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NAVLE Notes

General Notes from Questions

Roundworms in small animals are Toxocara species, which are ascarid nematodes.
Transmammary and transplacental transfer in dogs, transmammary transfer in cats.
Treated with Fendbendazole and Pyrantel every 2 -3 weeks until patient is 4 months old.
o Toxocara canis is the most common cause of cough in puppies.
o Will cause visceral larval migrans when ingested by humans. Commonly affects
eyes of children.
o Ivermectin will kill roundworms (nematodes), although this is not the treatment of
choice in small animals.
o Thelazia are roundworms that affect the ocular tissues. Transmitted by Diptera &
Musca flies.
Trichuris vulpis is the major whipworm of small animals. Eggs have symmetrically
bipolar plugs. Inhabit cecum and colon. Treat with Fenbendazole over a long period.

o
Ancylostoma, the canine hookworm, will cause cutaneous larval migrans in humans.
o Can infect dogs in utero, via nursing, or by piercing the skin (usually the feet).
Tapeworms such as Dipylidium caninum & Taenia taeniaeformis are treated with
Praziquantel.
o Fleas are the intermediate hosts of Dipylidium caninum.
Giardia is a protozoal parasite is treated with fenbendazole or metronidazole.

o
o Cannot be seen on fecal sedimentation.
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that commonly affects cats. A large percentage
of cats are sereopositive but do not shed oocysts.
o Infected cats usually only shed oocysts for 1 2 weeks when initially affected.
o Diagnose active infection with paired titers 1 2 weeks apart.
o Oocysts take a couple of days to sporulate and become infective, so cleaning the
litter box daily reduces the risk of infection for humans.
o Treat with Clindamycin.
Capillaria aerophilia is a respiratory roundworm. Eggs look similar to Trichuris but are
smaller with asymmetrical plugs.

The most common lung worm in cattle is Dictyocaulus viviparous


Hydatid cyst disease is caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus and is fatal in
humans.
Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum start by burrowing into the skin of cows. L1s
migrate to the spinal canal or esophagus. The L3s encyst in the subcutaneous tissue of
the back. The cysts have breathing holes. Eventually the L3s burst through the
subcutaneous tissue on the back.
Oxyuris equi are pinworms that affect the perineal region of horses. They cause pruritus
and subsequent alopecia in the tail-head region.
o Diagnose with a scotch tape test.
Gasterophilus (horse bots) typically lay their yellow eggs on the medial aspect of
forelimb cannon bones.
Habronema is a stomach worm that can cause granulomatous skin lesions with calcified
larvae inside. Eggs are ingested by houseflies which are swallowed by horses.
Strongylus vulgaris is a nematode (roundworm) that can cause cranial mesenteric artery
thrombosis in horses. This can cause acute death.
Taenia solium is the pork tapeworm. Ingestion by humans can cause cysticercosis (larval
infection).
o In humans, the larvae develop into adults. The infection is then called taeniasis.
Metastrongylus lung worms affect pigs and require earthworms as an intermediate host.
Parascaris equorum cause respiratory signs and GI signs in horses.
Piperazine treatment can cause rapid death of ascarids in horses, which can cause colic.
Guillian-Barre syndrome in humans is associated with Campylobacter jejuni.
Aelurostrongylus abstrusus is the feline lungworm. Treat with ivermectin or
fenbendazole.
Deep skin mites are Demodex. Superficial skin mites are Sarcoptes.
Listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes) is the most common CNS infection in ruminants.
Causes neurologic signs and cranial nerve signs and is treated with tetracyclines or
penicillin.
o Associated with feeding acidic silage and causes brain microabscesses.
o Diagnose with a CSF tap showing mononuclear pleocytosis.
Thromboembolic meningoencephalitis has a neutrophilic pleocytosis.
o Listeria monocytogenes can grow in the refrigerator and cause CNS signs in
humans.
Meningitis causes elevated CSF protein and CSF neutrophilia.
Polioencephalomalacia does not cause cranial nerve signs. Treat with thiamine.
o Can be caused by too much grain feeding; this results in thiaminase-producing
bacteria.
A granulosa-thecal cell tumor will cause an enlarged cystic affected ovary and a shrunken
contralateral ovary.
o This is the most common ovarian tumor in horses.

o Can cause aggression in mares.


Most common intranasal tumor in dogs is adenocarcinoma and in cats is lymphosarcoma.
Aural hematomas in pigs are commonly due to bites from penmates and violent head
shaking (due to parasites or debris in ears).
Aspergillus is the most commonly identified fungal pathogen in guttural pouch mycosis.
o Cranial nerves VII, IX, X, XI, & XII travel through the guttural pouch. Damage
to these nerves can result in dysphagia.
o Guttural pouch also contains carotid arteries and cranial sympathetic trunk.
Escherichia coli is the most common bacterial infection associated with septicemia in
foals.
o E. coli is a gram negative rod.
Myxedema, an increased amount of mucin and other ground substances in the dermis,
can be a marker for hypothyroidism.
Nutritional encephalomalacia in chicks is due to Vitamin E deficiency.
The most common cause of sinusitis in a horse is a tooth root abscess, most commonly in
the first molar teeth.
The most common congenital cardiac abnormality in the horse is a ventricular septal
defect.
Skin fragility syndrome in cats is commonly associated with poorly regulated diabetes
mellitus due to hyperadrenocorticism
Non-enveloped viruses survive longer in the environment.
A classic finding for upper GI obstruction is hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis.
Perivascularization of Doxorubicin causes severe and irreversible tissue sloughing. If
this occurs, place a cold compress to contain the spread of the drug. Doxorubin can also
cause cardiotoxicity in dogs and renal toxicity in cats.
o Cisplatin causes fatal pulmonary edema of cats (Cis splats cats).
o L-asparaginase is used to treat lymphomas and can cause anaphylaxis.
Normal cells can make asparaginase; lymphoma cells cannot. Lasparaginase destroys the bodys asparagine.
o Lomustine can cause hepatotoxicity.
o Vincristine can cause paralytic ileus.
o Cyclophosphamide can cause cystitis.
o Adriamycin can cause cardiotoxicity.
o Tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as Toceranib are used for high-grade mast cell
tumors after resection.
Treat mast cell tumors with diphenhydramine, famotidine, vinblastine, & prednisone.
Eyelid lacerations in horses are treated with saline lavage, tetanus immunization,
phenylbutazone, and at least a 2 layer closure.
A cat with a history of penetrating ocular trauma and susbsequent blind eyes is suspicious
for feline traumatic sarcoma.

o Very malignant, will develop phthisis bulbi (shrunken eye), and treat with
enucleation.
The cutoff for differing mammary tumor prognoses is 3 cm in dogs & 2 cm in cats.
o Mammary tumors more frequently develop in caudal glands.
Black widow spider bites cause muscle spasms, muscle rigidity, and pain.
Ingestion of Stargazer lillies can cause acute renal failure in cats.
Anterior uveitis is the most common cause of cataracts in cats. Clinical signs include
hyphema and keratic precipitates.
o Treat idiopathic anterior uveitis with systemic prednisone and carprofen as well as
topical dexamethasone and atropine.
Dont use topical antibiotics; there are no bacteria.
The cornea has the most refracting power in the eye.
Feline herpes virus will cause ocular ulcers and commonly cause systemic disease.
o Herpes virus is the only cause of corneal ulcers in cats, although corneal ulcers
can become secondarily infected with bacteria.
o 80 100% of affected cats become carriers.
Feline calicivirus is the only respiratory virus to cause oral ulcerations. Also causes
systemic disease and skin ulcers.
o Treat with clindamycin for associated bacterial infections and sucralfate to coat
ulcers.
Feline herpes virus causes conjunctivitis and dendritic ocular ulcers.
For alopecia X (alopecia of unknown cause), castration is treatment of choice. Also try
melatonin supplementation.
o Consider alopecia X if skin cytology, chemistry panel, thyroid panel, and ACTH
stimulation are normal.
Mycoplasma gallisepticum causes severe respiratory signs in turkeys and milder
respiratory signs in chickens.
o Histomonas meleagridis causes fatal necrosis of the liver and di in turkeys, but is
less pathogenic in chickens.
Proliferative enteritis in swine is caused by Lawsonia intracellularis. Prevent via a
vaccine. Treat with tylosin in water or feed.
o Lawsonia intracellularis causes proliferative ileitis in hamsters, which causes
severe diarrhea.
Remember, a Na:K ratio < 23 is a hallmark of hypoadrenocorticism.
Morphine will release histamine; avoid in mast cell tumors.
o Mast cell tumors can cause local inflammation.
The most common cause of glaucoma (increased intraocular pressure) is decreased
outflow of aqueous humor.
o Acute glaucoma causes episcleral injection. corneal edema, and pain.
o Chronic glaucoma causes buphthalmos (enlarged globe).
o Glaucoma does not cause strabismus.

o Primary glaucoma in one eye will typically cause glaucoma in the other eye in 6
12 months.
Primary glaucoma is most common in female spayed Cocker Spaniels.
Botulism (Clostridulum botulinum) blocks the release of acetylcholine from the
neuromuscular junction, resulting in flaccid paralysis. Can affect cranial nerves.
o Clostridium tetani causes muscle stiffness.
o Tick paralysis has an ascending symmetrical paralysis and does not cause cranial
nerve involvement.
o Coonhound Paralysis (Idiopathic polyradiculoneuritis) is usually seen after a
raccoon bite. Causes paralysis and facial / laryngeal paralysis. May cause diffuse
hyperesthesia.
Botulism causes dyspnea, mydriasis, & tongue hanging out. Does not cause
proprioceptive deficits.
Dogs do not have a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.
Tick paralysis does not involve cranial nerves.
Mycobacterium species are acid-fast rods.
Idiopathic polyradiculoneuritis (Coonhound Paralysis) is an ascending paralysis normally
associated with raccoon exposure. Unknown etiology and animals usually spontaneously
recover fully within several months.
A positive scooch test (xiphoid pain) in cows is indicative of traumatic reticuloperitonitis.
The most important treatment for severe acute blood loss is whole blood transfusions.
Aspiration pneumonia causes an alveolar pattern mostly involving the right cranial and
middle lung lobe.
o Seen cranioventrally on radiographs.
Anhidrosis is the inability to sweat. Commonly occurs in horses in hot humid climates.
Canine esophagus is entirely striated muscle.
o Feline esophagus is 2/3 striated then 1/3 smooth muscle.
Mycobacterium bovis is the disease of most concern from drinking unpasteurized cow
milk.
o Brucella melitensis can be acquired in humans via raw goat milk.
Sympathetic innervation to the bladder is provided by the hypogastric nerve.
o Parasympathetic innervation to the bladder is provided by the pelvic nerve.
o Somatic innervation to the external urethral sphincter is provided by the pudendal
nerve.
The ideal incision site for a foreign body gastrotomy is halfway between the greater and
lesser curvature of the stomach.
Cat scratch disease is caused by Bartonella henselae. Spread between cats by fleas and
spread to humans via scratches and bites. Results in fever and lymphadenopathy.
o Treat with doxycycline.
Swayback & enzootic ataxia in sheep and goats is caused by copper deficiency.
Positive predictive value is proportion of test-positive animals that are disease-positive.

o Negative predictive value is proportion of test-negative animals that are diseasenegative.


o Sensitivity is the proportion of disease-positive animals that test positive.
o Specificity is the proportion of disease-negative animals that are test-negative.
Rain scald, or dermatophilosis is caused by the bacteria Dermatophilus congolensis. This
is a gram positive, facultative anaerobic, branching (railroad tracks) cocci bacteria.
o Causes paintbrush lesions on the dorsum and pasterns.
o Treat by keeping area clean and dry and penicillins if severe.
Superficial bacterial skin infections require at least 3 weeks of antibiotics.
T3 is the active thyroid hormone.
o Diagnose hypothyroidism in dogs with free T4 by equilibrium dialysis.
Most dogs get pyometra during diestrus. This is because progesterone is active during
this time. It decreases myometrial activity and leukocyte response while promoting
endometrial growth.
o Most common cause of small animal pyometra is E. coli. This occurs via vaginal
ascension.
Allowing to be mounted is the major sign of estrus in a cow.
The fast phase of nystagmus is usually away from the lesion.
Cervical vertebral malformation affects young horses and cause symmetrical signs of
ataxia, normally worse in the hindlimbs. Treated with surgery.
o Another differential for these signs is Equine Degenerative Myeloencephalopathy.
No definitive test but is associated with low vitamin E levels.
Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis is caused by Sarcocystis neurona. Causes
asymmetrical clinical signs of ataxia. Treated with TMS and Pyremethamine or
Ponazuril.
o Diagnose with immunoblot testing of CSF for antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona.
Sarcosystis cruzs definitive host is the dog.
o Sarcosystis hominis has a cat as the definitive host.
The equine viral encephalitis viruses cause ataxia, fever, and mental depression. Spread
by mosquitoes. Supportive treatment.
0.9% NaCl is an acidifying fluid.
Mannitol is an osmotic diuretic. Furosemide is a loop diuretic.
Hyperglycemia in a stressed cat without glucosuria is strongly suggestive of a stressinduced hyperglycemia.
The most common source of Campylobacter infections in humans in undercooked
chicken.
o The most common infectious cause of sheep abortion is Campylobacter.
Campylobacter jejuni is shown on a fecal smear as gull-shaped organisms.
o Causes mucoid diarrhea in puppies.
Mast cell tumors in horses are benign.

o Young Siamese cats with the histiocytic subtype of mast cells tumors will usually
have the tumors spontaneously regress.
o Cutaneous mast cell tumors in cats are most commonly on the head. They rarely
metastasize and are not graded.
Ketamine has been associated with seizures in epileptic dogs.
Bracken fern contains glycoside and thiaminase, which leads to a thiamin deficiency.
This causes convulsions, opisthotonus, and death.
o Also causes bone marrow suppression.
Abomasal ulcers and associated peritonitis have a grave (<10% survival) prognosis in a
calf.
In older cats, the most likely cause of retinal detachment is hypertension secondary to
renal or thyroid disease.
Epinephrine can be given with lidocaine to prolong the duration of lidocaines effects.
o Epinephrine causes local vasoconstriction, preventing rapid systemic absorption.
This prolongs the local anesthetic effects of lidocaine.
o The most common early sign of lidocaine toxicity is CNS depression in dogs
(muscle tremors and seizures) and cardiac suppression / CNS excitation in cats.
In budgerigars, squamous metaplasia of the oral cavity is normally due to
hypovitaminosis A.
The most common cause for hyperparathyroidism in dogs is a parathyroid adenoma.
Castration reduces the risk of prostatitis and benign prostatic hyperplasia.
o Castration does not reduce the risk of bladder and prostate neoplasia.
Mycoplasma mycoides ssp. mycoides causes mastitis in adult female goats and
polyarthritis / pneumonia in goat kids.
o No treatment. Cull all culture-positive animals and affected kids.
o Can also cause meningitis in goat kids.
Old world primates do not have prehensile tails.
Most parrot species have normal featherless areas called aptera.
An anaphalyctic reaction in a horse mostly affects the lungs and colon. (The shock
organs in a horse are the lungs and colon.)
Systemic fungal disease can cause pulmonary nodules, but will usually have hilar
lymphadenopathy.
o Treat fungal disease for several months with an antifungal like Itraconazole.
Treat sand enteropathies in horses with psyllium.
Patent urachus in foals can have urine draining from navel, a hot and painful navel, and
purulent discharge from navel. Non-complicated cases will often heal on own. If
infected, treat with systemic antimicrobials and possible surgical removal.
The most common organisms that cause endocarditis are Bartonella, Staphylococcus,
Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, E. coli, Corynebacterium, & Erysipelothrix.
The hormone injected in cattle to increase milk production is Somatotropin (growth
hormone).

Consider pharyngeal trauma when cow workers use paste guns and a cow is sick!
Acute, painful exophthalmos is usually due to a retrobulbar abscess. These animals are
frequently systemically ill with fever and leukocytosis.
Xylazine is the best emetic in cats.
o Cats do not respond to apomorphine because they lack dopamine receptors in
their brain.
The main disadvantage to giving xylazine to a horse with acute colic is inhibition of
intestinal motility.
The most frequently isolated bacteria in cat bite abscesses are anaerobes.
o Most important therapy is to place a penrose drain for a few days.
o Antibiotics are usually unnecessary.
White cats or cats with white fur on face or ears are predisposed to squamous cell
carcinoma, which is ulcerative.
Tetracyclines (such as doxycycline) administration in young growing puppies can result
in delayed bone growth and discolored teeth.
o Doxycycline can also cause esophageal strictures if it stays in the esophagus an
extended period.
o Fluoroquinolones such as enrofloxacin in young growing puppies can cause
cartilage formation abnormalities.
Do not house guinea pigs and rabbits together because rabbits will transmit Bordatella to
guinea pigs.
o Bordatella is part of the rabbits normal flora, but not the guinea pig.
Enamel hypoplasia of canines is seen in dogs previously infected with Distemper virus.
Grass tetany is caused by magnesium deficiency.
Rubella (Measles) is not transmitted from non-human primates to humans.
E. coli O157:H7 is an enterohemorrhagic strain that produces shiga-like toxins that cause
hemorrhagic diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome.p
Tracheal collapse is usually due to weakness of the tracheal rings.
Many antibiotics are very toxic to rodents. The three safest antibiotics are TMS,
Enrofloxacin, & Chloramphenicol.
Hypovitaminosis A is most common in turtles (compared to other reptiles). Causes
palpebral edema and nasal discharge.
Nitrous oxide is contraindicated in gastrointestinal surgeries because it moves into closed
gas spaces intestines.
o Nitrous oxide also decreases fractional inspired levels.
Human ingestion of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium causes cystericercosis.
Rumen acidosis commonly causes liver abscesses.
o Liver abscesses can cause venal caval thrombosis and metastatic pneumonia.
Feline mammary hyperplasia is caused by progesterone. Treat with ovariohysterectomy.
Ceftiofur has a 4 day meat withdrawal time (shorter than most antibiotics).
o Xylazine has a 4 day meat withdrawal time.

o Lidocaine has a 1 day meat withdrawal time.


o Meloxicam has a 15 day meat withdrawal time.
o Tolazoline has an 8 day meat withdrawal time.
Xylazine is an alpha-2 receptor agonist with the lowest receptor receptivity and shortest
duration of action in horses.
Treatment for acute laminitis due to grain overload is IV fluids, mineral oil by stomach
tube, and flunixin meglumine.
Prevention of bovine papilloma virus (warts) is via an autogenous vaccine formed by
isolating warts from the herd.
o Penile warts in bulls should be surgically removed and the bull should be sexually
rested for 3 weeks.
IV Diazepam can rapidly increase appetite in cats.
Ultrasonography of pancreatitis reveals a hypoechoic pancreas with hyperechoic
surrounding mesentery.
o Best diagnosis of pancreatitis in cats is a pancreatic biopsy.
The most common cause of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in cats is chronic
pancreatitis.
o The most common cause of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in dogs is pancreatic
acinar atrophy.
A major cross match for testing blood products tests the recipient plasma against donor
erythrocytes.
o A minor cross match for testing blood products tests the recipient erythrocytes and
donor plasma.
~80% of equine gastric ulcers occur in the squamous (nonglandular) region of the
stomach.
Copper deficiency in ruminants is usually secondary and associated with high levels of
molybdenum, which interferes with copper absorption.
o Animals with copper deficiency may suffer achromotrichosis (pale hair coats) due
to Tyrosinase not working properly.
o Diagnose copper deficiency with a liver biopsy.
o Copper is stored in the liver, so the liver must be depleted of copper stores before
serum copper drops.
Liver biopsies in cows are done on the right side between ribs 10 & 11.
Horses do not show morphologic changes to erythrocytes even if there is a strong
regenerative response.
o Most horse anemias are normocytic & normochromic.
Melena is indicative of small bowel disease.
o Tenesmus, hematochezia, and mucoid feces are signs of large bowel disease.
Urticaria (hives) in horses is best treated with parenteral dexamethasone and/or non-IV
diphenhydramine.
NSAID toxicity in horses commonly causes right dorsal colitis.

An equine patient should be placed in isolation if it meets 2 out of 3 of these parameters:


fever, diarrhea, & neutropenia.
Leuprolide acetate stops chronic egg laying in birds.
Coccidioidomycosis is a yeast whose diagnostic stage is a spherule.
o Blastomycosis is big, blue, broad-based, & budding.
o Aspergillus has branching hypha.
Treat aspergillus with topical imadozole. Do no administer steroids; these
can cause immunosuppression.
Pulmonary contusions needs to be monitored for 24 hours because they can suddenly
worsen.
Ticks are arachnids and have 8 legs. Sheep keds are wingless flies and have 6 legs.
Diabetes insipidus is due to Vasopressin problems. Central diabetes insipidus is a lack of
vasopressin release from the posterior pituitary gland. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is
an inappropriate response by the kidney to Vasopressin.
o Diagnosed with a DDAVP trial in animals that have PU/PD after ruling out other
causes.
o Administering Desmopressin (DDAVP) can take up to 3 days to help diabetes
insipidus because it can take up to 3 days to overcome medullary washout from
PU/PD.
Desmopressin replaced ADH (Vasopressin).
Cats with pancreatitis should be given any food they are willing to eat and do not require
24 hours of fasting like dogs do.
o Dogs should also be given a low-fat diet. Both dogs and cats should get fluids
and Ranitide, which is an H2 blocker.
Chlamydophila pecorum causes polyarthritis, abortions, and keratoconjunctivitis in
sheep. Most cases are self-limiting, but can ve treated with tetracycline.
The most common sites for traumatic hernias to occur are the flank and prepubic regions.
All aminoglycosides can cause tubular nephrosis, vestibulotoxicity, & ototoxicity. In
horses, the most nephrotoxic aminoglycoside is neomycin.
Clavulanic acid can be added to penicillins because it is effective against beta lactamaseforming bacteria.
Swine influenza has high morbidity and low mortality.
The most common cause for hypoglycemia is insulinomas, then hepatocellular
carcinomas.
The fused lumbosacral region in birds is called the synsacrum.
o The uropygial gland in birds is a small bilobed swelling at the base of the tail with
a few protruding short feathers. Is a source of oil and nutrients for feathers.
Cilia-associated respiratory bacillus infection in rats is seen with Mycoplasma pulmonis.
Horses have 18 pairs of ribs.
Thymomas are cranial mediastinal masses that can cause myasthenia gravis.
Avian retinas are avascular.

Avocados are toxic to parrots.


Infection footrot in cattle is caused by Fusobacterium necrophorum and is treated with a
single dose of subcutaneous Florfenicol.
o In sheep and goats, infectious footrot is caused by Dichelobacter nodosus.
Secondary infection with Fusobacterium necrophorum is possible.
A horse with significant blood loss will have hypoproteinemia, responsive bone marrow,
and anemia (normocytic, normochromic).
Cuterebra is a botfly that has larvae grow subcutaneously. Cats and dogs become
infested via ingestion from the environment.
o Squeezing can rupture the larvae and cause anaphylaxis; remove the larvae in one
piece.
Mirtazapine is an appetite stimulant (increases norepinephrine, which acts as an alphareceptor agonist).
Eclampsia occurs when serum calcium drops during parturition or lactation.
Uveal cysts are brown, round, circular, free-floating mass in the anterior chamber. They
will transluminate.
o Melanomas are fleshier attached masses in the anterior chamber. They will not
transluminate.
Melanomas are the most common primary intraocular tumor in small
animals.
Xanthochromia on a CSF tap is a yellow color that indicates prior CSF hemorrhage.
o Black discoloration on a CSF tap is diagnostic for a melanoma.
Gray horses are predisposed to melanoma on their perineum and tail base.
Possible side effects of long-term glucocorticoids are panting, polyphagia, increased
susceptibility to infections, thrombocytosis, and hyperpigmentation of the skin.
In order to optimize absorption of antibodies from dairy cow to calf, the most important
thing is to allow adequate ingestion of IgG (150 - 200 grams) shortly after birth.
Species-specific PLI is diagnostic for pancreatitis.
o Species-specific TLI is diagnostic for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency.
Exocrine pancrease secretes digestive enzymes.
With exocrine pancreatic insufficiency you should supplement cobalamin.
A Texas GI panel includes TLI, PLI, cobalamin, & folate.
The primary goal of treating spinal cord trauma is to avoid ischemia of the cord.
Treatment for an unvaccinated human exposed to rabies is an injection of human rabies
immune globulin followed by 4 injections of rabies vaccine.
o Treatment for a vaccinated human exposed to rabies is 2 injections of rabies
vaccine.
The most common cause of pericarditis in cattle is traumatic reticuloperitonitis.
Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth will have increased folate and decreased cobalamin.
o Bacteria synthesize folate, which inhibits absorption of cobalamin.
o Folate is absorbed in the jejunum.

Cobalamin is absorbed in the ileum.


Other B vitamins are absorbed in the duodenum.
The most commonly disease-affected digits in cattle are the lateral rear digits.
Spaying prior to first heat cycle results in 0.5% incidence of mammary carcinoma.
o Spaying after first heat cycle but before second heat cycle results in 8% incidence
of mammary carcinoma.
o Spaying after second heat cycle or never spaying results in a 24% incidence of
mammary carcinoma.
Prevalence = Incidence x Duration
Nephrotic syndrome has high cholesterol, low albumin, proteinuria, & fluid accumulation
(peripheral edema).
o Nephrotic syndrome carries a worse prognosis.
Bulls with large testicles result in female offspring that reach sexual maturity earlier.
Chronic superficial keratitis (pannus) is mainly seen in German Shepherds.
o Causes corneal melanosis and vascularization that begins at the limbus and
extends all over the cornea.
o Induced by UV light exposure.
o Treat with topical steroids and cyclosporine for life.
The limbus is the junction of cornea and sclera.

Normal canine fundus.


Ocular lymphoma will cause changes in the uvea and / or retina, but not the cornea.
Orbital neoplasia will cause progressive exophthalmos, third eyelid protrusion, no pain,
and an inability to retropulse eye.

Sudden Acquired Retinal Degeneration Syndrome (SARDS) is usually seen in middleaged obese female spayed dogs. Causes acute blindness with no retinal lesions. They
will eventually develop retinal vascular attenuation and tapetal hyperreflectivity.
o Electroretinogram (ERG) will have a flat-line (no response).
An abnormal electroretinogram localizes a lesion to the retina.
Anterior lens luxation warrants immediate lens removal because it causes discomfort,
uveitis, and glaucoma.
Horse tapetums normally have dark dots.
Progressive Retinal Atrophy (PRA) is an inherited retinal disease most commonly seen in
miniature poodles.
o Night blindness progresses to complete blindness with retinal lesions.
Acute uveitis results in low intraocular pressures, but chronic uveitis can lead to
glaucoma and high intraocular pressures.
Recurrent uveitis in horses (moon blindness) causes period ocular redness, tearing,
photophobia, and cloudy corneas. Due to recurrent immune-mediated inflammation.
o Appaloosa horses are predisposed.
The most common cause of post-anesthetic cortical blindness in cats is hypoxia.
Sows have 14 teats.
o Dogs have 10 teats.
o Cats have 8 teats.
o Cows have 4 teats.
o Sheep, goats, guinea pigs, and horses have 2 teats.
In snakes, retained spectacle after shedding should be treated by increasing
environmental humidity for several days and applying ophthalmic ointments until the
eyecaps fall off. May be due to other underlying diseases.
o Do not forcibly remove eyecaps.
o Best way to prevent retained spectacles is to provide proper husbandry.
Cyanide blocks cellular respiration and oxidative transport. This means hemoglobin
cannot release oxygen to the tissue so blood is saturated with oxygen and bright red.
o Treat with methylene blue, sodium nitrate, and sodium thiosulfate.
o Supplemental oxygen is not a useful treatment.
o Chokecherry contains cyanide.
Bighead is caused by Clostridium novyi or Clostridium sordelli.
o Causes facial swelling and edema & fever.
o Clostridium is found in the environment and healthy animals, so culling affect
animals is unnecessary.
Treat with penicillin.
Alpha-Mannosidosis is a genetic (autosomal-recessive) and usually fatal disease of cattle.
o Causes ataxia in calves that leads to further neurological problems.
Beta-Mannosidosis is a genetic disorder of Anglo-Nubian goats and Salers calves.
o Causes abnormal neonates.

Colonic aganliosis (lethal white foal syndrome) is a genetic (autosomal recessive) disease
of Overo horses.
o Affected foals are white with blue irises.
o Most affected foals get colic and die within 2 days.
E.Coli is the most common cause of diarrhea in piglets <5 days old.
Regurgitation in horses with colic usually means a guarded to poor prognosis.
Entropion in foals usually resolves spontaneously and requires no treatment.
o Entropion also commonly occurs in piglets and lambs.
Atropine can be used as a premedication to decrease salivary excretions.
A common complication of prolonged recumbency and inhalant anesthesia is atelectasis.
o Atelectasis is incomplete expansion of the lung due to loss of air from alveoli.
Lobar consolidation is airways filling with fluid.
Non-selective COX inhibitory NSAIDS cause GI ulcers, inhibition of platelet function,
analgesia, renal damage, and fever reduction.
Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) can never be cleared; positive antibodies indicate
infection or vaccination.
Cats can exhibit cervical ventroflexion due to weakness, which is most often caused by
hypokalemia.
Rhabdomyosarcomas are tumors of striated muscle.
Hemangiosarcoma has a 3 month prognosis with spelenectomy alone and 9 - 12 months
with splenectomy + chemotherapy.
Sepsis is confirmed by effusion having 20 mg/dL lower than that of peripheral blood.
Sweating in horses can cause metabolic alkalosis.
Enrofloxacin causes cartilage abnormalities in growing puppies.
o Tetracyclines cause enamel hypoplasia and teeth staining in growing puppies.
A small animal emergency practice needs ~25 veterinarians within a 45 minute drive.
Anal sac adenocarcinomas cause morbidity and mortality via metastatic disease, pelvic
canal obstruction by local lymph nodes, and renal damage via hypercalcemia of
malignancy (due to PTHrp).
o Anal sac adenocarcinomas are very small and do not obstruct the bowel.
The holding layer of the esophagus and intestines is the submucosa.
All newly diagnosed diabetic patients should have their urine cultured. Chronic
glucosuria makes a patient prone to UTIs.
Diabetes mellitus is diagnosed with an elevated fasting glucose level and glucosuria.
Diabetes can cause cataracts in dogs and a plantigrade stance in cats.
Vomiting does not commonly occur with hyperadrenocorticism.
After ingestion of anticoagulant rodenticide, the PT value will rise first. (PT measures
profactor VII, which is the first of the vitamin K-dependent cofactors to decrease.)
Proventricular dilatation disease is caused by Avian bornavirus (ABV).
Sweeney is the name for shoulder atrophy in the horse. Caused by damage to
suprascapular nerve.

Sheets of epithelial cells on a lymph node aspirate indicates metastasis.


Before administering general anesthesia to a ruminant, it is vital to withhold water for 24
hours and feed for 36 hours to minimize the chance of bloat or regurgitation.
Hypothyroidism is a possible cause for otitis externa. Hypoadrenocorticism is not.
Papillomas (warts) in Saanen goats tend to turn into squamous cell carcinomas for
unknown reasons. Poor prognosis.
Spondylosis in bulls refers to degenerative intervertebral joint disease.
Mammary gland hyperplasia occurs in young, intact, female cats. Causes mammary
swelling that is non-painful. Often affects many mammary glands. Treat with
ovariohysterectomy.
Do not give gentamicin in the caudal half of the body in reptiles. Gentamicin is an
aminoglycoside, which is nephrotoxic. Reptiles have a renal-portal system which brings
blood through the kidneys before going back to the heart.
o Gentamicin is the most nephrotoxic aminoglycoside to horses.
Rubella (measles) is not transmitted from non-human primates to humans. Humans can
transmit it to other primates.
The first treatment for suspected lymphoma in cats (lymphadenopathy and
hypercalcemia) is an L-asparaginase trial, which can cause a hypersensitivity reaction.
Macaques can get infected with Herpes simiae, which is relatively non-pathogenic in
monkeys but can cause a fatal encephalitis in humans.
Necrotic laryngitis (calf diphtheria) is initated by Histophilus somni, which causes
Fusobacterium necrophorum to proliferate. This causes necrosis of the laryngeal
cartilage.
o Treat aggressively with IV tretracycline followed by subcutaneous tetracycline
and NSAIDs.
o Histophilus somni can cause thromboembolic meningoencephalitis (TEME).
Causes fever, ataxia, respiratory signs, and CSF neutrophilia.
Most common cause of mild diarrhea in a 3 day-old piglet is Rotavirus.
Regurgitation in horses with colic usually means a guarded to poor prognosis.
o Regurgitation is more likely to occur with small intestinal obstructions than cecal
impactions.
Oestrus ovis in sheep causes facial puritus and nasal discharge. This fly deposits larvae
in the nostrils which migrate up the nasal passage. Treat with systemic ivermectin.
Shipping fever in cattle is usually caused by Mannheimia hemolytica.
o Mannheimia hemolytica is the most common bacterial cause of infectious
pneumonia in sheep and goats. It also causes gangrenous mastitis (blue bag) in
sheep.
Canine transmissible venereal tumors have a different number of chromosomes than host
cells.
o Can usually be cured with chemotherapy alone.
Anthracosis (black spots on lungs and air sacs) is a normal finding in birds.

Immune-mediated thrombocytopenia is treated with prednisone, cyclophosphamide, &


azathioprine.
When treating epilepsy with phenobarbital, regularly check liver function on bloodwork.
Cats with megacolon should be treated with Cisapride, which is a prokinetic that helps
cats evacuate feces better.
o Psyllium should also be given, which is a source of fiber.
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis causes ulcerative lymphangitis and pectoral
abscesses (pigeon fever) in horses.
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis also commonly causes internal abscesses (they can
occur anywhere there is a lymph node).
o In cattle, treat by flushing the wound and letting it heal.
The most common cause of rectal prolapse in kittens is gastrointestinal parasites.
If a dehydrated animal has hypernatremia (high sodium), slowly correct with IV fluids.
Fast rehydration will result in water entering the brain (which has high sodium) and brain
edema.
A common cause of hypokalemia in a horse is chronic use of furosemide.
Woody tongue (Actinobacillus ligniersii) is more treatable than lumpy jaw (Actinomyces
bovis).
o Treat woody tongue with changing feed and iodide.
o Lumpy jaw can be treated with iodide, but usually just cull.
With any autosomal recessive treat, two carriers breeding will have 25% affected, 25%
unaffected, and 50% carrier offspring.
Treat PPID in horses with Pergolide & Cyproheptadine.
Pyrethrin toxicity is treated with bathing and Methocarbamol.
Methimazole is the initial treatment for hyperthyroidism and can cause intense facial
pruritus in some cats.
~50% of cases of primary canine hypothyroidism are caused by immune mediated
lymphocytic thyroiditis.
o Idiopathic atrophy of the thyroid follicles is another common cause of
hypothyroidism.
Most cases of hyperadrenocorticism are pituitary-dependent.
Parietal cells of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid in response to gastrin secreted by
G cells.
Cornish Rex & Devon Rex cats are predisposed to having the B blood type, which has
anti-A antibodies. This puts them at risk for blood transfusion reactions.
o Most cats have Type A blood.
White cats with blue eyes are prone to deafness.
Lung pressures > 20 cm H2) can result in barotrauma.
Babesia are red cell parasites that cause hemolytic anemia, hemoglobinuria, and icterus.
o Babesiosis in the horse is treated with Imidocarb.
o Transmitted by Rhipicephalus ticks.

Anaplasmosis does not cause hemoglobinuria.


Anthrax is diagnosed with vitreous humor or blood from an ear scrape.
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever is caused by Rickettsia rickettsia.
o Causes fever, dyspnea, lymphadenopathy, & polyarthritis.
o Causes vasculitis, which leads to hemorrhage and edema.
o Spread by Dermacentor ticks.
o Treat with doxycycline.
The tricyclic antidepressant clomipramine causes vomiting, constipation, & anorexia.
Guidelines for an infected joint are: total protein > 4.5 g/dL, total nucleated count >
25,000/uL, & polymorphonuclear count > 20,000/uL.
Ideal treatment for low plasma proteins and GI disease is IV plasma.
Electrical cord bites and trauma commonly cause oral ulcerations and burns as well as
non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema.
The most common complication of intestinal resection and anastomosis surgery is
leakage at the surgery site.
o This usually occurs 3 5 days post-operatively and can cause septic peritonitis.
Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis in cattle is a manifestation of bovine herpes virus.
Causes white plaques on the vagina.
Xylitol toxicity causes severe hypoglycemia.
In a patient with pleural effusion, the best radiographic view to see the heart is
ventrodorsal.
The primary reservoir for Yersinia pestis (plague) is rats. The disease is spread by fleas.
Chlamydophila felis commonly causes severe chemosis in the absence of other clinical
signs.
The most common cause of liver damage in broiler chickens is cholangiohepatitis from
Closridium perfringens. This commonly causes ascites.
When using a spay hook during an ovariohysterectomy, you are trying to retrieve the
broad ligament of the uterus.
Feline Immunodeficiency Virus is spread via bites. Mainly affects older, male, outdoor
cats.
Bile peritonitis is diagnosed with a fluid bilirubin concentration that is twice as high as
serum bilirubin concentration.
A common nail bed tumor is a melanoma. At this site, melanomas are frequently
malignant.

o
Melanoma cell with dark brown melanin granules.
o Melanomas can be treated with the ONCEPT vaccine.

Horses with acute laminitis should be given Phenoxybenzamine, which is a vasodilator


and increases blood flow to the digits.
o Do not give corticosteroids.
Alfalfa hay in California is high in magnesium and predisposes horses to enterolith
formation.
Mydriasis with a negative pupillary light response bilaterally in a head trauma patient
indicates pressure / injury at the brainstem and indicates a bad prognosis.
Hepatic lipidosis is common in anorexic obese cats. Most important therapy is
esophagostomy tube placement and tube feedings.
o In cows, hepatic lipidosis causes liver to float in formalin.
Extrahepatic biliary obstruction can predispose patients to coagulopathies. This is
because a decrease in bill will result in less absorption of vitamin K, which decreases
coagulation factors, II, VII, IX, & X.
Pulmonary arterial pressure done at elevations > 6,000 feet on animals over 12 months of
age is a good predictor of genetic susceptibility to high mountain disease.
o The lowest pulmonary artery pressure readings are the least susceptible animals.
o High mountain disease causes pulmonary hypertension at high elevations, thus
leading to right heart failure. This causes edema and dyspnea.
The most common serovars associated with canine Leptospirosis are grippotyphosa,
pomona, & bratislava.
o Maintenance hosts for Leptospira are:
Dogs Canicola
Rats Icterohemorrhagiae
Cattle Hardjo
Swine Pomona
Rodents - Grippotyphosa
In adult horses, tetanus usually occurs from Clostridial spores entering a deep puncture
wound.
o In sheep, the most likely clinical sign seen with tetanus is trismus (sardonic grin).
Bovine Viral Diarrhea is caused by a flavivirus.
o Best method of prevention is testing heifer replacements with
immunohistochemistry on a skin biopsy.
Erythrocyte agglutination is highly suggestive of immune-mediated hemolytic anemia.
o IMHA in cats is often due to Mycoplasma haemofelis infection. Diagnose with
PCR. Treat with doxycycline or enrofloxacin.
For cows with rumen acidosis, treat with magnesium oxide to raise rumen pH, IV fluids
containing sodium bicarbonate, & systemic penicillin.
Mycoplasma pneumonia in goats (caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies
mycoides) is spread via transmammary.
o No therapy. Cull all culture positive animals and affected kids.

o In sheep, Mycoplasma pneumonia is caused by Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and


is spread via aerosol.
Oleander contains a cardiac glycoside and is fatal to horses via arrhythmias and cardiac
arrest.
For dogs with pheochromocytomas (adrenal medulla tumor that produces
catecholamines), tumor invasion into the vena cava is not necessarily associated with a
worse prognosis.
o Uncontrolled hypertension is associated with higher mortality. Pre-treat with
phenoxybenzamine for several weeks before surgery to decrease hypertension.
A lung lobe torstion (twisted lung lobe) will usually result in the bronchi of the middle
lung lobe not visualized.
In health, a bronchoalveolar lavage primarily consists of macrophages.
o Horses with recurrent airway obstruction wil have neutrophilic inflammation on
bronchoalveolar lavage. Will also have expiratory wheezes.
When horses rear up and fall backwards, they commonly fracture the basisphenoid bone
or basioccipital bone.
o This causes lesions to cranial nerves VII & VIII.
o Can cause rupture of the longus capitis and epistaxis.
The plant Hypericum perforatum contains hypericin, which causes primary
photosensitization.
Feline squamous cell carcinomas commonly occur on the face in white cats exposed to
sunlight.
Vomiting is never seen with hyperadrenocorticism.
The drug of choice to induce emesis in dogs is apomorphine; treat an adverse reaction
with naloxone.
o The drug of choice to induce emesis in cats is xylazine; treat an adverse reaction
with yohimbine.
Abomasal torstions will have hypochloremia, metabolic alkalosis, & hypokalemia.
In horses, myositis can result in pigment nephropathy. Usually secondary to being
overworked.
With diabetic ketoacidosis, treat with Hulumin-R (regular insulin) because it is shortacting.
o With normal feline diabetes, use Glargine or PZI insulin.
Surgical repair of perineal hernias can cause fecal incontinence. They do not cause
femoral nerve paralysis.
Major clinical signs of diabetes mellitus are PU/PD, polyphagia, & weight loss.
o Dogs normally have type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent).
o Cats normally have type 2 diabetes (insulin-resistant). Cats may be able to go in
remission.
o Major treatments are insulin, weigh loss, diet, and exercise.

Dogs can eat anything; cats should get a low-carbohydrate and highprotein diet.
Obesity induces an insulin-resistant state.
o Diagnostic indicators are hyperglycemia (> 200 dog, ~300 cat), glucosuria,
ketonuria, increased liver enzymes and cholesterol
o Fructosamine gives you a look at glucose control over the past 2 weeks. Very
helpful for stressed cats that are hard to get accurate glucose readings.
o For glucose curves, get first blood draw before eating and insulin. Get readings
every 2 hours for 12 hours.
o Can cause hypercholesterolemia.
o An insulin dose that is too high can induce the Somogy effect, which causes a
rebound hyperglycemia due to blood glucose falling too rapidly.
o When controlling diabetes, want glucose to be 150 300. Most importantly,
base on clinical signs.
o When controlling diabetes, glucose will always be in the urine. Ketones will not.
o Standard starting insulin is 0.25 0.5 units / kg per injection.
o Regular insulin is short-acting and short-lasting. Useful in diabetic ketoacidosis.
Lente is used in dogs. It is a porcine insulin and intermediate-lasting.
Glargine is used in cats. It is a bovine insulin and long-lasting.
o Dogs can get diabetic cataracts. Cats rarely get diabetic cataracts; they can get
plantigrade stance.
o Treat diabetic ketoacidosis with a constant rate infusion of Regular insulin.
In the face of acidosis, potassium and phosphorous will decrease when
you treat it. Supplement potassium when treating.
Severe hypophosphatemia can cause hemolysis.
The maximum amount of potassium you can give is 0.5 mEq/kg/
hour.
Once patient is eating well and hydrated, switch to injectable insulin
(Lente or Glargine).
o DKA in cats can cause Heinz body anemia.
o The shortest acting insulin is Regular; the longest acting is Ultralente.
Tear production is controlled by the lacrimal nerve from cranial nerve VII (facial nerve).
Dont combine NSAIDs with steroids because it increases the risk for gastric ulceration,
GI perforation, and renal failure.
Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia will cause lethargy with fever and pale mucous
membranes.
Diagnose nasal aspergillosis with histopathology.
The reversal agent for medetomidine is atipamezole.
o Medetomidine & xylazine are alpha-2 agonists; reverse with yohimbine.
o Opiates are reversed with naloxone.
o Benzodiazepines (Midazolam & Diazepam) are reversed with flumanezil.
o Phenobarbital does not have a reversal agent.

Appetite stimulants for small animals include mirtazapine, diazepam, oxazepam, &
cyproheptadine.
Vesicular exanthema of swine is caused by a calicivirus also affects sea lions.
Neorickettsia risticii, which causes Potomac Horse Fever, requires paired titers to
diagnose.
o Treat with tetracyclines.
Neorickettsia helminthoeca causes salmon-poisoning disease.
o Dogs eat salmon, which have the flukes, which have Neorickettsia.
o Causes vomiting, diarrhea, and thrombocytopenia.
A left-sided ping on a cow indicates ruminal tympany or a left displaced abomasum.
o A right-sided ping indicates gas in the spiral colon, gas in the cecum, or abomasal
torsion.
Abomasal torsion causes hypochloremia and metabolic alkalosis.
o When hydrogen ions leave the cells, potassium rushes into the cells and causes
hypokalemia.
o Treat with IV saline with added potassium.
Foxglove is a cardiotoxic plant.
Aminocaproic acid promotes hemostasis by inhibiting plasminogen and stabilizing blood
clots.
Dogs with hepatic insufficiency or hepatic encephalopathy should be fed the maximum
amount of protein they will tolerate without causing signs of encephalopathy.
Portosystemic shunts cause high bile acids, microcytosis, ammonium biurate crystaluria,
hypoproteinemia, hypoglycemia, and normal/increased liver enzymes.
Carpal hygromas (fluid-filled swelling) in horses is treated with surgical exploration and
drain placement.
Moldy sweet potatoes with the fungus Fusarium solani have 4-ipomeanol. This is a
pneumotoxic compound.
Sertoli cell tumors can cause color changes in budgerigars.
o Budgerigars commonly get iodine deficiency, which causes goiters (thyroid
hyperplasia).
Three major causes of protein-losing enteropathies are inflammatory bowel disease,
lymphagniectasia, and lymphoma.
Lymphocytic plasmacytic enteritis is consistent with inflammatory bowel disease. Treat
with a hypoallergenic diet and prednisolone. Metronidazole can also be used to control
bacterial overgrowth.
o Lymphangiectasia is treated with a low-fat diet; steroids are not helpful unless it is
secondary to another condition.
Fat increases lymph production and causes further lacteal dilation.
o A biopsy is helpful to differentiate IBD from lymphangiectasia because
lymphangiectasia needs a low-fat diet and no steroids whereas IBD requires a
hydrolyzed diet and possibly steroids.

o Cholangiohepatitis can be autoimmune or due to infection / neoplasia.


Treat with prednisolone and ursodiol (which reduces hepatitis). Dont
need a special diet.
Acute cholangiohepatitis typically has neutrophils in portal areas and
carries a worse prognosis (50% long-term survival) than lymphocytic
portal hepatitis (>90% long-term survival), which does not have
neutrophils in portal areas. Only has plasma cell and lymphocyte
infiltration.
Feline triaditis consists of pancreatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, &
cholangiohepatitis.
Maropitant (Cerenia) is an anti-emetic for dogs and cats.
Ionophoroes such as monensin commonly cause myocardial toxicity in horses.
The safest antibiotic in guinea pigs is enrofloxacin.
o Never use streptomycin in guinea pigs, it is fatally toxic.
A patient with rapid shallow breathing and quiet lung sounds needs a thoracocentesis.
In birds, the proventriculus is the glandular stomach.
o The ventriculus is the grinding stomach.
o The cloaca is the exit for the GI system.
o The crop is an outpouching of the esophagus.
Foot-and-Mouth disease causes oral and foot lesions in cattle, but horses are unaffected.
o Foot-and-Mouth disease only affects cloven-hoofed animals.
Hypothyroidism causes weight gain, poor coat, lethargy, heat seeking behavior, alopecia,
pyoderma, myxedema.
o Laboratory values include non-regenerative, normocytic, normochromic anemia.
Also can include hypercholesterolemia.
Hypothyroidism does not cause PU/PD.
o A low total T4 is a screening test and is suggestive of hypothyroidism, but is not
diagnostic (can have euthyroid sick syndrome). Diagnose with free T4 via
equilibrium dialysis.
o Treatment should raise free T4 to middle or high-middle reference range.
Hyperthyroidism causes hyperactivity, poor hair coat, weight loss, increased BUN, &
increased ALT.
o Hyperthyroid animals should have low thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
o To feel a thyroid slip, slowly palpate down the larynx all the way down to the
thoracic inlet. Just feel a little slip.
o Diagnose with increased serum total T4.
If that is normal and you still suspect hyperthyroidism, diagnose with free
T4 by equilibrium dialysis.
o Hyperthyroidism can mask renal failure.
o Treat with methimazole. Methimazole inhibits production of thyroid hormone,
but the mass will keep growing. As such, animals likely will need a higher dose
eventually.

A pure thyroid diet that is low in iodide (no other food) can be effective on
its own. Not as many studies.
Stop methimazole for 7 days before radioiodine-131 therapy so that the
overactive cells can actually become overactive again and be targeted.
Normal thyroid cells have a much lower metabolic rate because of
negative feedback from high thyroid hormone and are thus not
targeted by radioiodine-131.
Hyperadrenocorticism can cause increased platelets and hypercholesterolemia.
In horses, a rapidly spreading infection with fever and cough should make you suspicious
for equine influenza (an orthomyxovirus).
o Test for this and other viral diseases with viral isolation via nasopharyngeal
swabs.
Hemorrhage from guttural pouch mycosis is treated with surgical occlusion of affected
internal or external carotid artery under general anesthesia.
The most likely side effect for potassium bromide therapy is sedation.
Infectious coryza is easily treated in birds because it is bacterial.
o Avian influenza, infectious laryngotracheitis, & infectious bursal disease are
caused by viruses and not easily treated.
Gangrenous mastitis in sheep is caused by Staphylococcus aureus & Manheimia. Grave
prognosis.
Desmopressin acetate releases von Willebrand factor, which helps with clotting.
o Can also give exogenous von Willebrand factor via fresh frozen plasma.
Features of avian anatomy are 9 air sacs, a 4-chambered heart, complete tracheal rings,
and heterophils as the major white blood cell.
Agglutination on feline blood typing cards (which have antibodies against blood types)
indicate the patient has that blood type.
In cows, hypomagnesemia (grass tetany) causes death, staggering, tachycardia, pyrexia,
nystagmus, and clamping of jaws. Occurs in lactating cows on lush pasture.
Oral candidiasis in birds is caused by yeast and often occurs secondary to other illnesses
or stresses. Causes oropharyngeal lesions. Treat with an anti-fungal such as fluconazole.
The state veterinary board licenses veterinarians to prescribe drugs.
Anesthetic gases are potent vasodilators. When a patient under anesthesia shows a drop
in blood pressure, turn down the anesthetic gas first and give fluids before drugs.
o Dobutamine can then be tried to raise blood pressure.
Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis has hemorrhagic diarrhea with marked hemoconcentration.
o Key findings are high PCV of 55 60% and normal total protein (that is not
hemoconcentrated due to intestinal loss).
Familial Shar Pei Fever (FSF) causes fever and tarsal swelling. Dogs with FSF are
predisposed to amyloidosis, which can result in proteinuria.
Chylous pleural effusion can be treated medically with a low fat diet and Rutin
(stimulates protein breakdown and removal), although this normally fails.

o Surgical treatment is ligation of thoracic duct and pericardectomy.


o Often is idiopathic.
Castrating a puppy significantly decreases the risk of future benign prostatic neoplasia
and prostatitis.
o Castration does not reduce the risk of prostatic or bladder neoplasia.
The most common cause of obstipation (severe constipation) in cats is megacolon.
Malignant Catarrhal Fever is caused by a herpes virus carried by sheep.
o Severe arteritis results in high fever, enlarged lymph nodes, and multisystemic
signs. Can also cause corneal opacity and thick white nasal discharge.
Border disease virus causes hairy shaker lambs.
Treat infected corneal ulcers that have gram negative rods with topical tobramycin (an
aminoglycoside).
o Treat infected corneal ulcers that have gram positive rods with topical cefazolin.
When rectally palpating the left side of a horse, you should feel the left kidney, pelvic
flexure, small colon, & nephrosplenic space.
o You should not feel the cecum on the left; if you do it is very distended.
A melting corneal ulcer means there is an infection.
o In horses, melting corneal ulcers are usually due to Pseudomonas.
Mammary tumors in mice can be found on their dorsum. (Mammary tumors in mice can
be found on any subcutaneous tissue.)
o Mammary tumors in mice are very metastatic and have a poor prognosis..
The most important therapy for esophagitis is sucralfate.
In dogs, the gallbladder is surrounded by the quadrate lobe and right medial lobe of the
liver.
Rhabdomyosarcomas are tumors of striated muscle.
Bacterial pneumonia is treated with coupage, systemic antibiotics, oxygen, &
nebulization.
o Do not give cough suppressants, steroids, or diuretics.

With Addisons you can see


o Decreased albumin & cholesterol
o Normocytic normochromic anemia
o Can see low USG
o Do an ACTH stimulation test if cortisol is less than 1 micrograms/dL.
o Diagnose with ACTH stimulation
o Abdominal ultrasound can reveal low small adrenal glands
o Treat with DOCP (mineralocorticoid) injections every 28 days &
Prednisone (glucocorticoid & mineralocorticoid)
o Dexamethasone is the only steroid that doesnt interfere with an ACTH
stimulation test.
o Commonly seen in poodles
o Monitor with serum sodium and potassium
Dont treat Cushings based just on lab values; only treat if clinical signs are
present.

o
o

o
o

Diagnose with ACTH stimulation or low dose dexamethasone


suppression test.
LDDST get 3 blood readings pre, 4 hour post, 8 hour post
85% are pituitary dependent, 15% adrenal dependent
LDDST suppresses PDH more than 50% of baseline at 4 hours and then
increases at 8 hours.
LDDST is not suppressed at 4 or 8 hours with ADH.
LDDST suppresses a normal dog at 4 and 8 hours.
Avoid stress with LDDST.
A high urinary cortisol:creatinine ratio is suggestive of Cushings.
Better at ruling out Cushings.
Treat with Trilostane and Mitotane.
Trilostane inhibits steroid formation.
Mitotane destroys the adrenal gland.
Too much mitotane can cause Addisons disease.
Monitor with an ACTH stimulation test.

Transitional cell carcinoma is treated with piroxicam (an NSAID) and carboplatin

chemotherapy.
Lyme disease is caused by Borrelia burgorferi.
o Causes erythema migrans in humans.
o In dogs, causes anorexia, arthritis, lymphadenopathy, and fever.
Red legs in frogs is a result of bacterial septicemia due to Aeromonus hydrophila.

Normal maintenance fluid requirements in dogs is 2.5 ml/kg/hour.


o Anesthesia maintenance fluid requirements is 5 - 10 ml/kg/hour. This larger
volume accounts for evaporation, metabolism, and lack of intake.
Proliferative ileitis in hamsters is caused by Lawesonia intracellularis. Causes severe
diarrhea and dehydration.
o Treat with isotonic fluids + 2.5% dextrose + 0.45% NaCL, enrofloxacin, &
Trimethoprim-sulfa (TMS).
Murine respiratory mycoplasmosis in rats causes nasal discharge and ataxia.
o Affects respiratory tract and middle ear.
o Treat with oxytetracycline in water.
Thelezia are Nematode worms that are found in ocular tissues. Transmitted by Diptera
flies.
Choanel atresis is one of the most common congenital defects in alpacas. This is a
blocking of the opening between nasal and pharyngeal areas.
o Causes problems breathing and nursing.
o Euthanize.
Specificity is the percentage of true negatives vs. false positives
There is less than 7% incidence of medial meniscus injury after a tibial plateau leveling
osteotomy
Ascaris suum is a roundworm that migrates through the liver in pigs. This causes milk
spots.
Trichinella spiralis is a nematode that affects many species including pigs.

o In pigs, transmitted via ingestion of encysted larvae in muscle.


o Humans get Trichinella spiralis by ingesting uncooked park.
Remember, Listeriosis causes microabscesses.
Septic peritoneal effusion has peritoneal fluid glucose at least 20 mg/dL less than blood
glucose (bacteria use the glucose!).
Hyperadrenocorticim has increased in ALP, ALT, & Cholesterol. No increase in BUN.
Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency commonly causes small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
due to lack of antibacterial factors in pancreatic fluid.
Trichuris suis is the whipworm of pigs.
o Affects older, weaned pigs.
o Causes large bowel mucoid diarrhea.
Most bladder stones in rabbits are calcium carbonate.
Goats infected with caprine arthritis encephalomyelitis virus (CAEV) can develop a
hardbag udder.
o Cull the goat.
o CAEV affects monocytes.
The big 5 neonatal calf diarrhea agents are E. coli, Rotavirus, Salmonella,
Cryptosporidia, & Coronavirus.
Hyperthyroidism can cause left ventricular hypertrophy.
The site of colonic resection in a cat is limited by tension on the ileocolic artery.
o The caudal mesenteric artery supplies the rectum and descending colon.
o The left colic artery supplies the descending colon.
o The pudendal artery supplies the external genitalia.
o The ileocolic artery supplies the ascending and transverse colon.
In horses, intermittent lameness and a bulge at the metacarpals are classic for tendonitis
(bowed tendon).
Leptospirosis in lambs is unique because it causes acute hemolytic anemia.
o Best post-mortem diagnostic test is immunoperoxidase staining of renal tissue.
Most common supraventricular arrhythmia in cattle is atrial fibrillation can be caused
by digestive disturbances.
In horses, the most common cause of pneumonia is Streptococcus.
o Rhodococcus equi is common in foals 2 6 months old.
Tetanus antitoxin can cause anaphylaxis.
o Tetanus works via a neurotoxin that blocks GABA release at the motor end plate,
thus causing sustained muscle contraction.
o Tetanus antitoxin prevents further toxin binding but will not reverse current
clinical signs.
FIP, a variant of feline coronavirus, is spread fecal-orally.


o Gasterophilus intestinalis is a bot fly larvae (stomach bot). Typically no clinical
signs.
Osteochondritis dissecans incidence is not reduced via cross-breeding. Cull affected pigs.
Anaplasma marginale causes anaplasmosis. Causes extravascular hemolysis, so no
hemoglobinuria.
o Calves are resistant, so only affects adult cows.
Thiopental is an ultra-short acting barbituate. Recovery depends on redistribution to
tissues including fat. So, dont give to Greyhounds because they have very little fat.
For bovine surgery, only the cecum is only approached on the right side.
The only veins that should enter the vena cava between the renal and hepatic veins are the
phrenicoabdominal veins.
o Any other veins that enter the vena cava in this position could be an extrahepatic
portosystemic shunt.
Activated charcoal does not bind alcohol, corrosives, some metals, and arsenic.
Cryptosporidiosis in reptiles has no effective treatment; euthanize animals.
o Causes regurgitation, weight loss, and debilitation.
o Causes thickening of GI mucosa and loss of GI motility.
In horses, anechoic regions in tendons on ultrasound indicate acute tendonitis (the
anechoic regions are areas of hemorrhage and loss of tendon fibers).
The most likely complication of clotrimazole is laryngeal inflammation.
Bracken fern causes hemolytic anemia.
Influenze viruses can readily undergo antigenic shift because of their segmented genome.
Emphysematous cystitis, which is caused by gas-forming bacteria, is usually due to
Cushings disease, diabetes mellitus, UTIs, or bladder stones.
Dysfunction of the esophageal groove in calves can cause rumen acidosis, abdominal
pain, and white putty feces.
Cats require taurine and arachidonic acid in their diets.
o Taurine deficiency in cats causes dilated cardiomyopathy and retinal
degeneration.
Basal cell tumors are the most common skin tumors in the cat.
o Basal cell tumors are usually hairless, domed, and raised masses.
o Usually found on the head, neck, and shoulders.
o Usually benign.
Sebaceous gland tumors are the most common skin tumors in dogs.
o They are cauliflower-like and often ulcerate.

Round cell tumors include mast cell tumors, lymphoma, plasma cell tumors,
histiocytomas, and transmissible venereal tumors.
Vesicular stomatitis affects cattle and horses.
o Causes fever and ulcerated tongues.
In birds, Candidiasis is caused by the yeast Candida albicans. Usually affects young
birds and is linked to hypovitaminosis A and spoiled feed.
Fiddleneck, groundsel, ragwort, & senecios cause liver failure in horses because they
have pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
o Pyrrrolidizone alkaloids cause elevations in SDH, lactate, ALP, and a decrease in
albumin. They also cause problems with hepatocyte division, thus leading to
megalocytosis (large hepatocytes).
Oak poisoning in horses causes GI signs.
o Oak poisoning in cattle causes renal failure.
The most cost-effective treatment for ruptured bladder in a feedlot steer is a perineal
urethrostomy.
o This is a salvage procedure to get the steer to market in a few months.
Enrofloacin is good for treating UTIs associated with prostatitis.
Yersinia enterocolitica & Trichinella spiralis affect humans who eat pork. They cause GI
signs and appendicitis, although Yersinia causes the signs faster.
Atrophic rhinitis in pigs is caused by Bordatella bronchiseptica & Pasteurella multocida.
o No treatment, just cull.
Ascaris suum are nematodes that infect the small intestine of pigs.
o Cause white spots when migrating through the liver. Can also cause pulmonary
edema when migrating through the lungs.
o Trichuris suum is a whipworm that infects pigs cecums and large intestines.
o Fasciola hepatica is a liver fluke of pigs.
o Stephanurus dentatus is the kidney worm of pigs.
Atricurium & succinylcholine are neuromuscular blockers.
o Reversed by edrophonium and neostigmine (cholinesterase inhibitors).
Guaifenesin is a centrally acting muscle relaxant.
Ethmoid hematomas cause intermittent, recurrent, and unilateral epistaxis in horses.
Influenza viruses are prone to antigenic shift because they have a segmented genome.
Mare Reproductive Loss Syndrome (MRLS) is associated with eastern tent caterpillars.
Anxiety-related problems can be treated with tricyclic anti-depressants such as
clomipramine.
o Side effects of clomaprine include vomiting, constipation, anorexia, and sedation.
Theriogenology

Pig gestation is 3 months, 3 weeks, and 3 days (114 days).


Stages of the estrous cycle are:
o Proestrus - follicles of ovary start to grow.

o Estrus - female is sexually receptive.


o Metestrus - Corpus luteum formation.
o Diestrus - Dominated by corpus luteum.
o Anestrus - No estrus cycle.
A heat consists of proestrus and estrus.
Vaginal epithelium thickens and cornifies in response to estrogen in estrus.
Llamas and alpacas are induced ovulators.
The preferred site for practical artificial insemination of mares and cows is intrauterine.
Ideal suture pattern for a cow uterus after C-section is Utrecht pattern.
The most common postpartum pathogen leading to endometritis in cattle is
Arcanobacterium pyogenes.
o Treat endometritis with intrauterine penicillin or tetracycline.
On ovary, ovulation ovulation depression corpus hemorrhagicum corpus luteum
corpus albicans
Maternal recognition of pregnancy is via:
o embryo signaling with bovine interfeuron-tau in cow
o transuterine migration in mare
o lifespan of corpus luteum equaling pregnancy length in dog and cat
In cows, the 4 cardinal signs of pregnancy are fetus, amniotic vesicle, chorioallantoic
membrane, and placentomes.
The fetus initiates stage 1 of parturition, which is initiation of myometrial contractions.
o Stage 2 of parturition is expulsion of fetus.
o Stage 3 of parturition is delivery of placenta.
Epitheliochorial placentas have 6 total layers, 3 maternal layers, and are found in horses,
swine, and ruminants.
o Endotheliochorial placentas have 4 total layers, 1 maternal layer, and are found in
dogs and cats.
o Hemochorial placentas have 3 total layers, no maternal layer, and are found in
rodents and primates.
A uterine biopsy can predict if a mare can carry a foal to term.
o Do uterine biopsies for endometritis, pyometra, & early embryonic death.
o Dont do uterine biopsies in pregnant mares; this can cause abortion.
The best way to diagnose a uterine infection in a mare is uterine cytology.
Pregnancy can be confirmed via ultrasound in cattle at 28 days.
Cats, ferrets, rabbits, and camelids are induced ovulators.
The hormone responsible for milk letdown is oxytocin.
The hormone that rises and is responsible for pseudopregnancy when progesterone falls is
prolactin.
Signs of uterine torsion in a late-term mare are colic, frequent urination, and palpating the
broad ligament coursing over the uterus.
Pneumovagina heavily predisposes mares to vaginitis and endometritis.
The most common cause of dystocia in the bitch is uterine intertia.

A bitch in estrus will have vaginal cytology with >90% cornified epithelial cells (look
like flakes with no nucleus).
Neonatal rabbits (kits) must nurse 1 - 2 times per day.
In a cow, you will see parturition 48 hours after administering dexamethasone.
o Dexamethasone + PGF-2alpha will lyse a corpus luteum if cow is 5 8 months
pregnant.
Progesterone levels are highest in diestrus, when the corpus luteum is active.
In pigs, an ascending reproductive tract infection can be caused by E. coli, Streptococci,
Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, & Actinomyces.
Lysing a mature corpus lutem in a cow will return her to estrus in 3 days.
Risk factors for metritis in cattle are retained fetal membranes, dystocia, stillbirth, &
twinning.
To synchronize a dairy cow, 2 injections of PGF-2 alpha should be given 11 14 days
apart.
o Giving PGF2-alpha during anestrus has no effect.
The Whitten (buck) effect induces sheep and goats to ovulate at the same time. The
Whitten (buck) effect is done via introduction of a new male.
Mammary gland hyperplasia occurs in youg, intact female cats. Is non-painful. Treat
with ovariohysterectomy.
Most common testicular tumor in the horse is a seminoma.
Colonic torsions commonly occur in mares that are a few weeks post-partum.
Prolactin is stimulated by suckling and promotes milk production.
In dogs, radiographs can see puppy skeletons at 45 days post-ovulation.
In horses, placentas are considered retained after 3 hours post-parturition. Treat with
oxytocin and uterus lavage.
In pigs, E. coli, Streptococci, Staphylococci, & Actinomyces can cause reproductive
failure via ascending infection of the reproductive tract.
The most effective way of synchronizing lactating pigs is batch weaning at 3-4 weeks.
This results in estrus about 5 days later.
Gestation length of goats and sheep is 150 days.
Progesterone is essential for maintenance of pregnancy in all domestic mammals.
o The pig depends on ovarian progesterone throughout pregnancy.
o In cows, the latter half of pregnancy is maintained by ovarian and placental
progesterone.
o In horses, the ovarian source of progesterone peaks relatively early in gestation
and is gradually replaced by placental progesterone.
o In sheep, the placenta takes over progesterone production early in gestation.
Fescue causes reproductive failure in mares.
Cow lactation lasts 305 days, then the cows are dried off for 60 days (the last 2 months of
pregnancy).
o Cows reach peak lactation 4 8 weeks post-parturition.

The placentome is the relationship between the uterine endometrium and placenta.
o In cows, the placentome consists of the maternal caruncle (mom drives the car) &
fetal cotyledon.
In the bitch, dark red vaginal discharge can be seen up to 6 weeks postpartum.
o Sub-involution of placental sites can cause fresh bleeding for up to 15 weeks.
o Bitches do not normally get retained placentas.
Repair of a pneumovagina in horses involves placing horizontal sutures at the dorsal
aspect of the labia and increasing the mares weight.
o Pneumovaginas are normally seen in older, thin mares.
Goats and sheep reach puberty at 6 months old.
o Cows reach puberty at 14 months old.
Goats have a 21 day estrous cycle
Theriogenology Species Comparison

Species
Dog

Gestation
Length
63 days

Type of Heat Cycle


Average interestrous
interval of 7 months

Estrous Cycle
Length (Averages)
9 days Proestrus
9 days Estrus
2 - 3 months Diestrus
4 - 5 months Anestrus

Cat

65 days

Seasonally polyestrous,
spring through fall

1 day Proestrus
7 days Estrus
7 - 21 day
Interestrous cycle
during mating season

Cow

283 days

Polyestrous all year

21 day Estrous cycle.


Estrus lasts 8 - 18
hours in the cow.
Cows ovulate 24 30
hours after the onset
of estrus.

Important Notes
Oocytes undergo
meiosis before
fertilization
occurs.
Estrus has falling
estrogen and
rising
progesterone.
Induced ovulators
(copulation
stimulates LH
surge, which
stimulates
ovulation).
In the absence of
pregnancy,
oxytocin
receptors form in
uterus during
diestrus, which
leads to
production of
PGF-2alpha.

The cow is
unusual because
she ovulates after
estrus.
Chorioallantoic
membrane slip
can be felt at 30
days pregnancy.
Fetus can be felt
at 60 days
pregnancy.
Placentomes can
be palpated at 75 90 days pregnant.

Horse

340 days

Seasonally polyestrous,
spring and summer

21 day Estrous cycle


Estrus is 6 days long

Fremitus can be
felt at 4 months
on the ipsilateral
horn & 7 months
bilaterally.
Prostaglandin-F
will lyse a corpus
luteum between 5
- 17 days of the
estrous cycle.
Can palpate
pregnancy at 20
days.
Horses have
endometrial cups
which produce
progesterone
between 45 - 120
days of
pregnancy.

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