CONTRIBUTION
CONTRIBUTION OF
OF THE
THE RECEIVER
RECEIVER
S in
NF =
S out
Converting to Noise Figure:
NFdB = 10 log10 (NF)
N in
N out
Converting to Noise Factor:

T = To = 290K
NF = 10
NFdB
10
Example: An amplifier
Signal input = 400 pW
Signal output = 400 W
Noise input = 5 pW
Noise output = 25 mW
NF =
400
400
25
80
=
=5
16
Exercise (from example values):

1.
7 dB
Convert the noise factor (5) to NFdB _____
2.
19 dB
What is the input C/N? ______
4.
12 dB
What is the output C/N? ______
2008
105
Overview:
The amount of noise contribution of a receiver, or receive system, is called the Noise Figure of
the receiver. It is a statement of the amount of noise added to the Warm Earth at 290
Kelvins.
Instructions:
1. Convert the linear value of 5 to its decibel equivalent.
2. Use the input ratio in the noise factor example to determine the S/N and convert to decibels.
3. Use the input ratio in the noise factor example to determine the S/N and convert to decibels.
Notice that subtracting the Output S/N (in decibels) from the input S/N (in decibels) equal the
NFdB.
105
Average
Average Man-made
Man-made Noise
Noise
50
F0 (in dB) Above k T0 B
Urban
Man-made
Natural and Man-made noise can

be ignored at higher frequencies
40
30
Suburban
Man-made
Typical Receiver
20
10
k = Boltzmans constant
T0 = 290 K
100
1000
Frequency (in MHz)
2008
10000
106
When deploying systems using spectrum below 1 GHz in urban areas the dominant source of
noise becomes man-made noise. This must be factored into the receiver performance
calculations. At the higher frequencies, the dominant noise source is the internal noise
generated by the equipment, but other sources of interference must be considered.
The accompanying chart is based on the ITT Reference Data for Radio Engineers, 5th edition.
Notice that as the frequency increases, the amount of man-made and natural noise decrease.
Typically, around 2 GHz and higher, the system thermal noise floor is greater than the manmade and natural noise generated. These higher frequency systems are typically considered to
be thermal noise limited.
106
Limiting
Limiting Factors
Factors
RF Link Performance Limitations

Uplink limited vs. Downlink limited
Bandwidth limited vs. Power limited
Noise limited vs. Interference limited
2008
107
107
Uplink
Uplink Limited
Limited vs.
vs.
Downlink
Downlink Limited
Limited
Downlink: Base to CPE
Uplink: CPE to Base
CPE
CPE
CPE
Base
CPE
Bad News:
Low power outputU/L
Low gain antennaU/L and D/L
Good News:
High power outputD/L
High Rx sensitivityU/L
High gain antennaD/L and U/L
Potential diversity systemU/L
Bad News:
Susceptible to reuse interference from both
CPE and co-channel BS in TDD systemsU/L
CPE
Good News:
High Rx sensitivityD/L
May be less susceptible to interferenceD/L
2008
108
The uplink is typically the limiting link, due to customer premises equipment (CPE) performance.
This is not always the case, however, due to other considerations.
108
Bandwidth
Bandwidth Limited
Limited Site
Site vs.
vs.
Power
Power Limited
Limited Site
Site
Power
Limited
Bandwidth
Limited
Im transmitting at maximum power.

Can I get more capacity or coverage by using
more bandwidth?
Im using all of my bandwidth.
Can I get more capacity or coverage by
transmitting at higher power?
Users of licensed spectrum are often Bandwidth Limited

Users of unlicensed spectrum are often both Power Limited
and Bandwidth Limited
2008
109
109
Noise-Limited
Noise-Limited Receiver
Receiver Sensitivity
Sensitivity
A receiver is considered Noise Limited when there is no interference,
or interference is significantly below the thermal noise floor. LOS
point-to-point microwave links are typically noise limited. At higher
frequencies, margin must be allowed for rain fade.
Fading carrier
Fade Margin
Static carrier
C/N
Min. C/N
System Noise Floor
NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor

2008
110
A typical terrestrial* communications antenna sees the Warm Earth. This is considered to be
290 K (Kelvins). The antenna is considered to be a loss-less device, so in a noise limited system
the output of the antenna to the receive system will be a carrier level (C) and a noise level (N).
The thermal noise floor is based on the amount of the Warm Earth seen, which is a function of
the receive bandwidth.
*This is not the case in satellite communications since the antenna element is partially shielded
from the Warm Earth by a non-resonant reflector that also provides gain by focusing a signal
at the antenna element.
110
Interference-Limited
Interference-Limited Receiver
Receiver
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Mobile WiMAX systems can suffer interference from co-channels and
adjacent channels due to frequency re-use. Since Mobile WiMAX
implementations are NLOS, fade margin must also be added.
Fading carrier
Static carrier
Log-Normal
Fade Margin
C/(I+N)
Min. C/(I+N)
Total Interference + Noise
Interference
Equipment Noise Floor
NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor

2008
NLOS = Non Line-of-Site
111
Since the receive system will accept any signal (or noise) within the receiver pass-band,
interference from man-made and natural sources, as well as distant co-channels all combine
with the thermal noise to increase the total noise and interference floor seen by the receiver.
Unlike the Warm Earth, interference comes from a specific direction. This means that it is
important to consider the gain of the antenna in the direction of the interference when calculating
its effect.
111
What
What the
the Receiver
Receiver Sees
Sees
REFERENCE
REFERENCE POINTS
POINTS FOR
FOR C/I
C/I and
and C/N
C/N
TDD
C/I
EIRP
Nloss
Base
Station
EIR
P,
Dis
t an
lo
rpho
, Mo
e
c
n
ta
, Dis
gy,
gain
nna
e
t
n
Rx a
FDD/TDD
Co-channel
Base Station
Noise bandwidth
ce,
Mo
r ph
NWE
olo
gy,
R
xa
nt e
nna
CPE
gai
n
CPE
Nint = NF
CPE
C/N
C = Carrier
I = Co-channel Interference
Nloss = Noise due to Ohmic loss
CPE
NWE = Noise from Warm Earth (290 K)
2008
Nint = Rx noise contribution from internal components
112
When determining the C/I, the antenna gain towards the interferer must be considered. An
uncoordinated co-channel is a channel on the same frequency that is asynchronously
transmitting, instead of taking turns with other units. Notice that the implementation
illustrated is a Time Division Duplex (TDD) scheme. There are three (3) implementation
types that could be employed:
1.
Synchronized TDD Co-channelstaking turns transmitting to avoid co-channel

interference.
2.
Employing OFDM (more later) simultaneous transmission using different sets of tones (subchannels).
3.
A frequency reuse pattern with no co-channels close enough to interfere.
Option 3 provides the greatest potential throughput, but requires more spectrum and co-channel
interference analysis.
112
Exercise:
Exercise: Noise
Noise and
and Interference
Interference
When multiplying linear values (gain), add decibels!
When dividing linear values (loss), subtract decibels!
Remember, when adding actual power values, in decibels:
1. Convert to linear values (or ratios)
2. Add linear values together
3. Convert back to decibels
Log-Normal
Fade Margin
Min. C/(I+N)
C/(I+N)
Total Interference + Noise
I+N
Interference
Equipment Noise Floor
I
N
NFdB
Thermal Noise Floor
1. Measured Rx thermal noise floor = -107 dBm, interference level

-104.5 dBm
(measured at Rx input) = -108 dBm. Total N+I = _______
2. The carrier level at the receiver input = -82 dBm, receiver thermal noise
floor = -100 dBm, interference at receiver input = -102 dBm
The C/(I+N) = ______
15.9 dB
2008
IRL = Isotropic Receive Level
Instructions:
1.
Determine the combined N + I by performing the three steps shown above.
2.
Combine N + I (same process as Question 1), convert back to dBs, then subtract from C
(carrier).
113
113
Lesson
Lesson 4
4 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz
wavelength
1. Losses due to scattering are inversely proportional to __________.
2. The noise power seen by a Rx antenna in 10 MHz of bandwidth,
-104 dBm.
operating at 5 GHz, is _______
6
3. A Noise Factor of 4 is equal to a Noise Figure of ______
dB.
3.981 MHz
4. A bandwidth of 66 dB-Hz = ________
5. Man-made and natural noise and interference are more prevalent
below GHz.
_______1
6. The noise power at a receiver input is 10 pW and the interference
-77 dBm.
power is 10 pW. The N+I = ____
2008
Instructions:
Fill-in the blanks.
114
114
Lesson
Lesson 5:
5:
Performing a
wimax Link Budget
2008
115
115
Lesson
Lesson Objective
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will perform a simple
link budget to determine the MAPL:
MAPL = Tx out + gains - losses (w/margin) - Rx sensitivity
You will need to follow these steps:

1. Gather relevant equipment spec info (antenna,
coax, receiver sensitivity)
2. Estimate margins
a. Line of Sight: Crane Model (Rain loss)
b. NLOS: Lognormal Fade (WiMAX Area/Edge)
2008
MAPL = Maximum Allowable Path Loss
116
116
Base
Base Stations
Stations and
and CPE
CPE
TYPICAL
TYPICAL WiMAX
WiMAX COMPONENTS/CONFIGURATIONS
COMPONENTS/CONFIGURATIONS
Antenna
Antenna
Coaxial
jumper
Antenna
Coaxial
jumper
ODU
ODU
RF via
Coax
Integral Antenna*
Baseband
or IF
Baseband
IDU
IDU
or
ODU
IDU
Ethernet/T-1 Interface
Ethernet Interface
* May be a small omni or a directional high-gain antenna

IDU = Indoor Unit
ODU = Outdoor Unit
IF = Intermediate Frequency
2008
117
Different manufacturers provide different equipment configurations. The above are examples of
possible system component configurations.
117
Antenna
Antenna Types
Types
BASED
BASED ON
ON COVERAGE
COVERAGE PATTERN
PATTERN
Omni-directional
Sectored
Highly-directional
2008
118
Antennas provide gain by reducing the radiation in unwanted directions and focusing the energy
in the desired direction. This is typically referred to a beam shaping.
Omni-directional gain is the result of vertically stacking phasing elements in order to
concentrate energy in the horizontal plane.
Sectored antennas focus energy in a range typically from 60 to 120. The beam width of these
antennas is defined by the power, or 3 dB, points. Notice the mechanical down-tilt adjustment
for modifying the coverage area.
Highly-directional antennas typically consist of a parabolic reflector focusing energy into a
beam ranging from 10 to less than 1, based on the aperture size and operating frequency.
Parabolic reflectors come in solid form and open, low wind resistance, form.
118
Antenna
Antenna Manufacturer
Manufacturer Specs.
Specs.
AN
AN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Important Parameters
Vertical/Horizontal Pattern
Front-to-Back Ratio
Polarization
Gain (dBi or dBd)
Operating Frequency Range
2008
Typical antenna specification provide all of the data required for a link budget analysis.
119
119
Front-to-Back
Front-to-Back Ratio
Ratio
Definition:
The ratio of the gain in the main lobe of an antenna
to the gain in its back lobe.
0 dBi
-10 dBi
15 dBi
Example:
Antenna gain = 15 dBi
Front-to-back ratio = 25 dB
Back lobe gain = 15 dBi 25 dB = -10 dBi
2008
120
Front-to-back ratios are determined under ideal conditions. Do not assume that the ratio is the
same for every deployment area. In highly cluttered environments the front-to-back ratio will be
degraded due to reflections from surrounding clutter.
120
Antenna
Antenna Beamwidth
Beamwidth
Definition:
The angle at which the antenna gain pattern is 3 dB
lower (half power) than the center of the main beam.
3 dB down point
This is an antenna with a
90 beam width! This
illustrates why you dont use
120 beam width antennas
in a 3-sector deployment!
90
2008
121
Cellular-based deployments, like WiMAX, commonly use sectorized antennas. When deploying
three-sector sites, it is a common practice to use antennas with an azimuth range of 75 to 90.
Four-sector sites would have antennas with horizontal beam widths starting at 60.
121
Transmission
Transmission Lines:
Lines:
COAXIAL
COAXIAL CABLE
CABLE
Coaxial cable considerations:

TypeLMR-XXX, RG-XX
Characteristic Impedance (Z)
Attenuation per length @ operating frequency
Construction
w Dielectric
Typical Cable Types
Attenuation/100ft @ 2.4 GHz
w Rigid
w Semi-rigid
w Flexible
Ratings
w Plenum cable
RG-58/LMR-195
18.6 dB
RG-8/LMR-240
12.6 db
RG-214/LMR-400
6.61 dB
LMR-600
4.4 dB
w Buriable cable
w Maximum power
w Percent shielding
2008
Jumper coax: Flexible, commonly RG-214 (silver plated, double shield)
Vertical run coax: Semi-rigid up to 1 5/8, foam dielectric
122
122
WiMAX
WiMAX Deployment
Deployment TYPES
TYPES (1)
(1)
POINT-TO-POINT
POINT-TO-POINT LOS
LOS
Deployment:
High gain antennas
Unobstructed Path
Usage:
Backhauls
High Usage Customer
Good News:
Maximum throughput
Bad News:
Minimum Customers
Tx
Rx
2008
123
Point-to-point systems are typically deployed to provide high data rates for backhauling of traffic
from point-to-multipoint systems and for satisfying a high data rate requirement, like T-3
replacement, for a commercial customer. Because this type of deployment requires a high
reliability, given the amount of traffic affected, high gain antennas are used to provide a large
fade margin (typically around 40 dB). The use of these highly directional antennas also reduces
interference from other sources.
123
WIMAX
WIMAX Deployment
Deployment Types
Types (2)
(2)
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT LOS
LOS
Deployment:
Omni/Sectored BS antennas
Directional CPE antenna
Unobstructed Path
Good News:
Good throughput
Usage:
Higher Frequencies
Open Areas
Bad News:
Limited Range
Limited Environments
External CPE antenna
CPE
Base
2008
124
When higher frequencies ( > 6 GHz) are used on point-to-multi-point systems, line-of-sight is
required in order to provide a reasonable amount of coverage. This means that the base station
must have an omni or sectored antenna and the CPE must use an externally mounted high gain
(uni-directional) antenna. This type of deployment requires an installation crew for
implementation. The level of installation required is similar to satellite TV installations.
124
WiMAX
WiMAX Deployment
Deployment Types
Types (3)
(3)
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT NLOS
NLOS
Deployment:
Omni/Sectored BS antennas
Possibly MIMO
Integral CPE antenna
Obstructed Path
Usage:
Lower Frequencies
All Morphologies
Fixed or Mobile
Good News:
Maximum Customers
Modular CPE
Bad News:
Limited Range
Lower Capacity (sharing)
CPE
Base
2008
Point-to-point NLOS allows for user installation of the CPE. This can be a big plus when
deploying a new system. It can also be the cause of uplink-limited performance.
125
125
LOS
LOS Link
Link Margin
Margin
RAIN
RAIN FADE
FADE MARGIN
MARGIN
Rain Fade considerations:

Raindrops smaller than a wavelength absorb the waves energy
Raindrops close to a wavelength in size scatter the wave
Polarization discrimination is lost
Due to the shape of the raindrops, horizontally polarized waves are
attenuated more than vertically polarized waves
Example:
Use the provided Crane method spreadsheet to determine the required
margin for a 10 km, vertically polarized 11 GHz link in a D3 region.
29.6 dB
Fade margin for 99.999% link availability = ______
2008
There are two basic rain fade methods:
1.
Crane method
2.
ITU-R method
Both of these methods employ rain rate and regional maps along with calculations.
Instructions:
1.
Open the provided spreadsheet (Crane Method).
2.
Input region code, distance, polarization and frequency data (yellow cells).
3.
Fill-in required margin for the required link availability.
126
Crane
Method
126
NLOS
NLOS Coverage
Coverage Margin
Margin
FIXED
FIXED AND
AND MOBILE
MOBILE WIMAX
WIMAX
Coverage Objective:
Provide ___% area reliability and ___% edge reliability
for the intended coverage area terrain and morphology.
Should it be like
rain fade margins?
Typical Coverage Area Clutter Types:

Dense Urban: The dense business district of a metropolitan
area. Building are generally 10 to 20 stories and higher.
Urban: Building structures are typically 5 to 10 stories high.
Suburban: A mix of residential and business. Buildings range
from 1 to 5 stories, but 1 and 2 story buildings predominate.
Rural: Generally open areas with structures not exceeding 2
stories. Sparsely populated areas with trees and foliage.
2008
127
The USGS land use/land coverage (LU/LC) defined 31 categories. The four shown above are
common to cellular implementations.
127
Lognormal
Lognormal Fading
Fading Probability
Probability
NLOS
NLOS EDGE
EDGE AND
AND AREA
AREA COVERAGE
COVERAGE MARGINS
MARGINS
Fu =
1
1 - ab
1 - 2ab
1- erf(a) + exp
1 - erf
2
2
b
b
Where:
(x 0 - )
e
b = 10n log10
2
2
Fu = fraction of useful service area within a circle
x0 = minimum receivable signal strength at subscriber
= signal strength at mobile unit for radius r
= standard deviation of possible signal values
n = propagation constant (path loss exponent)
a=
Suburban Environment
2.5 GHz, 30 dBm Power Amp,
15 dBi antenna, 30 m AGL
and
Example:
Given a path loss exponent of 3.5, a minimum signal level
of -94 dBm and a standard deviation of 10 dB, what is the
margin required for an area coverage probability of 90%?
Threshold = -90 dBm

Approx. 87% total coverage @ 1 km
Lognormal fade
______
8 dB
2008
128
When deploying NLOS implementations, shadow fading (due to path obstructions) must be considered.
Measurements have shown that for any distance from a base station, the path loss at different locations is
random and has a log-normal distribution. Over a large number of measurement locations having the
same distance between subscriber unit and base station, the random shadowing effects are described by a
log-normal distribution. This is often referred to as Log-normal Shadowing ( or fading).
A common approach is to calculate the lognormal probability of adequate signal strength in a coverage
area. The probability is a function of the path loss exponent and the standard deviation of signal values for
a given environment. The amount of margin determined from the environmental values is based on
coverage objectives for a given implementation. Mobile radio (cellular) prioritizes the area service
objective, while fixed wireless services may consider margin for area or edge coverage.
The propagation constant (n), also called the path loss exponent, accounts for the distance-dependent
mean of the signal level based on the propagation environment. The standard deviation () statistically
describes the path loss variability for arbitrary locations with the same distance between subscriber unit
and cell site.
The ratio of /n is used to determine the amount of margin required to satisfy an area reliability objective.
A high /n requires more margin due to the higher variability of shadow fading within a coverage area.
A low /n will require less margin due to the more consistent propagation environment, but edge reliability
will decrease.
128
Coverage
Coverage Vs.
Vs. Performance:
Performance: Your
Your Design
Design
should
should match
match the
the morphology
morphology
Dense
Urban
Urban
ST Dev @ 10 to 12 dB
Clutter
Suburban
ST Dev @ 8 to 10 dB
ST Dev @ 6 to 8 dB
Rural
ST Dev @ 4 to 6 dB
Customer Density/Performance Requirements
2008
129
A coverage area is commonly defined by its clutter and terrain characteristics. The greater the
clutter for a given terrain, the greater the path loss. Satisfying coverage and performance (user
bit rate) requirements typically means more base stations (cells) per square km (or square mile)
in heavy clutter areas. A dense urban environment will not only have significant amount of
clutter, but customers (mainly commercial) will have a higher expectation of performance than a
home-based customer located in suburban and rural areas. These factors must be considered
when providing service in different coverage areas.
The ST Dev values shown above are typical for each clutter type.
129
Capacity
Capacity VS
VS Coverage
Coverage
Capacity Implementation Issues:
Bandwidth-efficient modulation
Reduced coverage area
Reduced number of customers
High per customer rates
Symmetrical access rates
Coverage Implementation Issues:

Power-efficient modulation
Increased coverage area
Increased number of customers
Lower per customer rates
Asymmetrical access
Coverage based on closing uplink
64-QAM
16-QAM
QPSK
BPSK
You are here. Sorry!
2008
130
Wireless voice systems, such as modern cellular radio, consider coverage only. You are
connected or dropped based on coverage patterns. Wireless data services provide a multi-tiered
service capability. Subscribers with a strong signal will have a high data rate. Those with a
lower signal level will still have access to the network, but will have a lower data rate based on a
more power efficient (less bandwidth efficient) modulation scheme and increased error
correction overhead. More bad news, the lowest performance levels typically encompass the
greatest area of coverage, increasing the number of subscribers competing for access!
Remember!
Communications only takes place when both ends of the link can be heard!!!!
130
Calculating
Calculating Rx
Rx Performance
Performance
In order to determine the BS Rx sensitivity, the
following must be known:
Required C/(I+N)based on performance
Thermal Noise
External Noise (lower frequencies)
Reuse Noise (co-channel and adjacent channel)
System Noise Figure
2008
131
When deploying WiMAX in existing facilities, determining the system noise figure can be a
complex process. This is due to the use of common vertical coax runs, requiring diplexers,
splitters, combiners and other base station components. When using existing facilities it may be
necessary to perform a cascade analysis to determine the system noise figure.
131
Finding
Finding RX
RX system
system Noise
Noise Figure
Figure
CASCADE
CASCADE FORMULA
FORMULA
FRX = F1 +
Where:
Gx = Gain (ratio, not dB)
Fx = Noise Factor
F2 - 1 F3 - 1
F4 - 1
+
+
+K
G1
G1 G2 G1 G2 G3
4 dB NF
Example:
3 dB loss
Coax
30 dB
amp
1
NFdB Reference Point
F1 = 2
G1 = 0.5
F2 = 2.5
G2 = 1000
F3 = 5
G3 = 0.2
F4 = 6.3
7 dB loss
8 dB NF
WiMAX Rcvr
2.5 - 1
5 -1
6.3 - 1
+
+
0.5
0.5 1000 0.5 1000 0.2
= 2 + 3 + 0.008 + 0.053 = 5.061
FRX = 2 +
NFdB = 10 log10 (5.061) = 7 dB
2008
132
When using the Cascade formula, the noise figure reference point can be assigned at any point
before the first active (amplifier) component. The first system component will have the greatest
influence, meaning that the system NFdB cant be better than the NFdB of the first component, on
the system NFdB. Stages after an amplifier have progressively less impact on total system NFdB.
132
Exercise:
Exercise: Converting
Converting Gain
Gain and
and NF
NFdB
dB
Instructions: Convert the gain and noise figure values to actual ratios.
Component
Coax
WiMAX Rcvr
Parameters (dB)
Parameters (ratio)
Loss (NF) = 5.5 dB

Gain = -5.5 dB
3.5481
Loss (NF) = ______
Gain = _______
0.2818
Gain = 33 dB
NF = 5 dB
2000
Gain = _______
3.1623
NF = ________
NF = 12 dB
NF = 15.8489
2008
Instructions:
Convert gains and Noise Figures (or losses) to linear ratios.
133
133
Exercise:
Exercise: Receive
Receive System
System NF
NFdb
db
BASED
BASED ON
ON SYSTEM
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION
Instructions: Given the values shown, determine the NFdB for the systems below.
C/N
3 dB loss
Coax
System NFdB
7 dB loss
8 dB NF
WiMAX Rcvr
7 dB loss
8 dB NF
Coax
WiMAX Rcvr
4 dB NF
30 dB
amp
Rx System 1:
7.05 dB
NFdB = ______
C/N
4 dB NF
30 dB
amp
3 dB loss
Rx System 2:
4.11 dB
NFdB = _____
System NFdB
FRX = F1 +
F2 - 1 F3 - 1
F4 - 1
+
+
G1
G1 G2 G1 G2 G3
Cascade Formula
2008
134
The performance of a cascaded system of components is based on the configuration and

performance parameters of the individual components. The above two systems use the
same components in different configurations. The key to performance of these two systems
is the placement and performance of the Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA). The first stage in a
cascade of stages limits the receiver system NFdBit can never be better than the NFdb of
the first component! The purpose of the LNA is to increase the noise floor high enough to
reduce the impact of loss from successive stages while having a minimum effect of the C/N.
A high gain LNA with a low NFdB can provide benefit even if it is after a coax loss. Without
sufficient gain, benefit is minimum. Too much gain can overdrive the receiver in the
presence of a strong receive signal.
System 1: A significant loss in front of the LNA limits the receiver system NFdB. A high gain in
the LNA can help minimize the post-LNA losses. This configuration (indoor-mounted LNA)
can be beneficial if the coax loss to the LNA is reasonably low and the LNA has sufficient
gain relative to the post-LNA losses. A low gain LNA offers little performance benefit in this,
or any deployment. An LNA with too much gain reduces the dynamic range of the receiver
and could overload the receiver, causing other problems.
System 2: Theoretically, this can provide the best performance. If there is a significant amount
of gain in the LNA, the post-LNA losses have little impact on the system NFdB. If a small
amount of gain is used, the LNA provides little or no benefit. In cellular deployments, this is
referred to as a TTA (Tower-Top Amplifier). Since LNAs are typically rated for their operating
NFdB at 23 C ambient temperature, there can be a degradation of performance when the
ambient temperature increases above this value. Remember, an LNA with too much gain
reduces the dynamic range of the receiver and could overload the receiver, causing other
problems.
134
WiMAX
WiMAX Link
Link Budgets
Budgets
SIMPLE
SIMPLE COMPARED
COMPARED TO
TO CELLULAR
CELLULAR
Cellular implementations use a range of vendor equipment
and configurations. This requires a detailed link budget
analysis for each equipment configuration!
Antenna
Gain (dBi)
Frequency
Antenna
Gain (dBi)
Frequency
Coax/WG
Length
Loss/distance
Modular BS
Transceiver
Modular
CPE
Transceiver
Power output
Rx Sensitivity
WiMAX implementations are more modular,

allowing for a simpler link budget analysis.
Transceiver
Power output
Rx Sensitivity
2008
135
Modular systems allow for simple system implementations, but they are not as flexible as
systems that are assembled from individual system components from different manufacturers.
In a green-field deployment, modular systems (WiMAX) may not require a cascade analysis.
135
Receive
Receive System
System Reference
Reference Points
Points
Rx
Antenna
C/N
C/N
Modular System
WiMAX
Rcvr
Coax
System NFdB
Rx
Antenna
System NFdB = Receiver NFdB
C/N
TTA System
Coax
TTA
WiMAX
Rcvr
WiMAX
Rcvr
System NFdB
Rx
Antenna
LNA System
C/N
C/N
Coax
System NFdB
LNA
System NFdB
2008
136
The reference point for a cascade analysis can change, as long as the reference point is before
the first active stageamplifier. The NFdB can vary at each reference point, but the C/N is the
same at each point.
Modular systems: This type of system does not need a cascade analysis because the
Receiver NFdB can be the system NFdB. This assumes a TDD system composed of an antenna,
coaxial cable and the receiver.
TTA System and LNA System: Cascade analysis must be performed to determine the receive
system NFdB. When comparing system NFdB between these two systems, it is common to
reference the same point for NFdB comparison.
136
Link
Link Budget
Budget
FIX
FIX MOST
MOST VARIABLES,
VARIABLES, SOLVE
SOLVE FOR
FOR ONE
ONE UNKNOWN
UNKNOWN
What might you solve for, if given all other values?
Determine Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
Determining System Gain (manufacturers specifications)
Determine required net antenna gain for TX and RX
Determine coverage based on type of link and morphology
System Gain = EIRP Required IRL
Power out
TX
MAPL = System Gain Environmental Margin
losses
RX
Sensitivity
2008
137
System Gain is a term used to define the difference between the maximum output of a system
component and the minimum level required by the component. When analyzing modular
systems, the System Gain can be the difference between the EIRP and the Required IRL.
When the environmental margins are added to the System Gain, this is referred to as the
Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL). This value would then be applied to path loss analysis
to determine the expected coverage radius of a site. When performing a conservative analysis,
the weaker direction (D/L or U/L) will be used for the MAPL.
In link budget analysis, the budget referred to is the loss budget of the system. The link budget
analysis (also called the Link Analysis) has several variables. A link budget allows us to
specify a value for all variables but one, and solve for that one. For example, we can enter all
values for transmitter system characteristics and receiver system characteristics, and the
formula will tell us the maximum allowable path loss between the two. Or we can enter the
known path loss for a link, and the receive sensitivity, and we can determine the minimum gain
setting at the transmitter that assures a reliable link. Or we could use the analysis to determine
the right antennas to use at the transmitter and receiver. Or we can use the formula to
determine the coverage based on the link and topology.
The most common unknown to be determined in a link budget analysis is the Maximum
Allowable Path Loss (MAPL).
137
Finding
Finding the
the MAPL
MAPL
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
ALLOWABLE PATH
PATH LOSS
LOSS
MAPL (for a Modular System): The difference between Effective
Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP), and Required Isotropic Receive Level
(IRL), with margin (based on environment and service objectives).
The MAPL estimates the transmitter to receiver loss that a system can
tolerate. This can then be used with a propagation model to determine
the coverage radius.
ERPdBm = P out dBm - Cable LossdB + Ant gaindBi = 36 dBm
Required IRL = RX sensitivitydBm - Rx Ant gaindBi = - 92 dBm
12 dBi
12 dBi
System Gain = EIRP Required IRL

MAPL = System Gain Environmental Margin
TX
2 dB loss
Power output = 26 dBm
Exercise (based on example values):
RX
1.
Determine the system gain _______

128 dB
2.
Assuming 8 dB of fade margin, determine

the MAPL ______
120 dB
Sensitivity = -80 dBm
2008
138
Overview:
Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL): The difference between Effective Isotropic Radiated
Power, and the Receiver sensitivity at the receive antenna input, plus link margin based on
environmental factors. Maximum allowable path loss estimates the loss that a system can
tolerate from estimated path loss plus any clutter, rain, or other fading effects that occur between
the transmitter and receiver along the propagation path. Cellular systems consider link balance
when determining the MAPL. This is due to the requirement for a symmetrical talk-back path
from the subscriber.
Once determined, the MAPL is combined with a path loss model for a specific environment to
predict the coverage distance allowed for a specific equipment configuration in a given
environment.
Instructions:
1. Given the EIRP and the Required IRL, determine the system gain.
2. Given the fade margin, determine the MAPL.
138
Link
Link Balance
Balance is
is less
less critical
critical for
for
W
WIIMAX
MAX than
than for
for Cellular
Cellular
+50
+40
+30
Coax Tx Ant Path Rx Ant Coax

loss
gain loss
gain
loss
D/L
Coax Rx Ant Path

loss
gain loss
Tx Ant
gain
Coax
loss
+50
+40
U/L
+30
+10
-10
-10
-20
-20
-30
-30
-40
-40
-50
-50
-60
-60
-70
-70
-80
-80
-90
-90
-100
-100
-110
Tx Amp Tx Ant Tx Ant Rx Ant Rx Ant Rx

out
in
out
in
out
in
Rx
in
Rx Ant Rx Ant Tx Ant Tx Ant Tx Amp

out
in
out
in
out
2008
dBm
+20
+10
dBm
+20
-110
139
A balanced link is important in the cellular world, especially for voice calls. This is because the
mobile-to-base (uplink) is usually the weak link and if the mobile subscriber cant make a call or
talk back during a call the service is considered to be bad! The MAPL is often based on the
performance of the weaker link as the limiting factor in cellular systems.
Wireless digital data systems can allow for an imbalance of the uplink and downlink for some
customers. The typical home-based customer uses the access in an asymmetrical manner,
pulling down large amounts of data and making small requests on the uplink. Since digital data
will fall back to a more power efficient modulation scheme, rather than be dropped (as with
cellular voice service), the path can tolerate some imbalance.
Notice that the only difference between the uplink and the downlink, in the above example, is due
to the difference between the CPE PA and the Base Station PA. This may is not always the
case since customer equipment may have poor receiver sensitivity as well as low PA output,
relative to the base station equipment. The combination of poor CPE receiver sensitivity and use
of diversity reception at the base station can reduce the imbalance of a cellular-based system
without reducing the base station PA output. Typical link budget analysis will consider the worstcase CPE in the worst-case location (indoor portable).
139
WIMAX
WIMAX Link
Link Budget
Budget Analysis
Analysis
Good News
Bad News
General link budgets and basic parameters

are often provided by WiMAX equipment
manufacturers
Noise limited link budget is simplified
Many WiMAX equipment parameters are
still difficult to obtain (NFdb, C/I+N, MIMO
improvement) from manufacturers
Interference limited link budgets are more
difficult than noise limited link budgets
Determine System Gain (use manufacturers specs.)

Example:
Tx power = 20 dBm
Rx sensitivity = -90 dBm
110 dB
System Gain = 20 dBm - (-90 dBm) = ________
2008
Fixed WiMAX can be either noise-limited or interference-limited, based on the deployment.

Mobile WiMAX will be interference-limited, due to requirement for overlapping sites and
frequency reuse. The interference-limited link budget requires more information to properly
determine performance.
140
140
Link
Link Budgets
Budgets
PRE-WIMAX
PRE-WIMAX MANUFACTURERS
MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS
SPECIFICATIONS
Wed like to use real

WiMAX specifications,
but theyre hard to get
without an NDA.
Besides, these are
reasonable numbers.
2008
141
The above chart is typical of the specifications provided by manufacturers of Pre-WiMax and
WiMax equipment. When deploying a single site, these parameters are adequate for performing
a link budget. When deploying multiple sites with frequency reuse, more data is required.
141
Exercise:
Exercise: A
A Simple
Simple Link
Link Budget
Budget
Libra 5800 RD
Base Station
Assume 0 dB margin for simplicity.

Libra 5800 CPE
Ethernet
Instructions: Determine the following,

using data from previous slide
Modulation Rate
Router
Max. Allowable Path Loss
QPSK
147 dB
144 dB
16-QAM
138 dB
BPSK
Ethernet
Assume a Rx NF of 8 dB. Determine the following:
Internet
Customer
PC
12 dB
BPSK min. C/N _____
15 dB
QPSK min. C/N _____
21 dB
16-QAM min. C/N _____
2008
142
Overview:
The MAPL is the worst-case assumption for radio link. Typically, the MAPL can consider the
system gain and the following:
Link Balancefor balanced talk-back path
Fade marginfor rain (LOS) or shadow fades (NLOS)
Penetration loss (NLOS)
For simplicity, assume 0 dB of margin for this exercise (MAPL = System Gain)
Instructions for MAPL:
1. Determine the EIRP, based of the provided data.
2. Subtract the Rx antenna gain from the receiver sensitivity to determine the Required IRL.
3. Subtract the Required IRL from the EIRP to find the MAPL (actually, the System Gain) for
each modulation scheme.
Instructions for min. C/N:
1. Find the thermal noise floor, based on the bandwidth.
2. Add the NFdB (assume 8 dB) to find the receiver noise floor.
3. Subtract the receiver noise floor from the receiver sensitivity for each modulation scheme to
find the C/N.
142
Lesson
Lesson 55 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz
lower operating frequencies are required for NLOS
1. Typically _______
than for LOS.
rain margin and NLOS systems
2. LOS systems consider ______
shadow fade margin.
consider ________
larger standard deviation, for a given path loss exponent, will
3. A _______
require more fade margin.
easier to determine than interference.
4. Thermal noise is typically ________
gain
5. In a cascade analysis, the __________
of the LNA determines the
effect of post-LNA losses on system performance.
6. Given a transceiver with an output power of 40 dBm and a receive
sensitivity of -95 dBm, the system gain is _____
135 dB.
7. An important receiver parameter that is typically not provided in
manufacturers specifications is the _______
_______.
Noise Figure
8. Given a receiver sensitivity (BER = 10-6) of -80 dBm, a receive
antenna gain of 9 dBi (no losses to receiver) and a fade margin of
6 dB, the required IRL, with margin, will be ______
-83 dBm.
2008
Instructions:
Fill-in the blanks.
143
143
Lesson 6:
WiMAX Path Loss

Modeling
2008
In the last lesson, we learned how to calculate the MAPL for a system.
In this lesson, well look at the Path Loss. Well look at several impairments to our signal that
introduce loss between the transmitter and the receiver.
With the MAPL and the Path Loss model, were able to determine how far our signal will
propagate and therefore know more about our system coverage.
144
144
Lesson
Lesson Objective:
Objective: Calculate
Calculate
Path
Path Loss
Loss for
for a
a WiMAX
WiMAX Signal
Signal
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to
Calculate the path loss for a WiMAX signal,
given the distance and type of path impairments
Or, Calculate the serving distance (range) of a
WiMAX signal, given the MAPL and type of pathloss impairments
For both LOS and NLOS systems
Choose the appropriate propagation model
w Free Space, Power Law, Hata, 802.16 SUI
2008
145
This section is all about the Path Loss, which occurs between the transmitter and the receiver.
When we understand the contributors to path loss, well be able to calculate either the loss for a
given distance, or the distance for a given MAPL.
Well look at the path loss impairments, which will differ between LOS and NLOS systems. Well
hear about multipath, reflections, scattering, and Fresnel zones. Well learn why OFDM is a
solution to NLOS multipath.
And well look at several RF propagation models for path loss in various conditions: Free Space
Path Loss, the Power Law model, the Hata Model and the 802.16 Stanford University Interim
model are several examples.
145
Basic
Basic propagation
propagation mechanisms
mechanisms
Refraction
Diffraction
Reflection
Absorption
Scattering
2008
146
Tropospheric refraction is common in LOS links. This bending of the radio signal through the
troposphere typically makes the radio horizon longer than the visual horizon on long range (10 to
20 miles) point-to-point LOS links.
Diffraction and reflection are critical to signal propagation in NLOS links.
Scattering can be useful to LOS links and detrimental to NLOS links.
146
the
the propagation
propagation environment
environment
Base
Station
Direct
Reflection
Diffraction
Absorption
Scattering
2008
The physical environment determines the primary propagation mode:
Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation Environment
A consistently unobstructed path between transmit and receive sites
Distance to the radio horizon is based on refraction of the signal through the
troposphere
Path obstructions are clear of the first Fresnel zone
Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) Propagation Environment
A multi-path rich environment
Combination of LOS and NLOS signal components
High signal level variability over a coverage area due to obstructions
147
147
Path
Path Loss
Loss and
and the
the RF
RF Channel
Channel
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
w Simple path loss modeling
w Path loss mainly due to dispersion loss
w Potential multi-path fading (path clearance)
w Potential rain fading (operating frequency)
Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS)
w Path loss based on several components
w Dispersion loss
w Reflection and scattering
w Shadowing
w Penetration loss (absorption)
w Multi-path Issues
w Flat fading (narrow-band channel)
w Frequency-selective fading (wideband channel)
w Inter-symbol interference (wideband channel)
2008
148
An accurate channel model is critical to accurately predicting the performance of a wireless link.
A line-of-sight (LOS) requires a direct, unobstructed path between transmitter and receiver. This
means that a LOS link must clear most of the 1st Fresnel zone (more later). It also means that
height above the terrain is critical for both ends of the link. The higher, the better.
Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) links will have a greater amount of attenuation, all other factors being
equal, than a LOS link. NLOS systems may have a direct path component, but mostly consist of
multiple reflected, diffracted and scattered paths. The multiple paths, of different lengths, taken
by a signal between the transmitter and receiver causes multiple copies of the signal to arrive at
the receiver at different times. The receiver will simultaneously detect all of these signals at
different amplitudes and phases. This leads to fading (deep signal attenuation), caused by
cancellation of out-of-phase signals, and inter-symbol interference (ISI) in wide-band channels.
148
Determining
Determining LOS
LOS Path
Path Clearance
Clearance
AVOIDING
AVOIDING THE
THE FRESNEL
FRESNEL ZONES
ZONES
a
b
r1
d2
d1
F1
F2
F3
F4
rn =
rn =
nth
n l d 1d 2
d1 + d 2
Fresnel Zone Radius
Exercise:
Frequency = 3.5 GHz
0.0857 m or_____
3.37 inches
Wavelength = _______
Path length = 8 km
Determine path mid-point 1st Fresnel
13.1 m
zone radius, in meters. _______
2008
1 meter = 39.37 inches
149
We can think of Fresnel zones as a set of ellipsoids containing the propagated energy in the RF
wave. The radius of each Fresnel zone (rn) defines an excess path length (a + b) equal to nl/2.
The volume enclosed by the 1st ellipsoid is called the 1st Fresnel zone, which adds an excess
path length of l/2. Successive Fresnel zones tend to be in phase opposition, causing them to
interfere in a destructive manor.
149
Satisfying
Satisfying Fresnel
Fresnel
Zone
Zone Clearance
Clearance for
for los
los
When implementing a point-to-point link a minimum
Fresnel zone clearance of 0.6 F1 is typically used
F1
0.6 F1
Actual clearance requirement from previous exercise = 0.6 13.1 m = 7.86 m
2008
In practice, it has been found that a clearance of 60% of the 1st Fresnel zone is adequate for
point-to-point radio links.
150
150
Reflection
Reflection and
and Scattering
Scattering
AA FUNCTION
FUNCTION OF
OF WAVELENGTH
WAVELENGTH
Scattering
Base Station
5 GHz
2 GHz
hR =
hR 1 cm
Base Station
Reflection
hR 2.7 cm
Assuming g0 = 45
l (cm)
8 sin( g 0 )
Where:
hR = degree of roughness (cm)
g 0 = angle of incidence
2008
151
Reflections along a point-to-point LOS path can cause signal level variations due to adding or
canceling of signal at the receiver. Higher frequencies are less apt to cause this problem due to
scattering of energy rather than reflecting it.
In a NLOS environment, surface roughness (terrain, buildings, etc.) for higher frequencies
reduces the received signal level due to scattering instead of reflecting off of objects in the path.
The high level of scattering and increased penetration loss makes the use of higher frequencies
(> 6 GHz) a impractical for NLOS systems.
If the average terrain height is greater than the critical height, then the signal will tend to scatter
more than reflect.
Alternatively, if the average terrain height is less than the hR (Rayleigh height, also called critical
height), then the signal will reflect.
151
The
The Basic
Basic Propagation
Propagation Model
Model
FREE
FREE SPACE
SPACE PATH
PATH LOSS
LOSS MODEL
MODEL
Physical model
Simplest path loss model
Based on Spreading Loss
Assumes an uncluttered direct Tx/Rx Line-of-Sight
4 pr
4 pr f
LF =
=
l
c
2008
Analytical (also called physical) models rely on basic principles of the physics of E-M field
propagation. Another group of models, called empirical models use the the outcome of
experiments at specific frequencies in different environments to predict propagation in similar
environments.
The basic analytical model is the Free Space Path Loss model. It is based on the inverse
square law of wave propagation, commonly called spreading loss or dispersion loss.
152
152
Dispersion
Dispersion (Spreading)
(Spreading) Loss
Loss
THE
THE SPHERICAL
SPHERICAL WAVE
WAVE FRONT
FRONT
Sphere Sarea = 4 r 2
1 meter
Isotropic Source
r (meters)
Example:
Source power = 30 dBm
LS (dB) = 10 log10 4 p r 2
Distance = 20 km
5,026,548,246 m2
Surface area = _______________
-97 dBW/m2
PFD = _____
2008
153
Dispersion loss is frequency independent. Dispersion loss is based on an isotropic source

radiating energy in the form of a spherical wave front. Loss is a function of the ratio of 1m 2 to the
total surface area of a sphere at a given distance.
Assigning a transmit power to an isotropic source at the center of the sphere yields the Power
Flux Density (in dBW/m 2) at a distance from the source equal to r. PFD is commonly used in
satellite communications as a statement of the amount of power in 1m 2 of area at the satellite.
153
Free
Free Space
Space Loss
Loss Calculation
Calculation
SPREADING
SPREADING LOSS
LOSS PLUS
PLUS FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
Assumptions:
Unobstructed Line of Site (LOS)0.6 of 1st Fresnel zone
Based only on operating Frequency and Distance
Path Loss Exponent = 2
Signal attenuation is a function of Inverse Square Law
4p rf
LF =
Where:
f = Frequency (in Hz)
r = Distance (in meters)
c = speed of light (in meters/sec)
is
ve D
e la ti
e
tan c
4r
3r
2r
4p r 2
R e la
1/4
tiv e
Le v e
1/
9
2008
1/16
154
Free Space loss is based on the spreading of a signal as it propagates. The path loss exponent
of 2 describes the rate of signal spreading in free space. The spreading of the signal is a
function of the square of the distance, the inverse square law:
Doubling the distance, increases the free space loss by 4
Quadrupling the distance, increases the free space loss by 16
154
Free
Free Space
Space Loss
Loss
CONVERTED
CONVERTED TO
TO DECIBEL
DECIBEL FORM
FORM
2
4p r
4p r f
=
LF =
l
c
1.
2.
3.
4.
Convert constants to dBs

20 log(4p) = 21.99 dB
20 log(c) = 20 log (300,000 km) = 109.54 dB
Subtract 20 log(c) from 20 log(4p) = -87.55 dB
Convert frequency from Hz to MHz
20 log(1,000,000) = 120 dB
Add constants together
120 dB + (-87.558 dB) = 32.45
So, use the decibel form of

the formula . . . Its easier!!
LF (dB) = 20 log10 [d (Km)] + 20 log10 [f (MHz)] + 32.45

2008
155
As we did with the thermal noise calculation, we can convert to decibels and combine all of the
constants.
The bottom formula is commonly used for free space path loss. When using miles, instead of
kilometers, add 4.13 dB (20*log (miles/kilometers)) to the 32.45 dB. Add 60 dB to the 32.45 dB
to use GHz instead of MHz.
155
Exercise:
Exercise: Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point Link
Link
DATA
DATA FOR
FOR EXERCISE
EXERCISE
Data:
Operating Freq. = 23 GHz
Ant. Gain = 38 dBi
PA output = 18 dBm
Rx threshold = -65 dBm
Once again, wed like to
use some WiMAX
equipment specifications for
a LOS link, but there are no
802.16-2001 profiles.
Nobody is making it!
Use this antenna
2008
This is the data sheet to use in the point-to-point link exercise on the next slide.
156
156
Exercise:
Exercise: Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point Link
Link
Distance = 5 km
IRLdBm = EIRPdBm - Path Loss dB
1.
2.
3.
133.7 dB
Path Loss = _________
Isotropic Rx Level (IRL) = _______
-77.7 dBm
Link Margin = ________
25.3 dB
2008
157
Instructions:
Given the equipment specification information provided on the previous slide, and the free-space
path loss model, fill in the blanks.
157
Where
Where Free
Free Space
Space Loss
Loss is
is Valid
Valid
Basis for other propagation models

Point-to-Point LOS microwave systems
Satellite communications links
2008
Many analytical and empirical models use free space loss as the basis for the model. Free
space path loss is also used for systems having a clear line-of-sight between transmit and
receive. Satellite systems have the clearest line-of-sight, but other factors affecting total path
loss are also considered, such as atmospheric absorption, scintillation and Faraday rotation.
158
158
Multipath
Multipath in
in the
the nlos
nlos Environment
Environment
Base Station with

Diversity Antennas
Signal impairments specific

to multipath propagation:
Flat fading
Frequency-selective fading
Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)
2008
159
As you have seen, LOS links are relatively simple to quantify. NLOS links are more difficult due
to the environmental variability's that must be considered. The problems in NLOS environments
are compounded when wide-bandwidth channels are employed. These issues must be
considered when deploying WiMAX.
159
Narrow-band
Narrow-band Channel:
Channel:
FLAT
FLAT FADING
FADING DUE
DUE TO
TO MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH
The small number of frequency components in a
narrow-band channel can cause a dramatic drop
in signal strength when time-displaced copies
arrive out-of-phase. This causes the signal level
to change rapidly, in a mobile environment.
Distance
7 @ 800 MHz
=
2008
160
One problem cause by multi-path in a NLOS environment is flat fading of narrow-band signals.
This is often referred to as fast fading.
Solution: Diversity reception of de-correlated signals to reduce effect of flat fades on signal
strength. We have already considered this in a previous section.
160
Wide
Wide Band
Band Channel:
Channel:
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY SELECTIVE
SELECTIVE FADING
FADING DUE
DUE TO
TO MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH
Unfaded channel showing frequency components
Frequency
Channel with faded portionSelective Fade
Frequency
2008
161
Due to the large number of frequency components in a wide-band channel, only a portion will be
received out-of-phase. This is called frequency selective fading. Since WiMAX is considered to
be a wide-band channel, the ability to compensate for this problem is provided by the use of pilot
tones. More later.
161
The
The Multipath
Multipath Environment
Environment
DELAY
DELAY SPREAD
SPREAD
Delay spread is a measure of the arrival time delta between a primary

signal and significant reflected signals in a multi-path environment
Notes:
1. Significance of reflected signals
is a function of their level above
a threshold.
2. RF propagates at a rate of 1ft/ns.
Power
Delay Spread
Signal
Arrives
Threshold
Time (ns)
2008
162
Multiple copies of the original signal traveling over different paths, in a multi-path environment,
causes the received signals to be displaced in time relative to the length of a symbol period. The
amount of time displacement of the signals that can cause significant degradation is called the
Delay Spread. Delay spread is based on the difference in arrival time of the first signal to
arrive (shortest path) and the last signal copy of significance to arrive. Signals below a threshold
value will have little or no effect on the ability of the receiver to recover information. The
threshold value is typically between 10 and 20 dB below the first signal level.
162
Typical
Typical Delay
Delay Spread
Spread Values
Values
DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT MULTI-PATH
MULTI-PATH ENVIRONMENTS
ENVIRONMENTS
LOS systems using highly directional antennas

do not suffer from delay spread due to multi-path.
NLOS implementations must use technologies that
can mitigate the effects of multi-path
Environment
Typical RMS Delay Spread
Indoors
10 50 nsec
Open Area
< 200 nsec
Suburban
< 1 sec
Urban
1 3 sec
Hilly Area
3 10 sec
2008
163
Notice that outdoor environments have greater delay spread than indoor environments. This
means that if wide bandwidth, high data rate channels are to be deployed in outdoor
environments, technologies must be used that are capable of mitigating the effects of delay
spread due to multi-path. Two technologies are currently in use that can perform this
function:
1.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) using RAKE receivers to correlate multi-path signals
and improve the signal level.
2.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) using multiple narrow bandwidth subcarriers.
163
Narrowband
Narrowband or
or Wideband?
Wideband?
Channel Bandwidth:
If the RMS Delay Spread is significant relative to the symbol
duration, the channel is assumed to be wideband.
Example Channel:
Channel Bandwidth = 2 MHz
Maximum symbol rate = 2 Msps
Symbol duration = 0.5 sec
Example Channel Indoors:
RMS delay spread = 50 nsec
Example Channel Outdoors:

RMS delay spread = 1.2 msec
0.5 sec
0.5 sec
2008
164
When the delay spread of an environment approaches (or exceeds) the duration of a symbol
period, the channel is considered to be wide-band. Wide-band channels are subject to severe
degradation due to inter-symbol interference.
164
Coherence
Coherence Bandwidth
Bandwidth (B
(Bcc))
Coherence Bandwidth:
The range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a high amplitude correlation potential.
Formula used to approximate BC
1
Bc
2p t rms
Example:
Calculating coherence bandwidth of the
2 MHz wide carrier from the previous slide.
1. Indoors = 3.183 MHz
2. Outdoors = 132.629 KHz
2008
trms = RMS delay Spread
165
There is an approximate relationship between bandwidth of a channel and the delay spread of a
specific environment. This relationship is referred to as the Coherence Bandwidth of the
channel.
If the channel bandwidth is smaller than the coherence bandwidth, the channel is considered to
be narrow-band.
If the channel bandwidth is greater than the coherence bandwidth, the channel is considered to
be wide-band.
165
Inter-Symbol
Inter-Symbol Interference:
Interference:
AN
AN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Sending high-speed data (50 MBaud) in a multi-path

environment, using a single carriersymbol duration 20 ns
Single high-speed carrier
20 ns Delta
Primary and multi-path

combine in the receiver
10 ft
2008
166
Lets look at the effect of delay spread. What were really doing with this slide is setting up the motivation for a multi-carrier modulation
scheme like Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. We want to study a single-carrier modulation method, so we can compare it to
multi-carrier on the next slide.
Lets try to send 50 Mbps on a single carrier, using a simple modulation scheme like BPSK. Each symbol carries one bit, and we need to
send 50 million symbols per second50 MBaud. So each symbol has a duration of 20 nanoseconds (reciprocal of Baud rate).
Our client in the picture is receiving a direct-path signal, and then a strong second-path signal that travels 10 feet to the back wall and
then 10 feet plus the distance from the transmitter to the client for a total of 20 feet farther than the direct path. Since radio signals
propagate at about 1 foot/nanosecond, the 20 feet of extra distance has delayed the receipt of the second-path signal by 20
nanoseconds. We illustrate that 20 nanosecond delay spread by the compared square waves above the picture.
Note that the symbol duration is 20 nsec, and the delay of 20 nsec means that each symbol of the direct path is overlaid by the previous
symbol of the second-path signal. In many cases, these symbols will cancel each other. So what we learned was that delay spreads that
are about the same length as symbol durations will kill our signals. Its easy to see in the indoor case, but the result applies to the
outdoor case as well.
Our solutions might be to a) do something about the multipath which is probably not controllable, or b) slow down the symbol rate.
Now if we want to slow down the symbol rate, without reducing our total data rate, there is one way to do that: Abandon single-carrier
solutions. Instead of sending one carrier modulated with 50 million bits every second, we might send 50 carriers, each transporting 1
million bits per second.
We essentially need Frequency Division Multiplexing.
Now if each of those 50 carriers needed a guard band, to reduce adjacent-channel interference, wed be in trouble the guard bands
would eat up our bandwidth allocation. The channel size would be huge. But if we can find a way to pack ~50 carriers tightly into a small
channel, then we get the benefit of tolerating the delay spread while conserving our licensed bandwidth.
And the way to pack our ~50 carriers into a small channel is by placing them in precise locations, so they dont cause mutual adjacent
channel interference. They need to be orthogonal to each other, which is why we need Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. The
next slide shows OFDM.
166
OFDM*
OFDM* for
for NLOS
NLOS WiMAX
WiMAX
MITIGATING
MITIGATING THE
THE EFFECTS
EFFECTS OF
OF DELAY
DELAY SPREAD
SPREAD
OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
1.
2.
3.
4.
Data is distributed across an orthogonal group of narrow-band sub-carriers (tones)

An IFFT is performed at the transmitter, creating a composite waveform
The composite waveform modulates an RF carrier at the operating frequency
Individual phase and amplitude characteristics are recovered using an FFT
Orthogonal Sub-carriers
OFDM Power Spectrum
Symbol period = T
Sub-carrier frequency separation = 1/T
1/T
f0 - 4/T
f0 - 3/T
f0 - 2/T
f0 - 1/T
f0
f0 + 1/T
*Refer to the OFDM spreadsheet on student CD for an illustration of OFDM.
f0 + 2/T
f0 + 3/T
2008
f0 + 4/T
167
OFDM is a multi-carrier approach. It packs multiple carriers, each of which carry a small portion
of the entire data stream, into a small channel.
Because the carriers are precisely placed with separation of 1/T (where T is the symbol period),
each of the carriers has a null at the center frequencies of all adjacent carriers. In other words,
we have made them orthogonal and the result is that we dont need to separate them with
guard bands. We get the efficiency of a good modulation scheme with the longer symbol times
that can tolerate the typical delay spreads.
In fixed WiMAX systems, were going to use OFDM systems with 256 carriers. In mobile
WiMAX, were going to use a Scalable OFDMA with (typically) 1024 sub-carriers in a 10 MHz
channel.
These systems are easy enough to build because were not modulating each carrier
independently. Instead, were going to use an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to convert
(digitally) our data bits into the composite modulated radio signal, and were going to use a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) in the receiver to decompose the composite radio signal into its
constituent parts (and recover the data bits).
167
Inter-Symbol
Inter-Symbol Interference:
Interference:
AN
AN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE WITH
WITH OFDM
OFDM
Sending high-speed data (50 MBaud) in a multi-path

environment, using 50 tone OFDMsymbol duration 1000 ns
Small amount of ISI: BAD for OFDM!
OFDM 50 tone approach
Primary and multi-path

combine in the receiver
20 ns Delta
10 ft
2008
168
So here we illustrate the advantage of using a multi-carrier modulation scheme. Same

transmitter and receiver, with the same 20 nsec delay spread between the direct path and the
second path.
However, our 50 MBaud is split among 50 sub-carriers, then each sub-carrier transmits at 1
MBaud
Each modulated sub-carrier has a symbol duration of 1000 nanoseconds( reciprocal of the Baud
rate).
Of course, we do need the equivalent of 50 transmitters and 50 receivers working in parallel. But
the complexity of that is minimized by use of the IFFT at the transmitter and the FFT at the
receiver.
Bad News!
OFDM with multiple narrow-band tones seems to mitigate the effect of ISI on high-speed links,
but in order to maintain orthogonality, OFDM cant have any overlap between successive
symbols!!!! Since even a small amount of ISI can destroy orthogonality, there is one more step
that must be performed: add a small amount of dead time between successive symbols that
can be ignored in the receiver. This is referred to a guard time (guard period), using a cyclic
prefix. This guard time is overhead that will reduce the data rate.
168
Eliminating
Eliminating ISI
ISI With
With a
a Guard
Guard Time
Time
ADDED
ADDED AT
AT TRANSMITTER,
TRANSMITTER, REMOVED
REMOVED AT
AT RECEIVER
RECEIVER
Example using a 1/4 Symbol Period Guard Time (Cyclic Prefix):
Time-displaced OFDM tone over two symbol periods with BPSK
1st Last
Paste
Copy
Paste
Copy
Guard Time
Useful Time
Total Symbol Time
Paste
Copy
Paste
Copy
Delay
Spread
Orthogonal Period
Orthogonal Period
2008
169
The two time-displaced copies of an OFDM tone, from the previous slide, are illustrated above in
two forms.
The baseband form, as illustrated on the previous slide
The modulated form of the baseband signal, using BPSK in the example
A guard time is added at the transmitter, in the form of a cyclic prefix. The cyclic prefix is used to
maintain a continuous, un-interrupted waveform. This is accomplished by taking a portion of the
waveform at the end of the symbol time and appending it onto the beginning of the symbol
period. The 802.16 standard allows for a range of guard times: 1/4, 1/8, 1/16 and 1/32 of the
symbol period. The length of the cyclic prefix is a function of the amount of delay spread in the
deployment environment. The example uses a cyclic prefix that is of the total symbol period.
169
Ofdm
Ofdm Pilots
Pilots for
for signal
signal estimation
estimation
COMPENSATING
COMPENSATING FOR
FOR FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE
FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE FADES
FADES
Selective Fade
Before:
OFDM receiver detects pilot

tone level variations due to
a frequency-selective fade.
Faded Pilots
Frequency
After:
Relative pilot tone levels

are equalized, causing all
frequency components
to be adjusted across
the operating bandwidth.
Frequency
2008
170
Pilots are overhead sub-carriers (tones) used by OFDM to perform signal estimation. They allow
for compensation for frequency selective fades. Simplifying the concept of pilot tones: Adjusting
the level of pilots, adjusts levels for tones surrounding the pilots as well.
170
WIMAX
WIMAX Pilot
Pilot Power
Power Boosting
Boosting
TWO
TWO SCHOOLS
SCHOOLS OF
OF THOUGHT
THOUGHT
1. Put more power into the Pilots to improve

signal estimation!
Nulls
Nulls
2. Put more power into the data tones to improve

C/N performance for data.
Nulls
Nulls
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171
Since there is a finite amount of power to be distributed across all of the tones, putting more
power into one set of tones robs power from other tones. The common approach for Mobile
WiMAX (in the standard) is to increase the pilot levels by 2.5 dB above the data tones. More on
this later.
171
Determining
Determining OFDM
OFDM Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT FROM
FROM AA SINGLE
SINGLE CARRIER
CARRIER
The complex OFDM carrier is comprised of a set of

tones (sub-carriers) performing different functions.
Fixed WiMAX
1. Overhead tones
8 Pilot Tones
56 Nulls
Pilot tones for signal estimation
192 Data Tones
Null tones--unused tones
2. Data tones for higher level overhead and user information
The OFDM bit rate is based on the number of

data tones, not just the channel bandwidth.
Pilots
Unused
Nulls
Nulls
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172
So for WiMAX, we want to figure out the total bit rate capacity of our OFDM channel. How do we
do that?
In truth, we typically take the vendors word for it. We just ask them to tell us the max bit rate
that their equipment supports at various modulation levels. But mathematically, we can figure
out that bit rate by understanding the nature of the OFDM usage.
The OFDM signal will be comprised of multiple carriers (tones). Not all of the carriers will
transport data bits. Some are required to carry known pilot signals for the receivers use at
estimating the channel performance. Some will be nulled out (to zero power) to create guard
bands at the edges of our WiMAX channels and to suppress the center tone (carrier
suppression) to eliminate a strong DC component. The tones that remain are used for
transmission of the data bits. So to calculate the bit rate of the WiMAX channel, we need to
know the number of data carriers, the symbol time, and the modulation scheme used (number of
bits per symbol).
172
Exercise:
Exercise: FIXED
FIXED WIMAX
WIMAX Bit
Bit Rate
Rate
Assumptions:
Channel bandwidth (BW) = 20 MHz
Sampling frequency* 1.14 BW
Total number of tones = 256
Nulls
Number of data tones = 192
Guard time** = 1/8th symbol time
Modulation scheme (best case) = 64-QAM
FEC rate (best case) = 3/4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Pilots
Unused
Nulls
Determine the sampling frequency (channel bandwidth 1.14) _________

22.8 MHz
Hz
Determine the bandwidth of each tone (sampling frequency/# of tones) 89,062.5
___________
sec
Determine the useful symbol time (1/tone bandwidth) 11.228
____________
Determine the guard time (1/8 useful symbol time) 1.404
___________
sec
sec
Determine the total symbol time (guard time + useful symbol time) 12.632
____________
Baud
Determine the Baud rate for each tone (1/total symbol time)79,166.67
_______________
Determine the raw bit rate of each tone (bits per Baud Baud rate) ___________
475 Kbps
Factor overhead for FEC (FEC rate raw bit rate) ____________
356.25 Kbps
Multiply the per tone bit rate times the number of data tones
68.4 Mbps
Maximum bit rate for the given OFDM carrier = _____
*Sampling frequency will vary slightly for different channel bandwidths.
**Guard time could be as small as 1/32 nd symbol time.
2008
173
Instructions:
From the given input, follow the steps to calculate the maximum bit rate of the OFDM carrier in
the 20 MHz WiMAX channel.
Notice that Guard time is added to eliminate any successive symbol overlap.
173
Guard
Guard time
time and
and Delay
Delay Spread
Spread
The 802.16 standard allows for a range of Guard Time (Cyclic Prefix)
configurations based on a fraction of the symbol period:
1/4 Symbol period
1/8 Symbol period
1/16 Symbol period
1/32 Symbol period
The Guard Time is used to eliminate symbol time overlap, due to
delay spread, in a multipath environment.
Good News:
The greater the guard time, the greater the amount of delay spread
that can be tolerated.
Bad News:
The greater the guard time, the lower the WiMAX data rate.
Exercise:
Determine the guard time fraction that has a duration at least
twice as long as an RMS delay spread of 1.2 msec for a 5 MHz
Fixed WiMAX OFDM channel. ______
1/16
2008
Fixed WiMAX
Data Rates
174
Overview:
The guard time is created by appending the end portion of a symbol to the beginning of the
symbol at the transmitter. This is then removed in the receiver before performing an FFT to
recover the phase and amplitude of the individual tones.
This is a configuration parameter:
High bandwidth/high delay spread environment requires a longer guard time.
Low bandwidth/low delay spread environment requires a shorter guard time.
Instructions:
1. Open the spreadsheet provided on the Student CD.
2. Input values shown.
3. Select the cyclic prefix that is at least twice as long as the stated delay spread.
174
Building
Building and
and Foliage
Foliage Losses
Losses
SOME
SOME AVERAGE
AVERAGE VALUES
VALUES FROM
FROM DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT SOURCES
SOURCES
Frequency
Building Material
Loss
Frequency
Foliage Type
Loss
2.30 GHz
Stone Faced Bldg
12.8 dB
5.85 GHz
Small Deciduous tree
3.5 dB
2.40 GHz
University Bldg
20 dB
5.85 GHz
Large Deciduous Tree
10.7 dB
2.57 GHz
Suburban Houses
9.1 dB
5.85 GHz
Large Conifer Tree
13.7 dB
5.85 GHz
Brick House
12.5 dB
9.60 GHz
Single Conifer Tree
15.0 dB
5.85 GHz
Wood Siding House
8.8 dB
28.8 GHz
Single Conifer Tree
15.9 dB
5.85 GHz
Concrete Wall House
22.0 dB
28.8 GHz
Single Deciduous Tree
7.0 dB
5.85 GHz
Interior Plaster Walls
4.7 dB
9.60 GHz
2 dry plywood sheets
4.0 dB
9.60 GHz
2 wet plywood sheets
39.0 dB
28.8 GHz
2 dry plywood sheets
6.0 dB
28.8 GHz
2 wet plywood sheets
46.0 dB
These values are presented to illustrate

the wide range of possible values. Local
knowledge is still critical to successful
deployment!!
2008
175
Many studies provide penetration loss data based on frequency, but without other key
information, the values provided can only provide a general idea of what can be expected.
Key information:
Angle of incidence
Material composition
Material thickness
Material texture
Foliage loss is a function of absorption and scattering. Building loss is primarily absorption loss.
Notice the dramatic increase in penetration loss for higher frequencies with a wet surface.
175
Some
Some Common
Common propagation
propagation Models
Models
Empirical Models
Physical Models
Power Law
Free Space
Okumura - Hata
Free Space + RMD
Lee
TIREM
COST 231 Hata
Longley-Rice
Walfish - Ikagami
Anderson 2D
IEEE 802.16 (SUI)

RMD = Reflections and Multiple Diffractions
TIREM = Terrain Integrated Rough Earth Model
SUI = Stanford University Interim
2008
176
Empirical models are mathematical models that are created to fit measured data.
Okumura was an engineer who drove around Tokyo taking empirical RF measurements. He
tabulated the values and drew reference curves. Hata constructed mathematical formulae to fit
Okumuras reference curves.
Walfish-Ikagami is considered to be a semi-deterministic empirical model.
Empirical models commonly used in WiMAX whitepapers:
Fixed WiMAX802.16 SUI model
Mobile WiMAX macrocellsCOST 231 Hata Model
Mobile WiMAX microcellsCOST 231 Walfish-Ikagami
176
Power
Power Law
Law Model
Model
Empirical Model
The basis for some other empirical models
Free Space Loss for a reference distance
Reference Distance
2008
177
The reference distance used in the power law model is based on free space loss. The path loss
exponent beyond the reference distance is a range of values based on the propagation
environment. Many other empirical models use the Power Law model as a base, such as the
802.16 (SUI) model.
177
Power
Power Law
Law Calculation
Calculation
d
L = 10n log 10
d ref
Where:
n = path loss exponent
dref = reference distance
d = path distance
Lref = predicted loss* at the reference distance
+ Lref
Environment
Path Loss Exponent
Free Space
Coverage
Reference Distance
Urban
2.7 to 3.5
Indoors
1 meter
Shadowed Urban
3 to 5
Microcell
100 meters
In-building (LOS)
1.6 to 1.8
Macrocell
1 km
In-building (NLOS)
4 to 6
* Based on Free space path loss.
Packetwave Link Evaluator
2008
178
The basic Power Law model is considered to be the simplest of the empirical models. Antenna
height and remote height are not considered in the power law calculation. Notice that the power
law provides both a high and low path loss exponent, except for free space. This allows for
approximating the best and worst case losses when little information is available.
178
Exercise:
Exercise: Power
Power Law
Law Model
Model
Assumptions:
Operating Freq. = 3.5 GHz
Base Station PA output = 27 dBm
Base Station coax loss to antenna = 2 dB
Base Station omni antenna gain = 12 dBi
CPE omni antenna gain = 3 dBi
Minimum UL/DL Levels (BER 10-6):
QPSK = -92 dBm
16-QAM = -84 dBm
64-QAM = -76 dBm
Path loss exponent = 3
Reference Distance = 100 m
Penetration losses:
House = 6 dB
Building = 12 dB
1. What is the total expected loss to an in-building
customer located at site A? _______
118.7 dB
2. Site A customers receive using _________
16-QAM modulation.
3. The customer at site B (house) has a receive signal strength
QPSK modulation.
that allows for reception of _______
4. Given a CPE PA output of 20 dBm, can you expect the
No
base station and site B to communicate? ______
0.6 km
A
2 km
Power Law
2008
179
Overview:
Propagation models do not consider margins!! When using a model, margins for rain fade,
shadow fade and/or penetration loss must be added to losses that have been calculated by
the model. This exercise only provides the penetration loss for addition to the calculated path
loss. Remember, communications requires a Talk-back link!
Instructions:
1. Open the Power Law spreadsheet.
2. Determine the in-building loss at site A using the power law model and provided data
(penetration loss must be added to the calculated path loss).
3. Determine the in-building receive level (dont forget the Rx antenna gain) and select the
appropriate modulation scheme.
4. Use the house penetration loss to determine the modulation scheme for a customer located
at site B.
5. Given the output level of the CPE power amplifier into the antenna, determine if the level
expected at the base station from the CPE at site B is sufficient for communication with the
base station.
179
EMPIRICAL
EMPIRICAL MODELS
MODELS for
for WiMAX
WiMAX
USED
USED FOR
FOR BASIC
BASIC SYSTEM
SYSTEM DIMENSIONING
DIMENSIONING
Fixed WiMAX: 802.16 SUI Model

w Measurements taken in suburban areas
w Three model categories: A, B and C
w Each category has two sub-categories: 1 and 2
w No direct correlation to common clutter categories
Mobile WiMAX
w Macro-cells: COST 231 Hata Model*
w Micro-cells: COST 231 Walfish Ikagami Model*
w Considered a semi-deterministic model

* Although these models are considered valid up to 2 GHz,
they are considered to be conservative up to 3.5 GHz.
2008
180
The above empirical models have been used in WiMAX white papers for approximating loss.
Their use should be considered for network dimensioning purposes, not for actual deployments.
When dimensioning, an empirical model can provide an approximation of coverage in a FlatEarth deployment. This means that all sites in a specific coverage area (urban, suburban, etc.)
will have the same coverage radius. This is not real-world, but its a starting point.
180
IEEE
IEEE 802.16
802.16 Model
Model (SUI
(SUI Model)
Model)
FIXED
FIXED WIMAX
WIMAX
d
L = A + 10 g log10
d0
+ X f + X h + s
Where:
Its such a simple

looking formula
without all that
stuff!
4 p d0
A = 20 log10
= a - b hb + c
hb
Freq( MHz )
X f = 6 log10
2000 z
CPE Height
X h = -10.8 log10
2 meters
s = lognormal fade (added, not calculated)

2008
181
The 802.16 Stanford University Interim (SUI) model is an empirical model based on
measurements at 2 GHz.
When 802.16 was standardized for frequencies above 2 GHz, RF engineers realized that a new
empirical model was needed. The COST 231 and Okumura-Hata models were based on
empirical measurements below 2 GHz, and are not accurate enough above 2 GHz.
The 802.16 SUI model is considered to be accurate for frequencies between 1 GHz and 4 GHz.
It is based on drive test data at 2 GHz with correction factors frequencies other than 2 GHz (Xf)
and CPE height (Xh) other than 2 meters.
Notice that, like the Power Law model, the 802.16 model uses Free Space path loss (A) for the
reference distance loss. Also, notice the s parameter in the formula. The 802.16 model
expects a lognormal fade margin, calculated separately, to be added to the results. Penetration
loss would also be added to the results if serving indoor users.
181
IEEE
IEEE 802.16
802.16 Categories
Categories
Model constant
Terrain A
Terrain B
Terrain C
hb = 10 m 80 m
4.6
4.0
3.6
d0 = 100 m
0.0075
0.0065
0.005
12.6
17.1
20
Model Classifications
SUI model
Terrain type
Delay spread
k factor
Doppler
Low
High
Low
Low
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Low
High
High
Low
Low
High
Low
High
2008
182
Classification Parameters:
Delay spread: This has already been discussed in a previous section.
K-factor: Riciean k-factor, which is the ratio of a strong primary signal level to all other signal
levels received. A high k-factor has a strong primary signal relative to other mutipath signals.
As the k-factor decreases, the fade distribution approaches a Rayleigh fade probability
Doppler: The apparent change in frequency of a signal due to motion towards or away from the
source of the signal. More on this later.
The 802.16 considers three types of terrain: A, B and C. Notice that the reference distance is
always 100 meters. The actual values of Delay Spread, k-factor and Doppler are not shown in
this chart.
182
COST
COST 231
231 HATA
HATA
MACRO-CELLS
MACRO-CELLS FOR
FOR MOBILE
MOBILE WIMAX
WIMAX
L = 46.3 + 33.9 log fc - 13.82 log hb - a(hm )

+ (44.9 - 6.55 log hb ) log R + Cm
Where:
fc = Operating frequency (1500 2000 MHz)
hb = BS antenna height (30 200 m)
hm = Mobile antenna height (1 10 m)
R = Distance between BS and mobile unit (1 20 km)
Example:
Operating frequency: 2.5 GHz
BS Height: 40 m
Client Height: 2 m
Distance: 1.4 km
Location: Medium City--Urban
Cost 231 Hata loss = 142.8 dB
Correction factors:
Medium city and Suburban
a(hm ) = (1.1 log fc - 0.7 ) hm - (1.56 log fc - 0.8 )
Exercise:
Given the above parameters, determine
path loss using the 802.16 model
(Terrain A).
133.8 dB
802.16 A loss = ______
Large city
2
a(hm ) = 3.2(log(11.75 hm )) - 4.97
0 dB Medium city and Suburban areas

Cm =
3 dB Metropolitan centers
802.16 Model
2008
183
The COST 231 Hata model was originally developed to as an extension of the original Okumura
Hata model for frequencies up to 2 GHz (PCS spectrum).
183
Lesson
Lesson 6
6 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz
higher frequencies will scatter
1. All other factors being equal, __________
lower frequencies.
more than _________
2. The impact of time dispersal is a function of the propagation
bandwidth
environment and the channel ___________.
3. The amount of required WiMAX OFDM guard time is a function of
bandwidth and ______
delay ________.
spread
channel ___________
4. The acceptable level of Fresnel zone clearance for a LOS link
0.6
is _______
Fresnel zone(s).
spherical wave front.
5. Dispersion loss is based on an expanding ___________
Flux Density is a measure of the amount of power in 1m2.
6. Power ________
empirical model.
7. The Power Law model is a(n) ___________
8. When predicting total loss to/from a wireless client, two environmental
fade _______
margin and
factors not determined by path loss models are ______
penetration
loss
____________ ______.
9. The 802.16 SUI model uses a correction factor for frequencies
2
other than ______
GHz.
10.A good empirical model to use for macro-cell sizing (flat-earth) in
COST 231 Hata model.
Mobile WiMAX deployments is the ________________
2008
Instructions:
Fill-in the blanks.
184
184
Where
Where weve
weve been,
been, so
so far
far
AA QUICK
QUICK REVIEW
REVIEW
TX
Information
Source
Modulator
Output Power
Watts, Milliwatts
dBm, dBW
Loss @ Oper. Freq.
dB/length
Amp
Operating Frequency (MHz, GHz)

Signaling Rate (Ksps, Msps)
Modulation (X-PSK, X-QAM)
Error Correction Overhead
Information
Sink
RX
Demodulator
Sensitivity*
Threshold (dBm)
C/N (dB)
C/I+N (dB)
Eb/N0 (dB)
Amp
Gain (dB)
NFdB
Antenna
Xmission Line
L
I
N
K
Gain (directivity)
dBi or dBd
Diversity
Loss (dB)
Operating Freq. (MHz, GHz)
Distance (km, miles)
Environment
Time Dispersion (sec, nsec)
Fading (selective, flat)
Inter-symbol interference
Antenna
Xmission Line
Loss @ Oper. Freq.
dB/length
NFdB
Gain (directivity)
dBi or dBd
Diversity
2008
185
Assembling the pieces of a WiMAX system:

1. An understanding of decibels, and the relationship of bandwidth, Baud rate, S/N and bit rate.
2. Some of the issues that determine WiMAX performancenoise floor, operating frequency
and interference plus noise in a wide-band channel.
3. Basic link budgets, based on equipment specifications and configuration determine the
Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL).
4. Given the MAPL, determine the expected coverage distance, based on the environment?
In order to deploy a WiMAX system, an understanding of these building blocks is critical.
185
Lesson
Lesson 7:
7:
Frequency Reuse in
Fixed and Mobile
WiiMAX Networks
2008
In this lesson, we cover a short introduction to Frequency Reuse concepts, and discuss your
options for designing a frequency-reuse plan in Fixed and Mobile WiMAX networks.
186
186
Lesson
Lesson Objective
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to
Design the frequency reuse plan for your WiMAX
network
w Primarily by working with your equipment
vendor, using their recommendations
w But with a knowledge of the basis of the
theory of frequency reuse
w And with a knowledge of the prevalent options
in the WiMAX industry
Discuss the reuse proposals for Mobile WiMAX
2008
187
187
Will
Will your
your WiMAX
WiMAX Network
Network
be
be a
a Single-Site,
Single-Site, or
or Multiple
Multiple
overlapping
overlapping sites
sites ??
Single Site
Multiple Overlapping Sites
2008
188
188
Many
Many Small
Small Sites
Sites vs.
vs. One
One Big
Big Site
Site
THE
THE CELLULAR
CELLULAR CONCEPT
CONCEPT OF
OF REUSE
REUSE
Single large site using all spectrum
Multiple small sites re-using all spectrum
C
B
MTS/IMTS
(pre-cellular)
D
A
G
E
F
Cellular
(AMPS)
2008
189
Original mobile phone service:

The MTS (Mobile Telephone System) and the IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone System) used
all of the spectrum in one master site covering a large area (typically up to 50 mile radius). This
limited the number of customers that could be provided with mobile phones service. It also
required high powered (50 100 Watts) radios mounted in vehicles.
Cellular took all of the allocated spectrum and distributed it among a group of reuse clusters,
relying on the terrain and clutter to reduce interference among co-channels at a distance. The
distance between co-channels is based on the reuse factor (k).
Original AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
12.5 MHz allocated (in the U.S.) for deployment
30 KHz voice channels
Approximately 420 channels for entire system
Using 7-cell reuse clusters provides 60 channels per cell
189
The
The Flat
Flat Earth
Earth
AA SIMPLE
SIMPLE APPROACH
APPROACH TO
TO MODELING
MODELING COVERAGE
COVERAGE
Flat Earth Cellular Layout
Not realistic, but a good starting point!

Single Site
Coverage area = r 2
Cellular Site
Coverage area = 2.598 r 2
2008
190
Cellular coverage is typically illustrated using the Flat Earth. The Flat Earth assumes equalsized sites for a given coverage area. Although this is not a realistic approach to coverage, it
is useful in early analysis of Greenfield deployments.
Uses of the Flat Earth model:
1. Early dimensioningapproximating cell count for a given service area
2. Approximating distance to co-channel sites (D/R ratio)
3. Approximating C/I, based on k-factor and path loss exponent
190
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse and
and the
the K-Factor
K-Factor
The frequency reuse factor, k-factor, is
the number of cells in a reuse cluster.
k=7
k=3
C
6
B
1
3
D
1
A
G
7
4
E
2
F
3
2008
191
The reuse factor (k) is a balance between site capacity and C/I performance. The greater the kfactor, the better the C/I performance, but the lower the individual site capacity. No matter what
the reuse factor is, there are always six (6) surrounding co-channel sites potentially causing
interference. As the above illustration shows, lower k-factor deployments will have closer cochannel sites.
191
Reuse
Reuse Requires
Requires Symmetry
Symmetry
REUSE
REUSE CELLS
CELLS MUST
MUST BE
BE EQUIDISTANT
EQUIDISTANT (FLAT
(FLAT EARTH)
EARTH)
k = (i + j) - i j
2
Where i and j =0,1, 2, etc.

i
k-factor
12
2008
192
This is the formula once used to generate symmetrical reuse factors. This approach to
determining reuse factors has largely been supplanted by the use of modern software tools for
propagation modeling. The values i and j are integers values or zero that are used by the
formula. They are dimensionless values with no meaning outside of the formula.
192
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse Distance
Distance
D/R ratio: The ratio of co-channel distance (D)
to cell radius (R), assuming Flat Earth.
D
=
R
3k
Where:
D = Reuse Distance
R = Cell Radius
k = Reuse Factor
Example: k = 3
2008
193
Typical reuse factors (k): 1, 3, 4, 7, 12, 21.

k = 1 is used in CDMA networksall sites are co-channels
k = 3 is common to 802.11b/g implementationsonly 3 non-overlapping channels available
k = 4 is used in GSM networks
k = 7 the old AMPS system and Nextels iDEN networks
k = 9 and 12 also used in iDEN networks
Higher reuse factors provide lower co-channel interference, but require more channels.
Sectored implementations further reduce co-channel interference relative to omni antennas, but
require even more channels.
Example: A reuse factor of seven (7) requires 7 channels with omni sites, but 21 channels using
3-sector cells.
193
D/R
D/R and
and C/I
C/I
C/I and D/R
30
7
= D/R ratio
25
20
D/R ratio
C/I (dB)
5
4
15
S
10
red
ecto
mn i
1
0
5
3
7
9
Re use Factor (k)
2008
12
194
The ratio of Distance to radius is directly correlated to the ratio of Carrier to Interference (where
the interference is caused by the other transmitters reusing the same frequency). As the reuse
factor increases, the distance to the co-channel interferers increases, and the interference from
those co-channel interferers decreases.
194
WiMAX
WiMAX Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse
CONSIDERATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS
MIMO antenna systems to increase

per carrier capacity allowing for
allocated spectrum to be divided
into smaller channels
Adaptive Arrays to reduce co-channel
interference, allowing tighter reuse
Omni vs. 3, 4, or 6-sector sites
Divide frequency allocation into
a few large channels
OFDMA?
Extra channels may be used as overlays in

high-capacity sectors
OFDMAs sub-carriers (tones) may be reused
in different ways, in various cells and sectors
2008
195
Here we list the WiMAX Frequency reuse considerations with a bit more specificity. These
considerations are all covered in this course some already covered, and some in the next few
slides.
195
What
What is
is OFDMA
OFDMA ??
ORTHOGONAL
ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY DIVISION
DIVISION MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE ACCESS
ACCESS
Like OFDM
A technique employing multiple tones

A technique for mitigating multi-path ISI
A multiple access technique
Unlike OFDM A method of creating sub-channels for

greater gain or sophisticated frequencyreuse plans
2008
196
Mobile WiMAX requires a type of modulation named Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access, or OFDMA. Fixed WiMAX networks may support OFDMA as well.
Like OFDM, OFDMA is a technique that employs multiple tones or sub-carriers to mitigate the
effects of inter-symbol interference (ISI) due to multipath in NLOS environments.
OFDM assigns all of the sub-carriers in a symbol period to one user. OFDMA aggregates subcarriers into sub-channels, allowing for multiple users in the same symbol period, providing
better granularity of provisioning.
196
OFDM
OFDM
vs
vs..
OFDMA
OFDMA
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Symbol 1
Symbol 2
Time
freq
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access (OFDMA)
Symbol 1
Symbol 2
Time
freq
User 1
User 2
User 3
2008
509022
197
We understand OFDM by now. With OFDM, a transmitter takes a serial data stream and
converts it to a parallel stream, using it to modulate multiple sub-carriers. The transmitter
generates and transmits many modulated sub-carriers simultaneously. The signal is robust in
the face of multipath interference.
Note that in OFDM, all of the sub-carriers, or tones, are used by a single transmitter in a symbol
period. In the next symbol period, a second transmitter may use all sub-carriers.
In OFDMA, we allow different transmitters to use subsets of the OFDM tones for different
transmissions during the same symbol period. With WiMAX, an Uplink Map (or Downlink Map)
will assign each user a set of sub-carriers to use in a specified symbol period.
It should be fairly obvious that OFDMA allows a lot of flexibility to allocate fine amounts of
bandwidth to each client, by varying the number of sub-carriers that a client is assigned to use.
197
Let
LetSS Compare
Compare OFDM
OFDM to
to OFDMA
OFDMA
OFDM:
OFDM: WiMAX
WiMAX TDD
TDD FRAME
FRAME STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
Example: 5 ms Frame with 48 Symbols
Frequency
Symbol
P
R
E
A
M
B
L
E
T
T
G
D/L Sub-frame
U/L Sub-frame
Time
= Overhead
= Data
2008
198
We illustrate the assignment of OFDMA sub-carriers in the next slides.

For comparison, this slide shows a frame of a WiMAX transmission, using OFDM. Since the WiMAX 256-OFDM symbol
period can vary based on bandwidth of the channel, this slide shows 48 symbol periods in a 5 msec frame (SOFDMA
for Mobile WiMAX) for comparison purposes only. The next slide will introduce OFDMA.
The first few symbols contain a preamble and overhead that is transmitted from the base station to the clients. Notably,
the overhead will provide mapping of the assigned symbols in the frame: Which clients should listen to which symbols,
and when are they allocated bandwidth to sent their data in the uplink?
Notice that the frame illustrated is a TDD frame. In a time-division-duplex operation of WiMAX, a frame carries both
downlink data from base station to clients, and uplink data from clients to base station. The base station may choose
what percent of the frame is used for uplink vs downlink on a frame-by-frame basis. Our graphic suggests that this
frame is mostly downlink, with several downlink symbols early in the frame, and only a few uplink symbols late in the
frame.
When deploying with TDD, there is a period of time between the downlink symbols and the uplink symbols that is used
to switch from transmit to receive. This unused portion of time is known as the Transmit/Receive Transition Gap (TTG).
The uplink to downlink time is referred to as the Receive/Transmit Transition Gap (RTG)
Each symbol is comprised of multiple sub-carriers, of course. These sub-carriers are illustrated on the left of the
graphic.
With OFDM, all sub-carriers of a given symbol are assigned to a single transmit/receive pair. The first several symbols
may carry data for client 1, and then several succeeding symbols carry data for client 2.
198
OFDMA
OFDMA in
in a
aW
WiiMAX
MAX System
System
WiMAX
WiMAX TDD
TDD FRAME
FRAME STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE WITH
WITH OFDMA
OFDMA
5 ms Frame with 48 Symbols
Tones
Logical Sub-channel
Symbol
P
R
E
A
M
B
L
E
T
T
G
D/L Sub-frame
= Overhead
U/L Sub-frame
= Data Sub-channels
Source: WiMAX Forum, Mobile WiMAX Part 1: A Technical Overview

and Performance Evaluation, August 2006.
2008
199
In OFDMA, the sub-carriers are grouped into sub-channels, which are grouped into slots.
A sub-channel, therefore, is a collection of sub-carrier sets that may be assigned to a single
client within one or more symbol periods.
In our graphic, we suggest that the sub-carriers which comprise sub-channels are adjacent in
frequency. That may be the case (AMC permutation zoneused with adaptive arrays), but there
are actually advantages (fade resistance) to creating a sub-channel from sub-carriers that are
non-adjacent. The 802.16 and 802.16e specifications detail which sub-carriers are assembled
into each sub-channel.
So for clarity, we show adjacent sub-carriers as comprising a sub-channel, but we label it as a
logical sub-channel, to suggest the tones are not really adjacent at the physical level.
Now that we have divided our sub-carriers into sub-channels, we can start to assign them to
users.
199
Allocating
Allocating Sub-channels
Sub-channels to
to Users
Users
USER
USER TRAFFIC
TRAFFIC MAY
MAY BE
BE ASSIGNED
ASSIGNED MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE SUB-CHANNELS
SUB-CHANNELS
OVER
OVER MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE SYMBOL
SYMBOL PERIODS
PERIODS
Tones
Logical Sub-channel
Symbol
P
R
E
A
M
B
L
E
User
1
User
4
User
5
T
T
G
User
3
User
2
D/L Sub-frame
= Overhead
U/L Sub-frame
= Data Sub-channels

2008
200
Here we illustrate OFDMA and its sub-channels.

Note that in the downlink part of the sub-frame, we have allocated blocks of sub-channels over
several symbol times to User 1, User 2, User 3, User 4 and User 5. A Downlink Map in the
frame overhead details for the clients which sub-channels and which symbols carry the data for
which users.
So one key point is that with OFDMA, different sub-channel sets (slots) carry data for different
users over multiple symbol periods.
The uplink will also use sub-channel sets. The WIMAX specifications allow significant flexibility
in the sub-channel use in the uplink and downlink directions. Note that our graphic suggests
different allocation of sub-carriers to sub-channels in the uplink and downlink (by illustrating a
different number of sub-carriers per sub-channel).
200
Partial
Partial Usage
Usage and
and OFDMA
OFDMA Gain
Gain
ITs
ITs ALL
ALL ABOUT
ABOUT POWER
POWER SPECTRAL
SPECTRAL DENSITY
DENSITY
Power Spectral Density (PSD) is the amount of power contained in a unit of

bandwidth (typically 1 Hz).
Symbol
Total Bandwidth of OFDM Channel
1 User
OFDM: Each user must burst on the uplink using all of the tones!
Symbol
Total Bandwidth of OFDMA Channel
User 1
User 2
User 3
User 4
OFDMA: Independent users burst using a fraction of the tones!

Advantage of OFDMA: User can concentrate the relatively small amount of transmit
power into a small set of tones, providing an increase in power on the uplink. This
improves the C/(I+N) performance in an interference environment.
2008
201
Why would we prefer a client to send (or receive) their data in an OFDMA sub-channel, rather
than using all of the sub-carriers of an OFDM symbol?
One reason is an OFDMA gain. If a user can concentrate its allowed transmit power into a small
number of tones on the uplink, that provides an increase of power per tone. This increases the
carrier-to-noise-and-interference ratio. We will illustrate that on the next slide.
201
An
An Example
Example of
of OFDMA
OFDMA Gain
Gain
IMPROVING
IMPROVING U/L
U/L PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE
Total Bandwidth of OFDMA Channel
Example:
Bandwidth = 480 KHz
Total user tones = 48
CPE Max. Power Output = 200 mW
User transmits on 12 of the 48 tones
PSDtotal =
User 1
User 2
User 3
User 4
Powertotal 200 mW
=
= 417 nW/Hz
BWtotal
480 KHz
PSDfraction =
Powertotal 200 mW
=
= 1.667 W/Hz
BWfraction
120 KHz
PSDfraction
GainOFDMA = 10 log10
PSDtotal
Fractional
User 4
1.667 W
= 10 log10
= 6 dB
417 nW
In other words, 1/4 of the tones means 4 times the power (6 dB)
2008
202
Here we calculate the 6dB gain that results from a client transmitting on one-quarter of the tones.
202
OFDMA
OFDMA Gain
Gain
OFDMA gain increases uplink performance,
but at the cost of the uplink data rate
Usage Ratio
Uplink Power Gain
1/16
12 dB
1/8
9 dB
1/4
6 dB
1/2
3 dB
2008
203
So if an OFDMA sub-channel is comprised of one-quarter of the OFDM tones, then we receive a

6dB gain. As another example, if the OFDMA sub-channel is comprised of one-sixteenth of the
OFDM tones, then we receive a 12 dB gain.
We have a small decrease in the uplink data rate. However, if there is a system imbalance and
we need more gain in the uplink, the OFDMA gain in the uplink can be very helpful.
So one difference between the link budget calculations for WiMAX and the similar calculations
for other technologies is the OFDMA gain that we can employ.
Now that we are introduced to OFDMA and its sub-channels, were ready for one of the most
interesting concepts in WiMAX frequency reuse. Its the reuse of some of these OFDMA subchannels, in Partial Usage of Sub-carriers (PUSC).
203
Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX and
and
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse
Since Mobile WiMAX uses OFDMA, we
can think about reuse of sub-channels,
in addition to reuse of channels
Its a sophisticated approach, with
tricky vocabulary:
w Scalable OFDMA
w Sub-carriers and Sub-channels
w PUSCs and FUSCs
2008
204
This slide introduces the next several slides, in which we will discuss Partial Usage Subchannels (PUSCs), Full Usage Sub-channels (FUSCs), their use and reuse in Mobile WiMAX.
This is a hot area of mobile WIMAX system design.
Many current white papers define PUSC or FUSC using either Sub-Channels or Sub-Carriers.
This is not considered an issue of great importance in this course. Tomato/TomatoSemantics.
204
Scalable
Scalable OFDMA
OFDMA
AA BALANCING
BALANCING ACT
ACT
Problem:
Narrow band OFDM tones are needed to mitigate ISI, but may be
susceptible to Doppler shift in a mobile environment.
Wide band OFDM tones are needed to mitigate the effect of Doppler
shift in a mobile environment, but may be susceptible to ISI.
Solution:
Select a tone bandwidth that is
narrow enough to mitigate ISI,
but wide enough to reduce the
effect of Doppler shift!
2008
205
Scalable OFDMA is a key attribute of Mobile WiMAX, which distinguishes it from fixed WIMAX.
Mobile WiMAX requires Scalable OFDMA because moving devices must account for and
overcome a Doppler shift.
Scalable OFDMA is a compromise between the effects of Doppler shift and inter-symbol
interference. If we use an OFDMA tone bandwidth of 10.94 kHz bandwidth, we can manage
both.
That doesnt yet describe why we call the 10.94 KHz bandwidth scalable but itll be clear on
the next slide.
205
Doppler
Doppler Spread
Spread
Original
Bandwidth
a
v
fd =
v
f v
cosa = c cosa
l
c
Where:
fd = Doppler shift
v = velocity of motion
a = angle of arriving signal
fc = operating frequency
l = wavelength
Doppler
Bandwidth
Example:
Given the following, what is the total Doppler spread?
fc = 2.5 GHz
v = 100 kph (27.778 mps)
a = 40
fd =
fc v
27.778
cosa = 2.5 10 9
0.77 = 178.2 Hz
c
3 10 8
2008
206
206
Coherence
Coherence Time
Time (T
(TCC))
AA FUNCTION
FUNCTION OF
OF DOPPLER
DOPPLER SPREAD
SPREAD
Coherence Time:
The time over which a channel can be assumed to be constant.
Signals with symbol durations that are less than the coherence
time of the channel are received undistorted by the effects of
Doppler spread.
Formula used to approximate TC in digital communications
TC
9
0.423
fm
16 fm2
fc v
27.778
= 3.5 109
= 324 Hz
c
3 10 8
0.432 0.423
TC
1322 ms
fm
324
fm =
Where:
fm = Doppler spread @ a = 0
= maximum Doppler spread
fm =
fc v
c
Example:
Given the following, determine fm and TC?
fc = 3.5 GHz
v = 100 kph (27.778 mps)
Symbol duration* for SOFDMA 102.9 s
The TC is the maximum undistorted symbol duration
* Useful symbol time plus ~ 8/7 cyclic prefix (guard time)
2008
207
Scalable OFDMA sets the symbol duration to a period of time that is significantly lower than
Coherence Time for reasonable speeds. Notice in the above example that the symbol duration
is significantly less than the coherence time. Remember, symbol duration is the reciprocal of the
symbol rate.
207
Scalable
Scalable OFDMA
OFDMA
WiMAX allows various channel sizes
Fixed WiMAX with 256 OFDM: Sub-carrier spacing
varies depending on the channel size.
Mobile WiMAX: S-OFDMA requires fixed sub-carrier
spacing of 10.94 kHz, but varies the FFT size
S-OFDMA balances ISI and Doppler
Channel Bandwidth (MHz)
FFT Size (# of tones)
Number of Sub-channels
Number of OFDMA symbols per
5 ms frame
1.25
5
10
128 512 1024
2
8
16
20
2048
32
48
2008
208
If were determined to use a 10.94 KHz bandwidth for our OFDMA tones, then what happens to
the number of those tones when we double the size of the WiMAX channel? The quick answer
is we double the number of the tones.
Thats the scalability of Scalable OFDMA, used in mobile WiMAX.
Note that in fixed WiMAX, if we use 256 tones and double the size of the channel, the number of
tones remained constant but the bandwidth of each tone doubled. Not so with Mobile WiMAX
that effect would ruin our compromise between ISI and Doppler solutions.
Note also that when you double the amount of bandwidth in a channel and double the number of
tones, you double the number of OFDMA subchannels in a system.
Mobile WiMAX fixes 48 OFDMA symbols in a 5 msec frame. 10 MHz channels seem to be
emerging as a popular design choice (or the WiBRO approach of an 8.75 MHz channel within a
10 MHz channel spacing).
Finally, note that 1024 tones that are spaced 10.94 KHz apart really exceed the bandwidth of a
10 MHz channel. However, well filter off the tones at the top and bottom of the channel to make
it fit. That discussion is covered in DoceoTechs course on the 802.16 standard, but is beyond
the scope of this design course.
208
FUSC:
FUSC: Full
Full Usage
Usage of
of Sub-channels
Sub-channels
SHOWN
SHOWN LATE
LATE IN
IN THE
THE D/L
D/L SUB-FRAME
SUB-FRAME
Tones
Logical Sub-channel
Symbol
User
8
User
4
P
R
E
A
M
B
L
E
T
T
G
User 5
User
6
User
7
D/L Sub-frame
U/L Sub-frame
FUSC
= Overhead
= Data Sub-channels

2008
209
A FUSC Zone is simply the part of the OFDMA frame during which the transmitter uses all of the
sub-channels. Unlike PUSCs, the sub-carriers distributed across the entire channel bandwidth.
All of the allocation slots may be assigned to different users.
Currently, no one is deploying or testing FUSCs.
209
PUSC:
PUSC: Partial
Partial Usage
Usage of
of Sub-channels
Sub-channels
SHOWN
SHOWN EARLY
EARLY IN
IN THE
THE D/L
D/L SUB-FRAME
SUB-FRAME
Tones
Logical Sub-channel
Symbol
P
R
E
A
M
B
L
E
User
1
User 2
User
8
User
4
User
3
T
T
G
User 5
Unassigned
In this sector
User
6
User
7
U/L Sub-frame
FUSC
PUSC
= Overhead
= Data Sub-channels

2008
210
Partial usage of sub-channels (PUSC) is an allocation of just a subset of the sub-channels for
use at a particular time in each frame. There are 14 tones per sub-channel cluster. The
minimum allocation slot is 2 sub-channels over 2 symbol periods. In this illustration, the
transmitter is allowed to send on the upper set (in frequency) of sub-channels during the latter
part of the downlink sub-frame.
This allows the PUSCs to be part of a frequency-reuse plan. One transmitter may be given a
PUSC segment for some sub-channels, while an adjacent transmitter is given a different PUSC
segment at the same time. Since they are not transmitting on the same frequencies at the same
time, they cause little or no co-channel interference.
210
WiMAX
WiMAX Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse
TERMINOLOGY
TERMINOLOGY
The Frequency Reuse Triplet*: c, s, n

Where:
c = Sites per cluster (k-factor)
s = Sectors per site
n = number of unique RF channels
Example:
GSM (200 KHz channels) with 12.5 MHz of available spectrum
in 4-cell frequency reuse clusters having 3 sectors per cell.
c, s, n = 4, 3, 62
Older cellular terminology: 4/12 = 4 cell reuse clusters with 12
total sectors (3 sectors/cell), so divide total available spectrum
by 12 (4 3)!
2008
*WiMAX frequency reuse
211
211
W
WiiBro
Bro Reuse
Reuse with
with PUSC
PUSC
33 SITES,
SITES, 33 SECTORS,
SECTORS, 33 CHANNELS,
CHANNELS, 33 SEGMENTS
SEGMENTS
Reuse Triplet: 3, 3, 3
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel A
A1
A2
A2
A3
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel B
B1
B2
A1
C2
C3
C1
B2
B3
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel C
C1
C2
A3
B3
B1
C3
2008
212
WiBRO (the pre-certified mobile WiMAX system in Korea that is now proposed as the first Mobile
WiMAX certification profile) uses three channels of 8.75 MHz in a three-cell reuse plan. In
addition, they use three PUSC segments in their three sectors of each cell.
212
OFDMA
OFDMA with
with
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse of
of One
One
Frequency Reuse of One means that every cell
uses the same RF channel
If we reuse all frequencies all of the time with
WiMAX, co-channel interference at cell edge
degrades the signal
But OFDMA has sub-channels!
w Use all sub-channels some of the time in all
cells, for subscribers who are not at the
edge (i.e., little co-channel interference)
w For subscribers at the cell edge, assign
sub-channels according to a traditional
reuse plan and transmit at a different time
2008
213
The most intriguing proposal for Mobile WiMAX frequency reuse is the combination of PUSCs
and FUSCs in a system, which usually carries the name Frequency Reuse of One.
Its essentially a way to use all frequencies in all sectors of all cells for a portion of the time of
each frame.
However, if we reused all frequencies in all sectors of all cells for the entire frame, then wed
have excessive co-channel interference at the edges of our cells. (OFDMA doesnt have the
interference rejection characteristics of CDMA.)
So we dont use all frequencies in all sectors of all cells all of the time. Instead, we use all
frequencies in all sectors of all cells for a fraction of the time, serving clients who are NOT at the
cell edge, but instead are close to the base station and can receive signals at low power, with
reduced co-channel interference. Lets illustrate how it works.
213
WiMAX
WiMAX Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse Modes
Modes
DEPLOYMENT
DEPLOYMENT MODES
MODES PER
PER 802.16M*
802.16M*
1, 3, 1: Frequency reuse of (1,1) with 3 sectors/site, all

sectors are assigned the same frequency
1, 3, 3: Frequency reuse of (1,3) with 3 sectors/site,
each
sector is assigned a unique frequency channel
1, 6, 3: Frequency reuse of (1,3) with 6 sectors/site
*Per IEEEC802.16m-07/-20 Advanced Air Interface TG (02-23-2007
214
2008
214
Possible
Possible Reuse
Reuse with
with PUSC
PUSC
1,
1, 3,
3, 1:
1: 11 SITE,
SITE, 33 SECTORS,
SECTORS, 11 CHANNEL
CHANNEL
3 PUSC Segments: F1, F2, F3

F2
Total Bandwidth of SOFDMA Channel
F1
F2
F3
F1
F3
2008
215
So there are several possible frequency reuse plans that feature PUSCs. Here is a simple one
to get us started, and well show other PUSC plans in the succeeding slides.
This approach uses ONLY PUSCs. Its really quite similar to an approach where one might use
three-sectored antennas and three channels.
215
OFDMA
OFDMA Allocation
Allocation Hierarchy
Hierarchy
Frame
Complete Transmission Set (D/L or U/L)
Zone
Complete Logical Portion of a Frame
PUSC Zone
FUSC Zone
Burst
Two Dimensional (time and frequency) Allocation of Slots
Sub-channel
Symbol
Frequency Domain
Time Domain
FUSC = 48 Tones
PUSC = Two - 14 Tone Clusters
Slot
Minimum Data Allocation Unit
PUSC D/L Slot
FUSC D/L Slot
2 Symbols x 1 Sub-channel
1 Symbol x 1 Sub-channel
2008
216
When deploying Mobile WiMAX, users are allocated capacity in the form of slots. The slots are
made up of sets of tones. How the tones sets are assembled is a function of the Zone. PUSC
Zones use clusters of tones to create sub-channels, FUSC Zones distribute the tones over the
entire channel bandwidthno clusters.
Currently, no one is deploying or testing FUSCs.
216
OFDMA
OFDMA with
with Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse of
of one
one
PERMUTATION
PERMUTATION ZONES
ZONES
Sub-carrier Permutations:
Fully Used Sub-carriers (FUSC)
w Coverage close to site
w Uses all sub-carriers during a
portion of the frame
Partially Used Sub-carriers (PUSC)
w Edge coverage (higher
interference)
w Uses a partial set of nonoverlapping sub-carriers
F1
F2
PUSC Permutation Zone
FUSC
Permutation Zone
FUSC
Permutation Zone
FUSC
Permutation Zone
PUSC F1
PUSC F2
PUSC F3
Full Usage Sub-carrier, used in all cells
F3
t
2008
217
Although the PUSC sub-channels are shown as adjacent tone sets in the above illustration, they
are actually formed into clusters of tones and distributed across the channel bandwidth in a noncontiguous manner. We will show two methods of mixing PUSCs and FUSCs on the next two
slides.
This approach is featured in the WiMAX Forums white papers on Mobile WiMAX. All cells
nominally use the same 10 MHz channel, so it is nominally Frequency Reuse of One.
In this approach, we use omnidirectional antennas. The FUSC will be used towards the end of
each frame to serve subscribers who are close to the base station. Even though adjacent cells
use the same frequencies, Co-channel interference is minimized by reducing the transmit power.
We use PUSC Zones at an earlier time of each frame, using the most bandwidth efficient
modulation schemes for users at the edge of coverage. The three adjacent base stations, shown
above, are assigned three different PUSC segments. Since their neighbors use different PUSC
segments, there is reduced co-channel interference.
This is essentially a plan where we have three-cell reuse during part of a frame (the PUSC part),
and use one-cell reuse during another part of the frame (the FUSC part).
217
OFDMA
OFDMA with
with Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse of
of one
one
AN
AN ALTERNATE
ALTERNATE APPROACH
APPROACH
Fully Used Sub-carriers (FUSC)
w Coverage close to site
w Uses all sub-carriers during a
portion of the frame
PUSC1
PUSC3
Partially Used Sub-carriers (PUSC)

w Edge coverage (higher
interference)
PUSC3
FUSC
w Uses a partial set of nonoverlapping sub-carriers
FUSC
PUSC2
PUSC2
PUSC1
PUSC3
PUSC 1
PUSC 2
PUSC 3
PUSC1
FUSC
Full Usage Sub-carrier, used in all sectors

PUSC2
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Another proposed use of PUSC and FUSC and Frequency Reuse of One is shown here.
In this approach, all base stations use sectored antennas. All sectors are allowed to send on all
sub-channels (FUSC) during some portion of each frame (towards the end), to serve clients that
are close to the base station. PUSC Zones are used earlier in the frame, from the sectored
antennas, to serve clients close to the coverage edge.
These plans are being tested at this stage of the Mobile WiMAX lifecycle. Most vendors and
carriers who run these expensive field tests are keeping their key design results very quiet, as
proprietary design information that they have paid dearly to acquire.
218
1,
1, 3,
3, 11 SEGMENTED
SEGMENTED pUsc/fusc
pUsc/fusc Frame
Frame
Interference Mitigation
with PUSCs!
PUSC Zone
Sector 3
3-b
High potential
Inter-sector
Interference
in FUSC Zone!
1-b
FUSC Zone
3-c
3-a
1-c
Sector 1
2-c
1-a
2-b
Sector 2
2-a
T0
T0
1-a
T0
1-b
1-c
2-a
2-b
2-c
3-c
3-a
Sectors simultaneously transmit using different PUSC segments!
2008
3-b
The actual PUSC sub-channels are not contiguous as shown in the illustration. They are
distributed across the channel bandwidth. The illustration shows three sectors on the same
channel, transmitting simultaneously.
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219
Example
Example Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX System
System
GENERAL
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
ASSUMPTIONS

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The WiMAX Forum has published several white papers on Mobile WiMAX. These white papers
reside on the WiMAX Forum web site for free download, and also reside on the WiMAX Network
Designer certification boot camp companion CD.
The white papers model a Mobile WiMAX network, and study its performance. In the model,
they assume the parameters that are tabulated here.
We include these tables as one specific example of one specific design of a mobile WiMAX
network.
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Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE LINK
LINK BUDGET
BUDGET
Mobile WiMax Link

Budget--Downlink

2008
Here are some of the specifications of the WiMAX-Forum modeled mobile WiMAX network.
Instructions:
Open the spreadsheet and observe the details of the Mobile WiMAX link budget.
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221
Need
Need More
More on
on
Frequency
Frequency Reuse
Reuse ??
The topic of frequency reuse
planning for mobile WiMAX
is a very hot research topic
Vendors will test alternate PUSC
designs, and keep their results secret
The WiMAX Forum Carrier Working
Group is a good source of public
information
2008
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The topic of frequency reuse planning for mobile WiMAX is a very hot research topic. Vendors
are doing field tests to gather empirical information on the effectiveness of the PUSC options.
Vendors will compete to distinguish themselves with proprietary designs in the early going, so
public information will be scarce. However, if you work closely with a vendor, and sign a nondisclosure agreement, you may be able to get that vendors design information.
The WiMAX Forum Carrier Working Group is a good source of public information.
Additional discussion on this point is beyond the scope of this course.
222
Lesson
Lesson 77 Review/Quiz
Review/Quiz
4.58
1. The D/R ratio for a reuse factor (k) of 7 is_______.
2. Given a CPE with 100 mW output, using 128 of the
9 dB.
1024 tones, the OFDMA gain is ____
3. Deploying a Mobile WiMAX network with 10 MHz
channels in a 1,3,3 reuse, the total amount of
30 MHz.
bandwidth required for the deployment is ____
4. Using S-OFDMA, increasing the bandwidth
number of the tones.
increases the ________
28 PUSC sub5. One downlink sub-channel contains ___
48 FUSC sub-carriers.
carriers or ___
reduce the data rate and ________
increase
6. Uplink PUSCs _________
the C/I performance at cell edge.
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223
Lesson
Lesson 8:
8:
Timing
Timing And
And Synchronization
Synchronization
For
For WiMAX
WiMAX Networks
Networks
2008
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224
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
Provide an overview of general network timing
architectures
Describe the unique aspects of timing in a
WiMAX network
Compare per site GPS deployment to the IEEE
1588 standard approach
2008
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225
The
The Need
Need For
For Accurate
Accurate Timing
Timing
Time Domain Accuracy
w Maintain Data Stream Synchronization
w Inter-site Handoff Timing
w Transition Timing (TDD)
Frequency Domain Accuracy
w Maintain Frequency Stability
w Avoid Long-term Frequency Drift
Both are required for WiMAX Implementation
2008
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226
Reference
Reference Sources
Sources
THE
THE CLOCKING
CLOCKING HIERARCHY
HIERARCHY
Stratum
Level
Accuracy
Range
Pull-in-Range
Stability
1 x 10-11
Free-Running by Definition
NA
1.6 x 10-8
Must be capable of synchronizing to

clock with accuracy of 1.6 x 10-8
1 x 10-10/day
3E
1 x 10-6

1 x 10-8/day
4.6 x 10-6

3.7 x 10-7/day
4E
32 x 10-6

clock with accuracy of 32 x 10-6
Same as Accuracy
32 x 10-6

clock with accuracy of 32 x 10-6
Same as Accuracy
2008
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Clocking
Clocking System
System EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
DESPOTIC
DESPOTIC STRATUM
STRATUM 11
Stratum 1
Link Failure
Holdover Mode
(Free-running)
Stratum 3
Stratum 2
Stratum 2
Stratum 3
Stratum 3
Stratum 3
Higher Stratum Clocks discipline lower Stratum Clocks via a synchronization chain
The synchronization chain is based on TDM core networks distributing clocking
Lower Stratum clocks free-run when the chain is temporarily broken
Problem:
Modern core networks (such as WiMAX) are moving to All-IP, typically
over Ethernet. This causes the synchronization chain to be broken!
2008
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228
Accurate
Accurate Clocking
Clocking For
For WiMAX
WiMAX
IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT FOR
FOR FDD,
FDD, CRITICAL
CRITICAL FOR
FOR TDD
TDD
Downlink
Uplink
Downlink
Uplink
Downlink
Site 2
T
T
G
R
T
G
T
T
G
R
T
G
T
T
G
Site 3
Frequency
Site 1
Site 4
Time
Burst Guard Times
Illustration: Four Co-channel Sites
Frequency
Need for Accurate clocking:

Sites must time-align D/L and U/L bursts
to reduce co-channel interference
OFDM requires accurate/stable frequency
in order to recover the transmitted data
2008
Without an accurate clocking source to discipline the Base Stations and Remotes, both timing
and frequency would drift over time. OFDM is shown in the above illustration for simplicity.
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229
Frequency
Frequency Offset
Offset Example
Example
REQUIREMENT:
REQUIREMENT: LESS
LESS THAN
THAN 2%
2% OFFSET
OFFSET
Maximum Frequency Offset between Subscriber and Base Station

1. Determine the tone bandwidth (Channel BW/ # of tones)
2. Determine maximum tone frequency offset (2% sub-carrier BW)
3. Determine maximum frequency offset (max. tone freq. offset/Operating frequency)
Example: 256 OFDM, 7 MHz BW @ 3.5 GHz

Required frequency accuracy @ 0.156 ppm
OFDM Power Spectrum
Base Station Rx Frequency
f0 - 4/T
f0 - 3/T
f0 - 2/T
Subscriber Tx Frequency
f0 - 1/T
f0
f0 + 1/T
f0 + 2/T
f0 + 3/T
f0 + 4/T
2008
ppm = parts per million
230
OFDM is a multi-carrier approach. It packs multiple carriers, each of which carry a small portion
of the entire data stream, into a small channel.
Because the carriers are precisely placed with separation of 1/T (where T is the symbol period),
each of the carriers has a null at the center frequencies of all adjacent carriers. In other words,
we have made them orthogonal and the result is that we dont need to separate them with
guard bands. We get the efficiency of a good modulation scheme with the longer symbol times
that can tolerate the typical delay spreads.
In fixed WiMAX systems, were going to use OFDM systems with 256 carriers. In mobile
WiMAX, were going to use a Scalable OFDMA with (typically) 1024 carriers.
Were going to use an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to convert our data stream into the
composite modulated radio signal, and were going to use a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in the
receiver to decompose the composite radio signal into its constituent parts for demodulation.
230
Timing
Timing Requirements
Requirements
MAJOR
MAJOR WIRELESS
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES*
TECHNOLOGIES*
CDMA2000
Frequency
Accuracy
5 x 10-8
1 ms GPS (10 ms holdover)
GSM
5 x 10-8
N/A
UMTS (FDD)
5 x 10-8
N/A
UMTS (TDD)
5 x 10-8
2.5 ms
WiMAX (FDD)
WiMAX (TDD)
8 x 10-6
8 x 10-6
N/A
1 ms GPS (25 ms holdover)
System
Time Accuracy
2008
*Table values from Symmetricom application brief
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Clocking
Clocking Techniques
Techniques For
For WiMAX
WiMAX
GETTING
GETTING ACCURATE
ACCURATE TIMING
TIMING TO
TO BASE
BASE STATIONS
STATIONS
1. Place a station clock with built-in GPS receiver at each
Base Station
w
GPS Discipline provides Stratum 1 accuracy
Significant deployment cost per site
Line-of-Sight to GPS satellites required
2. Use a master clock and provide timing to Base Stations

via IEEE 1588
w
Reduced deployment cost
Not as accurate as GPS
New standardmay not be ready for prime time

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232
GPS
GPS Disciplined
Disciplined Station
Station Clock
Clock
CURRENT
CURRENT WIMAX
WIMAX NETWORK
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
GPS Satellite
GPS
Receiver
Ethernet
Station Clock
GPS
Receiver
Layer 2
Switch
To Core Network
Station Clock
GPS
Receiver
Station Clock
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IEEE
IEEE 1588:
1588: Precision
Precision Timing
Timing Protocol
Protocol
FEEDING
FEEDING CLOCK
CLOCK OVER
OVER ASYNCHRONOUS
ASYNCHRONOUS LINKS
LINKS
A new standard for maintaining clocking discipline
clocking over Packet-based core networks
Still in draft form at this time
Eliminates the need for GPS receivers at each
Base Station
Defines a set of system components:
w IEEE 1588 Grandmaster Clock (Network Core)
w IEEE 1588 Slave Clock (Base Station)
2008
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234
IEEE
IEEE 1588
1588 Clock
Clock Distribution
Distribution
NETWORK
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
Ethernet
IEEE 1588
Slave Clock
Layer 2
Switch
IEEE 1588
Slave Clock
GPS
Receiver
Layer 2
Switch
IEEE 1588
Slave Clock
IEEE 1588
Grandmaster Clock
To Core Network
2008
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235
Lesson
Lesson 9:
9:
WiMAX PERFORMANCE
AND COVERAGE
CONSIDERATIONS
2008
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236
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
Explain and follow each step of DoceoTechs WiMAX
Three-Phase Network Design process
List eight WiMAX-specific network design considerations
Model a flat-earth WiMAX network with the DoceoTech
Design spreadsheet, and determine sensitivity of the
estimated economic payback to changes in market and
technical factors
Determine cell density required for a desired level of
service, performance, and coverage.
Determine site selection criteria
Choose backhaul options to support throughput
requirements
2008
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W
WiiMax
Max Network
Network Design
Design (1)
(1)
WIMAX-SPECIFIC
WIMAX-SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS
Partially Used
Sub-carriers (PUSC)
Adaptive Modulation
and Coding
Adaptive per frame
Uplink/Downlink
boundary*
AAS and MIMO
antenna systems
Additional gain in link budget

Affects user throughput in at
various coverage distances;
affects capacity plan
Capacity planning in each sector
based on total, rather than
separate, UL/DL needs
AAS: Added gain in link budget
MIMO: Added gain and capacity
* Initially a configuration parameter that is manually set due to frequency reuse of one.
2008
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You may have experience with non-WiMAX fixed-network design, or with cellular system design.
You may wonder what are the specific differences when designing a WiMAX network. These
two slides summarize the WIMAX specific network design considerations.
(Some, like AAS and MIMO, are technologies that are not truly unique to WiMAX, but they
happen to be deployed in volume first in WiMAX networks. Others, like Adaptive Modulation and
Coding, are used in other cellular networks, but WiMAX is the first fixed-wireless network to use
them in volume.)
We wont teach these network design features while presenting these two slides. We will explain
each approach in more detail elsewhere in this lesson or in the course. But the two slides do
provide a good summary of the WIMAX-specific network design considerations.
238
WiMax
WiMax Network
Network Design
Design (2)
(2)
WIMAX-SPECIFIC
WIMAX-SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS
Flexibility in channel
sizes, sector counts
and reuse plans
Many options to consider when

planning reuse
Quality of Service
Could have extensive future

impact on network design
Automatic Repeat
Request (ARQ)
Better receive sensitivity in link

budget
OFDMA reuse factor of Interesting channel planning for

One
mobile WiMAX
2008
239
You may have experience with non-WiMAX fixed-network design, or with cellular system design.
You may wonder what are the specific differences when designing a WiMAX network. These
two slides summarize the WIMAX specific network design considerations.
(Some, like AAS and MIMO, are technologies that are not truly unique to WiMAX, but they
happen to be deployed in volume first in WiMAX networks. Others, like Adaptive Modulation and
Coding, are used in other cellular networks, but WiMAX is the first fixed-wireless network to use
them in volume.)
We wont teach these network design features while presenting these two slides. We will explain
each approach in more detail elsewhere in this lesson or in the course. But the two slides do
provide a good summary of the WIMAX-specific network design considerations.
239
THE
THE DoceoTech
DoceoTech THREETHREE- PHASE
PHASE
DESIGN
DESIGN APPROACH
APPROACH
First
phase
Second
phase
Third
phase
Pure theoretical design based on flat earth

homogeneous design
- Useful for understanding system
performance, impact of changes, and
financial analysis
Use theoretical design inputs to begin looking
at real world issues
Final system coverage and capacity design
based on terrain, morphology, and highresolution demographics
2008
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DoceoTech recommends a three-phase approach to WiMAX Network Design.

We will follow this approach for the next 12 hours of the course, following a few case studies
from beginning to end.
In the first phase, we try a rough-cut, flat-earth theoretical design for your market. We ignore
topology, terrain, and other considerations in order to do a simple analysis. The output of phase
1 is an understanding of the scale and scope of your network design, and a quantified estimate
of the economics of your network, including a payback on your investment. At the end of phase
1, you will decide whether the network opportunity is promising enough for you to continue to the
second and third phase versus whether you should stop and try to improve the financial
situation before you proceed.
The phase 1 analysis is performed with a spreadsheet.
In the second phase, you will adjust the spreadsheet, flat-earth model to consider real-world
issues. You will look at available mounting assets, terrain, foliage, and refine your design
approach. You will consider your frequency and channel plans.
In the third phase, you will complete a thorough RF analysis and design, choosing specific
mounting or construction sites, channels assignments for each site and sector, and model the
network thoroughly with an RF design tool.
240
PHASE
PHASE ONE
ONE
Develop an understanding of system needs
through a high level spreadsheet design
Spreadsheet:
DoceoTech Design
Spreadsheet:
Coverage-CapacityPower Law
2008
241
For the next few hours, were going to use the DoceoTech Design spreadsheet to perform the
flat-earth analysis of the proposed WiMAX network. This analysis gives us tremendous insight
to the high-level WiMAX network design. It also tells you whether the WiMAX opportunity is
financially attractive enough to bother performing phase 2 and phase 3 analysis.
The Doeceotech Design spreadsheet is a complex tool with many tabs. So, we will introduce
many of the features of this tool through the use of the Coverage-CapacityPower Law
spreadsheet before moving to the Doeceotech Desogn spreadsheet.
241
Flat
Flat earth:
earth: inputs
inputs and
and outputs
outputs
Spreadsheet Inputs
DoceoTech Design
Link Budgets Tab
Base Station Equipment

Customer Premises Equipment
Equipment Configuration
Link margin assumptions
DoceoTech Design
Financial Inputs Tab
CAPEX
OPEX
DoceoTech Design
Network Inputs Tab
DoceoTech Design
Market Inputs Tab
BS and CPE HAAT

Operating frequency
Capacity
Mobility issues
Penetration Rate
Market coverage
Oversubscription
Monthly Service fees
Spreadsheet Outputs
DoceoTech Design
End of Plan
Coverage Sites
Sites required to satisfy

coverage, based on inputs
Based on COST 231 model
DoceoTech Design
End of Plan
Capacity Sites
DoceoTech Design
End of Plan
Total Sites
Sites required to satisfy

demand, based on inputs
Combination of coverage
and capacity sites
DoceoTech Design
Payback Analysis
Breakeven point for

system
2008
There are only four tabs for inputting information. We will be using all of them.
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242
Research
Research Topics
Topics for
for Phase
Phase One
One
Regulated Spectrum
Equipment
Area to be served
Customer requirements
Customer demographics
Customer count
Budget for network
2008
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SPECTRUM
SPECTRUM
Operating frequency determines coverage
w Higher frequencies propagate less distance,
all other variables remaining constant
w Unlicensed frequencies are both power and
interference-limited
Amount of spectrum determines capacity
w Total spectrum/reuse plan = spectrum per
site or sector
DoceoTech Design
Network Inputs Tab
2008
244
Overview:
The provided spreadsheet is a tool used to perform a top-down analysis of a system design.
The inputs come from marketing and engineering groups. The primary output is the payback
period on investment.
The operating frequency and HAAT will provide a coverage estimate for a given homogenous
propagation environment. The bandwidth and modulation scheme will provide a capacity
estimate for a given coverage area.
Instructions:
1. Open DoceoTech Design spreadsheet found in Student CD.
2. Select Network Inputs Tab.
3. Input the following:
Carrier Frequency = 2600 MHz
Leave other variables at current values, for now.
244
DEFINE
DEFINE SYSTEM
SYSTEM OPERATING
OPERATING
PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS
Base Station (BS) power
CPE power
Antenna System Gain
CPE location
Fade margin
Building attenuation margin
Throughput requirements
System Balance
DoceoTech Design
Link Budgets Tab
2008
Overview:
A link budget must now be performed, based on manufacturer's equipment specifications and
system configuration. An important output at this point is the is the Balanced Path Loss.
Instructions:
1. Select the Link Budgets Tab.
2. Input the following parameters (other parameters remain the same):
Output Power = 10 Watts (Base Station), 1 Watt (CPE)
No cable loss
BS Antenna gain = 20 dBi
Rx sensitivity = -93 dBm (BPSK), -87 dBm (QPSK), -81 dBm (16-QAM)
Uplink Diversity Gain = 6 dB
Building loss = 10 dB
Fade Margin = 6 dB
245
245
SYSTEM
SYSTEM BALANCE
BALANCE
WiMAX is a two-way system
w Base Station power greatly exceeds CPE power
w CPE power limited by
w Regulatory rules and human SAR (Specific
absorption rate) limits
w Battery-power limitations in computer or
handheld device
w Generally, a licensed service BS can operate at
up to 2 KW, while a CPE can operate at less
than 1 Watt
The base station power must be set at a level
that provides coverage commensurate
with the CPEs ability to talk back
DoceoTech Design
Link Budgets Tab
2008
246
Path balance is an important parameters when designing for symmetrical link, such as T-carrier
replacement. Residential broadband access allows for asymmetrical links with higher speed on
the downlink.
246
AREA
AREA TO
TO BE
BE SERVED
SERVED
Single small area
<single BS coverage,
or >single BS coverage
Multiple small areas
Acceptable for fixed systems
Large contiguous area
Necessary for mobility
2008
The inputs from a Marketing department are, or should be, based on a business plan for the
system to be deployed.
What type of area are you serving?
247
247
CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS
REQUIREMENTS
What service is customer expecting?
wDigital Subscriber Line equivalent
wMulti megabit
wMobile
Overbooking tolerance
wLike Erlang tables in a voice network,
overbooking describes the peak vs.
average capacity of the network
wNo system is designed for 100%
use by 100% of customers
simultaneously
DoceoTech Design
Marketing Inputs Tab
2008
248
Instructions:
1. Select the Marketing Inputs Tab.
2. Observe the Service Level hierarchy and service pricing schedule, from high speed access
@ 1.5 Mbps to the low end of service @ 384 Kbps.
3. Observe the five-year Coverage Objectives, for Dense Urban, Urban, Suburban and Rural.
4. Input an Overbooking Factor of 20. (Oversubscription of the facilities in the network to
accommodate for bursty traffic.)
248
CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER DEMOGRAPHICS
DEMOGRAPHICS
Used to identify what constitutes a customer
w Can include income, households, businesses,
vehicular counts, population count, etc.
The above is weighted into a representative
customer
w This weighting can then be applied to census
or other demographic data to determine
potential customers per area
DoceoTech Design
Demographics Tab
2008
249
Demographic data provides the information required by Marketing to estimate Market

Penetration. The Area and Demographics Tab provides a listing of the top 100 Metropolitan
Service Areas (MSAs). The information is current as of the 2000 census.
The current spreadsheet takes some census data on population of each city it models, and
representation of the percent of each city that is urban, suburban, and rural.
249
CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER COUNT
COUNT
Demographic weighting indicates the location and
total number of subscribers
% Market penetration indicates how many
customers are planned each year
w Each will use a portion of the system capacity
DoceoTech Design
Marketing Inputs Tab
2008
250
Overview:
The Marketing department will evaluate demographic data, attempting to define the target
customer based on the demographic variables previously discussed. The output of their efforts
will be an estimation of market penetration over a specific period of time.
Instructions:
Input the Fifth Year Market Penetration provided by Marketing: 2.5%
250
DETERMINE
DETERMINE BASE
BASE STATION
STATION
CAPACITY
CAPACITY AND
AND COVERAGE
COVERAGE
Coverage and Capacity are dependent on:
w Operating parameters
w Frequency
w Antenna heights
w Amount of spectrum
w Reuse requirements
w Selected modulation
w Higher order modulation lowers
coverage but increases capacity
w Demand per user
Coverage
2008
Some typical Height Above Average Terrain (HAAT) values:
Dense Urban Tower 30m
Urban Tower 30m
Suburban Tower 45m
Rural Tower 80 m
CPE
mobile 1m
indoor 1st floor 2m
outdoor residential 8m
commercial outdoor 5m and up
Instructions:
1. Select the Network Inputs Tab.
2. Input the Edge of Coverage Throughput values
BPSK 2500 Kbps
QPSK 5000 Kbps
16-QAM 15000 Kbps
251
capacity
DoceoTech Design
Network Inputs Tab
251
Lets
Lets do
do some
some What
What Ifs:
Ifs:
MODULATION
MODULATION vs.
vs. COVERAGE
COVERAGE
AND
AND CAPACITY
CAPACITY
High order modulations require greater C/I+N,
thus requiring more power or reduced coverage
distances
Since WiMAX supports adaptive modulation
users may experience different throughput
depending on location
Frequency: 2.6 GHz to 3.5 GHz
64-QAM
Go back to 2.6 GHz
16-QAM
HAAT: 2 m to 5 m
Go back to 2 m
QPSK
DoceoTech Design
BPSK
I+N
Network Inputs Tab
2008
Instructions:
1. Make sure that you in still in the Network Input Tab.
2. Change the frequency from 2600 MHz to 3500 MHz. What is the effect on coverage and
capacity?
3. Change value back to 2600 MHz.
4. Change the CPE HAAT to 5 meters. Again, what happens to coverage and capacity?
5. Change HAAT back to 2 meters.
252
252
COVERAGE
COVERAGE WILL
WILL BE
BE HIGHLY
HIGHLY
DEPENDENT
DEPENDENT ON
ON CPE
CPE LOCATION
LOCATION
Externally mounted CPE provides greater
range than indoor CPE
w Indoor CPE:
w Typically lower elevation
w Building attenuation loss
w Poor antenna performance
w Outdoor CPE:
w Requires a truck-roll
w Increases CPE cost
w May reduce market penetration
CPE
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253
Indoor installations:
Good News: Indoor CPE allows for self-installation of terminal equipment.
Bad News: Indoor equipment has poor antenna performance and wall penetration loss.
Outdoor installations:
Good News: Outdoor installations increase coverage area.
Bad News: Outdoor installations require an outdoor antenna to be installed, increasing cost of
CPE deployment.
253
Exercise:
Exercise: outdoor
outdoor vs.
vs. indoor
indoor CPE
CPE
Instructions:
1. Record payback period (Payback Analysis tab) for Los Angeles with current configuration
2. Save this spreadsheet as Indoor2outdoor Design.xls
3. Modify the system values (shown below) for an outdoor antenna implementation
4. Record payback period for Los Angeles with new configuration
5. Close this spreadsheet and return to the original Doceotech Design spreadsheet
(54) months
Payback period for Los Angeles using indoor equipment: _______
DoceoTech Design
Link Budgets Tab
CPE Antenna gain = 15 dBi

Building loss = 0 dB
CPE cable loss = 1 dB
DoceoTech Design
DoceoTech Design
Network Inputs Tab
Increase CPE cost to $350

Add truck-roll: $150
DoceoTech Design
Market Inputs Tab
CPE height = 5m
Reduce monthly fees

1500 Kbps = $75
768 Kbps = $50
512 Kbps = $40
384 Kbps = $25
62 months
Payback period for Los Angeles using outdoor equipment: _______
2008
254
Instructions: Change the CPE to an outdoor antenna system.

1. Select the Link Budgets tab. Change the CPE antenna gain to 15 dBi, change building loss
to 0 dB and add 1 dB of cable loss to the CPE.
2. Select the Financial Inputs tab. Increase the CPE cost by an extra $100 to account for the
external antenna and mounting hardware. Add an additional $150 for installation (Truck
Roll).
3. Select the Network Inputs tab and change the CPE height to 5 meters.
4. Select the Market Inputs tab and reduce the monthly fees for service:
1500 Kbps = $75
768 Kbps = $50
512 Kbps = $40
384 Kbps = $25
5. Determine the payback period for the stated location.

6. Make sure that you rename (Indoor2outdoor Design.xls) before saving.
254
TOTAL
TOTAL SITES
SITES REQUIRED
REQUIRED
TO
TO COVER
COVER AREA
AREA
Area to be covered is known
Average coverage of each site is known
The total sites required to cover the area is
simply Area/site coverage
w Example:
w1000 sq miles to be covered
w10 sq mi covered per site
w100 sites are required
DoceoTech Design
Coverage Sites Tab
2008
255
After all parameters associated with equipment performance (transmit receive characteristics
giving rise to max path loss) and average system deployment (tower and CPE height and
location) are entered, the model uses this information to calculate the number of sites required to
cover the area (specified as the percentage of area to be covered in the market inputs
worksheet).
The number of sites required for coverage will be smaller for less complex modulations, because
these less complex modulations require less C/(I+N), thus have greater range.
The model determines the coverage achievable by a site in each morphology, and calculates the
area covered by this radius. It then divides the area to be covered by the per site coverage, and
determines how many sites are required to meet coverage objectives. (see example on the
slide).
The model output is shown on the coverage sites worksheet. The number of sites by
morphology and modulation is calculated and totaled.
The smallest site count will ALWAYS be achieved with the simplest modulation! In the case of
the model, BPSK will always result in the smallest site count.
255
COVERAGE
COVERAGE ADDRESSES
ADDRESSES ONLY
ONLY
HALF
HALF THE
THE DESIGN
DESIGN
In order to determine if the covered area has
sufficient capacity to serve the user base
within, several factors must be considered:
Coverage area per BS
Capacity per BS
Customer demand
Overbooking ratio
Number of users per area
2008
However, coverage is only one aspect of system design. The designer must assure that the
system can provide sufficient capacity to serve the customers in the covered area.
256
256
COVERAGE
COVERAGE OR
OR CAPACITY
CAPACITY LIMITED?
LIMITED?
Coverage Area 1
Coverage Area 2
Coverage Limited
Capacity Limited
Higher customer density than
required by deployment!
Result: Low Throughput
Fix: More Base Stations/km
Lower customer density than

required by deployment!
Result: No ROI
Fix: Less Base Stations/km
2008
257
Analyzing the number of sites required for coverage and capacity can be informative. The
optimal system is one where the coverage requirements and capacity needs within the area
covered result in an identical number of sites. If the number of sites required for coverage
exceeds the number of sites required for capacity, the system is Coverage Limited. This
means that the system as deployed for covering the area will have excess (unused) capacity.
Unused capacity costs capital and expense $$, but does not generate income. In this case it
would be prudent to increase the subscriber count or usage, resulting in more demand and a
higher revenue stream.
A system that requires more sites for capacity than coverage is Capacity Limited meaning the
demand on the system exceeds the capacity it can provide. This is generally a preferable
situation, because the deployed facilities are being efficiently used and generate maximum
revenue.
Along these same conceptual lines, it can be important to look at the number of
coverage/capacity sites by morphology. If any area seems out of kilter it may indicate that the
area defined for coverage is too large or small. This can occur easily in rural areas where if the
defined area is too large for the demand generated by a small population base, the system
cannot be economic. Changing the %area covered may cure the problem.
257
SYSTEM
SYSTEM ECONOMICS
ECONOMICS
Effective system design results in a
profitable system
CAPEX/OPEX vs. Revenue
Breakeven point must be consistent
with goals of business plan: 24 36
months
DoceoTech Design
Payback Analysis Tab
Summaries Tab
Market Inputs Tab
Effective Design
Poor Design
2008
Instructions:
Look first at the Financial Inputs worksheet. This sheet shows the cost variables that must be
included in the model in order to generate the information on the Capex and Opex tabs.
System Revenue is the result of the subscriber usage and pricing information in the Marketing
Inputs worksheet.
Finally, select the Payback Analysis Tab.
Notice that the current system configuration is an economic failure.
258
258
SPREADSHEET
SPREADSHEET MODEL
MODEL
WHAT
WHAT IT
IT DOES
DOES
Estimates Engineering Requirements

Validates Marketing Assumptions
Evaluates Economic Viability
Optimizes Solution
Provides Starting Point for Real-world Modeling
Now Its Your Turn!

2008
259
Instructions:
Perform a case study using the Case Study 1 handout in the exercise workbook. (This is the
Orlando, Florida system, that uses the DoceoTech Design spreadsheet.)
Answer the questions on the handout.
259
Case
Case Study
Study 1:
1: Orland0
Orland0
DoceoTech
DoceoTech Design
Design Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet
15 months
1. How many months to achieve payback?__________
2. What happens to payback interval if we achieve only 5%
Increases to 25 months for QAM
penetration? __________________________
3. What happens to the payback interval if the building
attenuation is 10 dB, rather than the assumed 7 dB?
Increases to 19 months
____________________
4. What happens to the Payback interval if the
oversubscription rate is 10? _____________________
5. What are some causes of variability in payback interval?
Geography, population, pop density, morphology
_________________________________________
2008
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260
Modeling
Modeling for
for Mobility
Mobility
Mobility-specific factors
w Additional loss margins for mobile fading (Short term fast fading)
w Design for overlapping cells
w Design for capacity loss due to extra retransmissions and handoff
Parameters that must be considered for mobility:
w Frequency reuse factor
w Mobile antenna height of 1.5m, gain of 0dBi
w Base station smart (or MIMO) antenna gain
w Mobile unit output power
w Body loss of operator (3-4dB)
w Oversubscription
w Any change to economic factors?
DoceoTech Design
Payback Analysis Tab
Summaries Tab
Market Inputs Tab
2008
261
Instructions:
Start with the completed spreadsheet from the Orlando Case Study 1.
Lets make some changes that model a mobile WiMAX network.
Additional Loss Margin for mobile fading: On the Link Budget tab, increase the fade margin to 8 dB. Note
that the fades can be much deeper for mobile WiMAX in dense urban areas. The Hata Model corrections
used in the spreadsheet already model 10 dB worse fade margin in urban areas than in rural, and 13 dB
margins in dense urban areas than in rural; even these factors should be drive-tested in your environment
to see if the correction factors and additional fade margin are sufficient for your desired level of service.
Additional Site Overlap: On the Network Inputs tab, change from 0% to 5%.
Capacity loss due to retransmissions and handoff: On the Network Inputs tab, change from 100% to 95%
On the Network Inputs tab, change Average Channels per site to 3, and the CPE or Mobile Height to 1.5
On the Network Inputs tab, change the Carrier Frequency to 2500 MHz
On the Link Budgets tab, set Transmitter Antenna Gain Uplink to 0 dBi, Transmitter Antenna Gain downlink
to 16 dBi, mobile output power to 0.25W, and body loss to 3 dB
On the Link Budgets tab, set Building Loss to 0 dB (providing mobile service to outdoor devices only; we
will change this on the next slide).
On the Marketing tab, set oversubscription factor to 40. (Applications for mobile devices are likely to
generate shorter transaction bursts, and tolerate more oversubscription.)
261
Case
Case Study
Study 2:
2: Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX
DoceoTech
DoceoTech Design
Design Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet
46 months
1. How many months to achieve payback?____________
2. What modulation scheme has positive payback?
________
BPSK
Skip
3. What happens to the Payback interval if a MIMO

antenna system yields 25 dBi gain, but the cost of
the base station equipment increases 50%, and
tower lease costs increase 100%?
_______________________
Decreases to 21 months
4. With the MIMO system, what happens to the Payback
interval if the service goal changes to serve in-building
subscribers with building penetration loss of 7 dB?
___________________
2008
262
MIMO consideration:
On the Link Budget tab, change the Downlink antenna gain to 25 dBi.
On the Financial (CAPEX and OPEX) tab, change the base station equipment cost (cell C6) from
$80,000 to $120,000 to model the extra cost of MIMO antenna equipment. And change the Site
Lease cost (cell H30) from $2000 per month to $4000 per month to model the extra cost of
leasing tower space for the larger MIMO antenna complex. What happens to the Payback
interval?
262
PHASE
PHASE TWO:
TWO:
MOVING
MOVING FROM
FROM AA SPREADSHEET
SPREADSHEET
TOWARD
TOWARD AA REAL
REAL SYSTEM
SYSTEM
The Spreadsheet tells average behavior of

a uniform system
You now have to start moving the average
coverage and capacity to a map of the area
w Account for actual location of users
w Account for morphology
w Account for actual tower or building
locations
2008
263
Phase 1 is now complete. You have modeled the network, and learned a lot about the
approximate number of sites you need, the approximate spacing of the sites, the approximate
cost, etc.
But all of these are helpful approximations. In Phase 2, we move from the spreadsheet to a real
system design. And of course, the spreadsheet did not quantify the effects of real user locations,
morphology, and building data.
263
DEVELOP
DEVELOP A
A NETWORK
NETWORK GRID
GRID
A network grid is an idealized
starting point for system design
w Composed of hexagons, sized
appropriate to coverage of BS
w Can be overlaid on a map and aligned to give
best fit to subscriber density in covered area
or to available site locations
w Each hexagon can naturally be subdivided
into smaller hexagons to identify optimal
position for new capacity sites
w Can be used as a starting point for
developing a reuse plan
2008
264
Based on the spreadsheet model in phase 1, you have an approximate idea of the coverage
area of each base station. A helpful phase 2 step is to overlay a series of cells of that
approximate coverage area on your service territory.
We use hexagons as the first-approximation shape of our cell coverage areas. In phase 3 of the
design, well let the RF planning tool tell us the real shape of each cell.
264
COVERAGE
COVERAGE SITE
SITE SELECTION
SELECTION
Start by selecting sites as close to

the center of each grid point as possible
It is acceptable to shift grid for improved
alignment with available sites
Several alternatives should be identified
Final selection will be based on actual
coverage (based on modeling or empirical
results), cost, and availability
2008
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265
SITE
SITE LOCATION
LOCATION GRID
GRID OVER
OVER MAP
MAP
1. Layout grid
2. Locate potential sites
3. Adjust grid
2008
266
You may lay out the site location grid over your coverage area map and it will provide some idea
of the ideal base station locations. Of course, you dont have ideal mounting assets at the center
of each grid cell. So youll want to locate the preferred mounting assets, and adjust the grid for a
next-cut estimate of base station locations.
266
Select
Select Initial
Initial AREA
AREA
BASED
BASED ON
ON DEMOGRAPHIC
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
DATA
= Businesses/km2
2008
= Households/km2
267
Once you have a candidate grid placed, youll want to add real demographic and location data to
see where you are coverage limited vs where you are capacity limited.
267
IDENTIFICATION
IDENTIFICATION OF
OF
AVAILABLE
AVAILABLE BS
BS LOCATIONS
LOCATIONS
Tower companies
w American Tower
w Spectrasite
w Global Signal
w Crown Castle
w Local Players
Each of the major entities has an extensive
list of available sites on line
An alternative is to build to suit, though this
is often fraught with local zoning delays
2008
268
268
COVERAGE
COVERAGE SITE
SITE OPTIMIZATION:
OPTIMIZATION:
AN
AN ITERATIVE
ITERATIVE PROCESS
PROCESS
Identify Site in
Coverage Area
Available
for Lease?
Available
Antenna/Equipment
Space
No
Yes
Yes
RF Coverage
Adequate?
No
Yes
Can Site
be Zoned?
No
Yes
Interconnect
Available?
No
No
No
Yes
Use Radio
Interconnect?
Lease Cost
Acceptable?
No
Yes
Yes
Acceptable Site
2008
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269
CAPACITY
CAPACITY SITE
SITE OPTIMIZATION:
OPTIMIZATION:
MORE
MORE ITERATION
ITERATION
Is capacity
sufficient?
No
Can channels
be added?
Identify new sites

Return to
coverage flowchart
No
Yes
Space available?
No
No
Yes
Interconnect
Available?
No
Use Radio
Interconnect?
Yes
Yes
Acceptable Site
2008
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270
BACKHAUL
Each site must be connected to the system

common equipment and to the world
The capacity of the backhaul need be
commensurate with the capacity of the site
w Can be accomplished through:
wLeased Telco facilities
wLeased microwave facilities
wOwned microwave facilities
2008
Once your preliminary base station sites are nominated, youll want to consider your backhaul
plan to bring the traffic from those sites into the core of your network.
271
271
BACKHAUL
BACKHAUL OPTIONS
OPTIONS
Once a site is implemented, it must
connect its traffic back to a central point
or to the world
1
Point-to-Point M/W
Core Network
3
Point-to-Multipoint M/W
2
Leased Facilities
Selection of a backhaul method is driven

by numerous considerations
2008
272
272
BACKHAUL
BACKHAUL PROS
PROS AND
AND CONS
CONS
Good News
Leased Telco
facilities
Can be acquired
most anywhere
Leased
microwave
facilities
Can provide over

100 MBPS of
capacity
Owned
microwave
facilities
Capacity
Reliability under
YOUR control
Bad News
Limited capacity and/or high
recurring cost (T/ E carriers,
SDH/SONET, Ethernet)
Not commonly available
Capital Cost
Must determine
availability of path
Maintenance costs
2008
273
The higher sector data rates provided by WiMAX can provide a short break-even time for buying
M/W vs. leasing Telco facilities. As the requirement for leased backhaul facilities moves to DS3s, E-3s, SONET and Metro-Ethernet, the recurring cost increase makes M/W facilities an
attractive alternate.
273
PHASE
PHASE THREE:
THREE:
MOVING
MOVING THE
THE THEORETICAL
THEORETICAL DESIGN
DESIGN
TO
TO THE
THE REAL
REAL WORLD
WORLD
Real world coverage is irregular:

Based on terrain
Based on morphology
This phase uses a propagation model
which accounts for terrain,
morphology, and demographics
Ideal vs. real world
2008
274
Phase 2 is now complete. In phase 1, you modeled the network without much real-world
consideration. In Phase 2, you added some real-world data about your demographics, mounting
assets, and backhaul plans. But youre still dealing in theoretical propagation models.
You are ready for Phase 3, which uses the RF planning tool to model the real RF propagation.
274
Lesson
Lesson 10:
10:
Coverage and
Performance Planning
with Modeling Tools
2008
275
275
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
Employ a propagation modeling tool to simulate
a WiMAX network in a specific environment
Complete a two-part case study
1. Mobile WiMAX deployment
2. Backhaul facilities for deployed sites
Import terrain and clutter databases
Perform studies to illustrate the effect of
operating frequency, bandwidth, terrain, clutter
and CPE location on coverage and performance
2008
276
276
Data
Data Required
Required in
in
Coverage
Coverage Planning
Planning
Databases
Equipment Lists
w Demographic
w Terrain
w Clutter (Land Use)
w Buildings
w Base Station Equipment
w Customer Premises Equipment
w Antennas
w Transmission Lines
2008
Databases range in cost.
277
277
Demographic
Demographic Data
Data
Demographic data is used to forecast market
penetration and usage, based on:
Household concentration
Business concentration
Vehicular miles (mobile)
Occupation
Income
Marital Status
Age
Demographic data is also

useful for determining base
station locations, based on
target customer areas.
2008
278
278
Terrain
Terrain Data
Data
Terrain is shown with a partially transparent overlay map.

2008
279
Terrain data consists of an X (latitude), Y (longitude), Z (elevation) matrix that shows elevation at
different points in the market area. Propagation models use this data, along with clutter, to
predict signal loss from a base station the a subscriber. It is also used when evaluating sites for
base station placement.
Some sources of Terrain data:
USGS (United States Geological Survey)
EDX
MSI Planet
279
Terrain
Terrain Database
Database Resolution
Resolution
DISTANCE
DISTANCE BETWEEN
BETWEEN SAMPLE
SAMPLE POINTS
POINTS
30 arc sec
3 arc sec
0.7 arc sec
Earth Circumference @ 40,087 km

30 arc sec resolution @ 928 meters
10 arc sec resolution @ 309 meters
3 arc sec resolution @ 92.8 meters
1 arc sec resolution @ 30.9 meters
0.7 arc sec resolution @ 21.65 meters
2008
280
The resolution values shown above are typical values for terrain elevation databases. The
greater terrain detail provided by higher resolution databases increases accuracy of propagation
models, but can cost also cost more than lower resolution databases.
280
Clutter
Clutter Data
Data
ALSO
ALSO CALLED
CALLED MORPHOLOGY
MORPHOLOGY AND
AND LAND
LAND USE
USE
Suburban (Residential)
Mixed Use
Commercial (Urban)
2008
Clutter (also called Land Use) is based on land type and usage data for a market area. The
data is used in propagation models to adjust predicted signal levels for each clutter type:
Heavy Urban (Commercial/Industrial)
Urban (Mixed)
Suburban (Residential)
Rural (Open, Agricultural, Forest, Range land)
Clutter data defines an adjustment (correction factor) to each type of land use.
Propagation models can use their own database or import different types of clutter databases:
MapInfo MIF
MSI Planet
USGS GIRAS Wizard (GIRASGeographic Information Retrieval and Analysis System)
High resolution clutter (1 to 5 meters) is available at a reasonable price. This resolution can
provide highly accurate coverage information, approaching building data for physical models.
281
281
Building
Building Data
Data
2008
282
Accurate clutter data is critical to the accuracy of coverage mapping, but building data can
provide much greater coverage accuracy. This is especially true in the Urban Canyons of a
busy city where clutter can only provide limited coverage information.
Building data accurately depicts structure locations and heights in a given area. This allows for
more accurate estimates of signal levels in city canyons. The location, material types, and
building dimensions that are detailed in building data are extremely useful for estimating
microcell coverage.
It is also expensive!
282
Antenna
Antenna and
and Transmission
Transmission
Line
Line Data
Data
Antenna Data:
Manufacturer
Antenna type
Physical parameters
Radiation patterns
Example: Maxrad 5.8 GHz Panel Antenna

Gain = 13 dBi
Elevation
Azimuth
Transmission Line Data:
Manufacturer
Type
Physical Characteristics
Electrical Characteristics
Loss per length
2008
Many antenna manufacturers provide antenna pattern information in a format suitable for
importing into a modeling tool. Modeling tools also allow for the creation of antenna patterns
based on manufacturers specifications.
A basic list of general coaxial cable characteristics is typically provided in a modeling tool.
Additional cable types can be added to the list, based on manufacturer's specifications.
283
283
Propagation
Propagation Model
Model
Considerations
Considerations
Questions when selecting a propagation model:
TypeEmpirical or Physical
Coverage
w Macrocell
w Microcell
w Indoor
Accurate Frequency Range
Necessary Data
w Terrain
w Clutter Type
w Clutter Height
w Clutter Loss
2008
284
An appreciation of propagation model parameters is critical to the proper selection and use of a
model for a given environment.
284
Typical
Typical Propagation
Propagation Models
Models
LIMITATIONS
LIMITATIONS
Minimum
Distance
Frequency
Range (MHz)
Minimum Ant.
Height
--
30 60,000
--
Okumura - Hata
1 km
100 1500
30 m
COST 231- Hata
1 km
1500 2000
30 m
0.02 km
800 2000
4m
Longley - Rice
--
30 20,000
--
Anderson 2D
--
30 60,000
15 m
100 m
1000 4000
--
Propagation Model
Free Space + RMD
Walfisch - Ikegami
IEEE 802.16 (SUI)
2008
285
Propagation models may be specific to coverage area size. Okumura Hata is an example of a
popular macro-cell model. Notice that the minimum distance stated for this model is 1 km.
Micro-cell models are typically based on ray-tracing and require detailed information regarding
the short range propagation environment. An example of a micro-cell model is the Walfisch
Ikagami model. This model requires details such as average building height, average street
width, building separation and street orientation relative to the direct radio path.
Free Space + RMD: Provides excess path loss due to terrain obstacle and clutter factors.
Appropriate for microwave path design.
Okumura Hata: Commonly used for cellular systems. Uses clutter categories for path loss.
COST 231 Hata : An extension of Okumura Hata for PCS frequencies.
Walfisch Ikagami: Commonly used for micro-cells (Shot-range cells).
Longley Rice: Takes into account detailed terrain features.
Anderson 2D: Similar to free space + RMD model. Uses ray techniques for path loss
calculations. Used for LOS and NLOS path loss.
IEEE 802.16: Empirical data is derived from suburban areas, no correction factors for urban
areas.
285
Modeling
Modeling WIMAX
WIMAX Coverage
Coverage
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: EMPRICAL
EMPRICAL MODELS
MODELS @
@ 2.5
2.5 GHZ
GHZ
802.16 SUI A
Base Station:
30 m antenna height
3 dB coax loss
16 dBi antenna
33 dBm PA output
COST 231 Hata
Remote:
2 m antenna height
2 dBi antenna
-91 dBm threshold
2008
286
Empirical models can be useful for rapid deployments with little useful data, but they will typically
not be as accurate as physical models with sufficient local data. Empirical models are useful for
early dimensioning, to get an approximate site count for a given deployment area. One problem
with empirical models for WiMAX is the lack of them for frequencies above 2 GHz. Most
empirical models were designed and optimized for cellular and PCS frequencies.
Notice, that for the same area and parameters, the COST 231 Hata model is conservative
relative the 802.16 SUI.
286
Modeling
Modeling WIMAX
WIMAX Coverage
Coverage
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: PHYSICAL
PHYSICAL MODELS
MODELS AT
AT 2.5
2.5 GHZ
GHZ
Anderson 2D
Base Station:
30 m antenna height
3 dB coax loss
16 dBi antenna
33 dBm PA output
Longley-Rice
Remote:
2 m antenna height
2 dBi antenna
-91 dBm threshold
2008
287
Physical models provide greater detail and accuracy when provided with enough information.
When deploying WiMAX at higher frequencies (above 2 GHz), there arent many empirical
models for these frequencies, so physical models should be used for deployments. This means
that the model must be adjusted based on drive-test data to enhance prediction accuracy. High
resolution clutter and/or building data can greatly enhance the accuracy of physical models.
287
Typical
Typical Propagation
Propagation Models
Models
CONTROL
CONTROL DATA
DATA
Terrain
Clutter
Loss
Clutter
Height
Pass-through
Loss
Free Space + RMD
Okumura - Hata
--
--
--
--
COST 231 - Hata
--
--
--
Walfisch - Ikegami
--
--
--
--
--
Longley - Rice
--
--
Anderson 2D
IEEE 802.16 (SUI)
--
--
--
--
Propagation Model
Buildings
X = Improves model prediction

-- = Not used by model
2008
288
There are several parameters that can be used by propagation models to improve accuracy of
the prediction. It is important to state that not all models benefits from or even consider these
parameters.
Okumura Hata is an example of a model that does not benefit from extra information regarding
clutter. This empirical model is based on the type of clutter only! Further information regarding
the clutter is ignored by Okumura Hata.
Physical models, such as the Anderson 2D model, can improve the accuracy of the prediction
when extra environmental information is provided.
288
Approaches
Approaches to
to W
WiiMax
Max
Planning
Planning
Fast-to-Market
Medium
Contiguous Coverage
Fast
Considerations:
Individual Sites
Varied Coverage
Rate = 1/Distance
Slow
Considerations:
Reuse
Coverage Overlaps
2008
When deploying WiMAX systems, it may not be possible to provide the overlapping coverage
required for mobile radio (cellular) systems. The problems of allocated spectrum, frequency
reuse and the performance requirements may limit initial implementations to isolated base
stations deployed to cover a specific market.
289
289
RF
RF Network
Network Design
Design Overview
Overview
Collect Project Data and Setup the Modeling Tool
Local Knowledge is Critical!
Forecast Market Penetration for the Chosen Area
Based on Demographic Data
Determine Optimum Location for a Test Site
Based on Customer Forecast and Available Facilities
Use a Modeling Tool to Determine Expected Coverage
Based on Terrain and Clutter
Perform Drive Test to Verify the Propagation Model
Data can be used to Optimize the Model
2008
The design overview above is a high-level view of a typical Green Field implementation.
290
290
Modeling
Modeling with
with EDX
EDX
SignalPro
SignalPro
2008
291
There are several excellent modeling tools on the market:

SignalPro from EDX
Wizard from Optimi
Planet from Marconi
All of these modeling tools perform the same basic functions necessary for design, deployment
and optimization of various wireless systems. The modeling tool companies can also provide
many of the databases required by these modeling tools.
291
Building
Building a
a Project
Project
Step 1: Create the Study Environment
Terrain
q
Clutter
q
q Buildings
Graphic Image
q
1. Build the environment

2. Build the equipment
3. Place a Site
Generically speaking!
Step 2: Define the Study Parameters

q Size/Location of Study Area
q Study Sampling Resolution
q Study Limits
Step 3: Build the BS and Remote Template
Base Station Transceiver specs.
q
q BS Tx/Rx Antenna(s) specs.

Remote/Mobile Transceiver
q
Remote Tx/Rx Antenna(s) specs.
q
Miscellaneous: Coax, etc.
q
Antenna Height, Diversity, etc.
q
* You will not be placing a test site. The expected
coverage will be provided for the case study.
Step 4: Place a test Site*

Proper Lat/Lon
q
2008
292
The above is a high-level overview of the process of setting up a modeling tool. Although we will
be using EDX SignalPro, the process is similar for other propagation tools.
292
Running
Running an
an Area
Area Study
Study
Step 1: Select/Configure Propagation Model
q Select Model
q Add Clutter loss
q Add Terrain
q Add Buildings
Adjust your study parameters

or select and configure another
study to run simultaneously or
separately!
Step 2: Select/Configure an Area Study
q Select the Study Type

q Select Group to be Studied
q Input Study Display Threshold
q Adjust Study Display Style

Step 4: Modify the Study
Step 3: Run the Area Study
2008
293
The above is a high-level overview of the process of setting up a modeling tool. Although we will
be using EDX SignalPro, the process is similar for other propagation tools.
293
Using
Using EDX
EDX SignalPro
SignalPro
OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW
Database Type and Location
Create New Link
Add a Site
Define Study Area
Run Mesh Study
Channel plans, auto-layout and more studies
Run Link Study
Run Point Study
Layers
Legend
Select Zoom Area
Center
Zoom in/out
Equipment Configuration
Run Area Study
Basic Studies and Propagation Models
2008
We will be using only a small portion of the capabilities of this modeling tool. EDX provides
excellent Help information, so once you are comfortable with the basic functions of a
propagation modeling tool, you can continue to explore.
294
294
TM
EDX
EDX SignalPro
SignalProTM
CAPABILITIES
CAPABILITIES OF
OF THE
THE EVALUATION
EVALUATION COPY
COPY
Unlimited Time for Evaluation
Use it as long as you like to become comfortable with all
of the software capabilities and functions
Limited Geographic Area for Studies: Eugene, Or.
SignalPro Version 6.0
w New Project Capability
w Limited WiMAX-Specific Features
SignalPro Version 6.2 and later
w No New Project Capability
w To create a new project, select Empty_Project
w More WiMAX Capabilities
w MIMO
w OFDM C/I Thresholds
2008
Case Study
Using version 6.0: Select New Project
Using version 6.2 and later: Select Empty_Project instead of New Project
You will be using version 6.3.1 for frequency planning and OFDM C/I performance studies.
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295
Starting
Starting a
a New
New Project
Project
1
Select File
4
Select New Project*
Select the System Type
Name the project
Select the project directory
*Open Project for

SignalPro v 6.3.1
EDX
SignalPro Evaluation
Sample Projects
Empty_Project
Case Study
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296
There are two approaches for providing a demo copy of propagation software:
Limited time, usually a 30-day trial, with full functionality.
Limited region, allowing for performing all functions, but in a specific geographic area.
EDX provides a geographically-limited copy of their software. The Eugene, Or. Area is the only
location allowed, but there is no time limit on the software. This allows for a proper evaluation
and the ability to learn propagation modeling.
Case Study
SignalPro Version 6.0
Follow the above sequence for starting a new project.
SignalPro Version 6.2 and later
Select Open Project
Go to the Sample Projects directory (in the SignalPro subdirectory)
Select Empty_Project
296
SignalPro
SignalPro New
New Project
Project Screen
Screen
Define Area and Location

of Study Grid
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297
It is common with propagation modeling software to stipulate a study area. This will reduce the
number of calculations required to develop a prediction of propagation characteristics. SignalPro
provides a maximum overall study grid size of 5000 x 5000 points. So, the point spacing and
grid size should be selected with this limitation in mind.
Case Study
Once the Empty_Project has opened (illustrated above), you may rename the project by
selecting File and Save Project as submenu.
297
Define
Define the
the Study
Study Grid
Grid
1
Select Basic Studies
Case Study
2
Select Define Study Grid
Adjust Study Grid values
Suggestion: Save often!
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298
When setting the grid width and height, make sure that the area of interest is covered. The Grid
point spacing defines the level of resolution for the study (limit5000 x 5000 points). A low
value (0.005 to 0.01) will provide a high resolution propagation plot. When using data, such as
demographics, a value closer to the resolution of the actual data (0.5 to 1) provides better
results.
Remember, higher resolution and/or larger the study grid size increase the number of
calculations. This will increase the amount of time required to perform the study.
Case Study
Use the Study grid values shown in the Study Grid menu above.
You may want to click on the + (zoom in) button after resizing the study
298
grid.
Selecting
Selecting Databases
Databases
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: TERRAIN
TERRAIN
Select Databases
Case Study
Sample Data
sample_terrain_data
4
2
Select Directory location
Select Terrain
5
Click Active
Select Type
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299
Propagation models typically require terrain information. There are several sources, other than
the software provider, that provide this information. The greater the resolution of the data, the
higher the price!
Case Study
Type: As shown above
Directory location: As shown above
299
Selecting
Selecting Databases
Databases
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: CLUTTER
CLUTTER
Select Databases
Case Study
Sample Data
sample_clutter_data
Select Land Use
Next Slide
Edit attenuation file
Select Type
Select Clutter Directory path:
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300
Propagation models typically require clutter information. There are several sources, other than
the software provider, that provide this information. The greater the resolution of the data, the
higher the price!
Case Study
Clutter Type: USGS - EDX format (.151 files) (as shown above)
Directory path: As shown above
Attenuation file: gcattn_TSB88.dat (default file and location, as shown above). Do not change
this!!!
You will not be adjusting the clutter attenuation in the case study.
300
Clutter
Clutter Attenuation
Attenuation
Clutter Attenuation:
A local process
No standards
Not for all Models
Measurements help
Please do not change these parameters in class,
as it will corrupt your in-class case study.
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301
Clutter databases are typically based on a grid matrix. Each grid is assigned a clutter type.
Since there is no standard for referencing a particular clutter category, one mans Urban may be
another mans Dense Urban!
Using measurement data enhances the accuracy of the clutter database (shown above) when
used with a propagation model that uses clutter attenuation, instead of a model that makes
assumptions regarding attenuation based only on the clutter type.
301
Displaying
Displaying Layers
Layers
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302
Many software tools implement layers. In the case of propagation modeling, the layers may be
calculated without being shown. They may also be on at the same time, selecting higher layers
and defining layer transparency.
302
Adding
Adding Layers
Layers
1
Click Add layer
Select the desired layer

(terrain in the example)
You can modify the layer by selecting

it and clicking on the Style button
and selecting various options.
Click OK to return to
Map Layers menu
2008
Once database type and location have been set up, you can add them to the project. The
following are typical layers to add:
Terrain
Land Use (Clutter)
Demographics
Street and Highways
Map Image
Traffic
Case Study
The following layers are required for the case study:
Terrain (once it has been definedtype and location)
Land use, also called Clutter, (once it has been definedtype and location)
Image file (.tif)
303
303
Modifying
Modifying Layers:
Layers: Terrain
Terrain Data
Data
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304
Modern terrain elevation data is based on a fixed grid digital elevation model (DEM). A DEM is
made up of a matrix of elevation points with fixed spacing. How the data is presented in the
study is mostly a function of personal preference. The above terrain data is presented as a
shaded relief.
304
Adding
Adding a
a Map
Map Image
Image
Map image placed

over terrain data
and set to ~ 70%
transparent.
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305
A map image of the area of interest can be laid over a terrain map as a way of adding local
details. The map is a geocoded TIF file. The software allows for geocoding of maps, such a
Google Earth. The map can be used with building drawing software to create a detailed set of
buildings for increased accuracy using some propagation models. Or, you can buy the building
data from a 3rd party.
Case Study
In the Add map layer menu, select the Add image file button
Browse to Program files, EDX, SignalPro Evaluation, Sample Data,
Select the Salem_250.tif
305
map_images
Adding
Adding Clutter
Clutter (Land
(Land use)
use)
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306
Type of clutter data is used by most propagation models to augment terrain data, improving the
accuracy of calculations. The USGS LULC (land use/land clutter) defined 31 types of land use.
Modeling tools typically define up to 10 categories.
Case Study
You will be using medium resolution (30 meter) clutter supplied by EDX.
306
Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (1)
(1)
Select Transmitter/Base/Hub Sites

from the RF Systems menu
All groups created are subsets

of the Master Group!
2 Click Edit group

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307
The parameters defined are based on equipment specifications.

Case Study
Follow the above steps. The equipment parameters will be supplied in the case study module.
307
Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (2)
(2)
1
Click Edit site template
Select one of the available

templates and rename it
Rename template!
Click Edit template
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308
When modifying a template, you may want to rename it. That will make it easier to select when
you create several templates for a project.
Case Study
Follow the above steps. Make sure that you change the name of the selected
template. This will assure that you will recognize and select the proper one
when placing a site.
308
Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters (3)
(3)
SETTING
SETTING UP
UP THE
THE TEMPLATES
TEMPLATES
Note:
The larger the Study radius,
the longer the study takes!
2008
Transmit and Receive of the Base Station!
309
This menu shows the current configuration of a site. This example shows sectors. When
building a template, it is a good idea to start with a single sector. Configure the single sector
completely and then add the other sectors. Once the other sectors have been added you will
need to rotate the azimuth of the added sectors.
Important!
Once a site has been placed, modifying the template will have no effect on the site. Only new
sites will be affected by the template modification. So, add sites after you have set up your
template.
Case Study
1. Set the operating frequency to 2500 MHz
2. If you selected a template with more than one (1) sector, delete all but one (1)
sector
3. Set the System name or type to system group 3 (this will be used to generate
a channel plan)
4. Set the Study grid parameters as shown
5. Select the Transmit Parameters button
309
Establishing
Establishing BS
BS Parameters
Parameters
TX
TX AND
AND RX
RX SITE
SITE PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS
2
Set up Receive parameters
Rx
Tx
Antenna Parameters
Antenna Height
Antenna Azimuth
Diversity gain
Receiver Parameters
Losses to Antenna
Antenna Parameters
Antenna Height
Antenna Azimuth
Power Output
Losses to Antenna
Click to copy Antenna and Transmission
System parameters from Tx menu
1 Set up Transmit parameters

2008
310
These are the transmit and receive menus for the base station.
Case Study
Use antenna specifications found on the student CD and the above values :
Equipment: Refer to equipment specification slide
Antennas: Stella-Doradus 90 azimuth (specs on Student CD)
Vertically polarized, no tilt, 30 meters COR (Center of Radiation)
Copy the soft pattern from Student CD to either your project directory
or the pattern directory shown above
Configure the transmit parameters first, using the above values
Return to the previous screen and select the Receive Parameters button
Duplicate the transmit antenna parameters by clicking on the Set the antenna and base station
systems same a Tx.
Check Diversity receive antenna and input 3 dB of diversity gain
Configure the receiver parameters (use above values)
Return to the previous screen (Click OK)
Add two (2) additional sectors (Click Add transmitter/sector)
Set proper starting azimuth for each sector ( 0, 120, 240)
310
Establishing
Establishing Mobile
Mobile Parameters
Parameters
1
Select Mobile/Remote Unit
Set parameters as shown*
Select RF Systems
* Parameters shown are for the case study
2008
311
You are finished entering information about the base station.

In order to determine the level of coverage and performance, the remote equipment parameters
and configuration must also be input.
This step can be performed before or after placing the Base Station.
Note that the Transmitter Max ERPi (EIRP) field is not a PA output. It is PA output less cable
loss plus antenna gain.
(In the minimum ERPi field, please enter a number that is 10 dB below the MAX ERPi value.)
When performing an area coverage study, the level shown in the study is the level at the input to
the receiver, not the level at the RX antenna!
Case Study
The parameters shown above are correct for the case study.
Remote equipment: Refer to specifications slide
Antenna: 2 dBi omni
311
Setting
Setting up
up Propagation
Propagation Model
Model
2008
312
You have entered the Base station specs, and CPE specs.
Now, choose a propagation model.
Case Study
Longley-Rice (Model category is Basic) shown above.
Leave the Environment parameters unchanged for the in-class case study.
Check the boxes for use terrain data, add clutter loss, and include Fresnel
zone loss.
312
Dealing
Dealing with
with Clutter
Clutter
Clutter loss assumes the BS is
above the surrounding clutter
Case Study
Add X dB of additional
path loss at these study
point locations
Add X dB of additional
path loss at these study
point locations
or
Add X dB/km of A
Pass-through loss
Signal path is above B

clutterno extra loss
Add X dB/km of C
Pass-through loss
Clutter Height
Clutter pass-through loss assumes

the BS is low relative to the clutter
One of these, but not both, should

be selected for NLOS deployments
Each clutter type has an average height and an

amount of additional loss per km (or per mile)
of clutter that the signal passes through.
2008
313
Overview:
When adding clutter to the propagation model, there are three basic selections:
Select add clutter loss when the Base station is considered high relative to the surrounding
clutter. This approach is typical for cellular implementation with high towers and roof-top
mounting. This can be a reasonable assumption for most WiMAX deployments.
Select add pass through clutter loss when the Base Station is considered to be low enough to
be in the clutter environment. Outdoor deployments of Wi-Fi, are typically assumed to be
passing through the clutter rather than going over it. This selection will add an additional loss
based on clutter type, clutter height and distance through the clutter.
Select add clutter height to terrain height when assuming that the clutter blocks (instead of
attenuates) the signal, just as terrain does. This is valid for LOS deployments.
Remember, local knowledge is critical! This applies to dealing with clutter, as well as terrain
issues.
Case Study
Check the add clutter loss box.
313
Define
Define the
the Service
Service Area
Area
1. Use a pre-defined .mif or .bna file describing a BTA, MTA, etc.
2. Draw a boundary line using EDX drawing tools
1
Select Polygon from the Draw menu
Click on boundary point to create polygon

Double-click on last point to close polygon
3
Right-click on a line
and save to a file
2008
314
Case Study
The polygon you will use is on the student CD in the Other directory. The polygon file name is
Mobile_WiMAX_Area.bna. Place this file in your project directory.
Adding the Service area image:
Go to Map Layers
Select Add Layer button
Select Add Geographic file button
Browse for the file (you have already placed it in your project directory, as
Select the Mobile_WiMAX_Area.bna file
314
stated above)
Establish
Establish a
a Channel
Channel Plan
Plan
1
Select Mobile and Nomadic Systems
Select System Type/Service area
Select System name: (from your template)
Select the proper channel plan file (.cpt)
Select the service area boundary file (.bna)
Select Network Design/Analysis
Click OK
2008
315
Overview:
The channel plan is a file that contains a set of operating frequencies of a given bandwidth. The
channel plan is used by the modeling tool to automatically assign a frequency to a sector of a
cell.
Case Study
Use the System name: (system group 3) and a System type: (WiMAX)
shown above.
1. Copy the Mobile WiMAX_2.5GHz.cpt channel plan from the student CD
to your project directory.
2. Copy the Mobile_WiMAX_Area.bna service area polygon from the
student CD to your project directory.
315
Perform
Perform Automatic
Automatic Site
Site Layout
Layout
BASED
BASED ON
ON EXPECTED
EXPECTED COVERAGE
COVERAGE
1
Select Automatic Cell Layout
Select Template: (your template name)
Input the Nominal cell radius:
Click Start Layout
Select System to use for layout: (from your template)
Next Slide
2008
316
Overview:
In real-world layouts, the site locations would be determined in collaboration with the site
development team. The locations would be a compromise between coverage and cost. The site
locations would be in a database (spreadsheet file) that would be pulled into the modeling tool for
auto-layout. In the absence of a location database, you can perform a simple, layout.
Case Study
Use the values shown above for the automatic cell layout. Notice, we are
assuming a coverage radius of 1.4 km for the site layout. In a real-world
deployment, this value would have been attained through drive test data.
316
Cell
Cell Count
Count in
in Coverage
Coverage Area
Area
HEXAGONAL
HEXAGONAL COVERAGE
COVERAGE
Sites outside of the

coverage area have
been deleted.
To delete sites, move this cursor

over unwanted site and left-click.
2008
317
Before the final layout, you can delete cells that have been placed around the coverage area by
setting the above cursor on the edge of the cell to be deleted and clicking. Once the extra cells
have been removes, click on the Create Cell/PCS sites button.
Case study
Before clicking the Create Cell/PCS sites button, use the cursor shown to
delete sites outside the service area. If you miss any, you can delete them later
by right-clicking over the center of the site and selecting delete.
317
Cells
Cells placed
placed in
in Coverage
Coverage Area
Area
ALL
ALL CELLS
CELLS HAVE
HAVE THE
THE SAME
SAME FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
Remember, save often!
2008
318
The cells have been automatically deployed. Since the channel plan has not been implemented,
they all have the same frequency.
318
Implement
Implement the
the Channel
Channel Plan
Plan
BASED
BASED ON
ON C/I
C/I PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE
1
Select Automatic Frequency Planning
Set parameters as shown
Click Assign channels to all unlocked sectors
Next Slide
2008
319
Since this is a Mobile WiMAX deployment, frequency reuse must be considered. The channel
plan has already been established, but not implemented. This is an iterative process to find the
best C/I based on performance requirements.
Case Study
Follow the above steps, using the provided values.
319
Sector
Sector Channel
Channel Assignments
Assignments
2008
The sites are color coded to represent different frequencies. This layout has ten (10) channel
frequencies in the reuse pattern.
Case Study
The case study also has ten 5 MHz channels for reuse.
320
320
Performing
Performing an
an Area
Area Coverage
Coverage Study
Study
Common area studies for fixed/mobile radio

can be accessed from Basic Studies.
The Area Studies accessed from Network Design/Analysis
provide more specialized Cellular/Mobile WiMAX type of studies.
2008
Whats been done so far:
You have set up your environment.
You have set up your equipment.
You have chosen your propagation model.
You have deployed your sites.
You may now configure and perform a study!
A Received Power at Remote study is a common study will look at what the receiver will
receive, with its antenna gain added.
Studies more relevant to mobility can be found via Static Area Studies .
Case Study
1. Access the studies via the Basic Studies button, initially.
2. Click Add Study to view study options.
321
321
Selecting
Selecting a
a Type
Type of
of Study
Study
2008
Case Study
1. Select Area Study Type = Received power at remote
2. Enter the value for Signal level display threshold, based on case study
requirements: -91 dBm
3. On the Mobile/Remote Unit ID, select ReceiveUnit1 (default)
You may leave the rest of the settings at default including the Noise and
Interference selections set at Use noise and predicted Interference
322
322
List
List of
of Basic
Basic Study
Study Types
Types
VIA
VIA THE
THE BASIC
BASIC STUDIES
STUDIES SUBMENUS
SUBMENUS
2008
We have clicked on the drop-down menu for Area study types.
323
323
List
List of
of Specialized
Specialized Study
Study Types
Types
VIA
VIA THE
THE NETWORK
NETWORK DESIGN/ANAYSIS
DESIGN/ANAYSIS SUBMENUS
SUBMENUS
2008
We have clicked on the drop-down menu for Area study types.
324
324
Running
Running the
the Study
Study
Click on the Start Study Button
Point Study
Point-to-Point Study
Route Study
Area Study
Were doing this one!
Link Study
Mesh Study
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325
Point Study: Propagation characteristics between a single transmitter and a single point on the
map.
Multipoint Study: Detailed analysis of a channel between a hub site and customer locations.
Route Study: Defines a series of points along a user-defined route for signal analysis.
Area Study: Produces a map of coverage, loss, interference and other information for predicting
system performance.
Link Study: Provides a path profile for point-to-point links.
Case Study
Once the study type has been selected and configured, select the Area Study
icon to run the study.
325
Downlink
Downlink vs.
vs. Uplink
Uplink @
@ 2.5
2.5 GHz
GHz
GOOD
GOOD TO
TO POOR
POOR COVERAGE
COVERAGE @
@ 1.4
1.4 KM
KM
Received power at remote
Received power at best base from remote
2008
326
Example area studies:

Received power as best base from remote
Closing the link at a given rate on the downlink does not mean that the uplink will perform as
well, or even at all!
Important!
In the above illustration, the use of medium resolution clutter and the lack of building data when
using a physical model (Longley Rice, in this case) to determine coverage provides a coverage
plot that may be optimistic for the specifications of the deployed (case study) system.
326
Downlink
Downlink vs.
vs. Uplink
Uplink @
@ 3.5
3.5 GHz
GHz
POOR
POOR TO
TO NO
NO COVERAGE
COVERAGE @
@ 1.4
1.4 KM
KM
2008
327
Example area studies:

Received power as best base from remote
Closing the link at a given rate on the downlink does not mean that the uplink will perform as
well, or even at all!
Important!
In the above illustration, the use of medium resolution clutter and the lack of building data when
using a physical model (Longley Rice, in this case) to determine coverage provides a coverage
plot that may be optimistic for the specifications of the deployed (case study) system.
327
Some
Some Useful
Useful
Area
Area Studies
Studies
Received Power at Base
C/(I+N) ratio using cellular/PCS channel plan*
WiMAX OFDMA Modulation** Regions DL*
WiMAX OFDMA Modulation** Regions UL*
*Accessed via Network Design/Analysis submenu

**Requires establishing C/I performance for different modulations schemes.
2008
328
To view the symmetry of your customers throughput, you may also run the Areas with Signal
Levels Above both Base and Remote Thresholds Study for a given operating threshold. Using
this study, symmetric links are shown as yellow, and asymmetric links are shown as red.
328
OFDMA
OFDMA Adaptive
Adaptive Modulation
Modulation
1
Select RF Systems
Select OFDM and Adaptive Modulation
Filling in the Modulation, FEC and

C/I values is required for running
the Modulation Regions studies.
2008
Case Study
Setting parameters in this menu is required if you are planning to perform the
following studies:
WiMAX OFDMA Modulation Regions DL
WiMAX OFDMA Modulation Regions UL
Data (Modulation/FEC and C/I) is provided in the case study portion of this
section.
329
329
Now
Now Its
Its Your
Your Turn
Turn
2008
330
330
Exercise:
Exercise: Loading
Loading EDX
EDX SignalPro
SignalPro
Install Software
Create Project Directory
Windows Laptop
Leave SignalPro
Place CD in drive.
It will automatically start.
Go to Windows Explorer
Follow installation steps
Define a directory location

for your project
2008
Case Study Instructions:

Following the flowchart above, load EDX SignalPro software.
331
331
Case
Case Study:
Study: Eugene,
Eugene, OrEgON
OrEgON
Project:
Design and implement a Mobile WiMAX network in
Eugene, Oregon
Design Process:
Select design tools SignalPro
Select network components (see slides)
Determine expected coverage using a of test site (done)
Perform preliminary link budget
Layout sites based on test site coverage
Determine coverage pattern
Optimize and add sites to satisfy design priorities
2008
332
You will now use the EDX SignalPro software to help you design a network for Eugene, Oregon.
There are two case studies to be performed.

The first case study is required for all students: Perform an auto-layout of Mobile Wimax sites in
a service area. Perform analysis to determine coverage and performance expectations.
The second case study is optional, and can be completed by students who have time: Add
backhaul sites as detailed in the case study following the first case study.
332
Case
Case Study:
Study: Mobile
Mobile WiMAX
WiMAX
Spectrum:
2.5 GHz operating band
5 MHz channel bandwidth
Total of ten (10) channels allocated (50 MHz)
System Components:
Base and CPEGeneric system (specs on next slide)
Base AntennaStella Doradus 35 9008 (16 dBi)
Remote Antenna2 dBi omni
Base Configuration:
3-sector sites
Uplink diversity (2 antennas)
3 dB coax loss
2008

The antenna manufacturer specifications and soft patterns are on the Student
CD. Equipment specifications are on the next slide.
Dont forget the uplink diversity gain and 3 dB coax loss.
333
333
Equipment
Equipment specifications
specifications
GENERIC
GENERIC UPLINK
UPLINK AND
AND DOWNLINK
DOWNLINK
Rx Sensitivity
Min. C/I
Bit Rate
64 QAM 3/4
-76 dBm
22 dB
13.5 Mbps
64 QAM 2/3
-78 dBm
20 dB
12 Mbps
16 QAM 3/4
-82 dBm
16 dB
9 Mbps
16 QAM 1/2
-85 dBm
12.5 dB
6 Mbps
QPSK 3/4
-88 dBm
9.5 dB
4.5 Mbps
QPSK 1/2
-90 dBm
7 dB
3 Mbps
BPSK 1/2
-94 dBm
5 dB
1.5 Mbps
Modulation - FEC
@ 10-6
Base Station PA output power
33 dBm
Remote unit PA output power
23 dBm
2008
334

1. Use the PA output power values for the Base station and Remote templates.
2. Use a minimum operating threshold of -91 dBm (1 dB below QPSK rate
threshold) in the D/L and U/L coverage studies.
3. The C/I values will be necessary for running a C/(I+N) analysis.
4. The modulation/FEC sensitivity and C/I values will be necessary to perform
an OFDM study.
334
case
case study
study Steps
Steps with
with References
References (1)
(1)
1. Start the project: pages 295 - 297
2. Create the project environment
a.
b.
c.
d.
Define the study area: page 298

Define Terrain: page 299
Define Clutter: page 300
Add layers: pages 302 306
3. Establish equipment templates

a. Base Station: pages 307 310
b. Remote Client: page 311
4. Set up the propagation model: pages 312, 313

2008
335

When performing the case study, you may refer to the instructions provided in the presentation
slides listed above.
335
case
case study
study Steps
Steps with
with References
References (2)
(2)
5. Define service area boundary: page 314

6. Establish a channel plan: page 315
7. Perform an auto site layout: pages 316 - 318
8. Implement the channel plan: pages 319, 320
9. Perform area coverage study: pages 321 - 326
10. Option: Perform C/(I+N) and OFDM Adaptive
Modulations studies: page 328
2008
336

When performing the case study, you may refer to the instructions provided in the presentation
slides listed above.
336
Create
Create Project
Project in
in SignalPro
SignalPro
HIGH-LEVEL
HIGH-LEVEL FLOWCHART
FLOWCHART
Open SignalPro and

Open a Project*
Original Name:
Empty_Project
Rename Project:
Mobile_WiMAX
Add image file to layers

and adjust the view:
Select Terrain database, add

to layers and adjust style
Location:
Sample Data\map_images\
Salem250.tif
Select Clutter database, add

to layers and adjust style
Location:
SignalPro Evaluation\Sample Data\
Sample_Clutter
Location:
Sample Data\
Sample_Terrain_Data
EDX U.S. 3 arc sec
Define Study Area
Modify Templates
Center:
N 44 2, W 123 5
Area:
14 km x 12 km
* Versions later than SignalPro 6.0, open Empty_project and rename it.

1. Follow the flow chart to add the necessary databases.
2. Use the reference slides for step-by-step instructions.
337
2008
337
Modify
Modify Equipment
Equipment Templates
Templates
Select RF Systems
Top menu
Select Transmitter/Base
Submenu
Select Edit Transmitter Group

Submenu
Add Site
Select RF Systems
Top menu
Select Edit Group

Button
Select Mobile/Remote Unit

Submenu
Select Edit Site Template

Button
Edit Mobile 1 using

provided generic data
Edit Single sector tx site using

provided generic data
2008
* Remember to rename the template.
338
Overview:
When modifying equipment templates, the actual propagation model to be used does not need to
be input. The Global Model must be selected (in this case Global Model 1), but the propagation
model may be changed later in the process.

1. Modify Site Template using data from the Equipment Specifications
slide.
2. Refer to the Case Study: Mobile WiMAX slide for site parameters and
configuration.
3. Use the Stella Doradus 35 9008 16 dBi antenna pattern file (on CD) for base
station.
4. Use a 2 dBi omni for the remote unit.
5. Use a default height of 30m for all of the base station antennas and 2m
antenna height for remote units.
338
Run
Run an
an Area
Area Study
Study
Study: Received Power at Remote
Model Category: Basic
Propagation Model: Longley - Rice
Databases:
w Terrain
w Clutter
Other Area studies are optional!

2008
339
The area coverage study for capacity-based sites will employ the 802.16 empirical model. Use
the default values for any parameters not stated above. A different model must be used for the
backhaul sites.
339
What
What do
do II tweak
tweak if
if my
my first-cut
first-cut
design
design doesnt
doesnt satisfy
satisfy the
the
required
required capacity
capacity and
and coverage
coverage ??
Change sector azimuth
(sectored only)
Click on the site to open a Sector

Parameters menu, change Az.
Orient.
Change antenna height

Edit the Base Station Parameters
(Not in our case study)
Hold Shift key, hold left click to
Move a site
select and drag a site
Add a site
See slide Placing a Base Station
Change equipment
(Not in our case study)
Edit the equipment forms

2008
In order to satisfy the requirements of the case study, you will have to add, move and modify
sites.
340
340
Adding
Adding a
a Backhaul
Backhaul
Backhaul Options:
Leased Facilities
w T-1, DS-3, OC-1, OC-3
w E-1, E-2, E-3, STM-1
Wireless
w Licensed*6 GHz, 11 GHz, 18 GHz, 23 GHz, 38 GHz
w Unlicensed*5.8 GHz, 24 GHz, 60 GHz
Add a Point-to-Point Link

2008
* Varies from country to country!
341
The process of building and modeling a point-to-point link in SignalPro is similar to the process
for adding sites.
341
Establishing
Establishing Link
Link Parameters
Parameters (1)
(1)
2008
Instructions:
Follow the above steps. Adding backhaul links is a bit easier than the previous case study.
342
342
Establishing
Establishing Link
Link Parameters
Parameters (2)
(2)
MODIFYING
MODIFYING LINK
LINK TEMPLATE
TEMPLATE
2
1
3
Establishing a Link:
1. Select the new link icon
2. Click between two points
2008
343
The process of modifying the link template is similar to the process for modifying a site template.
In order to perform a Link study, the Focus site must be selected.
Since the LOS link will require an LOS propagation model, this is the next step.
Instructions:
Follow the above steps.
343
The
The Link
Link Propagation
Propagation Model
Model
LOS PtP Model
Local/Regional Variables
2008
344
Since there can be multiple radio systems, there must be multiple propagation models. In order
to use different models in the same project, at the same time, select a Global model that is not
currently in use. Local/Regional variables require local knowledge.
Instructions:
Follow the above steps. Use the illustrated propagation model.
344
Add
Add a
a Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point Link
Link
1
1. Click the New Link button.

2. Move to link site 1 and click.
3. Move to link site 2 and click.
4. Select proper template.
2008
Instructions:
Follow the above steps. Add a backhaul for each site.
345
345
Link
Link Study:
Study: Path
Path Profile
Profile
Link 1 Study
Running a Link Study:

1. Select the Focus link
2. Click on the Link Study icon
2008
The Focus Link is selected by checking the appropriate box in the Link Details menu. The
link study output is shown above.
When performing link studies for backhaul facilities it can be useful to hide the area coverage
studies to reduce visual clutter.
346
346
Case
Case Study:
Study: Eugene,
Eugene, Or.
Or.
Project:
Connect capacity sites in Eugene, Oregon to core
network via wireless backhaul facilities
Design Process:
Select design tools (SignalPro)
Determine backhaul architecture (Point-to-Point)
Select backhaul components (DragonWave Airpair 24 GHz UL)
Determine location of backhaul site (see map)
Perform preliminary link budget (99.999% availability)
Verify LOS for each backhaul link
Run Link Study to determine margin
2008
Instructions:
Use the DragonWave 24 GHz UL equipment, on Student CD, to build the backhaul links.
347
347
Modify
Modify Link
Link Equipment
Equipment Template
Template
Select RF Systems
Top menu
Select Link Systems
Submenu
Select Link Group
Submenu
Select Edit Group
Button
Select Edit Link Template
Button
Select Propagation Model

Button
Select a template to edit

Use DragonWave 24 GHz UL
Select Global Model 2
Add Link
2008
348
Overview:
When modifying equipment templates, the actual propagation model to be used does not need to
be input. The Global Model must be selected (in this case Global Model 1 for capacity sites), but
the propagation model may be changed later in the process. When modifying a template for link
sites, remember to select a different Global Model.
Instructions:
Modify Link Template using data from Airpair spec sheets on student CD.
Use the a000001.pat antenna pattern file (on CD) for each end of the link.
Use a default height of 30m for all of the base station antennas and 40 meter antenna height for
core access site.
348
Adding
Adding a
a Link
Link
Backhaul Site
2008
349
Instructions:
Locate the backhaul facility (there can be more than one) approximately at the location shown.
Sites may backhaul via the LEC or microwave, either directly or indirectly.
349
Run a Link Study

GLOBAL
GLOBAL MODEL
MODEL 22
Model Category: Basic

Propagation Model: Free Space + RMD
Atmospheric absorption: dry 02, vapor
density = 2.5 gm
Climate type: Continental temperate
Databases:
w Terrain
w Clutter
2008
350
The link study for capacity sites will employ the Free Space + RMD. Use the default values for
any parameters not stated above.
350
Lesson
Lesson 10
10 Review
Review
Deployment Considerations for coverage:
Deployment Area
w Terrain
w Clutter (construction techniques/materials, foliage type and density )
w Site locations
w Local regulations (zoning, max. EIRP, etc.)
Equipment
w Channel bandwidth and operating frequency
w Antenna gain and pattern
w PA max. power output
w Receiver sensitivity and C/I performance
Site configuration
w Use of diversity
w System losses (coax, duplexers, diplexers, etc.)
w Use of advanced antenna systems (MIMO, Adaptive Arrays)
2008
351
351
Lesson
Lesson 11:
11:
Capacity design, and

Oversubscription
2008
352
352
Lesson
Lesson Objectives
Objectives
w Mathematically relate oversubscription and
subscriber quality of service in a WiMAX
Network
w Validate WiMAX vendor design rules for
capacity planning
w Compare OFDM and OFDMA traffic handling
2008
353
353
Oversubscription
Oversubscription
SOME
SOME TYPICAL
TYPICAL RATIOS
RATIOS
Service Category
Oversubscription Ratio
Web Surfing
10:1 to 25:1
VOIP
5:1 to 10:1
Multicast/Unicast
Video/Audio Services
1:1
Video Conferencing
1:1 to 2:1
Internet Gaming
5:1 to 10:1
2008
354
Service oversubscription is the over commitment of bandwidth to a user or service. The traffic
generated by a large group of sources is random in nature. In a statistical access network, traffic
engineering rules allow for oversubscription of shared capacity. Service oversubscription should
be based on peak period traffic rather than average network usage.
354
Oversubscription
Oversubscription of
of Shared
Shared
Capacity
Capacity
Example: Service is provided to 200 customers, each accessing at 1 Mbps.
The oversubscription ratio is 10. Therefore, 20 Mbps of capacity is required.
Daily Traffic Profile
20
Business Traffic
Peak period of the day
Actual Traffic (Mbps)
16
Residential Traffic
Peak Residential period
12
00
00
00
24
23
00
22
21
00
00
00
20
19
00
17
18
00
00
00
00
16
15
14
13
00
00
00
12
11
10
90
80
Start of sample period (1/2 hour increments)
2008
Oversubscription is possible for the following reasons:
Total capacity is shared, not dedicated
Staggered Busy Periodstime of day, day of week
Multiple sources generating random amounts of traffic throughout the day
Only a percentage of all subscribers are generating traffic during the Busy Period
Dedicated capacity cannot be oversubscribed!
355
355
Traffic
Traffic Utilization
Utilization and
and Capacity
Capacity
in
in a
a random
random access
access network
network
Bandwidth requirements for each access and distribution
network link can be calculated from the following factors:
# of Subscribers accessing at peak period
Estimated offered load of each subscriber
Networking and Transport Overhead
Traffic Engineering Rules / Oversubscription Ratios
Link Utilization (Traffic Intensity)
2008
356
356
Link
Link Utilization
Utilization and
and
System
System Delay
Delay
System Delay is a direct result of system utilization at the
network choke point. Most likely this will occur at an over-theair access or backhaul link. Thus, we should understand traffic
utilization models to help us understand potential service
delays.
Traffic Sources
Shared Link
1. Users independently generate traffic.

2. Traffic is scheduled for transmission.
3. Traffic is concentrated over the shared link.
2008
Lets examine the effects of your network engineering on link utilization and system delay.
357
357
Some
Some Basics
Basics for
for Delay
Delay Systems
Systems
LINK
LINK UTILIZATION
UTILIZATION (r)
(r)
Traffic Generated
Link rate*
Scenario:
Sector with 20 SOHO users
User access rate = 1 Mbps each
Average Peak Period pps per user = 20
Average Packet Size = 500 Octets
Sector bit rate = 2 Mbps
The units of Traffic Generated:

bits per second (bps)
frames per second (fps)
cells per second (cps)
packets per second (pps)
Questions:
1. What is the total Busy Period bps?
1.6 Mbps
2. What is the Link Utilization?
80%
2008
358
358
Peak
Peak Traffic
Traffic Profiles
Profiles @
@ 80%
80%
Profile A
Peak
Utilization
80%
Profile B
Peak
Utilization
80%
20%
Off-Peak
70%
Off-Peak
2008
359
Profile A: A sharp traffic peak during the busy period (busy 5 to 15 minutes of the day). A high
utilization may be acceptable due to excess capacity during the off-peak periods with lower
utilization. Low off-peak utilization is the norm for traffic flow in this profile, having a short period
of increased delay due to high utilization.
Profile B: A flat traffic peak during the busy period (busy 5 to 15 minutes of the day). A high
utilization is unacceptable due to lack of excess capacity during the off-peak periods with high
utilization. Since the utilization is high on the off-peak periods as well as the peak period, users
will experience delay most of the time. This leads to dissatisfied customers and a high potential
for churn.
359
Delay
Delay as
as a
a Function
Function of
of
Link
Link Utilization
Utilization (r)
(r)
Only Deterministic systems can perform well at 100% Link Utilization!
In Statistical access systems, such as WiMax, delay increases
exponentially as utilization increases. As utilization approaches 100%,
delays become infinite.
1.0000
Delay vs. Server Utilization
0.9000
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
Delay
An improperly provisioned network

will manifest high link utilization in
the form of noise and long delays on
voice calls. Data traffic will have low
throughput due to packet delays.
TCP traffic will continue to increase
due to acknowledgement timeouts
and retransmissions.
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 99%
% Utilization
2008
The one problem with sharing capacity is the requirement for constantly monitoring facility
utilization. Over utilization of facilities leads to instabilities and poor service.
360
360
Some
Some Effects
Effects of
of Delay
Delay
Lower throughput with protocols requiring acknowledgements
Poor Response with interactive applications
Unstable performance of All traffic
Example: Poorly dimensioned network with high levels of congestion
In other words, Loss of Transparency!
2008
361
Remember, TCP is a delay-limited protocol. The requirement for segment acknowledgements

can drastically effect throughput over high-delay links.
361
Service
Service time
time (T
(Tss)) for
for a
a link
link
Link Service Time = Link Serialization Time
Traffic from multiple sources is
concentrated over a Sector link
Se cto
Traffic from multiple Sectors is

concentrated over a Backhaul link
r Link
B a c kh
Ts =
k
aul Lin
bits/PDU
bit rate
Example:
Sector link rate = 5 Mbps
Average packet size = 576 octets
Average Link Service* Time = 921.6 sec
Example:
Backhaul link rate = 20 Mbps
Average packet size = 576 octets
Average Link Service* Time = 230.4 sec
2008
* Serialization
362
362
Shared
Shared link
link capacity
capacity
OFDM
OFDM VS.
VS. OFDMA
OFDMA
OFDM Shared Link

One Channel
OFDM
Traffic sources are assigned the
total capacity of the channel for
short periods of timeonly one
traffic source allowed at a time!
OFDMA Shared Link

Multiple Sub-channels
OFDMA
Traffic sources are assigned a

portion of the total capacity of
the channel for short periods of
timemultiple simultaneous
traffic sources allowed!
2008
363
363
Modeling
Modeling Traffic
Traffic
delay
delay probability
probability
Fixed WiMAX using OFDM
w Random arrivals and random service times
w Single traffic server
w M/M/1 traffic model (Kendal Notation)
w Traffic model: Littles Law
Fixed or Mobile WiMAX using OFDMA
w Random arrivals and random service times
w Multiple traffic servers (sub-channels)
w M/M/n traffic model (Kendal Notation)
w Traffic model: Erlang C
2008
364
Service time is a fixed delay. Delay due to congestion (high utilization) is a variable delay that
can be estimated using a traffic model. Traffic model selection is based on several factors, but
the most common factors employed are the following:
Traffic Arrival ratesmooth, random or peaked
Traffic Service timedeterministic or random
Number of serversone or more
When the number of traffic sources is large, the traffic arrival rate is assumed to be random in
nature. Service time, whether for voice or packet data is typically considered to be random. The
number of servers can be one, in the case of a serial link (T-carrier, E-carrier, SONET or
OFDM), or greater than one for parallel servers such as OFDMA.
364
Little
Littless Law
Law
ONE
ONE OF
OF THE
THE PILLARS
PILLARS OF
OF QUEUING
QUEUING THEORY
THEORY
Queuing System:
Time in System (TQ) = Waiting Time (TW) + Service Time (TS)
Number in System (LQ) = Number Waiting (LW) + Number Being Served (LS)
LITTLES LAW
LQ = lTQ
So
LW = lTW and LS = lTS

2008
l = Arrival Rate
365
Over subscription is based on shared capacity. Sharing capacity is based on queuing theory.
Queuing theory allows for quantifying delay expectation in statistical systems. One of the
primary laws of queuing is Littles Law. It is a simple statement of time in system as a function of
arrival rate, waiting (queuing) time and service time.
365
Little:
Little: Time
Time in
in System
System
OFDM
OFDM AND
AND SERIAL
SERIAL LINKS
LINKS
LQ = TQ
LW = TW
LS = TS
LQ
LW
LS
Server
TW
TS
TQ
2008
l = Arrival Rate
366
A system is defined as a buffer for traffic awaiting service and a server. Traffic coming into a
queuing system is either processed (served) or, if arriving while others are being served, waiting
for service. Stable systems can be described as systems in which time in system is
approximately equal to service time. At the peak period of a queuing system some waiting will
occur. How much time is spent waiting is a function arrival rates and service times.
366
Some
Some Little
Little formulas
formulas
M/M/1
M/M/1
bits/PDU
bit rate
1. Average Service Time (Ts)
Ts =
2. Utilization (r)
= L S = TS
3. Delay Probability (D)
D=
4. Average Time in Queue (TW)
TW =
TS
1-
2008
M/M/1 (Kendall Notation) = Random arrivals/Exponential service times/One Server

The formulas are presented to show relationships.
367
367
More
More Little
Little formulas
formulas
M/M/1
M/M/1
TS
1-
5. Average Time in System (TQ)
TQ =
6. Average Number in Queue (LW)
2
LW =
1-
7. Average Number in System (LQ)
LQ =
1-
2008
368
368
exercise:
exercise: Link
Link Utilization
Utilization
and
and System
System Delay
Delay
During the peak traffic period of the day on a WiMax sector, 40 sources
each generate an average of 15 pps at 1 Mbps. The average packet
size is 576 (w/OH) octets. Assume a sector access data rate of
5 Mbps over the entire coverage area.
Determine the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
8
Overbooking Rate ______
0.92 ms
Avg. Service Time ______
Sector Utilization ______
55.3 %
55.3 %
Delay Probability ______
1.14 ms
Avg. Time in Queue ______
Avg. Time in System______
2.06 ms
Avg. # in Queue
______
0.7 packets
1.2 packets
Avg. # in System ______
Instructions:
Determine the overbooking rate from the information provided.
Use the M/M/1 Delay spreadsheet and fill-in the rest of the blanks.
369
M/M/1 Delay
2008
369
Modeling
Modeling and
and Simulation
Simulation
M/M/1 Simulation
2008
Instructions:
Using the provided spreadsheet,
1. Select the Inputs tab and input the data from the previous exercise.
2. Select the Simulation Outputs tab and observe the variations in Time in System while
pressing the F9
key.
3. Increase the number of pps (Inputs) to a utilization rate of 90-95 % and observe outputs
while pressing F9 key.
370
370
Some
Some Real-World
Real-World Profiles
Profiles
1. ATM E-3
Daily traffic average
2. ATM T-1
Weekly traffic average
with 5 minute average
Avg Out
Avg In
5 min Out
5 min In
2008
Examples of traffic profiles downloaded from the Internet.
371
371
Erlang
Erlang C
C for
for multiple
multiple servers
servers
OFDMA
OFDMA SUB-CHANNELS
SUB-CHANNELS (N>1)
(N>1)
a n
n!(n - a)
P(a, n) = n-1 i
a
an n
+
n!(n - a)
i=0 i!
n
Where:
a = Traffic Intensity (arrival rate service time)
n = Number of Servers (sub-channels)
2008
372
The Erlang C model assumes random arrival and random service times and more than one
server. Although OFDMA allows for more flexibility of service provisioning, potentially multiple
sub-channel assignments for a single user, it can be used to illustrate the performance difference
between a single server (such as OFDMA) and multiple parallel servers (OFDMA).
372
Associated
Associated Erlang
Erlang C
C Formulas
Formulas
M/M/N
M/M/N
bits/msg
bit rate
1. Average Service Time (Ts)
Ts =
2. Delay Probability (C)
N B*
C=
N - A(1 - B)
3. Average Time in Queue (Tq)
Tq =
* Erlang B Blocking Probability
Ts C
N- A
2008
373
Erlang C is based on the probability of requests for service being blocked. Erlang C is unlike
blocking probability models that assume when a request for service is blocked, the traffic will be
lost. Erlang C assumes that blocked requests for service will wait until a server becomes
available. In other words, blocked traffic is queued. Because of this assumption, Erlang C can
be simplified into a set of formulas starting with the Erlang B blocking model to determine the
probability of initial blocking of service requests.
373
More
More Erlang
Erlang C
C Formulas
Formulas
M/M/N
M/M/N
4. Average Time in System (T)
T = Ts + Tq
5. Average Number in Queue (Q#)
Q# =
6. Probability of Delay > Target [P(>t )]
A C
N- A
P(> t) = C e
2008
374
(N- A )t
-
TS
374
exercise:
exercise: Erlang
Erlang c
c for
for a
a
mobile
mobile wimax
wimax sector
sector (M/M/n)
(M/M/n)
During the peak traffic period of the day on a Mobile WiMax sector, 40
sources each generate an average of 15 pps at 1 Mbps. The average
packet size is 576 (w/OH) octets. Assume that there are eight (8)
sub-channels for the entire sector. The data rate of each sub-channel
is 625 Kbps.
Values from the OFDM (M/M/1) exercise:
Determine the following:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Overbooking Rate ____

8
7.373 ms
Avg. Service Time ______
55.3 %
Sector Utilization
______
Delay Probability
______
9.59 %
Avg. Time in Queue ______
0.2 ms
7.57 ms
Avg. Time in System ______
0.12 packets
Avg. # in Queue
______
1.
2.
Overbooking Rate
Avg. Service Time
____
8
______
0.92 ms
55.3 %
______
______
55.3 %
______
1.14 ms
3.
4.
5.
Sector Utilization
Delay Probability
Avg. Time in Queue
6.
7.
8.
Avg. Time in System ______

2.06 ms
0.7 packets
Avg. # in Queue
______
Avg. # in System
______
1.2 packets
OFDMA Delay
for WiMAX
2008
Remember, Erlang C assumes that only one server can be accessed, by a traffic source, at a
time. OFDMA allows for a single source to utilize multiple sub-channels (servers)
simultaneously. This allows for a lower potential service time.
Instructions:
Determine the overbooking rate from the information provided.
Use the Erlang C for OFDMA spreadsheet and fill-in the rest of the blanks.
375
375
Lesson
Lesson 10
10 Review/quiz
Review/quiz
Scenario:
During the busy period of the day, a site provides
access for 100 users. Each user generates 10 pps @
2 Mbps with an average packet length of 450 octets.
The backhaul rate is 10 Mbps.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
20
The oversubscription rate is _____.
36 %.
The utilization rate of the backhaul is ____
360 sec.
The average serialization time of the backhaul is _____
202.5 sec.
The average waiting time is ______
If each user generates 20 pps, the oversubscription rate is
20
_____.
2008
Instructions:
Fill-in the blanks, based on the above scenario.
376
376
Review/Test
Review/Test Time
Time
1. Open discussion and review

2. Practice Test
3. Review Practice Test
4. Testing Opportunity for Certification
2008
377
377
Appendix
2008
378
378
WiMAX
WiMAX Reference
Reference Material
Material
WiMAX-Specific Books
Fundamentals of WiMAX by Jeffrey G. Andrews, Arunabha Ghosh and Rias
Muhamed
Prentice Hall 2007
ISBN: 0-13-222552-2
WiMAX (Technology for Broadband Wireless Access) by Loutfi Bretagne
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 2007
ISBN: 978-0-470-02808-7
General Wireless Books
Wireless Communications (Principles and Practice) by Theodore S. Rappaport
Prentice Hall 2002
ISBN: 0-13-042232-0
Fixed Broadband Wireless (System Design) by Harry R. Anderson
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 2003
ISBN: 0-470-84438-8
Mobile Communications Design Fundamentals by William C. Y. Lee
John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1993
ISBN: 0-470-57446-5
Microwave Mobile Communications by William C. Jakes
John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1974
ISBN: 0-7803-1069-1
2008
379
379
Formulas
Formulas and
and Examples
Examples (1)
(1)
Power Out
GaindB = 10 log10
Power In
Power In
LossdB = 10 log10
Power Out
Power
Decibel Reference = 10 log 10
Reference
Ratioactual
- Ratio dB
= 10 10
NFdB = 10 log10 (NF)
Value dB
Value actual = 10 10
- Ratio dB
dB
- Ratio
10
Adding Ratios = 10
+ 10 10
NF = 10
NFdB
10
Value dB
ValuedB
Adding Values = 10 10 + 10 10
Ratio dB = 10 log10
Added Ratios
Value dB = 10 log10 (Sum of Added Values )
EIRPdBm = PA out dB - Cable loss dB + Antenna gaindBi

Expected IRL dBm = EIRPdBm - Total Path Loss dB
Required IRL dBm = Rx Sensitivit y dBm - Rx Antenna gain dBi
380
2008
380
Formulas
Formulas and
and Examples
Examples (2)
(2)
CONVERTING
CONVERTING AA POWER
POWER RATIO
RATIO INTO
INTO DECIBELS
DECIBELS
Power Out
GaindB = 10 log10
Power In
Power In
LossdB = 10 log10
Power Out
Gain example:
Amplifier input = 10 Watts
Amplifier output = 200 Watts
200 W
GaindB = 10 log10
= 13 dB
10 W
Watts out
Watts in
Ratio (20)
LOG
x
=
Ratio in Decibels (13 dB)

2008
381
381
Formulas
Formulas and
and Examples
Examples (3)
(3)
CONVERTING
CONVERTING DECIBELS
DECIBELS INTO
INTO AA POWER
POWER RATIO
RATIO
GainRatio = 10
GaindB
10
Example:
Convert 20 dB to a ratio
GainRatio = 10
20 dB
10
= 100
2
10
2nd
LOG
2008
382
100
382
Formulas
Formulas and
and Examples
Examples (4)
(4)
CONVERTING
CONVERTING AA POWER
POWER VALUE
VALUE INTO
INTO DECIBELS
DECIBELS
PowermW
dm = 10 log10
1 mW
PowerWatts
dW = 10 log10
1 Watt
dBm example:
Amplifier output = 25 Watts
25 W
PowerdBm = 10 log10
= 54 dB
.001 W
Watts
Ratio (25,000)
LOG
x
1 mW (in Watts)
Decibels relative to 1 mW (44 dBm)

2008
383
383
Formulas
Formulas and
and Examples
Examples
Converting
Converting decibels
decibels into
into a
a power
power Value
Value
PowermW = 10
PowerdBm
10
Example:
Convert 25 dBm to milliWatts
PowermW = 10
25 dBm
10
2.5
= 316.2 mW
10
2nd
LOG
2008
384
316.2
384
TI-30XA
TI-30XA
IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT KEYS
KEYS
10
2nd
= 10x
LOG
1/x
x2
EE
Example:
5 GHz = 5 109 Hz
STO
RCL
Key Strokes:
5
EE
3
+
2008
385
385
Some
Some dB
dB Exercise
Exercise Key
Key Sequences
Sequences
c. Convert 14 dBm to milliWatts
a. Convert 400 mW to dBm
14
10 log10 ( 400 mW/1 mW) = 26 dBm
10 10 = 25.1 mW
LOG
1
10
26
2nd
1.4
25.1
LOG
b. Convert 0.0004 W to dBm

10 log10 (0.0004 W/1mW) = - 64 dBm
-64
EE
* W = 10-3 mW
386
* LOG
2008
386
Wavelength
Wavelength and
and Frequency
Frequency
1. Solve for Frequency
l= 0.15 m
EE
=
2. Solve for Wavelength
Frequency = 5.8 GHz
2,000,000,000
EE
0.0517
387
EE
2008
387
Finding
Finding the
the Thermal
Thermal Noise
Noise Floor
Floor
Nt = k T0 B
Question 1
Given the following, determine the thermal noise power:
Boltzmans Constant = 1.3803 10-23 W/K-Hz
Ambient temperature = 290 K (Warm Earth)
Bandwidth = 3.5 MHz
EE
1.40 10-14 Watts
EE
2008
388
388
Decibels:
Decibels: Adding
Adding Powers
Powers (1)
(1)
C/N
C/N == 16
16 dB,
dB, C/I
C/I == 20
20 dB
dB
Step 1a
1
10
Step 2
6
0
Step 1b
10
LOG
2nd
LOG
STO
STO
Step 3
10
+
RCL
2nd
RCL
1/x
LOG
0.035
* Input not necessary if still in display
389
14.559
2008
389
Decibels:
Decibels: Adding
Adding Powers
Powers (2)
(2)
22
22 dBm
dBm ++ 30
30 dBm
dBm
Step 1a
1
10
Step 2
2
0
Step 1b
10
2nd
LOG
2nd
LOG
STO
STO
RCL
30.64
10
+
RCL
Step 3
0
x
LOG
2
1158.5
2008
* Input not necessary if still in display
390
390
Rx
Rx System
System 2
2
SYSTEM
SYSTEM NOISE
NOISE FIGURE
FIGURE
C/N
4 dB NF
30 dB
amp
7 dB loss
8 dB NF
Coax
WiMAX Rcvr
3 dB loss
System NFdB
FRX = F1 +
F2 - 1 F3 - 1
F4 - 1
+
+
G1
G1 G2 G1 G2 G3
2 -1
5 -1
6.3 - 1
+
+
1000 1000 0.5 1000 0.5 0.2
= 2.5 + 0.001 + 0.008 + 0.053 = 2.562
FRX = 2.5 +
NFdB = 10 log10 (2.562) = 4.1 dB
391
2008
391
Network
Network inputs
inputs tab
tab
Confirm that you have the same
Coverage and Capacity values
as shown below!
2600
Instructions:
Change the carrier frequency
to 2600 MHz.
2008
392
392
Link
Link budgets
budgets tab
tab
Instructions:
Confirm
that you have the same
Change
themodulation
current equipment
MAPL
for each
scheme
as shown
parameters
tobelow!
those provided.
2008
393
393
Marketing
Marketing inputs
inputs tab
tab
No other changes will be
seen on this worksheet.
Instructions:
Change the Overbooking
Factor to 20.
20
2008
394
394
Marketing
Marketing inputs
inputs tab
tab
Confirm that the Annual
Population Penetration
has changed.
2.5%
Instructions:
Change the Fifth Year
Market Penetration
to 2.5%.
20
2008
395
395
Network
Network inputs
inputs tab
tab
Confirm that you have the same
Coverage and Capacity values
as shown below!
Instructions:
Change the Throughput for each
modulation to the bit rate provided.
2008
396
396

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WiMAX forum

The WIMAX RF Network Engineer certification boot camp is co-authored by:

WiMAX Network Design Options

Antennas for WiMAX

RF Design Considerations for WiMAX

Performing a WiMAX Link Budget

WiMAX Frequency Reuse

Timing and Synchronization for WiMAX Networks

10. WiMAX Modeling Tools

The Analysis Toolpak

Mastery of the spreadsheet tools is required to pass the certification exam.

Estimate path loss using analytical and empirical models

Mobile Station (MS)

Specified Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

While the WiMAX spec supports

w The 30 mile range is a timing limit for TDD

TDD = Time Division Duplex

Radio Access Network (RAN)

Radio Access Network (RAN)

GTP = GPRS Tunneling Protocol

Access Services Network (ASN)

Connectivity Services Network (CSN)

Circuit Switched Voice,

Circuit Switched Voice,

Packet Switched Data*

Circuit Switched Voice,

Packet Switched Data*

* Packet-based voice is also possible.

Fast BS Switching (FBSS)

* 1/1 and 1/3 frequency reuse

Requires separate frequencies for transmit

Uses a single channel split between the

Time Division Duplex

Frequency Division Duplex

2-11 GHz systems

2.3, 2.5 or 3.5 GHz systems

No WiMAX Profiles exist for this PHY

The WiMAX Forum currently lists many

802.16e-2005 Area of furious activity, but products still

Developing countries and rural areas

A comparison of Mobile WiMAX with LTE or UMB reveals the following:

Only for Fixed Point-to-Multipoint Systems

FDD Frequency Division Duplex

Channel Sizes (MHz)

Early handsets, handhelds, and laptops

802.16e Chipsets available

Software Defined Radio (SDR)

Less expensive up front

Less expensive to upgrade

More expensive to upgrade

More expensive up front

Chips: Intel, Fujitsu, Motorola

Chips: Sequans, Picochip

Equipment: Aperto, Alvarion

Equipment: Airspan, Navini

Must be combined with radio

Radio programmed in software

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

Operating Frequency (MHz, GHz)

* Based on specific modulation technique @ 10-6 BER

30 GHz to 300 GHz

300 MHz to 3 GHz