Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABSTRACT
Dental pathology has the potential to provide insight into the composition of the diet and to
reveal dietary differences based on age, sex and social status. Human skeletal remains from
the Greek colonial site of Apollonia (5th to 2nd centuries BC) on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria
were analysed for various forms of dental pathology in order to: assess the prevalence of
dental disease in the population; compare the dental pathology data from Apollonia with
dietary data derived from ancient literary texts and from previous stable isotopic analysis of the
colonists remains; explore variations in dental disease with respect to age and sex; and
compare the prevalence of dental pathology in the Apollonians with that of other Greek
populations. The composition of the diet, as indicated by the dental pathology data, is
consistent with the stable isotopic evidence from Apollonia and with the ancient literary texts,
both of which indicate the consumption of a relatively soft, high carbohydrate diet. The higher
frequency of dental caries, abscesses, calculus, and antemortem tooth loss in older adults
compared with younger ones reflects the age-progressive nature of these conditions. The lack
of significant sex differences in caries, abscesses, calculus and tooth loss corresponds with
the stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data derived from bone collagen, which indicate no
significant sex differences in the consumption of dietary protein. In contrast, these findings
conflict with the ancient literary texts, which refer to distinct dietary differences between males
and females, and with the stable carbon isotopic values derived from bone carbonate, which
indicate sex differences with respect to the overall diet. Despite the lack of marked sex
differences in dental pathology, overall trends point to subtle dietary differences between
males and females. A greater degree of tooth wear in males also hints at possible sex
differences in the use of the teeth as tools. Copyright 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Key words: dental pathology; diet; Greek colonial populations; Black Sea
Introduction
Dental pathology is commonly recorded in archaeological samples, and its use in palaeodietary
reconstructions is based on the recognised link
between dental pathology and diet (Nelson et al.,
1999: 333). Studies of dental caries, antemortem
tooth loss, and other forms of dental disease
have explored the relationship between these
* Correspondence to: Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 7B8, Canada.
e-mail: akeenleyside@trentu.ca
263
dental pathology in the Apollonians with that of
other Greek populations.
264
several Greek tombstones excavated from the
necropolis (Nedev & Panayotova, 2003). Like
other Greek colonies on the Black Sea coast, the
inhabitants of Apollonia attempted to recreate
the same way of life they had enjoyed in their
homeland (Tsetskhladze, 1997). While they
brought the religious and political institutions
of their mother city with them, and maintained
commercial links with Miletus and other cities in
Asia Minor, they remained independent and
self-sufficient (Nedev & Panayotova, 2003).
In 1938, the chance discovery of a grave in an
area known as Kalfata, located on the shore of the
Black Sea approximately 2.5 km south of Sozopol
(Figure 1), prompted scholars to direct their
attention to this area, and from 1946 to 1949,
large-scale excavations uncovered 801 graves
consisting of simple unlined pits, stone cists, tile
graves, wooden coffins and urn burials (Venedikov, 1963). Extending to a depth of five metres in
some places, most of the burials were typical
Greek inhumation burials containing single
individuals laid out on their backs in an extended
position, with their heads oriented primarily to
the east. The remains dated from the second half
of the 5th century to the beginning of the 2nd
century BC, based on associated grave goods
(Venedikov, 1963). A small number of cremation
and flexed burials, dating from the mid to late 4th
century BC, have been tentatively identified as
Thracian burials (Venedikov, 1963). Since 1992,
excavations led by Dr Kristina Panayotova of the
Institute of Archaeology in Sofia, of the Kalfata
necropolis and several adjacent sites have
uncovered an additional 400 burials (Panayotova,
1998; Nedev & Panayotova, 2003). Palaeopathological analysis of some of these remains has
revealed evidence of iron deficiency anaemia,
trauma and non-specific infections among the
colonists (Keenleyside & Panayotova, 2005,
2006). The sample utilised in this study is derived
from this most recent excavation.
A. Keenleyside
the bacterial fermentation of dietary carbohydrates, especially sugars (Larsen, 1997: 65).
Of the factors underlying the development of
caries, diet has been identified as the most
important (Powell, 1988). Diets containing
refined sugars are more cariogenic than those
consisting of unrefined carbohydrates, while diets
high in protein and fat and low in carbohydrates
are known to impede caries formation (Powell,
1988). The texture of food also plays a role in the
development of caries, with soft, sticky foods
being more cariogenic than hard, abrasive foods
(Larsen, 1997). Other factors influencing tooth
decay include tooth crown morphology, attrition,
enamel hypoplasia, oral hygiene, fluoride consumption, oral bacteria and the composition of
saliva (Dawes, 1970; Lillie, 1996; Hillson, 2000).
Numerous studies of skeletal samples worldwide have revealed higher rates of caries in
agricultural populations compared with huntergatherers (Turner, 1979; Larsen, 1995; Hillson,
1996), reflecting their greater consumption of
carbohydrates. Agricultural diets have, in fact,
been inferred from high caries rates in the
absence of other types of dietary evidence
(Cohen, 1989: 107). In the western Mediterranean region, for example, the transition to
agriculture was accompanied by an increase in
the rate of caries (Meiklejohn & Zvelebil, 1991).
Hunting and gathering populations, in contrast,
typically show an absence of caries, reflecting
their non-cariogenic, high protein diet; also,
populations heavily reliant on marine resources
typically show low rates of caries (Macchiarelli,
1989; Nelson et al., 1999).
One of the possible consequences of dental
caries is antemortem tooth loss, indicated by the
resorption of alveolar bone in the tooth socket.
Other causes of tooth loss include attrition,
trauma and periodontal disease, the latter being
one of the main causes of antemortem tooth loss
in modern populations (Hillson, 2005: 306).
Dental caries can also lead to periapical
abscessing, which occurs when bacteria invade
the exposed pulp cavity and proceed down the
root canal into the alveolar bone, causing an
infection of the surrounding tissue and the
formation of an abscess (Hillson, 2005). Pulp
exposure resulting from trauma or attrition can
also lead to abscesses.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 262279 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/oa
265
More than 100 different factors have been linked
to the development of enamel hypoplasia, with
particular attention being paid in the literature to
nutritional stress and childhood infections. Since
it is rarely possible to link enamel defects with
their underlying aetiology, they are considered to
be non-specific indicators of physiological stress
(Goodman & Rose, 1990). In some archaeological
samples, a higher prevalence of hypoplastic
defects in younger individuals compared with
older adults has been interpreted as reflecting an
increased likelihood of individuals who experienced stress during childhood dying at a younger
age (Duray, 1996).
A. Keenleyside
266
diet (Jameson, 1983: 10; Garnsey, 1999: 16, 123).
Goat and sheep milk was consumed in diluted
form (Brothwell & Brothwell, 1969: 50), and
cheese made from the milk of both animals was
also eaten (Brothwell & Brothwell, 1969: 52). Fish,
including shellfish, were a highly valued part of
the diet of many Greeks (Dalby, 1996) and
garum, or fish sauce, was a popular ingredient in
many dishes.
According to literary sources, sex differences in
diet existed among the ancient Greeks. Males
were given preferential access to foods, while
women were denied meat and other nourishing
food items (Garnsey, 1999). Consequently,
women were at higher risk of nutritional
deficiency and disease, and may have experienced
a higher incidence of malnutrition than men
(Garnsey, 1999). Given this evidence for sexbased variation in diet, one should therefore
expect to find sex differences in dental pathology
in ancient Greek skeletal samples. Such differences might, for example, take the form of lower
caries rates in males resulting from a greater
consumption of meat and fish. Fluoride and
strontium, elements present in high quantities in
marine foods (Siebert & Trautner, 1985; Malde
et al., 1997), are known to impede the formation
of carious lesions.
Number of teeth
Number of individuals
22
37
14
73
Females
40
23
20
83
Indeterminate
3
3
0
6
Males
Females
418/511
762/908
171/388
1351/1807
851/1031
424/594
175/436
1450/2061
Indeterminate
65/72
73/73
0/0
138/145
Number of observable teeth/number of observable teeth plus teeth lost antemortem plus teeth lost post-mortem.
Statistically significant differences between males and females, P < 0.05.
267
respect to the number of individuals (x2 5.29,
P 0.025) and the number of observable sockets
(x2 189.92, P 0.001) and preserved teeth
(x2 217.33, P 0.001). In contrast, there were
significantly more males than females in the
middle-aged category (3650 years) when comparisons were made by individual (x2 8.66,
P 0.01), by socket (x2 186.12, P 0.001),
and by tooth (x2 211.34, P 0.001). Frequencies were calculated for each type of dental
pathology recorded, and statistical comparisons
by age and sex were conducted using the
chi-square test and the Mann-Whitney U test.
All statistical analyses were performed using
SPSS, Version 14.
Results
When recorded by individual, dental caries was
the second most common dental disease observed
in the sample, affecting 53.8% (85/158) of
individuals (Table 2). In contrast, only 7.7%
(227/2939) of teeth had carious lesions (Table 3).
Of the four tooth types, the molars were the most
frequently affected (13.9%) (Table 4), reflecting
their more complex morphology. The majority of
lesions (54.2%) were located on the interproximal surfaces (Table 5), while only 2.9% were
located on the buccal or lingual surfaces. While
both males and females had the greatest number
of carious lesions on the interproximal surfaces of
their teeth, males had considerably more interproximal lesions than females (64.5% compared
with 44.5%), and females, in contrast, had more
cervical lesions than males (19.5% compared with
6.4%) (Table 5). When statistical comparisons
were made by the number of individuals affected,
there was no significant difference in the prevalence of caries between males and females for
any of the three age groups compared (Table 2).
When comparisons were made by the number of
affected teeth, young adult and middle-aged
females had a slightly higher frequency of carious
teeth than males (Table 3), while males over the
age of 50 had a slightly higher frequency than
females. There were no statistically significant sex
differences in caries rates for any of the age
groups examined (Mann-Whitney U test), and
for both sexes, the rates increased with age.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 262279 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/oa
A. Keenleyside
268
Table 2. Frequency of affected individuals by age and sex
Age (yrs)
Males
Dental caries
1835
11/22
3650
25/37
50
9/14
Total
45/73
AMTL
1835
6/22
3650
16/37
50
13/14
Total
35/73
Abscesses
1835
2/18
3650
11/36
50
6/14
Total
19/68
Calculus
1835
19/22
3650
31/37
50
11/13
Total
61/72
Enamel hypoplasia
1835
6/18
3650
9/32
50
1/7
Total
16/57
Females
Indeterminate
Total
50.0
67.6
64.3
61.6
16/39
14/23
10/18
40/80
41.0
60.9
55.5
50.0
0/3
0/2
0/0
0/5
0
0
0
0
27/64
39/62
19/32
85/158
42.2
62.9
59.4
53.8
27.3
43.2
92.9
47.9
6/40
14/23
19/20
39/83
15.0
60.9
95.0
47.0
0/3
0/3
0/0
0/6
0
0
0
0
12/65
30/63
32/34
74/162
18.5
47.6
94.1
45.7
11.1
30.5
42.9
27.9
4/40
4/22
4/19
12/81
10.0
18.2
21.0
14.8
0/2
1/2
0/0
1/4
0
50.0
0
25.0
6/60
16/60
10/33
32/153
10.0
26.7
30.0
20.9
86.4
83.8
84.6
84.7
28/39
18/23
13/18
59/80
71.8
78.3
72.2
73.7
2/3
3/3
0/0
5/6
66.7
100.0
0
83.3
49/64
52/63
24/31
125/158
76.6
82.5
77.4
79.1
33.3
28.1
14.3
28.1
9/35
4/16
1/8
14/59
25.7
25.0
12.5
23.7
1/3
0/3
0/0
1/6
33.3
0
0
16.7
16/56
13/51
2/15
31/122
28.6
25.5
13.3
25.4
Males
Dental caries
1835
19/418
3650
59/762
50
28/171
Total
106/1351
AMTL
1835
24/511
3650
40/908
50
142/388
Total
206/1807
Abscesses
1835
2/358
3650
15/721
50
13/309
Total
30/1388
Calculus
1835
176/414
3650
405/753
50
87/161
Total
668/1328
Enamel hypoplasia
1835
25/140
3650
33/254
50
2/43
Total
60/437
Females
Indeterminate
Total
4.5
7.7
16.4
7.8
43/851
50/424
26/175
119/1450
5.0
11.8
14.9
8.2
0/65
2/73
0/0
2/138
0
2.7
0
1.4
62/1334
111/1259
54/346
227/2939
4.6
8.8
15.6
7.7
4.7
4.4
36.6
11.4
7/1031
44/594
158/436
209/2061
0.7
7.4
36.2
10.1
0/72
0/73
0/0
0/145
0
0
0
0
31/1614
84/1575
300/824
415/4013
1.9
5.3
36.4
10.3
0.6
2.1
4.2
2.2
6/954
7/521
8/393
21/1868
0.6
1.3
2.0
1.1
0/42
2/49
0/0
2/91
0
4.1
0
2.2
8/1354
24/1291
21/702
53/3347
0.6
1.9
3.0
1.6
42.5
53.8
54.0
50.3
285/840
188/418
104/163
577/1421
33.9
45.0
63.8
40.6
13/65
26/72
0/0
39/137
20.0
36.1
0
28.5
474/1319
619/1243
191/324
1284/2886
35.9
49.8
58.9
44.5
17.9
13.0
4.6
13.7
43/307
3/124
3/67
49/498
14.0
2.4
4.5
9.8
2/22
0/26
0/0
2/48
9.1
0
0
4.2
70/469
36/404
5/110
111/983
14.9
8.9
4.5
11.3
269
(7.7)
(1.6)
(10.3)
(44.5)
(11.3)
(6.9)
(1.1)
(10.5)
(50.6)
(12.7)
111/1601
20/1858
226/2150
799/1578
67/527
(8.7)
(2.2)
(10.1)
(37.1)
(9.6)
116/1338
33/1489
189/1863
485/1308
44/456
(2.2)
(0.8)
(7.0)
(52.0)
(7.5)
15/676
7/878
72/1023
347/667
46/615
(3.2)
(0.9)
(4.7)
(48.4)
(17.7)
13/404
4/450
25/531
193/399
65/368
55/821 (6.7)
13/873 (1.5)
90/1040 (8.6)
311/795 (39.1)
(13.9)
(2.5)
(16.1)
(42.2)
144/1038
29/1146
228/1419
433/1025
Caries
Abscesses
AMTL
Calculus
Enamel hypoplasia
Premolars
Molars
Tooth type
Dental pathology
Canines
Incisors
Maxilla
Jaw
Mandible
227/2939
53/3347
415/4013
1284/2886
111/983
Total
A. Keenleyside
270
Table 5. Frequency of carious lesions by location
Location
Males
Occlusal
Interproximal
Smooth
Cervical
Root
Large
Females
Indeterminate
8/110
71/110
2/110
7/110
11/110
11/110
7.3
64.5
1.8
6.4
10.0
10.0
9/128
57/128
5/128
25/128
11/128
21/128
7.0
44.5
3.9
19.5
8.6
16.4
0/2
2/2
0/2
0/2
0/2
0/2
0
100.0
0
0
0
0
Total
17/240
130/240
7/240
32/240
22/240
32/240
7.1
54.2
2.9
13.3
9.2
13.3
Females
Indeterminate
Total
5.0
11.8
14.9
8.2
0.0
2.7
0.0
1.4
4.6
8.8
15.6
7.7
4.8
15.8
42.2
15.9
0.0
2.7
0.0
1.4
5.8
12.4
43.0
16.0
Total number of carious teeth 100/total number of
observed teeth.
Total number of carious teeth and teeth lost antemortem 100/total number of teeth and sockets
observed.
271
No. of teeth
observed
Average tooth
wear score
147
165
187
190
189
178
164
105
4.1
3.3
4.0
3.6
3.6
19.7
15.2
12.7
169
198
215
228
197
202
213
147
3.9
3.7
3.7
3.2
3.3
20.0
16.0
14.1
Maxilla
I1
I2
C
P1
P2
M1
M2
M3
Mandible
I1
I2
C
P1
P2
M1
M2
M3
Molars
Premolars
Canines
Incisors
13.1
18.7
26.4
2.3
3.9
5.6
2.7
4.4
5.5
2.7
4.4
5.5
13.5
19.4
28.7
18.2
2.5
4.0
5.8
3.9
3.2
4.5
5.9
4.4
3.1
4.5
6.3
4.2
12.8
17.7
24.3
15.3
2.2
3.7
5.4
3.0
2.5
4.1
5.1
3.3
2.5
4.4
4.9
3.3
Discussion
Dental caries
In contrast to other studies of caries which have
found significant differences in caries rates between the upper and lower dentition (e.g.
Thylstrup & Fejerskov, 1994; Lingstrom &
Borrman, 1999), there was no significant
difference in caries rates between the maxillary
and mandibular teeth in the Apollonia sample.
The significantly higher frequency of carious
lesions, by number of affected teeth, in older
individuals compared with younger ones is,
however, consistent with previous studies of
caries in archaeological populations, and reflects
the age-progressive nature of this disease
(Hillson, 2000, 2001).
Sex differences in caries rates have been observed in both archaeological and modern populations, with females typically showing higher
rates than males (Walker & Hewlett, 1990;
Hillson, 2001: 253). This has been attributed
to a higher carbohydrate intake by females, earlier
eruption of teeth, and behavioural differences in
subsistence pursuits (Larsen, 1997; Walker &
Hewlett, 1990). Changes in salivary composition
during pregnancy and lactation have also been
implicated in the development of caries in women
(Laine, 2002). In the Greek colonial sample from
rural Metaponto, a significantly higher number of
females (64%) were found to have carious lesions
than males (46%) (Henneberg & Henneberg,
2003: 34). Sex differences in caries rates in the
Apollonia sample are much less pronounced.
While young adult and middle-aged females had
a slightly higher frequency of carious teeth
than males, statistical comparisons revealed no
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 262279 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/oa
A. Keenleyside
272
significant sex differences with respect to either
the caries rate or the DMI, suggesting that males
and females were consuming foods with similar
cariogenic properties.
Comparison of the prevalence of caries in the
Apollonia sample with that of other archaeological samples is hindered by the fact that different
methodologies may have been used to diagnose
and record carious lesions (Hillson, 2001: 249).
Further limiting such comparisons is the varying
age and sex composition of archaeological
samples, the failure to distinguish between tooth
types affected and the different forms of carious
lesions observed, and differing patterns of antemortem and post-mortem tooth loss. Despite
these limitations, it is useful to compare the
prevalence of caries (uncorrected) at Apollonia
with that of other archaeological samples, including those with varying subsistence strategies. As
expected, there is considerable variability in the
prevalence of caries between populations with
similar modes of subsistence (Turner, 1979;
Larsen, 1995: 188). This is not surprising given
methodological differences in the recording and
reporting of caries rates. At 7.7% of teeth, the
prevalence of caries at Apollonia falls at the lower
end of the range reported by Turner (1979) for
agricultural populations (2.126.9%, average
10.43%), and within the range reported for
populations with a mixed economy (1.010.3%,
average 4.84%). It also falls within the range
reported for other Greek skeletal samples
(3.236.9%) (Table 9).
Frequency by tooth
32/267
14/436
34/601
22/356
11/113
40/724
14/90
135/1498
11/152
76/206
367/2069
36/724
192/1828
(12.0%)
(3.2%)
(5.7%)
(6.2%)
(9.7%)
(5.5%)
(15.5%)
(9.0%)
(7.2%)
(36.9%)
(17.7%)
(5.0%)
(10.5%)
Reference
Angel (1944)
Papathanasiou (2005)
Angel (1944)
Angel (1944)
Musgrave & Popham (1991: 289)
Angel (1944)
Musgrave (1976: 46)
Carr (1960: 11922)
Becker (1975: 275)
McGeorge (1992: 39)
McGeorge (1992: 39)
Angel (1944)
Henneberg & Henneberg (1998: 535)
Coastal sites.
Permanent and deciduous teeth combined.
Dental abscesses
The prevalence of abscesses in the sample is quite
low. While it is consistent with the low rate of
caries and the low to moderate rate of tooth wear
recorded in the sample, it may also reflect the
extraction of teeth prior to pulp exposure and
infection, the loss of abscessed teeth and the
subsequent remodelling of the alveolar bone long
before death, and/or the inability to observe
abscesses that have not yet penetrated the
alveolar bone (Hillson, 2000; Wols & Baker,
2004). The significantly higher frequency of
abscesses by tooth socket in older individuals
compared with younger ones is mirrored in other
archaeological samples, and reflects the higher
rate of caries and tooth wear typically seen in this
age group. Similar rates of abscesses in males and
females mirror the data on caries and AMTL.
Dental calculus
The Apollonian diet does not appear to have
promoted the formation of large amounts of
calculus on the teeth, as most of the affected teeth
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
273
had only slight deposits. Dental calculus, like
caries, abscesses and AMTL, was significantly
more common in older individuals compared
with younger ones. This phenomenon has been
observed in other populations and reflects the
progressive build-up of calculus with age (Beiswanger et al., 1989). Few studies of Greek skeletal
remains report the prevalence of dental calculus;
however, the high rate of calculus in the
Apollonia sample is consistent with that of other
agricultural populations, and points to a reliance
on a high carbohydrate diet and/or poor oral
hygiene.
As noted earlier, the relationship between
calculus and diet is not straightforward (Hillson,
2001), and high calculus rates have been
associated with both high protein and high
carbohydrate diets (Meiklejohn & Zvelebil, 1991;
Lieverse, 1999; Lillie & Richards, 2000).
Significant sex differences, reported for some
populations, have been interpreted as reflecting
inequality in access to dietary protein (Lillie &
Richards, 2000). In the case of Apollonia, males
had a higher prevalence of calculus than females
overall (50.3% compared with 40.6%), and
young adult and middle-aged males had a higher
rate than females of the same age groups. None of
these differences, however, was statistically
significant (Mann-Whitney U test), suggesting
that males and females consumed a similar diet.
Tooth wear
Occlusal surface wear is an indicator of the type
of foods consumed and methods of food
preparation. Among ancient Greek populations,
high levels of tooth wear have been attributed to a
diet of uncooked and unrefined food items such as
coarse cereal grains, the consumption of poorly
washed foods, and the use of grinding stones
(Becker, 1975: 275; McGeorge, 1992: 3940). In
contrast, low levels of wear are associated with
the consumption of soft foods. While comparisons of tooth wear in the Apollonia sample with
those of other archaeological samples are
hindered by the use of different methodologies
to record tooth wear, as well as the failure of
publications to report the methods used, the low
to moderate levels of wear recorded in the
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 262279 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/oa
274
Apollonia sample are consistent with those
recorded in other agricultural populations,
including Greek colonial samples from Pithekoussai (Becker, 1995: 279) and rural Metaponto
(Henneberg & Henneberg, 1998: 536), and
suggest the consumption of a relatively soft diet.
The association between tooth wear and age is
reflected in greater levels of tooth wear in older
individuals compared with younger ones. The
finding that males had a significantly greater
degree of wear on the anterior teeth than females
raises the possibility that non-dietary factors,
perhaps activities associated with fishing, may
have contributed to the wearing down of their
front teeth.
Enamel hypoplasia
The prevalence of enamel hypoplasia in the
sample is relatively low. The lack of significant
sex differences in the frequency of hypoplastic
defects among the colonists suggests that males
and females both suffered from physiological
stresses during early childhood. The higher
frequency of the condition in younger adults
compared with older individuals is consistent
with studies of other archaeological populations
(Larsen, 1997), and supports the hypothesis that
individuals who experience stress during childhood are more likely to die at a younger age
(Duray, 1996).
Comparison of the prevalence of enamel
hypoplasia in the Apollonia sample with that
of other samples is hindered by methodological
differences in the scoring of this condition, most
notably the lack of a minimum defect size
considered to be a hypoplastic defect (Goodman
et al., 1980: 527; Goodman & Rose, 1990: 92;
Hillson, 2000). Nevertheless, the frequency of
individuals with defects in the Apollonia sample
(25.4%) is not significantly higher than that
reported by Bisel & Angel (1985) for Hellenistic
period Greeks (18.8%) from other archaeological
sites. It is lower than that reported for Classical
period Greeks (37.9%) (Bisel & Angel, 1985), and
significantly lower than that reported for Metaponto, where 78% (88/113) of individuals in the
rural sample and 96% of individuals in the urban
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A. Keenleyside
sample had enamel hypoplasia (Henneberg &
Henneberg, 2001).
Hypoplastic defects in Greek skeletal remains
have been interpreted as evidence of nutritional
stress, childhood infections and/or weaning
stress. Angel (1984: 64), for example, attributed
the significant increase in the prevalence of
enamel hypoplasia in the Middle Bronze Age to
childhood epidemics resulting from increased
population size and density. Henneberg and
colleagues have suggested that the high frequency of defects observed in the rural sample
from Metaponto most likely reflects the presence
of some form of chronic, endemic infection,
possibly treponemal disease, which appears to
have been common in the population (Henneberg & Henneberg, 1998). With respect to the
urban sample from Metaponto, Henneberg &
Henneberg (2001) suggested that the high
prevalence of hypoplastic defects may reflect
infectious diseases spread by crowded living
conditions.
The factors underlying the development of
enamel hypoplasia in the Apollonian colonists
probably included both nutritional stress and
exposure to infectious diseases. As indicated by
the stable isotopic data, the colonists relied
heavily on a terrestrial diet of C3 plants, suggesting that nutritional deficiencies may have been
common in the population. Palaeopathological
analysis of 184 skeletons excavated from the site
revealed the presence of cribra orbitalia in 28% of
individuals, and iron deficiency anaemia has been
proposed as the most likely cause of these lesions
(Keenleyside & Panayotova, 2006). Periodic food
shortages, common in antiquity (Garnsey, 1999),
may also have contributed to the formation of
these defects. Ancient literary sources indicate
that Greek colonies on the Black Sea coast of
Romania and Ukraine suffered periodically from
food shortages during the Hellenistic period
(Garnsey, 1988: 13, 163, 274), and it is likely that
Apollonia experienced similar food shortages on
occasion.
The possibility that the hypoplastic defects
seen in the Apollonian sample resulted from
infectious diseases must also be considered.
While the skeletons analysed to date show no
evidence of chronic infection such as that seen at
Metaponto (Henneberg & Henneberg, 1998),
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 262279 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/oa
275
The lack of marked sex differences in dental
pathology is somewhat surprising given the
textual and isotopic evidence for dietary differences between males and females. It is useful,
however, to look at overall trends in the dental
pathology data. Higher rates of caries in females
and higher rates of calculus in males do hint at
subtle dietary differences in the form of greater
consumption of carbohydrates by females and
greater consumption of protein by males. This
corresponds with the stable carbon isotopic
values derived from bone carbonate, in particular
the isotopic spacing between bone collagen and
apatite (carbonate), which can be used as an
indicator of trophic level (Krueger & Sullivan,
1984). Large differences between d13Capatite and
d13Ccollagen reflect a more herbivorous diet, while
small differences reflect a more carnivorous diet.
In the Apollonia sample, the apatite-collagen
spacing is higher for females than males (8.8%
compared with 7.9%), suggesting greater carbohydrate consumption by females and greater
protein consumption by males.
When interpreting dental pathology data,
consideration must also be given to the nondietary use of the teeth. While stable isotopic
data and ancient literary texts may provide useful
information on diet, they tell us nothing about
non-dietary uses of teeth that might be reflected
in certain forms of dental pathology. As noted
earlier, greater levels of tooth wear in males
compared with females, particularly in the
anterior teeth, raises the possibility that nondietary factors, perhaps activities associated with
fishing, may have contributed to greater tooth
wear among males.
Conclusions
The prevalence of dental pathology observed at
Apollonia is typical of that seen in other
agricultural populations, and indicates the consumption of a relatively soft, high carbohydrate
diet. It is consistent with the stable isotopic
evidence for diet at Apollonia and with the
ancient literary texts, both of which indicate a
heavy reliance on carbohydrates. The prevalence
of caries among the colonists is similar to that
observed in the Greek colony of Metaponto, for
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 262279 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/oa
A. Keenleyside
276
which isotopic data also indicates a primary
reliance on a terrestrial C3 diet.
The higher frequency of dental caries,
abscesses, calculus and AMTL in older adults
compared with younger ones reflects the ageprogressive nature of these conditions. Sex
differences in dental pathology are not pronounced, and, as such, are consistent with the
stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data derived
from bone collagen, which indicate no significant
sex differences in the consumption of dietary
protein (Keenleyside et al., 2006). In contrast,
these findings conflict with the ancient literary
texts, which attest to distinct dietary differences
between males and females, and with the stable
carbon isotopic values derived from bone
carbonate, which indicate sex differences with
respect to the overall diet.
Despite the lack of strong evidence for sex
differences in dental pathology, overall trends in
the data, particularly when combined with the
isotopic data, do hint at subtle dietary differences
between males and females, with males consuming more protein and females consuming more
carbohydrates. As such, the integration of dental
pathology data with other types of evidence
provides greater insight into the diet of past
populations than reliance on one source of
information alone. A greater degree of tooth
wear in males also hints at sex differences in the
non-dietary use of the teeth, an observation not
recorded in the ancient texts.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Kristina Panayotova, Institute of Archaeology in Sofia, Bulgaria, and Dimitar Nedev, Director of the Archaeological
Museum in Sozopol, Bulgaria, for providing
access to the skeletal sample examined in this
study. I am grateful to Tracy Prowse, whose
research inspired this paper, and to Peter Garnsey,
Richard Lazenby, and the reviewers of an earlier
draft of this manuscript for their helpful comments. Fieldwork in Bulgaria was supported by a
Leverhulme Research Fellowship and a grant from
the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada (#410-2005-0452).
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
References
Angel JL. 1944. Greek teeth: ancient and modern.
Human Biology 16: 283297.
Angel JL. 1984. Health as a crucial factor in the
changes from hunting to developed farming in
the eastern Mediterranean. In Paleopathology at the
Origins of Agriculture, Cohen MN, Armelagos GJ
(eds). Academic Press: New York; 5173.
Bass WM. 1987. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field
Manual of the Human Skeleton, (3rd edn). Special Publication No. 2. Missouri Archaeological Society:
Columbia.
Becker MJ. 1975. Human skeletal remains from Kato
Zakro. American Journal of Archaeology 79: 271276.
Becker MJ. 1995. Human skeletal remains from the
precolonial Greek emporium of Pithekoussai on
Ischia (NA): culture contact in Italy from the early
eighth to the second century B.C. In Settlement and
Economy in Italy 1500 B.C. to A.D. 1500, Christie N
(ed.). Papers of the Fifth Conference on Italian
Archaeology: Oxford; 273281.
Becker MJ. 1996. Appendix: The human skeletons
from the Archaic cemeteries. In The Archaic Cemeteries.
Morgantina Studies, Vol. 5, Lyons CL. Princeton
University Press: Princeton; 227237.
Becker MJ, Donadio A. 1992. A summary of the
analysis of cremated human skeletal remains from
the Greek colony of Pithekoussai at Lacco Ameno,
Ischia, Italy. Old World Archaeology Newsletter 16:
1523.
Beiswanger BB, Segreto VA, Mallatt ME, Pfeiffer HJ.
1989. The prevalence and incidence of dental
calculus in adults. Journal of Clinical Dentistry 1:
5558.
Bisel SC, Angel JL. 1985. Health and nutrition in
Mycenaean Greece: a study in human skeletal
remains. In Contributions to Aegean Archaeology: Studies
in Honor of William A. McDonald, Wilkie NC, Coulson
WDE (eds). Center for Ancient Studies, University
of Minnesota Publications in Ancient Studies:
197210.
Brooks S, Suchey JM. 1990. Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: a comparison of
the Acsadi-Nemesk#ri and Suchey-Brooks
methods. Human Evolution 5: 227238.
Brothwell DR, Brothwell P. 1969. Food in Antiquity. A
Survey of the Diet of Early Peoples. Thames and Hudson:
London.
Buikstra JE, Ubelaker D. (eds). 1994. Standards for Data
Collection from Human Skeletal Remains, Arkansas
Archaeological Survey Research Series No. 44.
Arkansas Archaeological Survey: Fayetteville,
Arkansas.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 18: 262279 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/oa
277
toric populations from Illinois. Human Biology 52:
515528.
Goodman AH, Martin DL, Armelagos GJ, Clark G.
1984. Indications of stress from bone and teeth. In
Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, Cohen MN,
Armelagos GJ (eds). Academic Press: New York;
1349.
Grmek MD. 1989. Diseases in the Ancient Greek World
(transl. M. Muellner and L. Muellner). Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.
Hadjimarkos DM, Bonhorst CW. 1962. Fluoride- and
selenium-levels in contemporary and ancient Greek
teeth in relation to dental caries. Nature 193:
177178.
Henneberg RJ. 1998. Dental Health and Affiliations of
Inhabitants of the Ancient Greek Colony in Metaponto, Italy
(6th3rd Century BC). PhD thesis, University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa.
Henneberg M, Henneberg RJ. 1998. Biological
characteristics of the population based on analysis
of skeletal remains. In The Chora of Metaponto: The
Necropoleis Vol. II, Carter JC (ed.). University of
Texas Press: Austin, TX; 503562.
Henneberg M, Henneberg RJ. 2001. Analysis of
human skeletal and dental remains from Metaponto
(7th2nd c. BC). AttiTaranto 40: 461474.
Henneberg RJ, Henneberg M. 2003. The diet of the
Metapontine population as reconstructed from the
physical remains. In Living Off the Chora: Diet and
Nutrition at Metaponto, Carter JC (ed.). University of
Texas Press: Austin, TX; 2936.
Hillson SW. 1996. Dental Anthropology. Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge.
Hillson SW. 2000. Dental pathology. In Biological
Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, Katzenberg MA,
Saunders SR (eds). Wiley-Liss: New York; 249286.
Hillson SW. 2001. Recording dental caries in archaeological human remains. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology 11: 249289.
Hillson SW. 2005. Teeth (2nd edn). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Jameson M. 1983. Famine in the Greek world. In Trade
and Famine in Classical Antiquity, Garnsey P, Whittaker
CR (eds). Cambridge Philological Society, Supplementary Volume 8: 616.
Keenleyside A, Panayotova K. 2005. A bioarchaeological study of the Greek colonial population of
Apollonia Pontica. Archaeologia Bulgarica 9(2):
2138.
Keenleyside A, Panayotova K. 2006. Cribra orbitalia
and porotic hyperostosis in a Greek colonial population from the Black Sea. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology 16: 373384.
278
Keenleyside A, Schwarcz HP, Panayotova K. 2006.
Stable isotopic evidence of diet in a Greek colonial
population from the Black Sea. Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 12051215.
Kelley MA, Levesque DR, Weidl E. 1991. Contrasting
patterns of dental disease in five early Northern
Chilean Groups. In Advances in Dental Anthropology,
Kelley MA, Larsen CS (eds). Wiley-Liss: New York;
203214.
Krueger HW, Sullivan CH. 1984. Models for carbon
isotope fractionation between diet and bone. In
Stable Isotopes in Nutrition, Turnlund JE, Johnson PE
(eds). American Chemical Society Symposium
Series 258: 205222.
Kwok CS. 2007. Baby Bones, Food, and Health: Stable
Isotopic Evidence for Infant Feeding Practices in the Greek
Colony of Apollonia (5th2nd centuries BC). MA thesis,
Department of Anthropology, Trent University.
Laine MA. 2002. Effect of pregnancy on periodontal
and dental health. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica 60:
257264.
Larsen CS. 1995. Biological changes in human populations with agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology
24: 185213.
Larsen CS. 1997. Bioarchaeology. Interpreting Behaviour
from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge University Press:
Cambridge.
Lieverse AR. 1999. Diet and the aetiology of dental
calculus. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 9:
219232.
Lillie MC. 1996. Mesolithic and Neolithic populations
of Ukraine: indications of diet from dental pathology. Current Anthropology 37: 135142.
Lillie MC, Richards M. 2000. Stable isotope analysis
and dental evidence of diet at the Mesolithic
Neolithic transition in Ukraine. Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 965972.
Lingstrom P, Borrman H. 1999. Distribution of dental
caries in an early 17th century Swedish population
with special reference to diet. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology 9: 395403.
Littleton J, Frohlich B. 1993. Fish-eaters and farmers:
dental pathology in the Arabian Gulf. American
Journal of Physical Anthropology 92: 427447.
Lovejoy CO, Meindl RS, Pryzbeck TR, Mensforth RP.
1985. Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the
determination of age at death. American Journal of
Physical Anthropology 68: 1528.
Lubell D, Jackes M, Schwarcz HP, Knyf M, Meiklejohn C. 1994. The Mesolithic-Neolithic transition
in Portugal: isotopic and dental evidence of diet.
Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 201216.
A. Keenleyside
Lukacs JR. 1995. The Caries Correction Factor: a new
method of calibrating dental caries rates to compensate for antemortem loss of teeth. International
Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5: 151156.
Lukacs JR. 1996. Sex differences in dental caries rates
with the origin of agriculture in South Asia. Current
Anthropology 37: 147153.
Macchiarelli R. 1989. Prehistoric fish-eaters along the
Eastern Arabian coasts: dental variation, morphology,
and oral health in the Ras al-Hamra community
(Qurum, Sultanate of Oman, 5th-4th millennia BC).
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78: 575594.
Malde MK, Maage A, Macha E, Julshamn K, Bjorvatn
K. 1997. Fluoride content in selected food items
from five areas in East Africa. Journal of Food Consumption and Analysis 10: 233245.
Martin TR. 1996. Ancient Greece. From Prehistoric to Hellenic
Times. Yale University Press: New Haven, CT.
McGeorge PJP. 1992. Part II. The burials. In Late
Minoan III Burials at Khania: the Tombs, Finds and
Deceased in Odos Palama, Hallager BP, McGeorge
PJP (eds). Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology
Vol. XCIII: Goteborg; 2944.
Meiklejohn C, Zvelebil M. 1991. Health status of
European populations of the agricultural transition
and the implications for the adoption of farming. In
Health in Past Societies: Biocultural Interpretations of Human
Remains in Archaeological Contexts, Bush H, Zvelebil M
(eds). British Archaeological Reports International
Series 567: Oxford; 129145.
Meindl RS, Lovejoy CO. 1985. Ectocranial suture closure: a revised method for the determination of skeletal
age at death based on the lateral-anterior sutures.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68: 5766.
Musgrave JH. 1976. Appendix A: the human remains.
In An Early Christian Osteotheke at Knossos, Catling
HW, Smyth D eds. Annual of the British School
at Athens 71: 4046.
Musgrave JH, Popham MR. 1991. The Late Helladic
III C Intramural Burials at Lefkandi, Euboea. Annual
of the British School at Athens 86: 273296.
Nedev D, Panayotova K. 2003. Apollonia Pontica
(end of the 7th1st centuries B.C.). In Ancient Greek
Colonies in the Black Sea, Vol. 1, Grammenos D,
Petropoulos E (eds). Archaeological Institute of
Northern Greece: Thessaloniki; 95155.
Nelson GC, Lukacs JR, Yule P. 1999. Dates, caries and
early tooth loss during the Iron Age of Oman.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 108: 333343.
Panayotova K. 1998. Apollonia Pontica: recent discoveries in the necropolis. In The Greek Colonisation of
the Black Sea Area, Tsetskhladze GR (ed.). F. Steiner:
Stuttgart; 97114.
279
Smith SK, Cook DC. 1991. Mesolithic to modern dental
wear at Franchthi Cave, Greece. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the Society for American
Archaeology, New Orleans, 25 April.
Tayles N, Dommett K, Nelsen K. 2000. Agriculture
and dental caries: the case of rice in prehistoric
Southeast Asia. World Archaeology 32: 6883.
Thylstrup A, Fejerskov O. 1994. Textbook of Clinical
Cariology. Munksgaard: Copenhagen.
Tsetskhladze G. 1997. The artistic taste in Phanagoria.
Greek colonies on the Black Sea. Apollo (July 1997):
79.
Turner CG II. 1979. Dental anthropological indications of agriculture among the Jomon People of
Central Japan. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51: 619636.
Ubelaker DH. 1989. Human Skeletal Remains (2nd edn).
Taraxacum: Washington, DC.
Venedikov I. 1963. Les fouilles de la necropole en
1947-1949. In Apoloniya razkopkite v nekropola na Apoloniya 1947-1949. Sofia.
Walker PL, Erlandson JM. 1986. Dental evidence from
prehistoric dietary change on northern Channel
Islands, California. American Antiquity 51: 375383.
Walker PL, Hewlett BS. 1990. Dental health, diet, and
social status among central African foragers and
farmers. American Anthropologist 92: 383398.
White CD. 1994. Dietary dental pathology and cultural change in the Maya. In Strength in Diversity,
Herring DA, Chan L (eds). Canadian Scholars
Press: Toronto; 279302.
Wols HD, Baker JE. 2004. Dental health of elderly
Confederate veterans: evidence from the Texas
State Cemetery. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 124: 5972.