The image cannot be displayed.

Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

MCEN90029
Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17
Fracture2

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 1

Issus coleoptratus posesses the only

mechanical gears found in nature!

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 2

Summary
Today we will consider the stress concentration effect of
flaws using the analysis of Inglis, and an alternative
method for modelling crack formation: the Griffith energy
balance

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 3

Stress concentration effect of flaws

Charles Inglis (1875-1952)
demonstrated first evidence of the
stress concentration effect of flaws
He analysed elliptic holes in flat plates
Charles Inglis
Hole not influenced by plate boundary
i.e., plate width >>2a, plate height >>2b
Stress at tip of major axis (Point A):
# 2a &
A = %1+ (
$
b'

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

(1)

Ratio A/ is defined as stress concentration

factor, kt
Lecture L17 - 4

Stress concentration effect of flaws

As the major axis, a, increases relative to b, the elliptical hole takes on
appearance of a sharp crack
Here, Inglis expresses equation (1) in terms of the radius of curvature :
$
a'
A = &1+ 2
)

%
(

b2
where, =
a

2b
2a

When a>>b
A = 2 a

Hole boundary:

x2 y2
+
=1
a2 b2

(2)

Works well for notches that are elliptic at their tips,

BUT, predicts an infinite stress for an infinitely
sharp crack =0
(Griffith was motivated by this problem: his fracture
theory based on energy rather than local stress)

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 5

Stress concentration effect of flaws

An infinitely sharp crack is not possible in real materials of atoms
Metals, for example, deform plastically, which causes a sharp crack
to blunt
In the absence of plastic deformation, minimum radius of crack tip is
in the order of the atomic radius ( = x0)
Thus, from equation (2), A = 2

A = 2

a
x0

(this is the local stress concentration at the tip of an atomically sharp crack)

Assume fracture occurs

at A when A= c

c = 2

Thus, the remote normal

stress at failure:

a
x0

$ E s '1/ 2
f = &
)
% 4a (

Recall, the cohesive stress (at the

E s
c =
atomic level) that must be
x0
overcome to result in fracture:

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 6

(3)

Stress concentration effect of flaws

$ E s '1/ 2
Equation (3), f = &% 4a )( gives an approximate estimate of failure

stress. NOTE: Continuum assumption of Inglis analysis is not valid at

atomic level
The results
of this equation are similar to those of Gehlen and

Kanninen, obtained by a numerical simulation of a crack in a 2D

lattice, where atoms were connected by nonlinear springs
f

% E s (1/ 2
f = '
*
& a )

where is a constant (close to unity), which

depends on atomic force-displacement law

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 7

The Griffith energy balance

In 1920, Griffith (1893-1963) showed that for a
crack to propagate, total energy must either
decrease or remain constant
For fracture, energy in structure must be
sufficient to overcome surface energy of
material
Surface energy: energy of surface atoms are in
higher energy state than those in interior

Surface tension
(energy per unit area)
is the contractive
tendency of a liquid to
resist external force
MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Forces on
liquid
molecules

Lecture L17 - 8

Newly created cast iron transgranular fracture surface

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 9

The Griffith energy balance

Energy balance for incremental increase in
crack area dA:

OR

dE d dW s
=
+
=0
dA dA dA
d dW s

=
dA
dA

E = total energy
Ws = work to create new surface (crack)
= potential energy supplied by internal strain
energy and external forces

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 10

The Griffith energy balance

For the cracked plate to the right, Griffith
determined from Inglis that
2 a 2 B
= 0
E

(4)

Since the formation of a crack requires the

creation of two surfaces, Ws is given by

W s = 4aB s

Where s is the surface energy of the material.

Thus,
d 2 a

(5a)
dA
E
dW s
= 2 s
dA

(5b)

Equating equations (5a and 5b), the fracture stress is

% 2E s (1/ 2
f = '
*
& a )

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

(6)
Lecture L17 - 11

The Griffith energy balance

The Griffith approach can be
applied to other crack shapes,
for example, the fracture stress
for this disk shaped flaw
embedded in a material is:

& E s )1/ 2
f = (
+
2
2(1

v
)a
'
*

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 12

Griffith/Irwin comparison
Inglis equation (equation 2)
Griffiths equation (equation 5)

$ E s '1/ 2
f = &
)
% 4a (
% 2E s (1/ 2
f = '
*
& a )

Differ by 40% in
their prediction of
global fracture
stress

Equations are consistent for a sharp crack in a brittle solid (e.g. glass)

BUT
Contradiction emerges when crack tip greater than atomic spacing

Inglis analysis based on some cohesive strength c and

small radius of curvature
Griffith analysis based on energy balance (no reference
to crack structure)
Assumes a crack sharp! (assumed = atomic radius)
MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 13

Griffith/Irwin comparison
Consider a crack with = 5 10-6 m
This is four orders of magnitude larger than the atomic spacing of
a typical crystalline solid
Difference in global fracture stress between Griffith/Inglis approach:

Inglis
Griffith

% E % ((1/ 2
f = ' s ' **
& 4a & x 0 ))
% 2E s (1/ 2
f = '
*
& a )

If = 10-6
But x0 = 10-6 10-4 m

Inglis approach could yield a global fracture stress 100 times larger than
the Griffiths approach!
MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 14

Modified Griffith equation

Griffiths equation,

% 2E s (1/ 2
f = '
*
& a )

, is only valid for brittle solids

Accurate for brittle material (e.g. glass), but not for metals
Irwin/Orowan modified the equation to account for plastic flow
% 2E +
s
p
f = '
'
a
&

(1/ 2
*
*
)

where p is the plastic work

per unit area of surface
created

Irwin/Orowan then modified the equation to account for any type of

energy dissipation:
$ 2Ew f '1/ 2
f = &
)
% a (

where wf is the fracture energy

(e.g. plastic, viscoelastic,
viscoplastic effects)

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 15

Three types of material behaviour and their corresponding fracture energy

1. Brittle material

2. Elastic-plastic material
(quasi brittle)

3. Brittle material with

crack meandering and
branching
MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 16

The energy release rate

Irwin proposed an energy approach equivalent to Griffiths:
Where G is the energy release rate: a measure of the
energy available for an increment of crack extension
(CRACK DRIVING FORCE)
For a wide plate, (from previous)

d
G=
dA

d 2 a
G=
=
dA
E

The potential energy of an elastic body, , is:

=U F
Where

U = strain energy in body

F = work done by external forces

Critical value for crack extension (recall,

work to create new surfaces, Ws = 4aBs):

Gc =

dW s
= 2 s = 2w f
dA

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

(a measure of
fracture toughness)
Lecture L17 - 17

The energy release rate

Consider a cracked plate under constant load
(work done by
external force)

F = P

Pd =

U=

U=

P
2

= U F =
C
O

G=

P
P
P =
= U
2
2

d 1 $ dU '
P $ d '
= &
) =
& )
dA B % da ( P 2B % da ( P

NOTE: There is a net increase

in strain energy due to
contribution of force P
Area (OBD - OAC = +ve)
Lecture L17 - 18

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

area under line

The energy release rate

Consider a cracked plate under constant (fixed) displacement

F =0
A

= U
B

Pd

P
U=
2

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

U=

d
1 $ dU '
$ dP '
G=
= &
) = & )
dA
B % da (
2B % da (

(work done by
external force)

NOTE: There is a net

decrease in strain energy
Area (OBC - OAC = -ve)
Lecture L17 - 19

The energy release rate

The energy release rate for load control and displacement control
are the same:
" dU %
" dU %
$
' = $
'
# da & P
# da &

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 20

Lecture summary
Today we investigated the fracture mechanics
analysis of Inglis (stress concentration based)
and Griffith (energy based).
We showed that the energy release rate (the
energy available for an increment of crack
extension) is the same for constant load and
constant displacement control.

MCEN90029 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Lecture L17 - 21