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Std. XI Sci.

Perfect Chemistry - I

Edition: June 2014

Prof. Santosh B. Yadav

Prof. Anil Thomas

(M. Sc., SET, NET)

(M.Sc., Chemistry)

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Written according to the New Syllabus (2012-2013) published by the Maharashtra State
Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education, Pune.

Std. XI Sci.

Perfect Chemistry - I

Salient Features :

Exhaustive coverage of syllabus in Question Answer Format.


Covers answers to all Textual, Intext and NCERT Questions.
Simple and Lucid language.
Neat, Labelled and authentic diagrams.
Quick review for instant revision and summary of the chapter.
Solved & Practice Numericals duly classified.
Multiple Choice Questions for effective preparation.

TEID : 734

PREFACE
In the case of good books, the point is not how many of them you can get through, but rather how many can get
through to you.
Std. XI Sci. : PERFECT CHEMISTRY - I is a complete and thorough guide critically analysed and
extensively drafted to boost the students confidence. The book is prepared as per the Maharashtra State board syllabus
and provides answers to all textual and intext questions. Sub-topic wise classified question and answer format of
this book helps the student to understand each and every concept thoroughly. Neatly labelled diagrams have been
provided wherever required.
National Council Of Educational Research And Training (NCERT) questions and problems based on
Maharashtra board syllabus have been provided along with solutions for a better grasp of the concept and preparing
the students on a competitive level.
Additional information about a concept is provided in the form of Note. Definitions, statements and laws are
specified with italic representation. Formulae are provided in chapters which involve numericals to help the students
to tackle difficult problems. Solved problems are provided to understand the application of different concepts and
formulae. Quick Review has been provided which gives an overview of the chapters. Additional theory questions
have been provided to help the student gain insight on the various levels of theory-based questions.
Practice problems and multiple choice questions help the students to test their range of preparation and the
amount of knowledge of each topic.
The journey to create a complete book is strewn with triumphs, failures and near misses. If you think weve
nearly missed something or want to applaud us for our triumphs, wed love to hear from you.
Please write to us on : mail@targetpublications.org
A book affects eternity; one can never tell where its influence stops.

Yours faithfully

Best of luck to all the aspirants!

Publisher

Contents
No.

Topic Name

Page No.

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

States of Matter

38

Structure of Atom

88

Periodic Table

144

Redox Reactions

173

Chemical Equilibrium

223

Surface Chemistry

288

Nature of Chemical Bond

320

`Chapters 9 to 17 are a part of Std. XI Chemistry -II'


Note: All the Textual questions are represented by * mark
All the Intext questions are represented by # mark


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01
1.0

Chapter 01: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Some Basic concepts of chemistry

Prominent scientists
Scientists
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778 1850)
(French chemist and physicist)

Amedeo Avogadro (1776 1856)


(Italian scholar)

Contributions
Formulated the gas law.
Collected samples of air at different heights and
recorded temperatures and moisture contents.
iii. Discovered that the composition of atmosphere does
not change with increasing altitude.
i.
Published article in French journal on determining the
relative masses of elementary particles of bodies and
proportions by which they enter combinations.
ii. Published a research paper titled New considerations
on the theory of proportions and on determination of
the masses of atoms.
i.
ii.

Note:
In order to give a tribute to Avogadros contributions related to molecular theory, the number of elementary
entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) in 1 mole of a substance, 6.022 1023 is known as
Avogadro number.
1.1

Introduction

Q.1. Chemistry has played an important role in the fulfillment of basic needs of man. Explain.
Ans: Increasing population has led to an increase in the demands of basic needs of man (food, clothing and
shelter). Developments in the field of chemistry have helped to cope up with these necessities as follows:
i.
Food:
a.
The population of a country requires nutritious and hygienic food in sufficient quantity. To
achieve the same, there is a need to manufacture good quality fertilizers and insecticides.
b.
The advancement of chemistry has helped many countries to become not only self sufficient but
also an exporter of food commodities.
ii.
Clothing:
a.
Good quality clothes are required for every individual to adjust with changing environmental
conditions.
b.
Because of the production of synthetic fibres like nylon, rayon, etc. in factories, this need has
been fulfilled.
iii. Shelter:
a.
The human population needs comfortable and well-built houses. Iron, cement and steel are
required in large quantities for construction of such houses.
b.
Chemistry has played an important role in the extraction of these metals from their respective
ores.
Q.2. Define chemistry.
Ans: Chemistry is defined as the study of the composition, structure and properties of matter and the reactions
by which one form of matter may be converted into another form.
Q.3. Give reason : Chemistry is called as a central science.
Ans: i.
Chemistry is an active evolving science and is of vital importance to the entire world. Although the
subject has very ancient roots, it is a modern science.
ii.
The basic knowledge of chemistry is essential for development of subjects like physics, biology,
geology, engineering, environmental science and many others.
Therefore, it is called as a central science.


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Q.4. What are the various branches of chemistry?


Ans: The several branches of chemistry are as follows:
i.
Physical chemistry:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the structure of matter, the energy changes and the
theories, laws and principles that explain the transformation of matter from one form to another.
ii.
Inorganic chemistry:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with chemistry of elements other than carbon and their
compounds.
iii. Organic chemistry:
This branch of chemistry deals with reactions of the compounds of carbon.
iv. Analytical chemistry:
This is the branch of chemistry which deals with the separation, identification and quantitative
determination of the compositions of different substances.
v.
Biochemistry:
This is the branch of chemistry that deals with substances which are constituents of living organisms.
Note:
Pharmaceutical, environmental and nuclear chemistry are also branches of chemistry.
1.2

Importance and scope of chemistry

Q.5. Explain the importance and scope of chemistry.


Ans: Chemistry has a wide scope and importance in various fields.
i.
Processes based on chemical technology help to extract, purify, synthesize and analyse materials like
iron, steel, aluminium, zinc, alloys like brass, amalgams as well as precious metals like silver, gold,
platinum.
ii.
All drugs are synthesized in chemical / pharmaceutical laboratories.
eg.
Drugs
i
ii
iii
iv
v
iii.

Photosynthesis is the process through which trees and plants prepare their food using chlorophyll
(green pigment) in presence of sunlight. The process is a simple chemical reaction and takes place
naturally.
sunlight
CO2 + H2O
food grains/fruits/flowers/cotton/medicine etc.
chlorophyll

iv.

Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc. are combustible chemicals which are used to
produce energy which is used to drive trains, trucks, buses and all automobiles. The energy is also
used to generate electricity. Several electrochemical cells like Daniel cell, lead storage cell, dry cell,
nickel cadmium cell, lithium ion cell, fuel cell, etc., are used as a source of energy. These cells are
less polluting and more efficient. There are attempts being made to convert solar energy into
electrical energy using photovoltaic cells, the solar cells. Attempt is also made to obtain hydrogen
from water, which is used in fuel cells to generate electricity.
With the help of chemistry it is easy to design and generate large number of materials like polymers,
plastic, liquid crystals, adhesives and surface coating materials like latex paints. Knowledge of
chemistry can also be used to synthesize new materials that can act as super conductors at or near
room temperature due to which loss of electricity will get reduced by almost 20%. Microprocessors
used in computers are silicon chips formulated and developed by chemists.

v.

L-dopa
Human insulin
Cisplatin and taxol
Azidothymidine (AZT)
Tamiflue

Treatment of diseases
For treatment of Parkinsons disease.
For treatment of diabetes.
Life saving drugs to give relief to cancer patients.
For treatment of AIDS.
For treatment of swine flu.


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Chapter 01: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

#Q.6.Give five applications of subject chemistry which are not mentioned in the book.
Ans: i.
Warfare:
With the knowledge of chemistry, various destructive gases and bombs have been invented which are
used during wars.
ii.
Cosmetics:
Chemistry has helped to produce good quality cosmetics.
iii. Health:
Chemistry plays an important role in maintaining ones good health by providing knowledge about
proper intake of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins, etc.
iv. Education:
Chemistry provides inter-relationship to study the para-chemistry subjects such as Bio-chemistry,
Pharmacy, Herbal Science, Toxicology, Archaeology, Environmental Science, etc.
v.
In recent years, chemistry has given us new materials such as superconducting ceramics, conducting
polymers, optical fibres, micro alloys, carbon fibres, etc. which are used for various purposes.
1.3

Historical approach to particulate nature of matter

Q.7. Define matter.


Ans: Matter is anything which has mass and occupies space.
Q.8. Explain the classification of matter on the basis of its chemical composition.
Ans: Matter on the basis of chemical composition can be classified as follows:
i.
Pure substances:
Substances which always have a fixed composition are called pure substances.
They are of two types:
a.
Elements:
Elements are the pure substances which are made up of only one component.
eg. Gold, silver, copper, mercury, bromine, oxygen etc.
b.
Compounds:
Compounds are the pure substances which are made up of two or more components.
eg. Water, ammonia, methane etc.
ii.

Mixtures:
A mixture is a simple combination of two or more substances in which the constituent substances
retain their separate identities.
The composition of mixture can be varied to any extent. Therefore, mixtures do not have fixed
composition.
eg. Mixture of ethyl alcohol and water, salt in water, mixture of gases, etc.
Mixtures are of two types:
a.
Homogeneous mixture:
A mixture in which the concentration of the constituents remains uniform throughout the
mixture and all the constituents are present in one phase, is called a homogeneous mixture.
eg. Mixture of salt and water.
b.
Heterogeneous mixture:
If two or more phases are present in a mixture, it is called a heterogeneous mixture.
eg. Phenol - water system, silver chloride-water system, iron fillings-sand system, etc.

Q.9. What is Phlogiston theory?


Ans: Phlogiston theory:
i.
According to this theory, a combustible substance contains phlogiston (a mysterious matter) and some
clax. During combustion, phlogiston evolves and is lost in the atmosphere. Clax remains in the form
of an ash.
ii.
Combustion reactions were explained by phlogiston theory.
eg. During the combustion of a candle in a closed container, the air inside the container is saturated
with phlogiston. Since air cannot accommodate more phlogiston, the candle gets extinguished.


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Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

Q.10. What is dephlogisticated air? Who named it?


Ans: i.
Joseph Priestley (a British scientist) focussed sunrays on a substance (mercuric oxide) to heat it.
ii.
A gas evolved, in which substances could burn more vigorously than in air.
iii. A burning candle became brighter in this gas.
iv. Priestley was of the view that this gas is the normal air without phlogiston. Hence he named it
dephlogisticated air.
Q.11. What was the contribution of Sir Henry Cavendish in the phlogiston theory?
Ans: i.
Sir Henry Cavendish carried out the reaction of a dilute acid with metals such as zinc, iron, etc. He
named the gas evolved as flammable air. It was found that this gas burnt in air and in
dephlogisticated air and produced water.
ii.
Cavendish suggested that flammable air is water associated with phlogiston. This is in continuation
with the idea of phlogiston.
Q.12. Who ruled out the theory of phlogiston? Why?
Ans: i.
The theory of phlogiston was ruled out by Antoine Lavoisier (a French Scientist).
ii.
He proved that a part of air is used in chemical reaction during combustion. This part of air was called
oxygen. It means acid forming.
iii. He also proved that oxygen was the gas formed in Joseph Priestleys experiment.
iv. He also proved that the flammable air produced by Cavendish was a new gas, which he named as
hydrogen, meaning water forming.
Q.13. Define and explain the following with the help of examples.
i.
Elements
ii.
Compounds
Ans: i.
Elements:
a.
An element is defined as a substance which cannot be separated into simpler substances by any
chemical process.
eg. Gold, silver, copper, carbon, etc.
b.
Out of 118 elements that have been identified till recently, most are naturally occuring and a
few are prepared in the laboratory (man-made).
c.
Chemists use one or two letter symbols to represent elements.
d.
All the chemical symbols have first letter capital and second letter small (if present).
e.
The symbols of the elements are derived either from English names or from Latin names of the elements.

ii.

eg. Aluminium Al , Einsteinium Es, Gold Au (Aurum)


f.
Elements contain only one type of atom. Elements are further classified as metals, non-metals, metalloids.
Compounds:
a.
Compounds are defined as substances of definite compositions which can be decomposed into
two or more substances by a simple chemical process.
eg. Water, sodium chloride, sugar, alcohol, etc.
b.
The properties of compounds differ from the properties of the substances and elements obtained
from decomposition of the compounds.
eg. Hydrogen and oxygen are obtained from decomposition of water. Water can be used to
extinguish fire whereas oxygen supports combustion and hydrogen is combustible.
c.
Compounds are classified into two subclasses organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
d.
Compounds contain two or more components.


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Chapter 01: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Note:
Names and symbols of some elements
Element
Aluminium
Argon
Silver
Gold
Actinium
Americium
Beryllium
Boron
Barium
Bismuth
Carbon
Chlorine
Calcium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper

Symbol
Al
Ar
Ag
Au
Ac
Am
Be
B
Ba
Bi
C
Cl
Ca
Cr
Co
Cu

Element
Cadmium
Caesium
Cerium
Curium
Calefornium
Erbium
Einsteinium
Fluorine
Francium
Iron
Galium
Germanium
Gadolinium
Hydrogen
Helium
Hafnium

Symbol
Cd
Cs
Ce
Cm
Cf
Er
Es
F
Fr
Fe
Ga
Ge
Gd
H
He
Hf

Element
Mercury
Holmium
Iodine
Irridium
Krypton
Lithium
Lanthanum
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Mendelivium
Nitrogen
Neon
Nickel

Symbol
Hg
Ho
I
Ir
Kr
Li
La
Lu
Lr
Mg
Mn
Mo
Md
N
Ne
Ni

Element
Neobium
Neodymium
Neptunium
Oxygen
Osmium
Potassium
Phosphorous
Lead
Palladium
Platinum
Promethium
Protoactinium
Plutonium
Radium
Rubidium
Ruthenium

Symbol
Nb
Nd
Np
O
Os
K
P
Pb
Pd
Pt
Pm
Pa
Pu
Ra
Rb
Rn

Element
Rhodium
Rhenium
Sulphur
Scandium
Selenium
Strontium
Sodium
Technicium
Uranium
Tungston
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Zirconium

Symbol
Rh
Re
S
Sc
Se
Sr
Na
Tc
U
W
V
Xe
Yb
Zr

Q.14. Classify the following substances into elements, compounds, homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixtures.
Sand in water, Sodium chloride, Nitrogen, Sodium chloride in water, Pumice stone, Air, Phenolwater system, Carbon dioxide, Gold
Ans: i.
Sand in water
:
Heterogeneous mixture
ii.
Sodium chloride
:
Compound
iii. Nitrogen
:
Element
iv. Sodium chloride in water
:
Homogeneous mixture
v.
Pumice stone
:
Heterogeneous mixture
vi. Air
:
Homogeneous mixture
vii. Phenol-water system
:
Heterogeneous mixture
viii. Carbon dioxide
:
Compound
ix. Gold
:
Element
Q.15. Distinguish between
i.
Mixtures and compounds.
ii. Compounds and elements.
Ans: i.
Mixtures and compounds:
Mixtures
i.
The constituents of a mixture may be
present in any ratio.
ii. Mixtures may or may not be
homogeneous in nature.
iii. The properties of a mixture are in
between those of its constituents.
iv. The constituents of a mixture can be
easily separated by simple physical
means.
v. The melting and boiling points of
mixtures are usually not sharp.

Compounds
The constituents of a compound are always
present in a fixed ratio.
Compounds are always homogeneous in nature.
The properties of a compound are entirely
different from those of its constituent elements.
The constituents of a compound cannot be easily
separated by simple physical means but can be
separated by chemical processes.
Chemical compounds possess sharp melting and
boiling points.


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ii.

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

Compounds and elements:


Compounds
A compound is a substance composed of
two or more different chemical elements.
ii. A compound can be separated into simpler
substances by chemical reactions.
iii. Compounds contain different elements in a
fixed ratio arranged in a defined manner
through chemical bonds.
iv. A compound is represented using a formula.
v. The list of compounds is endless but can
broadly be classified as ionic and covalent.
i.

eg. Sodium chloride (NaCl),


bicarbonate (NaHCO3), etc.

Elements
An element is a pure chemical substance made
of same type of atoms.
Elements cannot be broken down into simpler
substances.
Elements are distinguished by their atomic
number (number of protons in their nucleus).

An element is represented using symbols.


There are about 118 elements that have been
identified and can be classified as metals, nonmetals or metalloids.
Sodium eg. Iron, copper, silver, gold, etc.

Q.16. Define a unit.


Ans: The arbitrarily decided and universally accepted standards used in the measurement of physical quantities
are called units.
eg. meter (m), kilogram (kg).
Q.17. State the need of units.
Ans: i.
In chemistry, several experiments are carried out which involve observation and collection of both
qualitative and quantitative data.
ii.
Measurement of physical properties such as mass, length, volume, temperature, pressure, time, etc.,
comprise of the quantitative data.
iii. For this purpose, the magnitude or size of physical quantity is compared with a suitable standard.
These units are arbitrarily chosen on the basis of universally accepted standards.
iv. To express any measured property, a number and an appropriate unit has to be used. Only number
does not give any idea about the property.
Q.18. What are the various systems in which units are expressed?
Ans: Units are expressed in various systems like CGS (centimetre for length, gram for mass and second for
time), FPS (foot, pound, second) and MKS ( metre, kilogram, second) systems, etc.
Note:
i.
ii.

During calculations, confinement to one single system of unit is advisable.


NASAs Mars climate orbiter (first weather satellite for mars) was destroyed due to heat. The mission
failed as there was a confusion while estimating the distance between earth and mars in miles and
kilometers.

Q.19. What are SI units? Name the fundamental SI units.


Ans: SI Units:
In 1960, the general conference of weights and measures proposed revised metric system, called International
system of Units i.e. SI system abbreviated from its French name Systeme Internationale d Units.
The seven fundamental SI units are as given below:
No.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
6

Fundamental quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Amount of substance
Electric current
Luminous intensity

SI unit
Metre
Kilogram
Second
Kelvin
Mole
Ampere
Candela

Symbol
m
kg
s
K
mol
A
cd


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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

Q.20. What are derived units?


Ans: The units of all physical quantities can be derived from the seven fundamental SI units. These units are
known as derived units.
eg. i.
Area = Length squared (m2)
ii.
Concentration = mole per cubic metre (mol m3)
Note: The table given below shows some common derived units.
No.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.

Physical quantity
Area
Volume
Density
Velocity
Acceleration
Force
Pressure
Electric charge
Electric potential or Potential
difference

Relationship with fundamental unit


Length squared
Length cubed
Mass per unit volume
Distance travelled in unit time
Velocity change per unit time
Mass Acceleration
Force per unit area
Current Time
Energy per unit charge

x.

Energy
(work or heat)
Concentration
Heat capacity

Force distance travelled

xi.
xii.

xiii. Electrochemical equivalent

Mole per cubic metre


Cp = dH / dT
Cv = dE / dT
Z = E/F

Unit
m2
m3
kg m3
ms1
ms 2
kg m s2 (newton, N)
kg m1 s2
As (coulomb, C)
kg m2 s2 A1
(J A1 s1 or
Volt,V or JC1)
kg m2 s2
(Joule s1)
mol m3
JK1 mol1
kg C1 (kg/Coulomb)

Some common SI prefixes used for expressing big and small numbers:
Prefix
Tera

Symbol
T

Magnitude
1012

Meaning (multiply by)


1 000 000 000 000

Giga

109

1 000 000 000

10

1 000 000

10

1 000 0 (this is now obsolete)

10

1 000

100

Mega
myria
kilo

my
k

hecto

10

deka

da

10

deci

centi

102

milli
micro
nano
pico
femto

n
p
f

10

10
1

0.1
0.01

10

0.001

10

0.000 001

10

0.000 000 001

10

12

0.000 000 000 001

10

15

0.000 000 000 000 001


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1.4

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

Laws of chemical combination

Q.21. What is a chemical combination?


Ans: The process in which the elements combine with each other chemically, to form compounds, is called as
chemical combination.
*Q.22.State and explain the laws of chemical combination.
Ans: Laws of chemical combination:
One of the most important aspects of the subject of chemistry is the study of chemical reactions. These
chemical reactions take place according to certain laws called as Laws of chemical combination. They
are:
i.
Law of conservation of mass:
a.
The law of conservation of mass states that, mass is neither created nor destroyed during
chemical combination of matter.
b.
It was first stated by Russian scientist Lomonosove (1765) and later independently stated by
French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1783) who performed careful experimental studies for
various combustion reactions.
c.
Lavoisier observed that the total masses of the reactants (before the reaction) were in agreement
with the total masses of the products (after the reaction).
eg. Consider the reaction for the burning of carbon to form carbon dioxide.
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
The sum of the masses of carbon and oxygen (reactants) is always equal to the mass of the
carbon dioxide (product). This is in accordance with the law of conservation of mass.
ii.

Law of definite composition / proportions:


a.
The law of definite composition/ proportions was stated by French chemist Joseph Proust.
b.
The law states that any pure compound always contains the same elements in a definite
proportion by weight irrespective of its source or method of preparation.
c.
Proust worked with two samples of cupric carbonate; one of which was naturally occuring
cupric carbonate and other was prepared in the laboratory. He found that the composition of
elements present in both the samples of cupric carbonate was same as shown below:

Naturally occurring cupric carbonate

51.35

Percentage
C
38.91

Cupric carbonate prepared in the laboratory

51.35

38.91

Cu

d.

iii.

O
9.74
9.74

The law was further supported by different samples of pure water which contained same
amount of oxygen (88.81% by weight) and hydrogen (11.19% by weight) and different samples
of pure sugar which contained same amount of carbon (42.1% by weight), hydrogen (6.5% by
weight) and oxygen (51.4% by weight). This was irrespective of the source.

Law of multiple proportions:


a.
John Dalton (British scientist) proposed the law of multiple proportions in 1803.
b.
The law states that, if two elements chemically combine with each other forming two or more
compounds with different compositions by mass, then the ratios of masses of the two interacting
elements in the two compounds are small whole numbers.
eg.
Chemical reaction of carbon with oxygen gives two compounds carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous, combustible gas. However carbon dioxide is a
nonpoisonous, noncombustible gas.
1g of carbon reacts with 1.33 g of oxygen to form carbon monoxide. 1g of carbon reacts with 2.66 g of
oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The ratio of weights of oxygen to that of carbon for carbon dioxide is
2.66g of oxygen
= 2.66
1.00g of carbon


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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

And the ratio of weights of oxygen to that of carbon for carbon monoxide is
1.33g of oxygen
= 1.33
1.00g carbon
The two ratios are in the proportion

iv.

2.66
1.33

= 2 i.e., 2:1

Therefore, the ratio of the masses of oxygen that combine with the same mass of carbon is 2:1 i.e., a
simple ratio.
Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases:
a.
Joseph Louis Gay Lussac (a French chemist) observed that there exists a definite relationship
between volumes of gaseous reactants and the volumes of gaseous products. He generalized his
observations in the form of a law of combining volumes of gases.
b.
Gay Lussacs law states that, when gases react together to produce gaseous products, the
volumes of reactants and products bear a simple whole number ratio with each other, provided
volumes are measured at same temperature and pressure.
c.
eg. Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 1L of hydrogen gas reacts with
1 L of chlorine gas to produce 2 L of hydrogen chloride gas i.e.
Hydrogen + Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
[1L]
[1L]
[2L]
[ 1 vol ]
[ 1 vol ]
[ 2 vol ]
Thus, the ratio of volumes is 1:1:2
d.
Volumes may be measured in any convenient unit such as L, mL, cm3, dm3, etc.
eg. Consider the reaction for the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
[ 200 mL ]
[ 100 mL]
[ 200 mL ]
[ 1 vol ]
[ 1 2 vol ]
[ 1 vol ]
The ratio of volumes is 2 : 1: 2.

Note:
The first three laws deal with the mass relationships whereas the fourth law deals with the volume of the
reacting gases.
Q.23. Who opposed the law of definite proportion? How were the objections ruled out?
Ans: i.
Berthollet (French scientist) opposed Prousts law of definite proportion.
ii.
He gave examples of the substances that contained different proportions of elements.
iii. However, the experimental work of analysis explained by Berthollet was based on impure samples or
incomplete reactions.
Hence, Berthollets objections were ruled out.
Q.24. Is the law of constant composition true for all types of compounds? Justify your answer.
Ans: No, law of constant composition is not true for all types of compounds. It is true for only those compounds
which are obtained from one isotope.
eg. Carbon exists in two common isotopes: 12C and 14C. When it forms 12CO2, the ratio of masses is
12 : 32 or 3 : 8. However, when it is formed from 14C i.e., 14CO2, the ratio will be 14 : 32 i.e., 7 : 16 ,
which is not same as in the first case.
Q.25. Verify the law of multiple proportions for the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen.
Ans: The chemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen gives two compounds, water and hydrogen peroxide. Water
contains 88.89% by weight of oxygen and 11.11% by weight of hydrogen. The ratio of the percentages by
weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen is equal to
88.89% by weight of oxygen
= 8 = 8:1
11.11% by weight of hydrogen
And hydrogen peroxide contains 94.12% by weight of oxygen and 5.88% by weight of hydrogen. The ratio
of the percentages by weights is equal to


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94.12% by weight of oxygen


= 16 = 16:1
5.88% by weight of hydrogen
16 :1
= 2:1
8 :1
Therefore, the ratio of weights of oxygen that combine with the same weight of hydrogen in the two
compounds is equal to 2:1.
This is in accordance with the law of multiple proportions.

The ratios of the two compounds are in the proportion

Q.26. Give two examples which support the Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases.
Ans: i.
Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 2 L of hydrogen gas reacts with 1L of oxygen
gas to produce 2 L of steam (water vapour). i.e.,
Hydrogen + Oxygen
Steam (water vapour)
2L
1L
2L
(2 vol)
(1 vol)
(2 vol)
The ratio of volumes, is 2 : 1 : 2.
ii.
Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 1L of nitrogen gas reacts with 3 L of
hydrogen gas to produce 2 L of ammonia gas, i.e.
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia
1L
3L
2L
(1 vol)
(3 vol)
(2 vol)
Here the ratio of volumes is 1 : 3 : 2
From these two examples, it can be concluded that there exists a simple ratio of whole numbers of volumes
of the gaseous reactants with gaseous products.
Hence, these examples support the Gay Lussacs law.
Note:
i.
Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes is applicable only to reactions involving gases and not to solids
and liquids.
ii.
The volumes of gases in the chemical reaction are not additive. For example, in case of reaction between
hydrogen and chlorine gases it appears to be additive. However in case of reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen, 2 volumes of hydrogen and 1 volume of oxygen, equal to 3 volumes of reactants get converted into
2 volumes of the product, steam.
iii. Similarly, in case of formation of ammonia, 1 volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, equal to
4 volumes of reactants, react to get converted into 2 volumes of the product, ammonia.
1.5

Daltons atomic theory

*Q.27. State and explain Daltons atomic theory.


Ans: To provide theoretical justification to the laws of chemical combination, John Dalton postulated a simple
atomic theory of matter (1808).
According to him, Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of a substance. The basic assumptions of the
theory are given below:
i.
All matters are made up of tiny, indestructible, indivisible unit particles called atoms. Atoms are the
smallest particles of the element and molecules are the smallest particles of a compound.
ii.
All atoms of the same element have same size, shape and mass and all other properties. Atoms of
different elements have different properties.
iii. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine. The atoms in a compound unite
in small whole number ratios like 1: 1, 1 : 2, 1: 3, 2 : 1, 2 : 3, etc.
iv. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination or rearrangement of integer number of
atoms. During a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

Q.28. How was the law of conservation of mass explained by Dalton on the basis of his atomic theory?
Ans: i.
Based on the assumptions of atomic theory, Dalton explained the law of conservation of mass.
ii.
He stated that, during a chemical reaction, atoms can rearrange and change their partners. Molecules
could be decomposed into atoms.
iii. However, total number of atoms in the reactants and products should be same. Thus, mass is
conserved during a reaction.
Q.29. How was the law of multiple proportion explained by Dalton on the basis of his atomic theory?
Ans: i.
The law of multiple proportion states that, if two elements chemically combine with each other
forming two or more compounds with different compositions by mass, then the ratios of masses of two
interacting elements in the two compounds are small whole numbers.
ii.
According to Daltons atomic theory, compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine.
iii. Dalton explained that under certain conditions, atoms of two types combine in the ratio 1:1 to form a
molecule. Under some other conditions, they may combine in the ratio 1:2 or 1:3 or 2:3, etc.
Note:
Dalton proposed some symbols for some common atoms and molecules. They are shown in the following
figure:

Oxygen

Sulphur

Carbon

Potassium

Methane

Hydrogen peroxide

Nitrogen

Hydrogen

Water

Carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide

Daltons symbols for some elements and compounds


1.6

Concepts of elements atoms and molecules

Q.30. Explain the following terms:


i.
Atoms
ii.
Molecules
Ans: i.
Atoms:
a.
The smallest indivisible particle of an element is called an atom. Thus, it has properties similar
to that of the element.
b.
Atoms may or may not exist freely. Atoms of almost all the elements can react with one another
to form compounds.
c.
Every atom of an element has definite mass of the order of 1027 kg and has a spherical shape of
radius of the order of 1015 m.
d.
The smallest atom of the element is that of hydrogen with mass of 1.667 1027 kg.
eg. Water consists of 3-atoms; 2-hydrogen atoms and 1-oxygen atom.
Note:
The properties of the constituent atoms are different from those of their respective compounds.
eg. Carbon dioxide gas is used as a fire extinguisher although carbon is combustible and oxygen supports
combustion.

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ii.

1.7

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

Molecules:
a.
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms of definite composition which are held
together by chemical bonds.
b.
A molecule may contain atoms of same elements or different elements.
c.
It is the smallest independent unit of a compound which exists freely. It has all the properties of
the original compound.
d.
It cannot be divided into constituent atoms with the help of simple methods but decomposition
into constituent atoms can be achieved under drastic conditions.
eg. Water molecule (H2O).

Atomic and molecular masses

Q.31. Why do different elements have different atomic masses?


OR
Justify: It is not possible to weigh a single atom.
Ans: i.
Each and every atom of an element consists of fixed number of protons, neutrons and electrons,
which are the subatomic particles.
ii.
The number of protons differs from atom to atom.
iii. As the number of subatomic particle changes, the mass of the atom changes.
iv. The size of one atom is of the order of 1015 m. The mass is of the order of 1027 kg.
Thus it is not possible to weigh a single atom.
Q.32. How is atomic mass measured?
OR
Why is atomic mass called relative mass?
Ans: i.
The size of a single atom is of the order of 1015 m and the mass is of the order of 1027 kg. Thus it is
not possible to weigh a single atom.
ii.
The masses of the atoms of the elements can be determined experimentally by using mass
spectrograph.
iii. For this purpose, a standard element is chosen and assigned appropriate value of mass of an atom.
iv. By international agreement in 1961, for determining atomic masses, carbon-12, a distinct atom of carbon,
was chosen as the standard with its atomic mass as 12.000 atomic mass unit (abbreviated as amu).
v.
Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 equal to 1.6605 1024 g.
vi. The masses of all other atoms are determined relative to the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Thus,
atomic mass is called as relative mass.
Note:
Recently, the unit of atomic mass, amu is replaced by u which means unified mass.
Q.33. Define isotopes.
Ans: Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number. Therefore
isotopes of an element contain same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons.
*Q.34. Explain the need of the term average atomic mass?
Ans: i.
Several naturally occurring elements exist in the form of two or more isotopes. They have different
isotopic masses.
ii.
In any sample of an element, the isotopes are present in different quantities.
iii. The observed atomic mass of the atom of the element is the average atomic mass of the element. The
natural abundances of the isotopes are taken into consideration for this purpose. The natural
abundance is the percentage occurrence.
iv. Thus, it is the average weight of an atom of the element which is used in calculating the atomic
weight of the element.
v.
Chemistry is a macroscopic science and involves a large number of atoms (or molecules). Hence, an
average mass of an atom or average atomic mass is an inevitable term.
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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

eg.
Chlorine has two isotopes, Cl35 and Cl37, present in 75% and 25% proportion respectively. Hence,
the atomic weight of chlorine is the weighed average of these two isotopic weights i.e., (35.0 0.75)
+ (37.0 0.25) = 35.5.
Note:
i.
The variation of the exact atomic mass of isotope of elements with its relative abundance is obtained
by using the mass spectrometer with higher precision.

Intensity (percentage)

20
10

Ne (90.92%)

21
10

19

Ne (0.26%)

22
10

Ne (8.82%)

21
20
22
Atomic mass (amu)

23

ii.

By using Astons mass spectrometer, it was shown that Neon exists in nature in the form of a mixture
of the following three isotopes:
a.
Neon-20 with atomic mass 19.9924 u with natural abundance 90.92%
b.
Neon - 22 with atomic mass 21.9914 u with natural abundance 8.82%.
c.
Neon - 21 with atomic mass 20.9940 u with natural abundance 0.26%.
The observed atomic mass of Neon is its average atomic mass which is calculated as shown below:
Average atomic mass of Ne
(Atomic mass of Ne-20 % of Ne-20)

+ Atomic mass of Ne-22 % of Ne-22

=
+ Atomic mass of Ne-21 % of Ne-21 100

= [19.9924 u 90.92 + 21.9914 u 8.82 + 20.994 u 0.26] /100 = 20.1713u


*Q.35. Define the term Molecular Mass.
th
Ans: Molecular mass of a substance is defined as the ratio of mass of one molecule of a substance to 1 of the

12

mass of one atom of Carbon-12.


It is also the algebraic sum of atomic masses of constituent atoms which constitute the molecule.
Q.36. What are the characteristics of molecular mass (molar mass)?
Ans: i.
Molecular mass is also expressed in amu.
th

ii.
iii.
iv.

It indicates comparative mass of a molecule of a compound with respect to

1
of the mass of one
12

atom of Carbon-12.
The molar mass expressed in gram is known as gram molar mass. 1 gram molar mass is also known
as 1 gram molecule or 1 gram mole or 1 mole.
1 mole of the element is the amount of the element equal to its atomic mass in gram. It is also called 1
gram atom of the element.

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1.8

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

Avogadros law

*Q.37.State and explain Avogadros law.


In the year 1811, Avogadro combined Gay Lussacs law and Daltons theory and thereby proposed
Ans: i.
Avogadros law.
ii.
Avogadros law states that, equal volumes of all gases, under identical conditions of temperature
and pressure, contain equal number of molecules.
iii. Mathematically, Avogadros law is stated as, at constant pressure and temperature, volume of a gas
is directly proportional to the number of molecules.
iv. V number of molecules (P, T constant)
Since number of molecules is proportional to the number of moles of gas n,
V n (P, T constant)
V
mass of gas
or
= constant, where n =
n
molar mass of gas

v.

vi.

At standard temperature and pressure (STP condition), i.e., at 273.15 K and 1 atmosphere, the volume
of 1 mole of a gas i.e., molar volume of a gas can be calculated by gas equation,
PV = nRT
V
Volume per mol (molar volume) =
n
V
RT
=
, (R = 0.08206 L atm mol1 K1)
n
P
0.08206 273.15
=
= 22.414 L mol1.
1atm
Thus 1 mole of any pure gas occupies a volume of 22.414 L (or 0.022414 m3) at standard temperature
and pressure.
The value 22.414 L mol1 is called Avogadros molar volume or molar gas volume at STP.

Q.38. Describe the significance of Avogadros number.


Ans: The significance of Avogadros number is as follows:
i.
Avogadros number is equal to the number of molecules present in one gram mole or one gram
molecular weight of any compound. Gram molecular weight of any substance is the weight in grams
of Avogadros number, i.e., 6.0221023 molecules.
ii.
It is equal to the number of molecules in one mole or number of atoms in one gram atomic weight of
an element. Gram atomic weight of an element is the weight of Avogadro number of atoms.
iii. It is equal to the number of molecules in 22.414 dm3 of any gas at STP.
iv. The actual weight of a molecule of a compound or an atom of an element can be calculated using this
number.
Q.39. What is Atomicity?
Ans: Atomicity of a molecule is the total number of atoms of constituent elements combined to form a molecule.
eg. Atomicity of Oxygen (O2) is two, while that of Ozone (O3) is three.
Note:

He and Ne are monoatomic


O2, N2 and H2 are diatomic
O3 is triatomic
P4 is tetraatomic
S8 is Polyatomic.
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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

*Q.40. Explain how an atom of an element is distinguished from its molecule.


Ans: i.
Consider the formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine.

ii.
iii.

Hydrogen and chlorine do not exist in free atomic state but exist in molecular state and molecules
take part in the reaction to form hydrogen chloride.
The reaction may be written as
Hydrogen

Chlorine

Hydrogen chloride

According to
Gay Lussacs law:

[1 volume]

[1 volume]

[2 volumes]

According to
Avogadros law: (V n)

[n molecules]

[n molecules]

[2n molecules]

molecule
2

molecule
2

[1 molecule]

Dividing by 2n
iv.

1
1
molecule of hydrogen and
molecule of chlorine give 1 molecule of HCl. If
2
2
molecules of hydrogen and chlorine are considered to be monoatomic, it indicates that atoms are
divisible and this is contrary to Daltons atomic theory which states that atom is indivisible.
So, the molecule of hydrogen and chlorine are considered to be diatomic.
This shows that

X
molecules of
hydrogen
(1 Volume)

X
2X
molecules of
molecules of
chlorine
hydrogen chloride
(1 Volume)
(2 Volume)

Formation of HCl molecule


*Q.41. Explain mole concept.
Ans: i.
The mass of one atom of an element or one molecule of a compound is negligibly small and is
difficult to weigh.

ii.
iii.

The amount of a substance equal to its atomic mass or molar mass in grams is 1 mole of a substance.
Thus, one mole of a substance is defined as the amount of the substance that contains the number of
particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons, etc.) as present in 0.012 kg of carbon12.

iv.

This number of particles is determined to be equal to 6.022 1023 particles.

Q.42. What is Avogadro Number (NA)?


Ans: The number of atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons, etc. present in 1 mole of a substance is found to be
equal to 6.022 1023, which is called Avogadro Number (NA). Thus, NA = 6.022 1023 mol1
Note:

i.
ii.

Number of electrons equal to NA make an electrical charge of one Faraday.


One mole of various gases (of different molar masses) occupy 22.414 L at STP and contain
avogadros number of molecules.

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6.022 1023
molecules of
O2

6.022 1023
molecules of
CO2

6.022 1023
molecules of
CH4

6.022 1023
molecules of
Ar

22.4 L
32.0 g

22.4 L
44.0 g

22.4 L
16.0 g

22.4 L
39.9 g

1 mole of different gases having different


masses containing 6.022 1023 molecules and
occupying volume of 22.414 L at STP
Q.43. Give the relationship between mass of a gas, number of moles and volume of the gas at STP, with the
help of mole triangle.
Ans: The mole triangle representing the relationship between the mass of gas, number of moles, volume of gas at

STP and the number of molecules.

Number of
fundamental
particles
Multiplied by
Avogadros number

Mass of
substance

Divided by
molecular weight
(molar mass)
Multiplied by
molecular weight
(molar mass)

Divided by
Avogadros number

Number of
moles

Multiplied by
Volume
22.4 dm3
occupied by
gas at STP
in dm3
Divided by
3
22.4 dm

Mole triangle
Note:

i.

Number of moles (n) =

W
mass of a substance
=
M
molar mass of thesubstance

where, W is mass and M is molar mass of the gas.


ii.

One mole of a gas contains 6.022 1023 molecules.

Number of molecules = n Avogadro number = n NA = n 6.022 1023.

iii.

One mole of a gas at STP (273.15 K and 1 atmosphere) occupies 22.414 L

Volume of a gas at STP = n 22.414 L.

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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

Percentage composition and molecular formula

*Q.44. Explain the terms


i.
Percentage composition
ii.
Empirical formula
iii. Molecular formula
Ans: i.
Percentage composition:
The percentage composition of a compound is defined as the percentage by weight of each element
present in the compound.

Percentage (by weight) =

Massof theelement in1moleof thecompound


100 %
Gram molecular weight of thecompound

eg.
One mole of ethanol C2H5OH (molecular mass 46) contains,
2 moles of carbon atom = 12 2 = 24 g

1 mole of oxygen atom = 16 1 = 16 g


6 moles of hydrogen atom = 1 6 = 6 g
Thus 46 g of ethanol contains 24 g, 16 g and 6 g of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen respectively. Hence,
the percentages of constituent elements are:

24
100 = 52.17%
46
16
Percentage of oxygen =
100 = 34.78%
46
6
100 = 13.04%
Percentage of hydrogen =
46
Each 100 g sample of ethanol contains 52.17 g carbon, 34.78 g oxygen and 13.04 g hydrogen.
Empirical formula:
The empirical formula of a compound is defined as a chemical formula indicating the relative number
of constituent atoms in a molecule in the simplest ratio.
eg.
The empirical formula of ethanol (C2H5OH) is C2H6O and that of benzene (C6H6) is CH.
Molecular formula:
The formula which gives the actual number of each kind of constituent atoms in one molecule of the
compound is called the molecular formula of the compound.
It is an integral multiple of empirical formula.
eg.
The molecular formula of ethanol is C2H5OH and that of benzene is C6H6.
Percentage of carbon =

ii.

iii.

Q.45. Write the steps for determination of empirical and molecular formula of a compound.
Ans: Steps for determination of empirical and molecular formula of a compound:
i.
First the percentage of all the elements present in the compound are experimetally determined. If the
sum of the percentages of the constituent elements is less than 100%, then oxygen is present. The
difference between 100 and sum of the percentages of the constituent elements is the percentage of
oxygen.
ii.
The number of moles of each constituent element present in 100g of the substance is obtained by
dividing percentage of the element by its atomic mass.
iii. The ratio of number of moles of constituent elements is determined. It is then converted into smallest
simple whole number ratio.
eg. For ethanol, C2H5OH, the smallest simple whole number ratio in the order of C : H : O is 2 : 6 : 1.

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iv.
v.
vi.

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

For fractional ratios, the whole number ratio is obtained by multiplying it with suitable integer. For
this, minor fractions may be neglected.
The empirical formula of the compound is obtained by writing the whole numbers of the ratio of number
of moles of elements as the subscripts to the right side of the corresponding atoms of the elements.
Molecular mass of the substance is experimentally determined. The ratio (r) of molar mass of the
substance to the empirical formula mass of the substance is determined, then
Molecular formula = r empirical formula of compound.

#Q.46. Write empirical and molecular formulae of following compounds:


i.
water
ii.
carbon
iii. methane
iv. hydrogen peroxide
v.
acetylene
vi. glucose
vii. diborane
viii. tetraphosphorous decoxide.
Ans:
Compound
Empirical formula
i.
Water
H2O
ii.
Carbon
C
iii. Methane
CH4
iv.
Hydrogen peroxide
HO
v.
Acetylene
CH
vi.
Glucose
CH2O
vii. Diborane
BH3
viii. Tetraphosphorous decoxide
P2O5

Molecular formula
H2O
C
CH4
H2O2
C2H2
C6H12O6
B2H6
P4O10

1.10 Chemical reactions and stoichiometry


Q.47. What is a chemical reaction?
Ans: Chemical reaction is a process in which a single substance or many substances interact with each other to
produce one or more substances. They are represented in terms of chemical equation.
eg.
The chemical reaction for the formation of water (product) from gaseous hydrogen and oxygen (reactants)
may be written as,
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g)
This is as shown below:

Two hydrogen molecules + One oxygen molecule Two water molecules


2H2

O2

2H2O

Formation of water molecules


Q.48. Describe in brief representation of chemical symbols in a chemical equation.
Ans: Chemical equation use chemical symbols called formulae of reactants and products. For example, symbol
of atomic hydrogen is H. It exists in gaseous state as a diatomic molecule. Therefore, chemical formula of
hydrogen molecule is H2, its gaseous state is indicated by the suffix (g) and written completely as H2(g).
Similarly other gases are represented as, oxygen O2(g), nitrogen N2(g), fluorine F2(g), chlorine Cl2(g), bromine
Br2(g) and Iodine I2(g).
At room temperature, bromine exists in liquid state, hence, bromine in liquid state is represented as Br2(l)
while iodine exists in solid state and hence represented as I2(S).
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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

Q.49. What are reactants and products in a chemical reaction?


Ans: The starting material which takes part in chemical reaction is called as reactant, the substance formed after
the chemical reaction is called product.
eg. Gaseous hydrogen and oxygen react to form water.
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g)
Here, H2(g) and O2(g) are reactants and H2O(g) is product obtained in the reaction.
Q.50. Explain the balancing of mass in the following reaction: H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g)
In the given reaction, H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g) conservation of mass in not observed.
Ans: i.
ii.
Hence, balancing of mass is essential.
iii. In order to conserve the mass of oxygen the reaction is balanced as 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
iv. This balanced chemical equation suggests that two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of
oxygen gas to produce two water molecules.
*Q.51. Write a note on chemical stoichiometry.
Ans: i.
Chemical stoichiometry is a process of making calculations based on formulae and balanced
chemical equations.
ii.
Consider the balanced chemical reaction, 1N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Numbers 1, 3 and 2 are coefficients representing the number of moles of N2(g), H2(g) and NH3(g)
respectively.
iii. From this chemical equation, it can be seen that 1 mole of N2(g) (28 grams) react with 3 moles H2(g)
(6 grams) giving 2 moles of NH3(g) (34 grams).
Hence from the amount of the reactants, the amount of products that would be formed can be calculated.
iv. From stoichiometry, the amounts of reactants required to obtain definite amount of products can be estimated.
Q.52. What are the steps involved in writing a balanced chemical equation by stoichiometry?
OR
What are the steps involved in stoichiometric calculation?
Ans: Following are the steps involved in the stoichiometric calculations:
i.
The correct formula of reactants and products must be written. The valencies of the atoms of
compounds should be satisfied.
ii.
In order to write balanced chemical equation, following three steps must be followed:
Step I :
The names of the reactants are written on the left hand side. A + sign is used to separate the reactants. An
arrow is drawn from left to right and on the right side of the arrow, the names of the products are written. A
+ sign is used to separate the products.
eg. The reaction for the combustion of methane to form carbon dioxide and water is written as,
methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Step II :
The chemical equation is rewritten in terms of chemical formula of each substance.
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O(g)
Step III :
To balance the mass of the chemical reaction, proper whole number coefficients are selected for each
reactant and product.
CH4(g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(g)
This is the balanced chemical equation.

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Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

Note:
Some Common Compounds:
No.
Compound
i.
Phosphoric acid
ii.
Sodium phosphate
iii.
Ferric phosphate
iv.
Aluminium phosphate
v.
Copper phosphate
vi.
Ferrous phosphate
vii.
Hydrogen chloride
viii.
Sodium chloride
ix.
Cuprous chloride
x.
Cupric chloride

Formula
H3PO4
Na3PO4
FePO4
AlPO4
Cu3(PO4)2
Fe3(PO4)2
HCl
NaCl
Cu2Cl2
CuCl2

No.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
xvi.
xvii.
xviii.
xix.

Compound
Ferrous chloride
Ferric chloride
Stannous chloride
Stannic chloride
Sulphuric acid
Sodium sulphate
Copper sulphate
Ferrous sulphate
Ferric sulphate

Formula
FeCl2
FeCl3
SnCl2
SnCl4
H2SO4
Na2SO4
CuSO4
FeSO4
Fe2(SO4)3

Q.53. Show that Law of conservation of mass is fully justified in a balanced chemical equation.
A balanced chemical reaction can be used to establish the weight relationships of reactants and
Ans: i.
products.
ii.
This is in accordance with the law of conservation of mass, which states that, total mass of reactants
is always equal to total mass of the products.
eg.
The mass relationship is given in following balanced reaction.
(Atomic masses: Fe = 55.85 u, Cl = 35.45 u)
2Fe(s)
+ 3Cl2(g)
2FeCl3(s)
(2 atoms)
(3 molecules)
(2 molecules)
[2 (55.85 + 3 35.45) g]
[2 55.85 g] [3 35.45 2 g]
[111.7 g ]
[ 212.7 g]
[324.4 g]

324.4 g
324.4 g
Hence, the mass is conserved during the reaction.
*Q.54. What are limiting and excess reactants?
The stoichiometric coefficients of reactants and products in the balanced chemical equation
Ans: i.
determines the amounts of reactants required and products formed in a chemical reaction.
ii.
Usually, to save cost cheaper reactant is taken in excess while the costlier reactant is used in lesser
amount.
iii. As and when the reactant, which is taken in lesser amount, gets consumed the reaction stops. For the
reactant, which is taken in excess, only a part of it is consumed while the rest is left behind with the
products.
iv. Thus, the reactant taken in inadequate quantity is called as limiting reactant. It is the reactant that
reacts completely, but limits further progress of the reaction.
The excess reactant is the reactant which is taken in excess compared to the limiting reactant. Hence,
v.
some amount of it remains unreacted.
Q.55. In the combustion of methane in air, what is the limiting reactant and why?
Ans: In the combustion of methane in air, methane is the limiting reactant because the other reactant is oxygen of
the air which is always present in excess. Thus, the amounts of carbon dioxide and water formed will
depend upon the amount of CH4 burnt.
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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry


Quick Review

The classification of matter (On basis of chemical composition):


Matter
Anything which has mass
and occupies space.

Pure substances
Substances which always
have a fixed composition.

Elements
Pure substances which are made
up of only one component.
eg. Gold, silver, etc.

Mixtures
A simple combination of two
or more substances in which
the constituent substances
retain their separate identities.

Compounds
Pure substances which are made
up of two or more components.
eg. Water, ammonia, etc.
Homogeneous mixture
A mixture in which the
concentration of the constituents
remains uniform throughout the
mixture and all the constituents
are present in one phase.
eg. Mixture of salt and water

Different laws and the contributing scientists:


No.
Laws
i.
Law of conservation of mass

ii.
iii.
iv.

Law of definite composition


Law of multiple proportions
Law of combining volumes of gases

Heterogeneous mixture
A mixture in which two
or more phases are present.
eg. Phenol-water system

Contributing Scientists
i. Lomonosove (Russian scientist)
ii. Antoine Laviosier (French chemist)
Joseph Proust (French chemist)
John Dalton (British scientist)
Joseph Louis GayLussac (French chemist)

Important Formulae

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Mass of element
Atomic mass
Atomic mass
Mass of one atom =
6.022 1023
Molecular mass
Mass of one molecule =
6.022 1023
Mass of substance
Number of moles (n) =
Molar mass of substance
Number of molecules = n Avogadro number
Volume of gas at STP = n 22.414 L.
Mass of the element in1mole of the compound
Percentage (by weight) =
100
Gram molecular weight of the compound
Molecular formula = r empirical formula (where r is ratio of molecular mass to empirical mass).

One mole of atoms =

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Solved Examples

Type I : Problems based on average atomic mass


Example 1
Calculate the average atomic mass of naturally occuring argon from the following data:
Isotope
36

Ar
Ar
40
Ar
38

Solution:
To find:
Formula:

Isotopic mass (g mol1)

abundance

35.96755
37.96272
39.9624

0.337%
0.063%
99.600%

(NCERT)

Average atomic mass of naturally occuring argon


Average atomic mass of argon
atomic mass of 36 Ar percentage of 36 Ar

= + atomic mass of 38 Ar percentage of 38 Ar 100


+ atomic mass of 40 Ar percentage of 40 Ar

Calculation:
Average atomic mass of argon

35.96755 0.337 + 37.96272 0.063 + 39.9624 99.60


100
1
= 39.947 g mol .
=

Ans: Average atomic mass of argon = 39.947 g mol1.


Example 2
Calculate the atomic mass (average) of chlorine using the following data:
Atomic
% Natural abundance
mass
35
C1
75.77
34.9689
37
C1
24.23
36.9659
Solution:
To find: Average atomic mass of chlorine
Formula: Average atomic mass of chlorine
atomic mass of 35 Cl percentage of 35 Cl

+ atomic mass of 37 Cl percentage of 37 Cl

=
100
Calculation:
Average atomic mass of chlorine
34.9689 75.77 + 36.9659 24.23
=
100
= 35.4528 g mol1
Ans: Average atomic mass of chlorine = 35.4528 g mol1.

22

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Example 3
Boron occurs in nature in the form of two isotopes having atomic mass 10 and 11. What are the percentage
abundances of two isotopes in the sample of boron having average atomic mass 10.8?
Solution:
Given: Atomic masses of two isotopes of boron = 10 and 11, Average atomic mass of boron = 10.8
To find: The percentage abundances of two isotopes in the sample of boron having average atomic mass 10.8
atomic mass of 10 B percentage
Formula: Average atomic mass =
100
11
+ atomic mass of B percentage

Calculation: Let the % abundance of 10B isotope = x.

% abundance of 11B isotope = 100 x.


Average atomic mass = 10.8

From formula, Average atomic mass =

x 10 + (100 x) 11
= 10.8
100

10x + 1100 11x = 10.8 100

x = 1100 + 1080
x = 20
Percentage abundance: 10B = 20%, 11B = (100 20) = 80%
Ans: Percentage abundance: 10B = 20%, 11B = 80%.
Type II : Problems based on Avogadro number and mole concept
*Example 4
Calculate the number of moles and molecules of ammonia present in 5.6 dm3 of its volume.
Solution:
Let number of moles present in 5.6 dm3 of ammonia = x
Number of moles present in 22.414 dm3 of ammonia = 1
5.6
x=
= 0.25 mole

22.414
1 mole of NH3 (ammonia) = 6.022 1023 molecules

Number of molecules in 0.25 mole of NH3 (ammonia)


= 0.25 6.022 1023
= 1.5055 1023 molecules
Ans: The number of moles and molecules in 5.6 dm3 of NH3 are 0.25 mole and 1.5055 1023 molecules,
respectively.
*Example 5
3.49 g of ammonia at STP occupies volume of 4.48 dm3. Calculate molar mass of ammonia.
Solution:
Let x grams be the molar mass of NH3.
Volume occupied by 3.49 g of NH3 at S.T.P = 4.48 dm3

Volume occupied by x g of NH3 at S.T.P = 22.414 dm3 .[1 mole of any gas occupies 22.414 dm3 at S.T.P]

22.414 3.49
= 17.46 g mol1.
4.48
Ans: Molar mass of ammonia is 17.46 g mol1.

x=

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*Example 6
Calculate the mass of potassium chlorate required to liberate 6.72 dm3 of oxygen at STP, molar mass of
potassium chlorate is 112.5 g mol1.
Solution:
The molecular formula of potassium chlorate is KClO3.
Required chemical equation:
2KClO3
2KCl + 3O2
[2 112.5 = 225 g]
[3 22.414 = 67.242 dm3]
Thus, 225 g of potassium chlorate will liberate 67.242 dm3 of oxygen gas.
Let x gram of KClO3 liberate 6.72 dm3 at S.T.P.
225 6.72
x=
= 22.49 g

67.242
Ans: Mass of potassium chlorate required is 22.49 g.
*Example 7
Calculate the volume of oxygen required for complete combustion of 0.25 mole of methane at STP.
Solution:
Required chemical equation:
+ 2O2
CO2 + 2H2O
CH4
[1 mole]
[2 moles]
Thus, 1 mole of CH4 requires 2 moles or 2 22.414 dm3 of O2 for complete combustion.

0.25 mole of CH4 requires x dm3 of O2 for complete combustion.


x = 0.25 2 22.414

= 0.5 22.4 = 11.207 dm3


Ans: The volume of O2 required is 11.207 dm3.
*Example 8
Calculate the volume of hydrogen required for complete hydrogenation of 0.25 dm3 of ethyne at STP.
Solution:
Required chemical equation:
2H2 C2H6
C2H2 +
[1 mole] [2 moles]
1 mole of C2H2 occupies 22.414 dm3
2 moles of H2 occupies 44.828 dm3
Thus, 22.414 dm3 of C2H2 requires 44.828 dm3 of H2 for complete hydrogenation.
Let 0.25 dm3 of C2H2 require x dm3 of H2 for complete hydrogenation.
0.25 44.828

x=
= 0.5 dm3
22.414
Ans: The volume of hydrogen required is 0.5 dm3.
*Example 9
Calculate the number of atoms of hydrogen present in 5.6 g of urea (molar mass of urea = 60 g mol1).
Also calculate the number of atoms of N, C and O.
Solution:
Given:
Mass of urea = 5.6 g
Molar mass of urea = 60 g mol1
To find:
The number of atoms of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and oxygen
Calculation:
Molecular formula of urea: CO(NH2)2
1 molecule of urea has total 8 atoms, out of which 4 atoms are of H, 2 atoms are of N, 1 of C and 1 of O.
1 mole or 60 g of urea contains 6.022 1023 molecules
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60 g of urea has 4 6.022 1023 atoms of hydrogen.


5.6 4 6.022 1023
= 2.248 1023 atoms of hydrogen.

Number of H atoms in 5.6 g of urea =


60
Similarly, 60 g of urea has 2 6.022 1023 atoms of nitrogen
5.6 2 6.022 1023
= 1.124 1023 atoms of nitrogen.

Number of N atoms in 5.6 g of urea =


60
Similarly,
60 g of urea has 1 6.022 1023 atoms of carbon
5.6 1 6.022 1023
= 0.562 1023 atoms of carbon.

Number of C atoms in 5.6 g of urea =


60
Similarly,
60 g of urea has 1 6.022 1023 atoms of oxygen
5.6 1 6.022 1023
= 0.562 1023 atoms of oxygen.

Number of O atoms in 5.6 g of urea =


60
Ans: 5.6 g of urea contains 2.248 1023 atoms of H,
1.124 1023 atoms of N,
0.562 1023 atoms of C and
0.562 1023 atoms of O.
*Example 10
Calculate the number of atoms of C, H and O in 72.5 g of isopropanol, C3H7OH (molar mass 60)
Solution:
Mass of isopropanol (C3H7OH) = 72.5 g
Given:
Molar mass of isopropanol = 60 g
Total number of atoms = 12, out of which, there are 3 carbon atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms and 1
oxygen atom.
To find:
The number of atoms of C, H, and O
Calculation:
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 3 6.022 1023 atoms of carbon.
In 72.5 g of C3H7OH, let there be x atoms of carbon
72.5 3 6.022 1023
x =

60
= 21.829 1023
= 2.183 1024 atoms of carbon.
Similarly,
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 8 6.022 1023 atoms of hydrogen.

In 72.5 g of C3H7OH, let there be y atoms of hydrogen.


72.5 8 6.022 1023
y=
= 58.21 1023 atoms of hydrogen

60
= 5.821 1024 atoms of hydrogen.
Similarly,
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 1 6.022 1023 atoms of oxygen
In 72.5 g of C3H7OH, let there be z atoms of oxygen.
72.5 1 6.022 10 23
z=
= 7.277 1023 atoms of oxygen.

60
Ans: 72.5 g of isopropanol contains 2.183 1024 atoms of C,
5.821 1024 atoms of H and
7.277 1023 atoms of O.

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Example 11
Calculate the number of moles and the volume in litres of the following gases at STP:
i.
1.6 g of oxygen
ii.
3. 5 103 kg of nitrogen
iii. 85 103 kg of hydrogen sulphide
Solution:
i.
For Oxygen:
One mole of O2
= 2 16 = 32 g (molar mass)
= 22.414 dm3 at STP
weight(w)
1.6

Number of moles of O2 =
=
32
molar mass (M)
= 0.05
Volume of oxygen (at STP)
= moles 22.414 L
= 0.05 22.414 L
= 1.12 L or dm3
ii.
For Nitrogen:
One mole of N2
= 2 14
= 28 g = 28103 kg (molar mass)
= 22.414 dm3 at STP
w 3.5 103
=

Number of moles of N2 =
M
28 103
= 0.125
Volume of N2 (at STP) = moles 22.414 L
= 0.125 22.414
= 2.8 L or dm3
iii. For Hydrogen sulphide:
One mole of H2S = (2 1) + (1 32) = 34 g i.e., 34 103 kg (molar mass) = 22.414 dm3 at STP
85103
w
=
Number of moles of H2S =
M
34 103
= 2.5
Volume of H2S (at STP) = moles 22.414 L
= 2.5 22.414 = 56 L or dm3
Ans: i.
Number of moles and volume of oxygen in 1.6 g of oxygen are 0.05 and 1.12 L respectively.
ii.
Number of moles and volume of nitrogen in 3.5 103 kg of nitrogen are 0.125 and 2.8 L
respectively.
iii. Number of moles and volume of hydrogen sulphide in 85 103 kg of hydrogen sulphide are 2.5 and
56 L respectively.
Example 12
Calculate the number of moles and number of molecules of 12 g of carbon, 64 g of oxygen and 72 g of
water.
(Atomic masses: C = 12, O = 16, H = 1)
Solution:
Given:
Atomic masses of C = 12, O = 16 and H = 1.
To find:
The number of moles and number of molecules of 12 g of carbon, 64 of oxygen and 72 g of water.
Formula:
Mass of the substance(w)
1.
Number of moles (n) =
Atomic mass or molecular mass of substance(M)
2.
Number of molecules = n Avogadro number
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Calculation:
a.
For Carbon:

w 12
=
( Atomic mass of C = 12)
M 12
=1
ii.
Number of molecules = 1 6.022 1023 = 6.022 1023
For Oxygen:
64
i.
Number of moles =
( Molecular mass of O2 = 2 16 = 32)
32
=2
ii.
Number of molecules = 2 6.022 1023
= 12.044 1023 = 1.2044 1024
i.

b.

c.

For Water:

72
( Molecular mass of H2O = (2 1) + (1 16) = 18)
18
=4
ii.
Number of molecules = 4 6.022 1023
= 24.088 1023= 2.4088 1024
Number of moles and number of molecules in 12 g of carbon are 1 and 6.022 1023 respectively.
Number of moles and number of molecules in 64 g of oxygen are 2 and 1.2044 1024 respectively.
Number of moles and number of molecules in 72 g of water are 4 and 2.4088 1024 respectively.
i.

Ans: i.
ii.
iii.

Number of moles =

Number of moles =

Example 13
Calculate the mass of the following
i.
0.25 mole of iron
ii.
2.5 moles of ammonia
iii. 250 molecules of sodium chloride
iv. 1.2 moles of methane
Solution:
i.
0.25 mole of iron (Fe):
Atomic mass of iron = 56

1 mole of Fe
56 g of Fe 56 103 kg of Fe

0.25 mole of Fe 56 103 0.25 14 103 kg of Fe


Mass of 0.25 mole of Fe = 1.4 102 kg.

ii.

iii.

2.5 moles of ammonia (NH3):


Molecular mass of ammonia = (1 14) + (3 1) = 17
(N)
(3H)
1 mole of ammonia
17 g of ammonia 17.0 103 kg of ammonia
2.5 moles of ammonia 17.0 103 2.5 42.5 103 kg of ammonia
Mass of 2.5 moles of ammonia = 4.25 102 kg.

250 molecules of sodium chloride (NaCl):


Molecular mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
(Na) (Cl)
1 mole of NaCl 58.5 g of NaCl
58.5 103 kg of NaCl
6.022 1023 molecules of NaCl 58.5 103 kg of NaCl

250 molecules of NaCl

Mass of 250 molecules of NaCl = 2.429 1023 kg.

58.5 103 250


2.429 1023 kg
6.022 1023

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iv.

1.2 moles of methane (CH4):


Molecular mass of CH4 = 12 + (41) = 16
(C) (4H)

1 mole of methane = 16 g of methane = 16.0 103 kg of methane

1.2 moles of methane = 16.0 103 1.2 = 19.2 103kg.

Mass of 1.2 moles of methane = 1.92 102 kg.

Ans: i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Mass of 0.25 moles of iron is 1.4 102 kg.


Mass of 2.5 moles of ammonia is 4.25 102 kg.
Mass of 250 molecules of sodium chloride is 2.429 1023 kg.
Mass of 1.2 moles of methane is 1.92 102 kg.

Example 14
What will be the mass of one 12C atom in g?
Solution:

1 mole of

12

C atom 6.022 1023 atom 12 g

Mass of 6.022 1023 atoms of

Mass of 1 atom of

12

C =

12

C = 12 g

12
g = 1.9927 1023 g
23
6.022 10

Ans: Mass of one 12C atom is 1.9927 1023 g.


Type III : Problems based on percentage composition, molecular formula and empirical formula
*Example 15
Phosphoric acid is widely used in carbonated beverages, detergents, toothpastes and fertilizers. Calculate
the mass percentages of H, P and O in phosphoric acid if atomic masses are H = 1, P = 31 and O = 16.
Solution:
Atomic mass of H = 1, P = 31 and O = 16
Given:
To find:
The mass percentage of hydrogen, phosphorous, oxygen in H3PO4
Mass of element in one mole of compound 100
Formula: %(by weight) =
Gram molecular weight of compound
Calculation: Molecular formula of phosphoric acid: H3PO4

Molar mass of H3PO4 = 3 (1) + 1 (31) + 4 (16)


= 3 + 31 + 64
= 98 g mol1
3
Percentage of Hydrogen =
100
98
= 3.06 %
31
Percentage of phosphorus =
100
98
= 31.63 %
64
Percentage of oxygen
=
100
98
= 65.31 %
Ans: Mass percentage of hydrogen, phosphorous and oxygen in phosphoric acid are 3.06%, 31.63% and
65.31% respectively.
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*Example 16
Calculate the mass percentage composition of the elements in nitric acid (H = 1, N = 14, O = 16).
Solution:
Given:
Atomic mass of H = 1, N = 14 and O = 16
To find:
The mass percentage of H, N and O in HNO3
Mass of element in one mole of compound 100
Formula: %(by weight) =
Gram molecular weight of compound
Calculation: Molecular formula of nitric acid : HNO3

Molar mass = 1 (1) + 1 (14) + 3 (16) = 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 g mol1


1

Percentage of hydrogen =
100
63
= 1.59 %
14
Percentage of nitrogen =
100
63
= 22.22%
48
Percentage of oxygen =
100
63
= 76.19%
Ans: Mass percentage of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen in nitric acid are 1.59%, 22.22% and 76.19%
respectively.
Example 17
Calculate the mass percentage of different elements present in sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).
(NCERT)
Solution:
Given:
Molecular formula of sodium sulphate = Na2SO4
To find:
The mass percentage of Na, S and O in sodium sulphate
Mass of element in one mole of compound 100
Formula: %(by weight) =
Gram molecular weight of compound
Calculation:Atomic mass of Na = 23, S = 32, O = 16

Molar mass of Na2SO4 = 2 (23) + 1 (32) + 4 (16)


= 46 + 32 + 64
= 142 g mol1
46
100 = 32.39 %

Percentage of sodium =
142
32
100 = 22. 54 %

Percentage of sulphur =
142
64
100 = 45.07 %

Percentage of oxygen =
142
Ans: Mass percentage of sodium, sulphur and oxygen in sodium sulphate are 32.39, 22.54 and 45.07
respectively.
*Example 18
Analysis of vitamin C shows that it contains 40.92% carbon by mass, 4.58% hydrogen and 54.50% oxygen.
Determine the empirical formula of vitamin C.
Solution:
Given:
Analysis of vitamin C shows,
Percentage mass of carbon = 40.92%
Percentage mass of hydrogen = 4.58%
Percentage mass of oxygen = 54.50%

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The empirical formula of vitamin C


To find:
Calculation:
40.92
% of carbon
Moles of carbon =
=
= 3.41
12
Atomic mass of carbon
4.58
% of hydrogen
Moles of hydrogen =
=
= 4.58
1
Atomic mass of hydrogen
Moles of oxygen =

54.50
% of oxygen
=
= 3.406 3.41
16
Atomic mass of oxygen

Ratio of number of moles of C:H:O =

3.41
4.58
3.41
=1:
= 1.34 :
=1
3.41
3.41
3.41

Ratio = 1 : 1.34 : 1
Multiply by 3 to get whole number

Ratio = 3 : 4.02 : 3 3 : 4 : 3

The empirical formula of compound Vitamin C is C3H4O3.


Ans: Empirical formula of Vitamin C is C3H4O3.
Example 19
Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron which contains 69.9% iron and 30.1% oxygen by mass.
(NCERT)
Solution:
Given:
Percentage mass of iron = 69.9 %
Percentage mass of oxygen = 30.1 %
To find:
The empirical formula of an oxide of iron
Calculation:
% of iron
69.9
Moles of iron =
=
= 1.25
Atomic mass of iron 55.85
% of oxygen
30.1
Moles of oxygen =
=
= 1.88
Atomic mass of oxygen 16
1.25
1.88
= 1:
=1.50

Ratio of number of moles of Fe : O =


1.25
1.25

Ratio = 1 : 1.50
Multiply by 2 to get whole number

Ratio = 2 : 3

The empirical formula is Fe2O3


Ans: The empirical formula of an oxide of iron is Fe2O3.
Example 20
Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in the sample of blue vitriol (CuSO4.5H2O)
Solution:
To find:
The percentage of water of crystallization in the sample of blue vitriol
Formula:
Weight of water in one mole of vitriol
% of H2O =
Molar mass of vitriol
Calculation: Molecular mass of CuSO4.5H2O = 63.5 + 32 + (4 16) + (5 18) = 249.5
For formula,
90
% of H2O =
100 = 36.07%
249.5
Ans: The percentage of water of crystallization in blue vitriol is 36.07%.
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#Example 21
An inorganic compound contained 24.75% (w/w) potassium and 34.75% (w/w) manganese and some other
common elements. Give the empirical formula of the compound (K = 39 u, Mn = 59 u, O = 16 u)
Solution:
Given:
Atomic mass of K = 39 u, Mn = 59 u, and O = 16 u.
Percentage of potassium and manganese = 24.75 % and 34.75 % respectively.
To find:
The empirical formula of the given inorganic compound
Calculation: Percentage of potassium
= 24.75 %
Percentage of manganese
= 34.75 %

Total percentage
= 59.50 %
Remaining must be that of oxygen
Percentage of oxygen = 100 59.50 = 40.50 %
% of potassium
Moles of potassium =
Atomic mass of potassium

24.75
= 0.635
39
34.75
% of manganese
=
= 0.589
Moles of manganese =
59
Atomic mass of manganese
40.50
% of oxygen
=
= 2.53
Moles of oxygen
=
16
Atomic mass of oxygen
0.635 0.589
2.53
:
:
= 1.08 : 1 : 4.29 1 : 1 : 4
Ratio of K : Mn : O =
0.589 0.589 0.589
=

Ans: The empirical formula of given inorganic compound is KMnO4.


#Example 22
Phosphoric acid used in carbonated beverages contain 3.086% (w/w) hydrogen and 31.61% (w/w)
phosphorous and remaining oxygen. If the atomic masses of hydrogen, phosphorous and oxygen are 1.01 u,
31.0 u and 16 u respectively and if the molar mass of phosphoric acid is 98.03 g mol1, what is the molecular
formula of phosphoric acid?
Solution:
Given:
Atomic mass of H = 1.01 u, P = 31.0 u and O = 16 u
The molar mass of phosphoric acid = 98.03 g mol1
Percentage of hydrogen and phosphorus = 3.086 % and 31.61 % respectively.
To find:
The molecular formula of phosphoric acid
Calculation: Percentage of hydrogen = 3.086 %
Percentage of phosphorous = 31.61 %

Total percentage
= 34.696 %
Remaining amount is oxygen
Percentage of oxygen = 100 34.696 = 65.304 %
3.086
% mass of hydrogen
Moles of hydrogen
=
=
= 3.05
1.01
Atomic mass of hydrogen
31.61
% mass of phosphorous
=
= 1.019
Moles of phosphorous =
31
Atomic mass of phosphorous
65.304
% mass of oxygen
=
= 4.08
Moles of Oxygen =
16
Atomic mass of oxygen

Ratio of H: P: O =

3.05 1.019 4.08


:
:
=3:1:4
1.019 1.019 1.019

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Hence, the empirical formula of phosphoric acid = H3PO4


Empirical formula mass = 3 (1.01) + 1 (31) + 4(16)
= 3.03 + 31 + 64
= 98.03 g mol1
98.03
Molar mass
The ratio r =
=
=1
98.03
Empiricalformula mass

= r Empirical formula
= 1 H3PO4
= H3PO4
Ans: The molecular formula of phosphoric acid is H3PO4.
Molecular formula

Type IV : Problems based on stoichiometry


Example 23
Calculate the mass of iron which will be converted into oxide (Fe3O4) by the action of 18 g of steam on it.
Solution:
The chemical equation representing the reaction is:
3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2
[3 56] [4 18]
[168 g] [72 g]
Thus, 72 g of steam reacts with 168 g of iron.
168
18 = 42 g of iron

18 g of steam will react with


72
Ans: Mass of iron which will be converted into oxide by action of 18 g of steam is 42 g.
Example 24
(NCERT)
How much copper can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate (CuSO4)?
Solution:
1 mole of copper can be obtained from 1 mole of copper sulphate
Atomic mass of copper = 63.5 u
Molar mass of copper sulphate = 1 (63.5) + 1 (32) + 4 (16)
= 63.5 + 32 + 64
= 159.5 g mol1

63.5 g of copper can be obtained from 159.5 g of copper sulphate


63.5
100 = 39.81 g

Amount of copper that can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate is


159.5
Ans: 39.81 g of copper can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate.
Example 25
1.5 g of an impure sample of sodium sulphate dissolved in water was treated with excess of barium chloride
solution when 1.74 g of BaSO4 was obtained as dry precipitate. Calculate the percentage purity of the
sample.
Solution:
Treated with BaCl2
1.74 g of BaSO4
1.5 g of impure Na2SO4

The chemical equation representing the reaction is:


Na2SO4
+ BaCl2

BaSO4 +
2NaCl
[(2 23) + 32 + (4 16)]
[137 + 32 + (4 16)]
[46 + 32 + 64]
[137 + 32 + 64]
[142 g]
[233 g]
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To calculate the mass of Na2SO4 from which 1.74 g of BaSO4 is obtained:


233 g of BaSO4 is produced from 142 g of Na2SO4.
142

Mass of Na2SO4 from which 1.74 g of BaSO4 would be obtained =


1.74 = 1.06 g
233

The mass of pure Na2SO4 present in 1.5 g of impure sample = 1.06 g


To calculate the percentage purity of the impure sample:
1.5 g of impure sample contains 1.06 g of pure Na2SO4
1.06

100 g of the impure sample will contain


100 = 70.67 g of pure Na2SO4
1.5
Ans: Percentage purity of the sample is 70.67 %.
Example 26
Calculate the amount of lime Ca(OH)2 , required to remove hardness of 50,000 L of well water which has
been found to contain 1.62 g of calcium bicarbonate per 10 L .
Solution:
Calculation of total Ca(HCO3)2 present:
10 L of water contains 1.62 g of Ca(HCO3)2
1.62

50,000 L of water will contain


50,000 = 8100 g of Ca(HCO3)2
10
Calculation of lime required:
The balanced equation for the reaction:
+
Ca(OH)2
2CaCO3 + 2 H2O
Ca(HCO3)2
[1 mole]
[1 mole]
[40 + (1 + 12 + 48 ) 2]
[40 + (16 + 1) 2]
[40 + 122]
[40 + 34]
[162]
[74]

162 g of Ca(HCO3)2 requires 74 g of lime.


74
Mass of lime required by 8100 g of Ca(HCO3)2 =
8100 g = 3700 g = 3.7 kg
162
Ans: The amount of lime required to remove hardness of 50,000 L of well water, with 1.62 g of calcium
bicarbonate per 10 L is 3.7 kg.
Type V : Problems based on limiting and excess reactants
Example 27
Gold reacts with chlorine at 150 C as per balanced chemical reaction, 2Au + 3Cl2 2AuCl3. 10 g each
of gold and chlorine are sealed in a container and heated at 150 C till the reaction is complete. Name the
limiting and excess reactants. Also calculate the amount of AuCl3 formed and the mass of the excess
reactants left behind.
(Atomic masses: Au = 196.97 u, Cl = 35.45 u)
Solution:
The reaction of gold with chlorine to produce AuCl3 is 2Au + 3Cl2 2AuCl3. 2 moles of gold reacts with 3
moles of Cl2 to given 2 moles of AuCl3 will be obtained.
2Au
+
3Cl2

2AuCl3
[2 196.97 g]
+
[3 35.45 2]
[2(196.97 + 3 35.45)]
[393.94 g]
+
[212.7 g]

[606.64]

[606.64 g]

[606.64 g]

2
Theoretical ratio of moles of gold to chlorine =
= 0.667
3

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Actual amount is 10 g of Au and 10 g Cl2


10
Number of moles of Au in 10 g =
= 0.0508
196.97
10
= 0.141 mol of Cl2
Number of moles of Cl2 in its 10 g =
70.90
0.0508
= 0.36
Actual ratio of moles of gold to chlorine =
0.141
Theoretical ratio of moles of Au to Cl2 is 0.667 and actual ratio of moles of Au to Cl2 is 0.36
Thus actual ratio is smaller than theoretical ratio
Au is the limiting reactant, and Cl2 is the excess reactant.

2 moles of Au react with 3 moles of Cl2


0.0508 3

0.0508 moles of Au will react with


= 0.0762 moles of Cl2
2

Moles of Cl2 remaining = 0.141 0.0762


= 0.0648 moles of Cl2
Mass of Cl2 reacted = 0.0762 70.90 = 5.40 g (70.90 g is molar mass of Cl2)
Mass of Cl2 left behind = 10 5.40

= 4.6 g
2 moles of Au give 2 moles of AuCl3

0.0508 mole of Au will give = 0.0508 mole of AuCl3

Mass of AuCl3 formed = 0.0508 303.32 (Molar mass of AuCl3 = 303.32 g)


= 15.409 g AuCl3
Ans: Au is the limiting reactant, while Cl2 is the excess reactant. The amount of AuCl3 formed is 15.409 g and
the mass of the excess reactant (Chlorine) left behind is 4.6 g.
Additional Theory Questions

Q.1. Define:
i.
physical chemistry. Refer Q.4.i.
ii.
inorganic chemistry. Refer Q.4.ii.
iii. organic chemistry. Refer Q.4.iii.
iv. analytical chemistry. Refer Q.4.iv.
v.
biochemistry. Refer Q.4.v.
Q.2. Explain the following:
i.
Pure substance. Refer Q.8.i.
ii.
Mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.
Q.3. Define the following with suitable examples:
i.
Homogeneous mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.a.
ii.
Heterogeneous mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.b.
*Q.4. State and explain the law of conservation of mass. Refer Q.22.i.
Q.5. State and explain the law of definite composition / proportions. Refer Q.22.ii.
Q.6. State and explain the law of multiple proportions. Refer Q.22.iii.
*Q.7. State and explain Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases. Refer Q.22.iv.
*Q.8. Define elements, compounds and molecules. Refer Q.13.i.a, Q.13.ii.a. and Q.30.ii.a.
Q.9. Show that molar gas volume at STP is 22.414 L or 0.022414 m3.
OR
Prove that 1 mole of any gas at STP always has a volume of 22.414 L. Refer Q.37.(iii to vi)
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Practice Problems

Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

13.

Type I

1.

The relative abundance of various isotopes of


silicon is: Si (28) = 92.25%, Si (29) = 4.65%
and Si (30) = 3.10%. Calculate the average
atomic mass of silicon.

Type II

2.

How many molecules and atoms of sulphur


are present in 0.1 mole of S8 molecules?

3.

Calculate the number of moles of iodine in a


sample containing 1.0 1022 molecules.

4.

Calculate moles of Ammonia in 0.1284 kg of


Ammonia.

5.

O2 is present in one litre flask at a pressure of


7.6 1010 mm of Hg. Calculate no. of O2
molecules at 0 C.

6.

Calculate the number of moles in the


following:
i.
9.0 102 kg water
ii.
89.6 dm3nitrogen at STP
iii. 0.5 g hydrogen
iv. 7.1 102 kg chloride ions.

7.

8.

9.

Calculate the number of moles in the


following:
i.
0.108 kg of water
ii.
0.277 kg of carbon
iii. 1.058 105 kg of sodium ions
iv. 1.7 102 kg of hydrogen sulphide
Calculate the weights of the following:
i.
0.3 mole of carbon
ii.
0.1 mole of hydrogen chloride
iii. 2.4 moles of bromide ions
Calculate the number of molecules in the
following
i.
4.5 105 kg of chlorine
ii.
0.28 dm3 of oxygen at STP

Type III

10.

Calculate the percentage composition of the


following compound:
i.
Urea CO(NH2)2 ii. CuSO4.5H2O

11.

Calculate the mass percentage composition of


copper pyrites CuFeS2

12.

Calculate the percentage composition of


glucose (C6H12O6).

A compound containing sodium, sulphur and


oxygen has the following percentage
composition
Na = 29.11%, S = 40.51% and O = 30.38%
and molecular weight 158. Find the empirical
formula.

Type IV

14.

1.0 g of a mixture of carbonates of calcium


and magnesium gave 240 cm3 of CO2 at STP
calculate the percentage composition of the
mixture.

Type V

15.

50.0 kg of N2(g) and 10.0 kg of H2(g) are mixed


to produce NH3(g)
i.
Calculate the NH3(g) formed.
ii.
Identify the limiting reagent in this
reaction if any.
Multiple Choice Questions

1.0

Prominent scientists

1.

The law of combining volumes of gases was


formulated by _______.
(A) Avogadro
(B) Gay-Lussac
(C) Aristotle
(D) Joseph Priestley

1.1

Introduction

2.

The branch of chemistry which deals with


carbon compounds is called _____ chemistry.
(A) organic
(B) inorganic
(C) carbon
(D) bio

1.2

Importance and scope of chemistry

3.

_______ is used for the treatment of


parkinsons disease.
(A) L-dopa
(B) Taxol
(C) Cisplatin
(D) Tamiflue

1.3

Historical approach to particulate nature of


matter

4.

The phlogiston theory was suggested for


_______.
(A) neutralisation reaction
(B) oxidation reaction
(C) reduction reaction
(D) combustion reaction

5.

Electrochemical equivalent has unit ____.


(A) kg m s1
(B) kg m2 s1
1
(C) kg C
(D) kg m1 s2

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A ______ is a simple combination of two or
more substances in which the constituent
substances retain their separate identities.
(A) compound
(B) mixture
(C) alloy
(D) amalgam

1.5

Daltons atomic theory

13.

_____ proposed some symbols for some


common atoms and molecules.
(A) Democritus
(B) Newton
(C) Thomson
(D) Dalton

1.6

Concepts of elements, atoms and molecules

14.

A/An _____ is an aggregate of two or more


atoms of definite composition which are held
together by chemical bonds.
(A) ion
(B) molecule
(C) compound
(D) mixture

1.7

Atomic and molecular masses

15.

One mole of oxygen weighs______.


(A) 8 g
(B) 32 g
(C) 16 g
(D) 6.023 1023 g

16.

The number of atoms present in a molecule of


a substance is called ________.
(A) atomicity
(B) volume
(C) density
(D) mass

1.8

Avogadros law

A sample of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) has


the following percentage composition :
Ca = 40 %; C = 12 %; O = 48 %
If the law of constant proportions is true, then
the weight of calcium in 4 g of a sample of
calcium carbonate from another source will be
_______.
(A) 0.016 g
(B) 0.16 g
(C) 1.6 g
(D) 16 g

17.

The number of molecules in 22.4 cm3 of


nitrogen gas at STP is _______.
(B) 6.023 1023
(A) 6.023 1020
20
(D) 22.4 1023
(C) 22.4 10

18.

The number of molecules present in 8 g of


oxygen gas are_______.
(A) 6.022 1023
(B) 3.011 1023
23
(C) 12.044 10
(D) 1.505 1023

Two elements, A and B, combine to form two


compounds in which a g of A combines with
b1 and b2g of B respectively. According to
law of multiple proportion _____.
(A) b1 = b2
(B) b1 and b2 bear a simple whole number ratio
(C) a and b1 bear a whole number ratio
(D) no relation exists between b1 and b2

19.

11.2 cm3 of hydrogen gas at


contains_______ moles
(A) 0.0005
(B) 0.01
(C) 0.029
(D) 0.5

20.

4.4 g of an unknown gas occupies 2.24 L of


volume under STP conditions. The gas may
be_______.
(A) CO2
(B) CO
(D) SO2
(C) O2

21.

Under similar conditions, oxygen and nitrogen


are taken in the same mass. The ratio of their
volumes will be_______.
(A) 7 : 8
(B) 3 : 5
(C) 6 : 5
(D) 9 : 2

22.

Atomicity of ozone is_____.


(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4

Which one of the following is NOT a mixture?


(A) Iodized table salt
(B) Gasoline
(C) Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
(D) Distilled water
Magnitude of pico is _______.
(A) 1012
(B) 1015
12
(C) 10
(D) 1015

1.4

Laws of chemical combination

9.

The sum of the masses of reactants and


products is equal in any physical or chemical
reaction. This is in accordance with _______.
(A) law of multiple proportion
(B) law of definite composition
(C) law of conservation of mass
(D) law of reciprocal proportion

10.

11.

12.

Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry

At constant temperature and pressure, one litre


of nitrogen gas reacts with three litres of
hydrogen gas to produce two litres of
ammonia gas. This is in accordance with
_______.
(A) law of multiple proportion
(B) law of definite composition
(C) law of conservation of mass
(D) law of combining volumes of gases
36

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Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry

23.

19.7 kg of gold was recovered from a


smuggler. How many atoms of gold were
recovered? (Au = 197)
(A) 197
(B) 6.02 1023
(D) 6.02 1025
(C) 6.02 1024

24.

The number of atoms in 4.25 g of NH3 is


approximately_______.
(B) 1.5. 1023
(A) 1 1023
23
(D) 6.022 1023
(C) 2 10

25.

26.

What is the mass of 0.5 mole of ozone


molecule?
(A) 8 g
(B) 16 g
(C) 24 g
(D) 48 g
Mole triangle is the relationship between the
mass of a gas, the number of moles, the
volume of gas at S.T.P. and the _______.
(A) number of electrons
(B) number of molecules
(C) pressure at S.T.P
(D) temperature at S.T.P

1.9

Percentage
formula

27.

The percentage of oxygen in NaOH is


_______.
(A) 40
(B) 60
(C) 8
(D) 10

28.

29.

composition

and

molecular

Which of the following has same molecular


formula and empirical formula?
(A) CO2
(B) C6H12O6
(D) all of these
(C) C2H4
The empirical formula of C2H2 is _____.
(B) CH
(A) C2H4
(D) C4H10
(C) CH4

1.10 Chemical reactions and stoichiometry

30.

31.

_____ reactant is the reactant that reacts


completely but limits further progress of the
reaction.
(A) Oxidizing
(B) Reducing
(C) Limiting
(D) Excess
If 0.5 mol of BaCl2 is mixed with 0.2 mol of
Na3PO4, the maximum number of moles of
Ba3(PO4)2 that can be formed is________.
(A) 0.7
(B) 0.5
(C) 0.3
(D) 0.1

32.

Two elements X (atomic mass = 75) and Y


(atomic mass = 16) combine to give a
compound having 75.8% of X . The formula
of the compound is _______.
(A) XY
(B) X2Y
(C) XY2
(D) X2Y3
Answers to Practice Problems

1.

28.11 u.

2.
3.

6.022 1022 molecules, 4.82 1023 atoms of


sulphur
0.0166 mol

4.

7.55 moles

5.

2.68 1010

6.

i.
iii.

5 moles
0.25 moles

ii.
iv.

4.0 moles
2 moles

7.

i.
iii.

6 moles
4.6 104 mole

ii.
iv.

23.08 moles
0.5 mole

8.

i.
iii.

3.6 103 kg
0.192 kg

ii.

3.65 103 kg

9.

i.

3.82 1020

ii.

7.52 1021

10.

i.

% of carbon = 20%
% of oxygen = 26.67%
% of nitrogen = 46.67%
% of hydrogen = 6.67%

ii.

% of Cu = 25.45%
% of S = 12.83%
% of O = 57.72%
% of H = 4.00

11.

Cu = 34.64%, Fe = 30.44%, S = 34.9%

12.

C = 40.0%, H = 6.67%, O = 53.33%

13.

Na2S2O3

14.

CaCO3: 57.5%, MgCO3: 42.5%

15.

i.
ii.

56.67 kg
Hydrogen

Answers to Multiple Choice Question

1. (B)
5. (C)
9. (C)
13. (D)
17. (B)
21. (A)
25. (C)
29. (B)

2.
6.
10.
14.
18.
22.
26.
30.

(A)
(B)
(C)
(B)
(D)
(C)
(B)
(C)

3.
7.
11.
15.
19.
23.
27.
31.

(A)
(D)
(B)
(B)
(A)
(D)
(A)
(D)

4.
8.
12.
16.
20.
24.
28.
32.

(D)
(A)
(D)
(A)
(A)
(D)
(A)
(D)
37

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