SPE 94709

The Missing LinkIdentification of Reservoir Compartmentalization Through

Downhole Fluid Analysis
H. Elshahawi, SPE, and M. Hashem, SPE, Shell Intl. E&P Inc., and O.C. Mullins, SPE, and G. Fujisawa, SPE,
Schlumberger Oilfield Services

Copyright 2005, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2005 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
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Abstract
Reservoir compartmentalization is a major cause of production
underperformance in the oilfield. A well drilled into a
compartmentalized reservoir will see only part of the
hydrocarbon in place over the production time scale. The
obstruction to free flow can be sealing faults, fault baffles,
pinching out layers, sand lenses or low permeability areas.
Although it is recognized that a comprehensive approach to
compartmentalization must make combined use of all
available rock and fluid data, the case studies in this paper
show Downhole Fluid Analysis (DFA) to be one of the most
effective techniques in recognizing compartmentalization via
fluid signature comparisons and fluid density inversions.
Corroboration with geological, petrophysical, reservoir
engineering and production data confirms the strength of the
DFA technique
Fluid compositional variations must be considered in order to
acquire fluid samples representative of the reservoir at large
and to devise optimal production strategies. In addition, fluid
compositional variations can be utilized as a tool to identify
compartmentalization because different compartments are
likely to be filled with different fluids. The limitation on use
of such techniques in the past has been the need to rationalize
the use of wireline sampling to collect and analyze only the
necessary samples. In this paper, DFA is shown to be the
missing link. It provides the information necessary to
optimize the sampling process and to decide in real time on
where sampling is needed without necessarily having to bring
all samples to surface.

Introduction
Reservoir heterogeneity at a variety of scales can be caused by
structural complexity, stratigraphic stacking patterns, or
diagenetic alteration of pore system continuity. This
heterogeneity commonly causes barriers or baffles to fluid
flow. Such heterogeneity, often manifested as compartments at
the reservoir scale, tends to hinder. The consequence of not
recognizing flow compartmentalization is generally to
anticipate more efficient drainage than is actually achieved. As
a result, facilities are improperly sized, and reserves,
production, and cash flow models suffer from inaccuracies.
Various techniques exist to assist operators in detecting
compartmentalization. In deep water and similar high cost
operating environments, the traditional methods, drill stem
tests (DST) and extended well tests (EWT) often become
impractical, with costs approaching the costs of new wells and
with emissions becoming increasingly undesirable. Thus,
compartments often have to be identified by some other
means. Looking for pressure continuity is one widely used
method, but it is important to keeping mind that pressure
communication is a necessary yet insufficient criterion to
establish fluid communication particularly in normallypressured basins. In other words, reservoirs in pressure
equilibrium are not necessarily in thermodynamic equilibrium
and/or flow communication, and being able to fit a single
linear pressure gradient to a number of small compartments
does not necessarily mean that they are in flow
communication. One can easily imagine two large sand bodies
with an intervening shale layer. If the shale layer has a few
baffles or leaky faults connecting the sands, there will be
pressure communication over geologic time, but little or no
flow communication.
Geochemical and other surface analytical methods can be
applied to hydrocarbon fluid samples to help uncover
compartmentalization. The problem is that without a priori
knowledge that fluid complexities exist, the cost of
comprehensive multiple sample acquisition is prohibitive. In
addition, due to frequent discrepancies involved in sample
acquisition, transfer and lab analysis, redundant samples are
routinely processed further adding to the cost. What is needed
is a new, cost effective technology to reveal fluid
complexities, one for which costs are commensurate with the
value of the information.

In this paper, several examples of fluid comparisons are

shown to establish compartmentalization or the lack thereof.
In
particular,
the
question
of
medium-scale
compartmentalization has been addressed by using multiple
probe tools with one probe located below a possible flow
barrier and the other above. Downhole fluid analysis is then
performed on the corresponding fluids without an intervening
tool reset to better understand compartmentalization.
Compartmentalization
Petroleum reservoirs can consist of flow units or
compartments that may span the whole range from massive to
quite small. This heterogeneity does not describe the overall
size of the reservoir but it does strongly impact our ability to
drain the reservoir. It is instructive here to relate reservoirs to
everyday objects. A kitchen sponge is a well-connected opencell system; the individual cells are connected so water can
flow easily throughout the sponge. In reservoir lexicon, the
sponge is a single compartment. A single hole or well placed
in the center of the sponge could drain the entire fluid contents
of the sponge. On the other hand a spool of bubble wrap is a
closed-cell system. Fluids cannot flow from one bubble or cell
to another. Indeed, if a knitting needle penetrated through the
spool of bubble wrap, only those cells that are penetrated
would drain. The spool of bubble wrap is highly
compartmentalized, again in oil field jargon. Reservoir
compartmentalization is a problem for E&P companies
because it is a major cause of production under-performance.
There are no established methods for generating compartment
size distributions, but it is logical to expect that such
distributions would be similar to distributions of the natural
process that generate compartments in the first place. Faults
are one example of such processes, and so explorationists may
benefit from what structural geologists have known about fault
(and fracture) distributions for a long time. Analysis of fault
populations has shown that faults exhibit many characteristics
of fractals. This means that some fault properties (e.g. the
length/throw ratio) are relatively independent of fault size and
that there is a frequency vs. size relationship between fault
size (length or maximum throw) and the number of faults with
a certain size (few large faults, many small faults). For fractal
fault populations, this relationship can be used to predict the
number of sub-seismic faults.
Outcrop and 3D seismic data show that single faults are
approximately elliptical and bounded by a tip-line of zero
displacement. The ratio between fault length and maximum
throw varies (Fig.1-a) between 15 and 150. This relationship
can be used to predict whether, on 2D fault maps, long faults
should be split into separate faults of smaller length. Faults
tend to develop in families in which orientation varies over a
limited range only (30 - 40). Histograms of fault frequency
versus orientation often exhibit one or two normal
distributions (Fig.1-c). A power-law relationship exists
between the number of faults and fault size, i.e. many small
faults and few large faults. This relationship is used to predict
the number of small, sub-seismic faults (Fig.1-b). On the other

SPE 94709

hand, fault throw gradients (along strike) vary over a limited

range, generally <0.1 (Fig.1-d). Relationships between fault
length and maximum throw and between fault size and fault
frequency support a fractal model.
It is instructive to look at the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) for clues
about compartmentalization, as it is the most mature
deepwater province in the world. In fact, July 2005 marks the
30th anniversary of the first field discovered in the deepwater,
defined here as water depths of greater than 600 feet. In 1975,
Cognac, the first commercial field, was discovered by Shell.
Between then and 2002, over 21.2 billion barrels of oil
equivalent were discovered and approximately 9.2 TCFG and
2,200 MMBO were produced [2].
There have been approximately 232 commercial fields
discovered during the period from 1975 to the end of 2003. It
is interesting to note that initial well flow rates in the GOM
deepwater did not exceed 10,000 BOPD until 1995. Only three
years later, individual well rates at Ram Powell and Troika
exceeded 20,000 BOPD. The current mean size of these
discoveries is 94.3 MMBOE, with the two largest fields found
to date being Mars at 750 MMBOE and Thunder Horse at
1,000 MMBOE [1]. These statistics in themselves point to a
wide distribution of compartment sizes.
There are currently three major exploration plays in the
deepwater province: the Flex Trend play, the Mini-Basin play
and the Fold Belt play. In addition, the "sub-salt play" is
simply any of these plays obscured by salt. Some of the larger
flex trend discoveries were Lena, Zinc, Pompano and Green
Canyon 18. Wells generally targeted "bright spots" on 2-D
seismic. Most discoveries in the play were fields with small
reserves, discontinuous sands and wells with fairly low flow
rates. The mini-basin fields including Auger, Mars, Diana,
Genesis, Troika and Europa had better than expected aquifer
support and needed fewer wells to develop them. [1].
The Tahoe field is a classic example of compartmentalized
reservoirs. This Shell-discovered and operated field is located
140 miles east-southeast of New Orleans in the GOM Viosca
Knoll Blocks 783, 784 and 827 in water depths ranging from
1,200 ft to 1,600 ft. The main M4.1 reservoir is a Late
Miocene sand located approximately 10,000 ft below sea
level. It was formed by turbidite flows that entered an
unconfined slope setting and deposited a NW-SE trending
channel-levee system, draped over an anticlinal dome and cut
by normal faults. Pressure analysis shows multiple pressure
cells within the M4.1 indicating compartmentalization. High
seismic amplitudes parallel to structural contours in the
southeastern portion of the field correspond to a hydrocarbonwater contact. Amplitudes decrease as the levees thin laterally
to the southwest and northeast, and this is interpreted to record
stratigraphic pinch-outs. Faulting forms the up-dip trap in the
M4.1 and enhances the compartmentalization of the reservoir.
Similar Faults and stratigraphic pinch-outs play a key role in
the compartmentalization and trapping of hydrocarbons
elsewhere in the GOM [1].

SPE 94709

Linking Fluid Analysis to Compartmentalization

The role of downhole fluid analysis in understanding
compartmentalization can be better understood by examining
the use of its better established cousin, organic geochemistry,
in the evaluation of petroleum systems. After all, the two
techniques are simply different ways of looking at the same
fluids. Traditionally, organic geochemistry was regarded as
strictly an exploration tool to evaluate source rocks or oils in
order to high-grade prospects. Over the last two decades,
however, a number of operators have successfully applied oil
geochemistry to reservoir continuity assessment in a diverse
range of geological settings including a wide range of field
sizes, structural environments, reservoir lithologies, and oil
types. As demonstrated by numerous published and
unpublished case studies, petroleum geochemistry provides an
effective tool for identifying vertical and lateral fluid flow
barriers in oil and gas fields [16]. Geochemical techniques are
especially useful when combined with other reservoir
continuity indications such as WFT pressures, pressure decline
curves, oil-water contacts, and fault juxtaposition.
A gravity column liquid chromatograph is used to separate
crude oils by physiochemical processes into compositionally
distinct chemical families: saturate, aromatic, resin, and
asphaltene fractions. Other processes can be used to separate
the saturate fraction into normal, branched, and cyclic
hydrocarbon fractions.
As crude oil is generated and expelled from the source rock,
some alteration of the originally generated oil occurs. This
alteration is dependent upon the chemistry of the oil and gas
and the chemical and physical properties of the rocks
encountered during expulsion and migration to the trap. The
differences between source rock extracts and oils are normally
obvious when their chemical composition is compared. The
differences in oils generated by the same source rock feeding
two different reservoirs are quite subtle. Rather than focusing
on the primary components of the oil, minor constituents of
the oil are carefully compared. These are compounds that are
most directly affected by physiochemical processes that result
in minor variations in crude oils from the same source.
Though somewhat complicated by multiple charging, seal
leakages, biodegradation and the like, the ability to identify
distinct reservoir compartments based on oil composition is
the cornerstone of production geochemistry.
Gas chromatography (GC) is also utilized in organic
geochemistry to characterize rock extracts and whole oil
samples. Gas chromatography separates and detects various
compounds present in a simple or complex mixture by
vaporizing the volatile components in the sample, e.g., oil, and
then forcing the vapors through a long narrow (0.10 to 0.55
mm) fused silica tube coated with chemicals that interact with
the vapors. These are tuned to the compounds of interest in
order to obtain maximum separation and resolution. As the
compounds elute from the opposite end of the column, they
are detected usually by a flame ionization detector (FID) or in
the case of biomarkers, the ionized particles are detected by
differences in their mass and charge using a mass spectrometer

(MS). When oil is injected, the hydrocarbons present in the oil

are separated and detected resulting in a fingerprint of the
oil, which is basically the yield and distribution of
hydrocarbons present in the sample. The predominant
compounds in normal crude oils are paraffins, with generally
the highest peaks in the fingerprint, and aromatic
hydrocarbons. In biodegraded oils, however, the resin and
asphaltene fractions of the oil predominate the fingerprint and
typically yield few resolved compounds and a high unresolved
hump of complex composition.
Hydrocarbon fingerprinting is a combination of analytical and
interpretive techniques that utilizes the fingerprint of oils to
determine whether they are part of the same reservoir
compartment. The differences seen in fingerprints are not
usually related to source rock differences, but are a result of
differences in migration pathways to the reservoir
compartment. This results in geochromatography of the oil
causing very slight differences in oil chemistry that can be
discerned through careful analysis of oil fingerprints. Since a
GC fingerprint is a representation of the relative
concentrations of compounds present in an oil as analyzed in
the laboratory setting. It is, in fact, a histogram of the relative
yield and distribution of these compounds. A fingerprint is
similar to a well log: it is a molecular log of the composition
of a specific oil. While fingerprints are directly related to the
source rock of the oil, reservoirs in continuous communication
have nearly identical fingerprints even in trace components of
the fingerprint, the so-called grass between the trees, where
normal paraffins are the trees that dominate most crude oils.
A polar plot or star diagram is a simple way to illustrate
differences in GC fingerprints particularly selected peak ratios
used to distinguish oils from distinct reservoirs. These selected
peak ratios may be evaluated by statistical means. Star plots
constructed in this way maximize the apparent differences
between samples. By stripping away what samples have in
common and focusing on how they differ, such plots allow
discrete groups of samples to be readily, visually identified.
Since a relative comparison of unknown peak heights is
utilized, oils need to be analyzed at the same time under the
same conditions [16].
Typically, in oils which are in fluid communication, none of
the several hundred inter-paraffin compound ratios will differ
by more than 10% from the corresponding ratios in oils with
which they are in fluid communication. In contrast, when a
lack of fluid communication exists between two samples, a
large number of ratios in a given oil may differ significantly
(typically >10%) from the corresponding ratios in the second
oil. These ratios will commonly be distributed throughout the
C8-C20 range, and will not be restricted to a narrow portion of
the chromatogram. Differences restricted to a narrow portion
of the chromatogram are a symptom of sample contamination
with substances such as drilling additives and typically do not
imply reservoir continuity barriers. The analytical
reproducibility for ratios of closely spaced inter-paraffin peaks
is typically 1-3%. As the number of ratios with significant
differences between the samples decreases, the geochemical
case for lack of communication becomes less conclusive.

Exceptions to these guidelines exist in cases of certain thick,

gravitationally segregated oil columns, where reservoir
discontinuities must be identified from discontinuities in
otherwise gradational changes in composition with depth. The
C8 to C20 molecular weight range on the GC is typically the
most diagnostic range for reservoir continuity assessments. If
differences are found, the oils are not alike, and, therefore, not
part of the same reservoir compartment. However, if oils are
found to be alike, there are situations where there could be
discontinuous reservoir compartments [16].
Geochemical analysis is quite powerful, but it is by no means
a silver bullet. Geochemical analysis results are only as good
as the samples upon which they were performed. For instance,
the distribution of lower molecular weight compounds is
usually not compared in HC fingerprinting, since they can be
more readily affected by evaporative losses during sample
handling. More generally, lab analysis results may not always
be representative of formation fluids as a result of improper
sample-handling, delayed evolution of components such as
H2S or aspartames, pH for water samples, or leaky sample
bottles. Even if all these processes were perfect, it is still
prudent to validate the sample at each stage in its journey.
Downhole fluid analysis provides the first step in this sample
validation process and enables a Chain-of-Custody concept
for hydrocarbon samples akin to the one currently mandated
for blood samples in forensic analyses.
Downhole Fluid Analysis
In the development of deepwater prospects and other capitalintensive E&P projects, it is essential to understand the precise
nature of the hydrocarbon fluids in terms of chemical and
physical properties, phase behavior, and commingling
tendencies to be able to optimize completion and facilities
design and reservoir production strategies. Gas-liquid ratios,
saturation pressures and viscosities are among fluid
parameters that determine whether and how production is
profitably pursued. Moreover, phase transitions such as
asphaltene onset, wax, gas hydrate, organic scale and
diamondoids can have a huge deleterious impact on
production. These important concerns are in addition to the
problems associated with flow assurance by now familiar to
the industry. Consequently, getting the correct answer right
from the start is a must.
A factor that complicates the mapping of fluid properties in a
given reservoir is the existence of large compositional
variations of hydrocarbons vertically and/or laterally within
the field. [5,9,16] Without proper accounting of these
variations, there can be gross inaccuracies associated with
predicting hydrocarbon production. Several operators now
accept that hydrocarbon fluids should be considered strongly
compositionally graded unless otherwise proven. The problem
is that compositional grading is not easily modeled, and proper
identification and understanding of it requires dense
measurements with a large degree of data redundancy. This is
because compositional grading can stem from a number of
physical origins such as gravity, biodegradation, leaky seals,
multiple charges, water stripping, thermal gradients, and

SPE 94709

convective mixing. Of course, in production, miscible

flooding and production below a phase transition also produce
compositional gradients. Most importantly, many of these
mechanisms drive the hydrocarbon column away from
equilibrium. Consequently, one cannot collect a single sample
and model the fluid variations in the column. Without
sufficiently dense sampling, there is little hope for being able
to model the complex fluid variations along the column.
Downhole Fluid Analysis (DFA) refers to a concept rather
than a specific tool. It includes a number of measurements, but
the basic measurement relies on near-infrared spectroscopy
(NIR). Fig.2 shows the two-stretch overtone peak of different
chemical groups containing the C-H oscillator. As is true for
all mechanical oscillators, the oscillation or vibration
frequency depends on the (reduced) mass. Consequently,
CH4, -CH3 and -CH2- groups all have somewhat different
frequencies enabling their resolution. The details of NIR
application for DFA have been described elsewhere.[7,8]
The earliest DFA measurement consisted of obtaining GOR
by measuring the dissolved methane vs. liquid oil fraction in a
single-phase crude oil using the LFA* Live Fluid Analyzer.
[11,15] The physical basis of this measurement is described in
the literature. [9,13] Recent work has significantly improved
the robustness and utility of this measurement. [2,3] A new
downhole fluid analyzer, the CFA* Composition Fluid
Analyzer has been more recently developed [5,6] with the
validation of these measurements being described elsewhere.
[7] The CFA provides analysis of C1, C2-C5, and C6+
fractions with CO2 being a potential product. The
hydrocarbon analysis is robust yielding reasonably accurate
concentrations of methane, other hydrocarbon gases and
hydrocarbon liquids (Fig.3).
Fig.4 shows a schematic of one possible configuration of the
WFT downhole sampling tool. There are two fluid analyzers
in this particular tool string, the LFA and the CFA with the
LFA upstream (below) and the CFA downstream (above) of
the pump module, but there are situations when it is
advantageous to switch the position of these two modules. The
modular design of WFTs allows for different tool
configurations to match specific acquisition needs. The LFA
can measure GOR in the range of 0-2500 scf/bbl, while the
CFA is designed to handle crude oils in the range of 1500 20,000 scf/bbl. In general, the CFA is more accurate for GOR
determination in fluids with GOR>2000 scf/bbl, while the
LFA is more accurate for GOR<1500 scf/bbl. Thus, the two
tools together provide compositional analysis over a broad
range of crude oils and condensates. The LFA monitors
contamination utilizing the OCM algorithm and analyzes for
gas using a gas refractometer and GOR [11]. The CFA, on the
other hand, detects retrograde dew formation and gives GOR
and fluid composition. [4,5,6] There is generally a sizable
pressure increase across the pump, with less than formation
pressure on the upstream side and borehole pressure on the
downstream side. Fluids have a residence time within the
pump, and so the pump can act as a phase separator. By
placing one of the optical modules downstream of pump, one
can readily detect different phases that have segregated. In the

SPE 94709

configuration shown in Fig.4, the CFA is deployed

downstream (above) the pump. Detection of condensate
formation is compromised in this configuration, but it is
advantageous in that the residence time of fluids in the pump
allows for gravity segregation of the fluids, which tends to
improve CFA analysis. On the other hand, the LFA is
deployed upstream of (below) the pump module of the MDT.
This enables OBM-filtrate contamination monitoring without
interference from pump dead volumes. [3, 12]
Towards a Continuous Downhole Fluid Log
DFA enables the analysis of hydrocarbon fluids at small
marginal cost. If a hydrocarbon fluid sample is found to be
similar to a fluid elsewhere in the column, then the sample
need not be collected for subsequent laboratory analysis. That
is fluid can be brought into the tool, analyzed, and discarded if
laboratory analysis is deemed unnecessary. On the other hand,
if fluid complexity is found that warrants laboratory analysis,
then samples are acquired. Thus, DFA reveals hydrocarbon
complexities and enables acquisition of important samples
thereby improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
hydrocarbon analysis.
The overall objective is to generate a continuous downhole
fluids log.[4] In the same spirit that pressure station
measurements can be used to generate a pressure gradient,
DFA station measurements can be used generate a quasicontinuous downhole fluids log. A crucial feature of the DFA
method is that the DFA analysis program can be increased
without logistical constraints to match the complexity of the
hydrocarbon fluid column. For complex columns, many DFA
stations are needed, often exceeding 15, employing the
gargling technique. In these cases, the enhanced understanding
of the fluid column is deemed well worth the marginal
increases in cost associated with the additional DFA stations.
Sharp fluid property variations are common near critical
points, phase boundaries, fluid contacts and permeability
barriers. Compositional grading, on the other hand, tend to be
less much less abrupt [16]. Therefore, a high vertical density
of DFA stations is required at suspected fluid discontinuities
while a lower density of DFA stations is sufficient for
continuous fluid columns. Thresholds for compositional
variations can be set between DFA stations such that if the
threshold is exceeded, an intervening DFA station can be
obtained.
By acquiring multiple DFA stations in a hydrocarbon column,
large compositional variations have been found. For example,
a ~50% variation in GOR was found in a 100 ft column of oil.
[5] This variation was not evident in the pressure gradient data
but was confirmed by various means including acquisition of
over 40 MDT samples. In addition, this large compositional
variation means the pressure gradient is a curved line, not a
straight line. This curvature of the liquid pressure gradient
caused the modeled gas-oil and oil-water contacts to move
apart. This was validated in real time by producing oil low in
the column, thus enabling the operating company to book

more reserves. More subtle compositional gradients have also

been measured using DFA.[4]
DFA is generally more sensitive to compositional gradients
than pressure-derived gradients. Density is an integral quantity
and is thus not very sensitive to abrupt point changes.
Therefore, to measure fluid properties by measuring pressure
gradients is the wrong way around. Instead, we should
measure fluid properties to understand the fluid and check
consistency with pressures and pressure gradients. Issues such
as depth control, number of stations, and height of the column
significantly impact pressure gradient accuracy but not DFA
accuracy. Direct measurement of the gas-oil ratio, a proxy for
hydrocarbon fluid density is much more sensitive. In fact gasoil ratio per se has the highest possible sensitivity of any
physical measurement as it ranges all the way from near zero
in dead oils to infinity in dry gases.
DFA can uncover compartmentalization; zones containing
separate fluids may reflect compartmentalization with or
without density inversions. This is not to be confused with the
hydrocarbon density inversions that often exist over large
depths scales. The latter are not generally due to vertical
compartmentalization. Instead, these density distributions are
simply due to an interaction of source rock maturity,
successive entrapment and trap leakage, and biodegradation.
Below are a few examples demonstrating the power of
downhole fluid analysis in detecting barriers and uncovering
reservoir compartmentalization. The examples will
demonstrate the benefits of combining DFA with other log
data to accurately depict changes along the hydrocarbon
column.
Example-I
A string similar to the one shown in Fig.4 was run here. The
oil at times <1000 seconds is one remaining in the tool from a
previous sampling station slightly higher in the column and is
similar to but slightly higher in GOR than the oil at the new
depth as can be seen on the LFA log shown in Fig.5. In the
corresponding CFA log, shown in Fig.6, the GOR of the liquid
from the previous sampling station again appears slightly
higher in GOR. Not that at 3600 seconds, the pressure was
intentionally dropped to get a rough idea of the bubble point.
Subsequently, the GOR of the liquid is seen to significantly
reduce but then it recovers to stable levels with additional
pumping. The measurements are consistent with flow
communication and normal compositional grading. The lesson
to take away here is that caution must be exercised while
interpreting DFA results. The interpreter needs to know the
sequence of operations quite well and to understand the impact
of those operations on the measurements. The different levels
of contamination at different stations must also be taken into
account before making any conclusions about communication
or the lack thereof. There is no better way to accomplish this
than to be involved in real-time.

Example-II
This survey was run using a two-probe string to sample and
test for compartmentalization. Three potential barriers to
vertical flow in the were recognized in this reservoir based on
well logs:
1. Uncorrelated calcite cemented zones observed in all wells
2. Correlated shale barriers in the start-up and abandonment
deposition sequences
3. Dispersed shale barriers in the sand rich packages
Unlike the case described in the Example I, the LFA was run
here below the pump module and the CFA above. The WFT
was run with two probes in the string as indicated in Fig.4.
The lower probe was placed below a potential flow barrier
while the higher probe was placed above it. Before 5000
seconds the lower zone was being sampled, and after 5000
seconds, the upper zone was sampled. The tool configuration
allowed direct comparison of the two fluids to test
compartmentalization. Using the OCM technique (3,6,13,14),
fluid coloration and GOR were independently used to compute
the change in OBM filtrate contamination with time in this
sampling station. Both methods predicted approximately 2.5%
OBM filtrate contamination, which was nearly identical to the
subsequent surface GC measurements
The LFA log (Fig.7) shows the individual optical density
channels and the corresponding GOR buildup profile.
Plugging with sand occurred momentarily while sampling
from the lower probe around 3400 seconds into the test
causing the pressure to drop below bubble point as evidenced
by LFA gas flags (not shown) and the sudden decrease in
GOR. Once the sand plug was successfully dislodged, all
values returned to normal levels, and the pressure and GOR
were allowed to buildup to establish a reference level. Flow
was then initiated from the top probe and allowed sufficient
time to build up to the same level observed earlier. For the
same pumping duration (~2000 seconds), the fluid from below
(at 3400 seconds) and above (at 7000 seconds) the potential
barrier are nearly identical. It was concluded, therefore, that
the two zones were in flow communication.
Fig.8 shows the CFA results for the same station. The fluid
composition is shown in terms of weight %. The resulting
GOR is also shown. Again, the decrease in CFA GOR 3400
seconds into the test is due to dropping below the bubble
point. After similar pumping durations, the compositions of
the fluids sampled above and below the potential flow barrier
look nearly identical, again implying flow communication.
Table-1 shows the agreement between the CFA and lab
results. It is worth noting that strong fluorescence was
observed with the CFA (not shown) and served as an
additional indication of cleanup. This is in contrast to a very
low fluorescence observed when the tools were seeing only
mud early in the test (elapsed time t <1500 sec).
Example-III
This example comes from the same reservoir described in
Example-II. The same toolstring was used to investigate two

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formation depths, one above and one below a potential flow

barrier. The bottom probe was first used up to 5400 seconds
into the test. Then, the top probe was used for sampling from
5400 seconds to ~9000 seconds. Fig.9 shows the LFA results.
The differences in GOR between the two-pump periods
indicate that the fluids above and below are significantly
different. Furthermore, the high-density fluid (lower GOR) is
above the low-density fluid in the oil column. As a result, it
was concluded that the fluids are not in perfect flow
communication due to the presence of the barrier. These
results were also confirmed by a pressure gradient change
observed above across the barrier and by pressure interference
analysis results. The OCM gives ~ 2.5% contamination at the
end of both pumping sequences, confirmed by the lab analysis.
Therefore, one can be confident that the differences in fluid
properties observed are not simply due to different levels of
contamination.
The CFA results for the same station are shown in Fig.10.
Note that the change in GOR and in coloration between the
two pumping depths seen on the LFA is also clear on the CFA,
providing greater confidence in the results.
It is important to reconcile the finding of DFA with all
available measurements. Before reflecting on the results of
Examples II and III, it should be mentioned that both a main
hole and sidetrack were drilled and logged. Rock and fluid
samples were collected in each well bore, and a whole core
was acquired in the sidetrack, so a wealth of data is available
for analysis. The core data showed that the two boreholes
contain a number of carbonate cemented sands that probably
represent laterally extensive baffles, but not full barriers. The
pressure profiles in both the main and sidetrack well did not
show indications of vertical discontinuity.
The residual salts in cores acquired from the main well bore
contain an abrupt 87Sr/86Sr break that was interpreted to
represent a fluid barrier associated with the same carbonate
straddled in this station. Based on a relatively minor isotopic
shift, the presence of a second baffle at the location of the
station in Example II was also suspected, but no
corresponding feature could be discerned on the logs or from
the pressure interference/DFA station. It is now thought that
this isotopic excursion may have represented a paleo-oil-water
contact, which formed due to an interruption of reservoir
filling. There is currently agreement that it does not represent
a true vertical barrier.
A number of high yield mud gas samples were also obtained
from both wellbores. The C1-C3 carbon isotopic composition
are similar above and below the carbonate bed tested in this
station, which suggests that the bed is not so extensive as to
prevent fluid mixing but only to retard it.
A full field dynamic simulation model was constructed to
replicate the geometry of the tests performed in this example
and honor the other available data. The calcite cemented zones
and correlated shale barriers were explicitly modeled as zero
transmissibility barriers to vertical flow while the dispersed

SPE 94709

shale were represented implicitly by an average kv/kh ratio for

the sand packages. Several simulation sensitivities were run
with varying extents of the calcite barrier in order to assess the
minimum length that the barrier would need to be to
completely suppress a pressure response at the vertical
monitoring probe to the applied perturbations at the sink
probe. The results indicated that the calcite barrier has to be
approximately 200 ft in extent in order to suppress the
pressure response reaching the observation probe in the time
scale of the test. This length is consistent with well-to-well
correlations and core observations of the calcite length and at
the same time still allows for limited fluid communication as
observed in the CFA stations.
From a lateral continuity point of view, bulk fluid properties
and composition data suggested that at least two of the wells
in this five-well appraisal were not in complete
communication. Complete lateral compartmentalization is not
likely, but the carbonate-cemented baffles interrupt the lateral
flow continuity. It is interesting to note here that pressures in
the five wells did not show any evidence for reservoir
continuity within the main sand; but as mentioned before, lack
of pressure contrast alone does not provide sufficient evidence
for continuity.
This example demonstrates that one need not and should not
work in a vacuum. Before building fluid models based on
DFA measurements, it is essential to crosscheck its
conclusions with available measurements/inferences from
other sources in order to be able to make an accurate and
reliable assessment of compartmentalization.
Example-IV
In this example well, the logs show several hydrocarbon
bearing zones in the range X630 ft to X730 ft (Fig.10). The
density-neutron crossover implies a very light hydrocarbon in
the top lower reservoir @X640 ft and indeed the DFA data of
the fluid at this depth shows a very light hydrocarbon,
essentially a gas while in the bottom lower reservoir @X700
ft, a heavy oil is observed (Fig.12). A third hydrocarbon was
also observed halfway at X670 feet further complicating the
picture. At the temperatures and pressures encountered in this
well, it is unlikely that a gas cap could coexist with oil, and
such a steep compositional gradient is highly unlikely over a
60-ft column. Thus, vertical compartmentalization was
suspected, but the question that remained was how extensive
were those compartments?
A remarkable observation was made while sampling at X645
ft. The pressure gradient for this sand body was established
prior to sampling as shown in Fig.11. The sampling sequence
involved pumping out approximately 30 gallons, after which
the pressure was again measured. A 50-psi pressure drop was
then observed. To verify this large pressure drop and confirm
that the pressure gauge did not somehow simply drift during
the sampling process, two pressure measurements were then
repeated in the interval X620-X630 ft. The pressures and
pressure gradient obtained were virtually identical to those
before sampling at X645 ft. Thus, gauge drift and similar

sources of error could be excluded. Another pressure point

was acquired in the same sand that has been sampled at X634
ft and indeed, the ~50 psi pressure drop replicated here too yet
the pressure gradient was the same as that obtained before
sampling. The most likely explanation for these observations
was that this was a case of pressure depletion. One can
estimate the volume of the compartment knowing the volume
produced (30 gallons) and the pressure drop (50 psi). Using a
rough estimate of the compressibility of this gaseous
hydrocarbon, one obtains a compartment size of 6000 bbl or
34 MCF. This is a very small compartment indeed, severalorders of magnitude smaller than the average field size in the
GOM. Note that this compartment is not in flow
communication with the formation several feet higher in the
column as these zones are not even in pressure communication
(Fig.12) nor did the depletion pressure drop even register on
the pressures re-measured in the formation above. The
existence of a 6000 bbl-compartment implies that there could
be lots of other tiny compartments in this formation, most of
which probably remain unrecognized.
The ability to fully exploit the power of WFT shows the
necessity of having experienced specialists monitoring and
directing these jobs in real time. Decisions are made in real
time based on encountered complexities. The response to a
puzzle is to acquire more data necessary for the resolution of
the complexity; additional DFA stations, sampling stations
and/or pressure stations become necessary. These obviously
cannot be performed after the job is completed. This WFT
process breaks with previous tradition. In the past, it sufficed
to send an excellent engineer to the rig for acquisition of
excellent log data. All analysis could be done after the job was
completed.
Conclusions
Downhole fluid analysis allows the efficient use of sampling
tools and enables robust in-situ characterization of
hydrocarbon fluids and accurate assessment of compositional
grading and compartmentalization. The robust determination
of the existence of a few thousand barrel-compartment in a
seemingly innocuous formation reinforces that unsubstantiated
optimism regarding compartmentalization is fraught with risk.
The issue of compartmentalization must be addressed early
during the appraisal and development phase.
The examples shown in this paper demonstrate the power of
integrating DFA data with all other available and relevant
geochemical, geological and engineering information such as
fault distributions, fault throws, fault shale gouge ratios, lateral
changes in reservoir lithology, WFT and DST pressure data,
pressure decline curves, oil-water contact depths, etc. In
addition, this paper demonstrates that the process of reservoir
characterization requires the intimate involvement of experts
in the planning and interpretation phases of the surveys, and
particularly in the real-time monitoring and execution of
critical operations.

References
1- Cossey, S. P.J., Deep GOM Discoveries Toasted Over
30 Years, AAPG Explorer, Sept 2004.
2- Dong, C., Hegeman, P., Elshahawi, H., Mullins, O.,
Fujisawa, G, and Kurkjian, A.: Advances in Downhole
Contamination monitoring and GOR measurement of
Formation Fluid samples Paper FF presented at the
SPWLA 44th Annual Logging Symposium, Galveston,
TX, June 22-25, 2003.
3- Dong, C., Mullins, O.C., Hegeman, P.S., Teague, R.,
Kurkjian, A., and Elshahawi, H.: In-situ contamination
monitoring and GOR measurement of formation
samples, Paper 77899 presented at the 2002 SPE Asia
Pacific Oil & Gas Conference and Exhibition, Melbourne,
Australia, Oct 8-10, 2002.
4- Elshahawi, H., Hashem, M., Mullins, O.C., Dong, C.,
Hegeman, P., Fujisawa, G., Betancourt, S.: Insitu
Characterization of Formation Fluid Samples - Case
Studies, Paper SPE 90932 presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, TX, Sept
26-29th, 2004.
5- Fujisawa, G., Betancourt, S., Mullins, O.C., Torgersen,
T., O'Keefe, M., Dong, C., Eriksen, K.O.: Large
hydrocarbon compositional gradient revealed by in-situ
optical spectroscopy, paper 89704 presented at the 2004
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Houston, Texas, September 2629, 2004.
6- Fujisawa, G., Mullins, O.C., Dong, C., Carnegie, A.,
Betancourt, S., Terabayashi, T., Yoshida, S., Jaramillo,
A.R., Haggag, M.: Analyzing reservoir fluid
composition in situ in real time: case study in a carbonate
reservoir, Paper SPE 84092 presented at the 2003 SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Colorado, 2003.
7- Fujisawa, G., Van Agthoven, M.A., Rabbito, P., Mullins,
O.C.: Near-infrared compositional analysis of gas and
condensate reservoir fluids at elevated pressures and
temperatures, Applied Spectroscopy, Vol. 56, p. 1615,
2002.
8- Hashem, M.N., Thomas, E.C., McNeil, R.I., Mullins,
O.C., April 1999, Determination of producible
hydrocarbon type and oil quality in wells drilled with
synthetic oil-based muds: Paper SPE 39093 published in
SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering, #55959
9- Hoier, L. Whitson, C.H.: Compositional gradingtheory
and practice, Paper SPE 63085 presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Dallas, Texas, October 14, 2000.
10- Malinowski E.R., 2002, Factor Analysis in Chemistry:
John Wiley & Sons, New York, (2002)
11- Mullins, O.C., Hines, D.R., Niwa, M., Safinya, K., 1993,
Apparatus and method for detecting the presence of gas
in a borehole flow stream, US Patent #5,167,149.

SPE 94709

12- Mullins, O.C., Schroer, J.: Real-time determination of

filtrate contamination during openhole wireline sampling
by optical spectroscopy:, Paper SPE 63071 presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, October 14, 2000.
13- Mullins, O.C. Optical interrogation of aromatic moieties
in crude oils and asphaltenes, Ch2. in Structures and
Dynamics of Asphaltenes, O.C. Mullins, E.Y. Sheu,
Editors, 1998
14- Mullins, O.C., Beck, G., Cribbs, M.Y., Terabayshi, T.,
Kegasawa, K.: Downhole determination of GOR on
single-phase fluids by optical spectroscopy, SPWLA
paper M presented at the 42nd Annual Logging
Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 17-20, 2001.
15- Mullins, O.C., Daigle, T., Crowell, C., Groenzin, H, and
Joshi, N.B.: Gas-oil ratio of live crude oils determined
by near-infrared spectroscopy, Applied Spectroscopy,
2001b, Vol. 55, p. 197.
16- Ratulowski J., Fuex, A.N., Westrich, J.T., Sieler, J.J.:
Theoretical and experimental investigation of isothermal
compositional grading, SPE Reservoir Engineering and
Evaluation, p. 168, June 2003.

SPE 94709

PVT
C1
wt%
C2-C5 wt%
C6+
wt%
GOR scf/bbl

CFA
20%
11%
69%
2200-2400

Lab
17%
14%
69%
2300

0.8

-CH3 -CH2-

OD
0.6

CH4

Methane
Dead Crude
Methane +
Dead Crude

0.4

Table-1. Comparison of lab and CFA results

0.2

1600

1700
1800
Wavelength (nm)

1900

Fig.2 The NIR spectrum of methane, a dead crude oil and a

live crude oil.

(b)

(c)

Fig.3 Comparison between shop tests of the CFA vs. known

fluid compositions.

(d)
Fig.1 Fault property distributions

10

SPE 94709

Fig.5 LFA log corresponding to Example #1

Fig.4 WFT Tool Configuration with two Downhole Fluid

Analysis (Insitu characterization of formation fluid samples)
modules.

Fig.6 CFA log corresponding to Example #1

SPE 94709

11

Fig.7 LFA log corresponding to Example #2

Fig.9 LFA log corresponding to Example #3

Fig.8 CFA log corresponding to Example #2

Fig.10 CFA log corresponding to Example #3

12

SPE 94709

Depth
Feet
(TVD)

X600

X650
X

X700

Fig.11 Wireline logs corresponding to Example #4

TopLower Reservoir

x
MiddleLower Reservoir

BottomLower Reservoir

Evidenceof depletion
betweenupper and
lower reservoirs

Fig.12 Pressure profile corresponding to Example #4