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FletcherHelmreichMappingtheLondonArtMarket

Local/Global:MappingNineteenthCenturyLondon'sArtMarket
byPamelaFletcherandAnneHelmreich
withDavidIsraelandSethErickson

WededicatethisessaytothememoryofTallyKampen,whosefierceintellect,wisecounsel,andpioneeringspiritofadventurewillbe
sorelymissed.

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Introduction|TheLocal|TheGlobal|Conclusion|AbouttheProject
NOTE:TheillustrationsinthisarticleareviewableinInternetExplorer9,Firefox4andup,AppleSafariandGoogleChrome

Evermoreextensiveandeffectivenetworksoftransportation,communication,andfinanceinthesecondhalfofthenineteenth
centuryincreasedthemobilityofgoodsasneverbefore,fuelinganenhancedinternationalartmarket.Simultaneously,theexplosive
growthofmetropolitancenterscreatedlocalmarketsofunprecedentedscale.Thesedialecticalconditionswereparticularlysalientin
GreatBritainwhosematerialprogressandambitiontobecometheworkshopoftheworldwereondisplayintheGreatExhibitionof
theWorksofIndustryofAllNationsin1851,andnumerousinternationalfairsthereafter.ThepopulationofthecityofLondongrew
rapidlyfromover100,000in1801toovertwomillionbythe1850s.[1]Whilethecitywashometopoverty,slums,andfilth,itwas
alsothestagefordisplaysofspectacularwealth,manifestedinambitiousbuildings,suchasGilbertScott'sSt.PancrasHotelthe
luxuryretailtradeandtherichentertainmentcomplexcomposedofmusic,theater,andartthatattractednotonlyLondonersbut
alsovisitorsfromaroundtheglobe.
Inthisarticle,weexplorethedialoguebetweenthelocalandtheglobalartmarketsthatestablishedadistinctivedynamicforthe
BritishartworldasexperiencedinLondon.Ouranalysisderivesfromtwocomplementarydatasetsandvisualizations.Thefirstisa
mapplottingthelocationsofmajorLondoncommercialartgalleriesbetween1850and1914,authoredbyPamelaFletcherandDavid
Israel.ThesecondisananalysisbyAnneHelmreich,withtheassistanceofSethErickson,ofsalesdatadrawnfromthestockbooksof
Goupil&Cie,anditssuccessorBoussod,Valadon&Cie,whichcovertransactionsatthefirm'svariousbrancheslocatedinParis,
London,TheHague,Berlin,Brussels,andNewYorkduringtheyears18461919.[2]
CombiningthesetwoanalyticalfieldsthegeographyoftheLondonartmarketandthesocialandfinancialnetworkofaretailfirm
situatedwithinthatlandscapeisafirststeptowardourlargergoalofrepresenting,orperhapsmoreaccurately,modeling,thefull
warpandweftoftheLondonartmarket.Thefigureinthecarpet,weargue,cannotbecomprehendedwithoutasenseoftheoverall
designthesignificanceofanyonefirmwithinthefieldortheactionofanartistcannotbeascertainedwithoutafullunderstanding
ofthewhole.Butwhatdefinesthatwhole?Ourdiscipline'sincreasingrecognitionofthetransnationalconditionsthatshapedthe
production,reception,andconsumptionofartunderscorestheimportanceofthisquestion.[3]ItisparticularlyrelevantforLondon's
artmarket,whichwasoneofthemostrobustintheworldinthenineteenthcentury.Itsidentityasacentralhubinglobalnetworks
offinance,trade,communication,andEmpiremadeitacriticalnexusintheinternationalartmarket.Inthisarticle,weusethe
internationalreachofthefirmofGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cietodefinethegeographicboundariesofour"whole."Conceiving
thisarticleasbothasummationofourprojectstodateandabuildingblockforalargerstudyoftheartmarket,weanticipatethat
subsequentdatasetswillallowustoexpandthesegeographicparameters.
ThemethodsemployedhereallowustoestablishthedensityoftheLondonartmarket,aswellasmanyofthepathwaysthrough
whichartworks(aswellasartistsandbuyers)circulatedinandoutofthatmarket.Aswewilldemonstrate,thepowerfulpullofthe

Volume11,Issue3
Autumn2012

Articles
Local/Global:MappingNineteenth
CenturyLondon'sArtMarket
byPamelaFletcherandAnne
Helmreich
TheOldFeelingsofMeninaNew
Garment:JohnEverettMillaiss
HuguenotandtheMasculineAudiences
intheMidnineteenthCentury
byJoBriggs
CrossingsandDislocations:Toshio
Aoki(18541912),AJapaneseArtistin
California
byChelseaFoxwell
RepresentingEvolution:JensFerdinand
WillumsensFertilityandtheNatural
Sciences
byGryHedin
TheRadicalStyleandLocalContextof
CzannesMaryMagdalen(Sorrow)
byNancyLocke
MistyMediations:SpectralImaginings
andtheHimalayanPicturesque
byRomitaRay
BetweenPanoramicandSequential:
NadarandtheSerialImage
byPhilippeWillems
NewDiscoveries:AnUnknownFlemish
InteriorintheFourteenthCentury
LawrenceAlmaTadema
byJanDirkBaetens

city,asbotharobustlocalartmarketandthecriticalmeetingpointforawebofinternationalconnections,becameadecisive
influenceonthechoicesavailabletoartistsandpatrons.Byofferingalargerviewthanhithertopossible,ourapproachallowsusto
understandtheLondonartmarketinnewwaysasasetofpluralisticandelasticpossibilitiesratherthanrigidlycodifiedby
institutionalbodiessuchastheRoyalAcademy.Thesepossibilitiesbothopenedupthemarketmeaningthereweremultiple
pathwaysforartisticsuccessasmeasuredincommercialtermsandalsoexertedpressureonartistsseekingtosteeracourse
throughthisdenseandrapidlychanginglandscape.
Thearticlegrowsoutofourcollaborativeworkonthenineteenthcenturyartmarketoverthepasttenyears.Thisworkispartofthe
ongoingrevisionoftheparadigmsofthenineteenthcenturyartmarketestablishedbyHarrisonC.WhiteandCynthiaA.White's
groundbreakingstudyCanvasesandCareers:InstitutionalChangeintheFrenchPaintingWorld,firstpublishedin1965.[4]White
andWhitearguedthattheshiftfromasystemofstatesponsoredAcademicpatronagetoasystemofprivatedealerswas
characterizedbyacorrespondingshiftfromemphasizingthetrajectoryofAcademicprofessionalsuccessoverthecourseofacareerto
afocusonindividual,saleablecanvases.Theirpioneeringworkhasbeenbuiltupon,modified,andchallengedinrecentdecades.[5]
Acrossthisscholarshipthereisabroadconsensusonthebasictransformationsintheperiod:therelativelossofsignificanceofstate
sanctionedacademiesandtheincreasingimportanceofcommercialartdealersandgalleries,beginningroughlyaroundthe1850sand
becomingdominantbytheturnofthecentury.Thedetailsandsignificanceofthistrajectory,however,aresubjecttoconsiderable
debateand,itwouldseem,regionalvariation.
RecognizingthatframeworksderivedfromtheFrenchartmarketwereillsuitedtothatofGreatBritain,historiansofBritisharthave
beenworkingtoestablishanaccuratehistoricalrecordoftheBritishmarketandtodevelopanalyticalinterpretationsthatrevealits
richcomplexityandsignificance.ThesestudiesrangefromDianneSachkoMacleod'spioneeringstudyofpatronage,Artandthe
VictorianMiddleClass:MoneyandtheMakingofCulturalIdentity(1996),tothemorerecentinvestigationsofThomasM.Bayerand
JohnR.Page,TheDevelopmentoftheArtMarketinEngland:MoneyasMuse,17301900(2011)andtheauthorsinouranthology,
TheRiseoftheModernArtMarketinLondon,18501939(2011).[6]ThesestudiesdefinitivelyestablishthattheBritishartmarket,
particularlyaslocatedinLondon,wasshapedbydistinctiveconditions,includingthenewwealthcreatedbyBritain'srapid
industrialization,thestrongProtestantpredilectionsofmanyleadingartcollectors,theriseoftheoriesjustifyingthecommodification
ofart,andthetightlyknit,oftenoverlapping,andmutuallysupportivesocialcirclesofartists,critics,dealers,andcollectors.

http://www.19thcartworldwide.org/index.php/autumn12/fletcherhelmreichmappingthelondonartmarket

Reviews
KlimtYearinVienna:PartOne
ReviewedbyJaneVanNimmen
BOOKREVIEWS
EmpressEugnieandtheArts:Politics
andVisualCultureintheNineteenth
CenturybyAlisonMcQueen
ReviewedbyCameliaErrouane
EugneDelacroix,Journaleditedby
MichleHannoosh
ReviewedbyDavidO'Brien
RemakingRaceandHistory:The
SculptureofMetaWarrickFullerby
ReneAter
ReviewedbyCaterinaY.Pierre
TheBrushandthePen:OdilonRedon
andLiteraturebyDarioGamboni,
translatedbyMaryWhittall
ReviewedbySarahSik
InSearchofJulienHudson:FreeArtist
ofColorinPreCivilWarNewOrleans
editedbyWilliamKeyseRudolphand
PatriciaBrady
ReviewedbyTheresaLeiningerMiller
RobertKoehler'sTheStrike:The
ImprobableStoryofanIconic1886
PaintingofLaborProtestbyJamesM.

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FletcherHelmreichMappingtheLondonArtMarket
WiththeexceptionofBayerandPage,scholarshavegenerallyadoptedthecasestudyapproach,usingcarefullyselectedexamples
fromwhichtodrawbroaderconclusions.Giventhesheerquantitiesofdatainvolved,drawnfromthethousandsofexhibition
catalogues,auctionrecords,dealers'stockbooks,collectors'inventories,andpressaccountsthatdetailthedailyworkingsofthe
market,casestudyanalysesofindividualdealers,artists,galleries,orpatronsareastrategicresponse.Yetsomequestionscannotbe
answeredorevenposedwithoutusinglargerdatasetsandfindingwaystomineandvisualizeeffectivelythematerialtheycontain.
BayerandPage,forexample,bringthetoolsofeconomicstothestudyofLondon'sartmarket,basingmanyoftheirconclusionson
statisticalandeconometricanalysesofdatabasestheycomposedfromrecordsofauctionsales.[7]
Therecentgrowthofdigitalhumanitiesandonlinepublishinggreatlyfacilitatesthesekindsofprojects,andasecondaryaimofthis
articleistoexploretheopportunitiesandchallengestheonlineenvironmentcreatesforthestudyoftheartmarket.(Seealso"About
theProject.")TheonlineenvironmenthasalreadytransformedscholarshiponnineteenthcenturyBritishart,enablingunprecedented
accesstoprimarysourcematerials,carefullycuratedbyleadingexperts.Thefieldhasbenefittedtremendouslyfromsuchformative
projectsasTheWilliamBlakeArchive,TheCompleteWritingsandPicturesofDanteGabrielRossetti,VincentVanGoghTheLetters,
andTheCorrespondenceofJamesMcNeillWhistler.[8]Buildingonthesuccessofthelatterproject,PatriciadeMontfortiscurrently
embarkedonExhibitionCultureinLondon18781908,whichincludesrecordsforover3,000exhibitionsand900galleriesinLondon
between1878and1908,searchablebythenameofanexhibition,gallery,orperson,aswellasbykeyword.[9]
ThedisseminationofscholarshiponnineteenthcenturyBritisharthaslikewisebeentransformedbytheonlineenvironment,as
amplyillustratedbythewebpresenceofNineteenthCenturyArtWorldwide,anearlypioneerinonlinepublishing.Thejournal
RomanticismandVictorianismontheNet(RaVoN),begunin1996,expandeditsremitin2007toincludeVictorianliteratureandart.
RaVoNhasbecomeaplatformforexperimentsinnewformsofpublishing,includingBRANCH:Britain,Representation,and
NineteenthCenturyHistory.[10]Recently,TateBritainpublisheditsonlinescholarlycatalogue,TheCamdenTownGroupinContext,
whichlinkstogetheracollectionofscholarlyessays,primarysourcematerials,andthemuseum'sonlinecatalogueintoarich
thematicstudy.[11]Thelattertwopublications,inparticular,leveragethenewopportunitiespresentedbytheonlineenvironment:
BRANCH,forexample,usesaninteractivetimelinetoorganizeitsscholarlycontent,andCamdenTownGroupintegratesmultimedia
content.
Inthisarticle,weinvestigatenewmodelsofpublishingbyintegratingourtextwithaninteractivemapandzoomablevisualizationsof
networks.Thetechnicalquestionsandintellectualissueswereequallycomplex,asweworkedtowardaformofargumentationthat
allowsthevisualintheformofthemapandvisualizationstoconveyasmuchpersuasiveanalysisasthetext.Indeed,theutilityof
themapandvisualizationsmayextendbeyondourwrittenargumentinthattheycontaininformationthatotherscholarscanuseto
answerquestionsotherthanthoseposedhere.Webelievethisvisualmodeofargumentationisparticularlywellsuitedtoour
discipline,whichisaccustomedtoengagingwiththerhetoricofimagesandtheircapacitiesforcomplexmultivalency.[12]
Yetarthistoryisonlyintheinitialstagesofexploringhowdigitaltechnologiesandtheonlineenvironmentcantransformhow

Dennis
ReviewedbyGabrielP.Weisberg
EXHIBITIONREVIEWS
OsmanHamdiBeyandtheAmericans:
Archaeology,Diplomacy,Artand
ArchaeologistsandTravelersin
OttomanLands
ReviewedbyAnnikaK.Johnson
InfiniteJest:CaricaturefromLeonardo
toLevine
ReviewedbyPatriciaMainardi
MinneMaeterlinck:TheWorldof
GeorgeMinneandMauriceMaeterlinck
ReviewedbyLisaSmit
Milcendeau,lematredesregards
ReviewedbyGabrielP.Weisberg
LorenzoBartolini:Scultoredelbello
naturale
ReviewedbyCaterinaY.Pierre
GeorgeHendrikBreitner:Pioneerof
StreetPhotography
ReviewedbyAlbaCampoRosillo
Snapshot:PaintersandPhotography,
18881915
ReviewedbyAlbaCampoRosillo
ThePeredvizhniki:PioneersofRussian
Painting
ReviewedbyInessaKouteinikova
FordMadoxBrown:PreRaphaelite
Pioneer
ReviewedbyJanaWijnsouw
TheAmericanWingGalleriesfor
Painting,Sculpture,andDecorative
Arts,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,
NewYork
ReviewedbyIsabelL.Taube

scholarshipiscreated.[13]Inotherwords,ourfieldhasestablishedmodelsforonlineaccessanddistribution,butlacksrobust
examplesofscholarlyinterpretationpredicatedonnewmodesofanalysismadepossiblebytheinnovationsofthedigitalage.Applying
theinnovationsofthedigitalagehasbeentheprimaryfocusofthedigitalhumanities,whichcanbedividedintofourbroad
categories:textanalysis,spatialanalysis,networkanalysis,andimageanalysis.[14]Ourprojectcombinesspatialanalysis,specifically
historicalmapping,andnetworkanalysis,whichexaminesrelationshipsbetweenentities.[15]Inusingthesetools,weaimnotonlyto
harnessthecapacitiesofthedigitalenvironmentforinnovativeresearch,butalsotoexpandtheframeworkofourdiscipline.
Thedigitalhumanitiesallowustoincreasethequantityofinformationthatanyonescholarcananalyzesincecomputational
methodologiesarewellsuitedto"bigdata."Buildingonthisunprecedentedcapacity,weshouldbeabletoworkacrosstheboundaries
ofperiodizationandnationalbordersthatoftendefineourfieldofstudy.Visualizationsofspatialandnetworkanalyseshavethe
potentialtodemonstratethatlocalandglobalmarketsarenotreallyboundedordistinct,butratherareconstitutedofdifferentsetsof
overlappingandintersectingnetworksthatartistsaccessedandactivatedindifferentways.Thedigitalhumanitiesare,thus,well
alignedwitharthistory'srisingconcernwithmobilityandexchangeinatransnationalframework.
backtotop

Introduction|TheLocal|TheGlobal|Conclusion|AbouttheProject
TheLocal:TheLondonGalleryProject(PamelaFletcher)
Oneofthemostsignificantshiftsinthenineteenthcenturyartmarket,particularlyasconfiguredinGreatBritain,wastheriseto
dominanceofthecommercialgallery,asoldsystemsofaristocraticpatronageandAcademicprestigefadedinthefaceofagrowing
middleclassdemandforart,andanincreasinglydiverseandfarreachingretailmarket.AsIhavearguedelsewhere,thecommercial
artgalleryasadistincttypedistinguishedbothfromnonprofitorartistrunexhibitionsocieties,andfromshopssellingartamong
otheritemsofhomedcororartists'suppliesfirstemergedinLondoninthe1850sand1860s.Withinafewdecades,the
recognizablymoderngallerysystemwithitsprofessionaldealersandregularizedexhibitionspacesbecamethedominantforcein
thelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyfieldofculturalproduction,creatingnewrolesforartists,dealers,objects,and
audiences.Thenewgallerysystemwasthegroundonwhichnewformsofmodernartwerecreated,experienced,andjudged.
Moreover,Londonwasoneoftheleadinginternationalartmarketsoftheera.[16]Thusitshistoryiscentraltothestudyofmodern
artandtheformationofnewmodesofcirculation,exchange,andreception.

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Alternatively,IfyoudonothaveFlash,youcanwatchtheData"Layers"asmovies

BowdoinCollege9300CollegeStationBrunswick,ME040112077253697londongallery@bowdoin.edu

Howtocite:
PamelaFletcherandDavidIsrael,LondonGalleryProject,2007RevisedSeptember2012.
http://learn.bowdoin.edu/fletcher/londongallery/

BowdoinCollegewebsite:
Search|AZIndex|Directory

ArtHistoryDepartment

Fig.1,PamelaFletcherandDavidIsrael,LondonGalleryProject,2007,revised2012.ThemapaboveisstoredonaserveratBowdoin.edu,
http://learn.bowdoin.edu/fletcher/londongallery,andthisversionwillreflectfurtheradditionsorrevisionsmadetothedata.Anarchivedversion
ofthemapasof22October2012isavailableathttp://19thcartworldwide.org/fletcher/londongallery/.

TheLondonGalleryProject(fig.1)aimstodocumenttheriseandspreadofthecommercialgalleryacrossLondonfrom1850to
1914,visualizingtheformationofthisnetworkacrosstimeandspace.Themapplotsthelocationofcommercialgalleriesacross
London'sWestEnd,andchartsthepatternsoftheirgeographicaldistributionandmovementovertimeandinrelationtoothertypes
ofspacesnamely,exhibitionsocieties,artists'residences,museums,andotherretailvenues.[17]Thecategoriesatthebottomof
theinterfacerefertothedifferentlayersofdataplottedonthemap,andeachcanbeturnedonoroff.Thetimelinerunsfrom1850
to1914,andcanbesetatasingleyear,orautomaticallyrunthroughatemporaloverviewofwhenandwherecommercialgalleries
wereestablished.Clickingonanyindividualpointaccessesthelargerdatabaseofinformationaboutthatvenue,withricherentries
associatedprimarilywiththegallerylayer.
ThemaporiginatedasatooltoorganizeandunderstandthelargeamountsofdatauncoveredthroughmyresearchontheLondon
artmarket,butthevisualizationquicklysuggestednewinterpretationsandavenuesofinquiry.Inrecentyears,muchworkon
"spatialhumanities"or"geohumanities"hassuggestedthatbringingthecategoryof"space"andnewspatialtechnologiesintothe
studyofhumanitiescanhelpscholarsexplore"theinfluenceofphysicalorgeographicalspaceonhumanbehaviorandcultural
development."[18]Historicalmappingisoneofthemostobviouspointsofconnectionbetweengeographyandthehumanities,and
thenewtechnologiesofGeographicInformationSystems(GIS)havebeeneagerlyadoptedbymanyhistoriansasawaytoorganize
andvisualizelargeandcomplexdatasets.[19]BenjaminRay,ahistorianattheUniversityofVirginiaandtheauthorofa
documentaryarchiveontheSalemWitchTrials,whichincludesseveralinteractivemaps,suggestsoneverysimpleandsignificant
benefitofhistoricalmapping:"theeyeisaverygoodsorterofpatterns."[20]Manyhistorianshaverecognizedtheopportunities(and
challenges)suchvisualizationspresenttoestablishedmodelsofhistoricalwriting.DescribingtheanimatedmapsonUniversityof
Richmond'swebsiteVotingAmerica:UnitedStatesPolitics,18402008,historianEdwardL.Ayerswrites,"Thepatterns,intricateand
shifting,aretoocomplextoexplaineasilyinwordsorevennumbers.Wecanseemoreinthemapsthanwecaneasilysay."[21]Art
historianswouldseemuniquelypositionedtoengagewiththiskindofvisualargument.[22]
Sowhatkindsofpatternsmightemergefromananimatedmapthatmeasuresbothspaceandchangeovertime?InarecentNew
YorkTimesarticle,Rayrelateshow,whenlookingathisinteractivemapofwitchcraftaccusationsin1692,herealizedthattheyhad
spreadlikeanepidemic,aninsightwhichallowedhimtoreturntohishistoricaldatawithanewsetofquestionsaboutwhatwas
distincttothebehaviorofSalemjudgesin1692.[23]AsimilarpatternisvisibleintheLondonmap,withgalleriesslowlybeginningto
dottheWestEndlandscapeinthe1850sand1860sbeforegreatlyincreasinginnumbersinthe1880s.Bytheearlytwentieth
century,manygallerieshadcongregatedalongBondStreet,leadingacriticforthemagazineTruthtojokein1905thatBondStreet
was"gettingmoreandmorelikeoneelongatedpicturegallerytemperedbyteashops!"[24]Sowhydidgalleriesclusterinthisarea
duringthisperiodoftime?Andwhatkindsofmeaningsandassociationsdidbeinga"BondStreetgallery"convey?
Patternsofaffiliationandclusteringwithinthislargerconsolidation

begintoanswerthesequestions.Themostobviousistherelationship
betweenthesitesofcommercialartgalleriesandthelocationofthe
RoyalAcademyand,toalesserextent,otherexhibitionsocieties,such

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FletcherHelmreichMappingtheLondonArtMarket
astheRoyalSocietyofPaintersinWatercolours(asisvisiblerunning
thetimelinewith"gallery"and"exhibitionsociety"layersturnedon
[Fig.2].Inthe1850s,earlycommercialgalleries,suchasColnaghiand
theFrenchGallery,clusteredaroundtheHaymarketandtheEastern
endofPallMall,closetoTrafalgarSquare(thenthehomeoftheRoyal
Academy),totheSocietyforBritishArtistsonSuffolkStreet,andto
theBritishInstitutiononPallMall.WhentheAcademyrelocatedin
1867toBurlingtonHouse,adjacenttoPiccadillySquare,agradualflow
ofgalleriesuptowardthisneighborhood,extendingfurthertoOldand
NewBondStreetsisvisible,withclustersofgallerieseventually
surroundingtheAcademy.Othersignificantcommercialart
enterprises,suchastheFineArtSocietyandtheGrosvenorGalleryon
NewBondStreet,alsoseemedtohaveservedas"magnets,"asother
galleriesquicklyopenedintheirimmediatevicinityinhopesoftaking
advantageofthepublicityandfoottrafficgeneratedbythesetwo
majorvenues.[25]Therelationshipbetweenexhibitionsocietiesand
galleries,then,lookslikeastoryofmutualbenefit,ratherthana
competitivebattleultimatelywonbythecommercialrealm.Indeed,
theprevalenceofexhibitionsocietiesinLondonmaybeonereasonfor
thedevelopmentofsucharobustcommercialgallerysystem.[26]
Runningthesametimelinewithboththe"gallery"andthe"retail

Fig.2,TimelinewithGalleryandExhibitionSocietieslayersturned
on.PamelaFletcherandDavidIsrael,LondonGalleryProject,
2007,revised2012,http://learn.bowdoin.edu/fletcher/london
gallery/

shop"layersturnedon(Fig.3)providesanotherperspectiveonwhy
theWestEndprovedsoattractiveforgalleries.(Itshouldbenoted

thatthedataintheretaillayerisarepresentativesampleratherthan
acompletelistingofallshopsinthearea.)TheWestEnd,particularly
RegentStreetandBondStreet,wasalreadyafashionableshopping
areabythemidnineteenthcenturyandartgalleriesmovedinamong
otherpurveyorsofhighendgoods.[27]Manyofthegallerieswerenew
businessesbut,perhapsmoresignificantly,asprintsellersorframe
makersshiftedtheirattentiontosellingpaintingsthey,too,movedto
thisarea.[28]Forexample,whentheprintsellingfirmGoupilcameto
Londonin1857,itfirstopenedabranchintheStrand,anarea
dominatedbythesaleofbooksandprints.Asthefirmmovedintothe
businessofhandlingoriginalworksofart,thebranchmovedintonew
premisesinthesameareabutwithlargergalleryspace,andfinally
endeduponBondStreetaround1883.AsanadvertisementinThe
Year'sArtnoted,thefirmhad
longfeltthatthesituationoftheirlateGallerieshasbeen
foundtooinconvenienttoallowoftheirseeingtheirpatronsas
oftenastheywoulddesire,andtheytrustthat...their
removaltothemostfamousofWestendthoroughfares,will
insuretothemnotonlymorefrequentvisitorsfromtheir
presentnumerousamateurs,butalsothattheirNewGalleries
mayoffersufficientattractiontodrawallinterestedintheFine
Artstotheirestablishment.[29]
Thisgeographicalshiftisaphysicalmanifestationofthechangesinthe

Fig.3,TimelinewithGalleryandRetaillayersturnedon.Pamela
FletcherandDavidIsrael,LondonGalleryProject,2007,revised
2012,http://learn.bowdoin.edu/fletcher/londongallery/

arttradefromanearlierassociationwithprintsellingandthesaleof
antiquitiestothedefinitionofartaspartofluxuryretailtrade.
AstheGoupilGalleryadvertisementsuggests,aBondStreetlocationbothattractedacertainclassofvisitorsandcarriedasetof
desirableassociations.Tobea"BondStreetgallery"wastoclaimacertainkindofprestigeandtoidentifyone'smainbusinessasthe
hostingof"exhibitions,"distancingthegallerybrandintheory,ifnotalwaysinpracticefromother,moreobviouslycommodity
orientedformsofartdealing,suchasprintselling.ThedistinctionisvisibleinthewaythesegalleriesrepresentedthemselvesinThe
Year'sArt,anannualrecordoftheartworldviewedfromtheperspectiveofLondon.Itfirstappearedin1880,whentheLondonart
markethadreachedalevelofrobustnessanddensitythatdemandedawayfindingdevice.Eachvolumecompiledinformationonthe
majormuseums,exhibitionsocieties,artdealers,andartschoolsinLondon,withchaptersdevotedtoartinotherEnglishspeaking
countries.Onefascinatingaspectoftheselistingsisthatdealersandgallerieswereincludedintwoseparatelistings.Themost
comprehensivelistofartdealersisalongalphabetical"ListofFineArtDealersinLondonandtheProvinces,"whichissituatedinthe
backofthevolumejustbeforethe"DirectoryofArtistsandArtWorkers."Somebusinessesthatoperatedunderthenameofa
"gallery"wereincludedhere,butthevastmajorityofthelistconsistedofnamesofindividualdealerswithaddressesthroughoutthe
city.Therewasalso,however,amuchshorter,butmoredetailed,listingof"OtherLondonExhibitionsin[Year]"positionedearlierin
eachvolumewithinthesectiondevotedto"ArtInstitutionsintheMetropolis."Thissectionwasorganizedinorderofimportance,
beginningwiththeRoyalAcademyofArts,movingthroughthemajorandminorexhibitionsocietiessuchastheWatercolour
Societies,andthenendingwiththelisting"OtherLondonExhibitions,"whichexclusivelyconcernedcommercialgalleriesthathosted
rotatingexhibitionsthroughouttheyear.MostofthesebusinesseswerelocatedintheWestEnd,andmanyofthemincludedthe
term"Gallery"intheirnames.Thislistingofcommercialdealerspointstothesignifyingpracticesofabrandname,apublished
exhibitionschedule,andaWestEndlocation,whichweresharedattributesofacertainsubsetofartdealerswhoaimedatthe
emergingidentityofthe"BondStreetgallery."
Seenfromthisperspective,itisevidentthatthelargenumbersofcommercialgalleriesintheWestEndwereinsomesensean
interlockinginfrastructurewithacommonsetofnormsandpractices.AsIhavediscussedelsewhere,thesecommercialgalleries
blendedthenormsofexhibitionsocieties,mostnotably,theRoyalAcademy,withtheemergentretailpracticesofthelater
nineteenthcentury.Gallerieshostedseriesofrotatingexhibitionswithdedicatedcatalogues,privateviews,andadmissionfees,just
asexhibitionsocietiesdid.Unliketheseartists'groups,however,mostgalleriesalsoheldastockofworksofartavailableforsaleyear
round,heldregularshophours,andwerestaffedbysalesmen.[30]

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Thissharedsetofnorms,however,doesnotmeanthatallWestEndgalleriesworkedinthesameway,orcarriedthesamedegreeof
prestige,whatevertheiraspirations.Seeingthesepatternsofdistinctionisanotheroutcomeofworkingwithlargerdataincontrastto
individualcasestudies,whichtendtofocusonthebestknowngalleriesortheonesthatwereassociatedwiththemostfamous
artists.Indeed,perhapsparadoxically,mappingoutthelargernetworkofgalleriesultimatelyleadstoamoreevenlydistributed
attentiontoeachgallerywithinit,sincethelargerdatasetacknowledgesthediversityofspacesinLondoninwhichartwasshown
andforcesattentiontogalleriesandothersitesnotyetwellknowninthescholarshiponBritishart.Throughresearchingand
assemblingbackgroundinformationforeachgalleryidentifiedonthemap,Ibegansimultaneouslytorecognizeboththeshared
identityofthe"BondStreetgallery"createdbytheentirefieldofculturalproduction,andthemanydifferentformsofactualgallery
spacesandorganizationsthatmakeupthisfield.
Inadditiontothemorefamiliarandprestigiousgalleries,suchastheGrosvenorGallery,whichsuccessfullycombinedtheauraof
aestheticdisinterestednessandcommercialacumenthathascometocharacterizehighendartgallerieseversince,thereweremany
othersthatoperatedonaslightlylessloftylevel.Thesevenuesoperatedprimarilyasspacesforrent,withthegalleryname,logo,and
addressavailabletoaddthelusterofBondStreetsuccesstoanyartistwithenoughmoneytopayforit.TheGainsboroughGallery
wasonesuchvenue.Locatedat25OldBondStreet,thegallerywashometonumerousspecialexhibitions.Butanadvertisementin
theTimesin1891suggestedalessthanstringentapplicationprocess:"TheGainsboroughGallery,25,OldBondstreet,foroccasional
purposesorforaterm.ApplytoBriceandSons,BilliardTableBuilders,16Sohosquare."[31]ThePunchcartoonistHarryFurnissheld
ashowtherein1887,andinhismemoirshemadelightoftheaspirationssuggestedbythegallery'sname.Notingthatthespace
"wascalledforsomeinexplicablereasontheGainsboroughGallery,"herecountsatalethatratherquicklyexplainsit:"Oneafternoon
therearrivedavenerabledowagerinagorgeouscanarycolouredchariot,attendedbyhertwocolossalfootmen.Shesailedintothe
gallery,which,fortunatelyfortheoldandscantofbreath,wasonthegroundfloor,andslightlyraisingthepincenezonher
aristocraticnose,lookedaboutherwithanairofbewilderment.Then,goinguptomysecretaryshesaid,"Surely!thesearenotby
Gainsborough?'"[32]
Ashistoriesofindividualgalleryspacesandothervenuesarefleshedoutatthislevelofdetail,themapalsobeginstoprovidea
foundationonwhichtotracepatternsofcirculationwithintheLondonartworld.WilliamPowellFrithwasoneofthemostpopularand
successfulVictorianartists,andhissavvyuseoftheexhibitionsystembothsuggestsitspotentialforartistsandshedslightonits
workings.Frithbrokeintotheexhibitionsystemin1838withentriesattheSocietyofBritishArtistsandtheBritishInstitution,both
privateexhibitionsocieties,whilesupportinghimselfbypaintingportraitsinLincolnshire.[33]In1840hisfirstpicture(MalvolioBefore
theCountessOlivia)wasacceptedtotheRoyalAcademysummerexhibition,amajorcoupastheAcademywasatthismomentthe
primarypathtoprofessionalartisticsuccess,thewaytoattractaudience,salesandpublicity.FrithquicklyclimbedtheAcademic
ladderhewaselectedAssociateRoyalAcademicianin1845andRoyalAcademicianin1852,andtheimmensepopularityofhismajor
modernlifepainting,DerbyDay,attheAcademyin1858madehimahouseholdname.[34]Havingachievedthislevelofsuccessand
brandnamerecognition,hechosetoexhibithisnextmajormodernlifepainting,RailwayStation,withaprivatedealerratherthanat
theAcademy.DealerLouisFlatoupaidFrith4,500forthepainting,sketches,andengravingsrights,andlaterpaidtheartistan
additional750togiveuptherighttoexhibitthepaintingattheAcademy.[35]Theenormousprice(andthedecisiontoexhibitthe
paintingwithadealerratherthanattheAcademy)attractedsignificantpresscoverage,butFlatouusedtheAcademy'sprestigein
otherwaystopromotethework.[36]WhilehegenerallyusedanexhibitionspaceinCornhill,[37]heexhibitedtheRailwayStationin
"agallerypreparedforitintheHaymarket,neartoMr.Hogarth'sshop,"and,tellingly,closetotheRoyalAcademy,thenlocatedat
theNationalGalleryinTrafalgarSquare.[38]TheexhibitionatNo.7HaymarketopenedonSaturdayApril19,1862,twoweeks
beforetheprivateviewoftheAcademyexhibition,andFlatouevencopiedthefamousinstallationofaprotectiverailinginfrontofthe
paintingthathadbeenoneofthemostvisiblesignsofDerbyDay'ssuccessattheAcademyin1858.[39]
OneofFlatou'smaincompetitors,ErnestGambart,whomanagedtheFrenchGallery,lostnotimeincapitalizingonFlatou'ssuccess.
ThesamedaytheRailwayStationshowopened,DerbyDaywasadvertisedasonviewintheupperroomsoftheFrenchGalleryat
121PallMall,withineasywalkingdistanceofbothNo.7HaymarketandtheAcademy.[40]Thepresshelpfullyhighlightedthe
juxtaposition.AfterashortpieceonartcriticTomTaylor'sbookontheRailwayStation,anoticeintheArtJournalinJune1862
advisedreaders:"'TheDerbyDay,'anotherfamouspicturebyMr.Frith,withtheengravingbyM.Francois,nearlyfinished,isalso
exhibitedattheFrenchGalleryinPallMall.Visitorsmaythereforecomparethetwogreatworks."[41]TheAthenaeumalsoadvertised
theopportunityincludingasanoteof"FineArtGossip"thefactthat"ThepublicwillbeabletoinstituteacomparisonbetweenMr.
Frith'smostimportantworks,'TheRailwayStation,'describedbyuslastweek,and'TheDerbyDay,'byexhibitionofbothinthesame
neighborhood."[42]
Theprocessdidnotendhere.Overthenextyear,FlatoucontinuedtominethepossibilitiessetupbythegeographyofLondon'sart
market.Afterareported80,000viewerssawtheRailwayStationintheWestEnd,heclosedthatexhibitioninSeptember1862,with
theintention,astheArtJournalnoted,of"reopen[ing],webelieve,aboutChristmas,inthecity."[43]Accordingly,inDecember,the
ArtJournalreported"Mr.Frith'spictureofthe'RailwayStation'isnow'onview'atMessrs.HaywardandLeggatt's,[79]Cornhill,
whereitwill,nodoubt,attractasmuchattentionaswhenexhibitedattheWestEndofthemetropolis."[44]CornhillisintheCityof
London,anareaassociatedwithfinanceandhometotheBankofEngland,andbyexhibitinginthisarea,Flatoupresumablyhopedto
reachadifferentpoolofviewers.ByMarch1863,thepaintinghadreturnedtoHaymarket,undoubtedlytotakeadvantageofthe
openingofthespringartseason,withitsmanygallerysponsored"annualexhibitions"thatprecededtheannualAcademyinMay.
[45]Thecomplexpatternsofcirculationherewerenotunique.FrithwouldcontinuetoleverageAcademicandcommercialsuccess
forexample,exhibitinghisseriestheRoadtoRuinattheAcademyin1878,butthenbypassingtheAcademyin1880toexhibita
similarmoralizingseries,theRaceforWealth,attheKingstreetGalleryintheWestEnd.[46]Thelatterseriestouredtheprovinces
andthenreturnedtoLondon,whereit,liketheRailwayStation,wasexhibitedinadifferentneighborhoodforadifferentclientele:
"Mr.Frith's"RaceforWealth"isnowexcitingtheadmirationofcitymenforwhosebenefititisexhibitedinCheapside."[47]
Thesehistoriessuggesttwopointsworthemphasizing.First,theinterplaybetweentheAcademyandcommercialgalleryspaceswas
criticalforFrith'ssuccessheneverstoppedexhibitingattheAcademy,contributingamajorworkthereeachyearuntiltheyear
beforehedied.Notonlydidexhibitionsocietiesandgalleriesrelyononeanothertoattractanaudience,butartistscouldproductively
playthedifferenttypesofvenuesoffoneanother.Second,evenwithinthegallerysystem,therewasarangeofgeographical
opportunities,asexhibitionspacesindifferentareasofLondoncouldreachverydifferentaudiencesandsurroundtheworkofartwith
verydifferentkindsofassociations.
Insum,themapsuggestsaviewofLondonexhibitioncultureasitsownnetwork,distributedacrossmultiplesitesandoperatingwith
asharedsetofnorms,butwithastrongawarenessofhowstrategiesofdistinctioncouldprovidepublicityandattractaudiences.The
mapdrawsattentiontooneparticulargalleryidentitythatemergedinthisperiod:the"BondStreetgallery,"associatedwithluxury
goods,fashion,andaneliteclientele.Understandingboththesharedculturalidentityofthe"Bondstreetgallery"andthewiderange

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ofwaysthatindividualgalleriesrelatedtothiscategorycreatesaclearerpictureoftheoverallnetworkandallowsforamoreaccurate
understandingandevaluationofwhatanyindividualgalleryspacesignified.WhatdiditmeantoexhibitatDowdeswellsasopposedto
theGainsboroughGallery?OnBondStreetasopposedtointheCity?DuringtheAcademy'ssummerexhibitionoratanothertime
duringtheyear?Allofthesedistinctionscarriedmeaningwithinthelargernetworkofexhibitionculture,andgeographicaland
temporalmapsareonetoolthatcanhelporientuswithinthatlostlandscape.
backtotop

Introduction|TheLocal|TheGlobal|Conclusion|AbouttheProject
TheGlobal:Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CieandInternationalNetworks(AnneHelmreich)
JustasretailspaceschangedirrevocablythedynamicoftheLondonartmarket,therobustinfrastructureofinternationaltrade
concomitantlyalteredtheeconomicpossibilitiesthatLondonofferedforthesaleofart.Londonhadlongbeenpartofaninternational
tradeinartindeed,intheearlymodernperiodcontinentalartists,suchasHansHolbeinandPeterPaulRubens,achievedmore
renownthannativepainters.Butinthenineteenthcentury,thelureoftheLondonmarket,buoyedbythenation'srelativelylong
periodofprosperity,wasconsiderable.InSeptember1871,inthewakeoftheFrancoPrussianwar,EdgarDegaswrotetoJames
Tissot,whohadrecentlymovedtoLondon,"Whythedevildoyounotsendmealine?Theytellmeyouareearningalotofmoney.
Dogivemesomefigures."[48]ThemapofLondon'scommercialartgalleriesprovidesampleevidenceoftheopportunitiesthecity
affordedinthenineteenthcentury.
ItisthusnotsurprisingthattheGoupilfirm,aprintpublishingfirmfoundedinParisintheearlynineteenthcentury,quicklyalighted
uponLondonwhenundertakingitsplansforinternationalexpansion.[49]Reportedly,itfirstsentBelgianbornErnestGambartto
LondontoestablishabranchtherebutGambartdecidedtopursuehisownbusinessinterests.[50]Thefirmwasmoresuccessfulin
1857whenH.G.Gutekunst,originallybasedinStuttgart,establishedabranchintheStrandspecializinginsellingbooksandprints.
Around1846,thefirmopenedabranchinNewYork,whichitsoldtothebranchmanager,MichaelKnoedler,in1857,yetremaining
closelylinked.AbranchinBerlinopenedin1852and,in1861,GoupilboughtoutthebusinessofVincentvanGogh(uncleofthe
painter)inTheHague,whichthenjoinedtheinternationalpartnership.HendrikvanGoghwaschargedwithopeningabranchin
Brusselsin1863.InParis,in1870,thefirmopenedasecondretailpremisesatthefashionableaddressof2placedel'Opra,
supplementingthesalesroomat19,BoulevardMontmartrethathadopenedin1850,thusdiversifyingevenwithinthegeographyof
Paris.[51]
ThesecondmajorshiftthatoccurredintheGoupilbusinessmodeloverthecourseofthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturywas
theadoptionofsalesoforiginalworksofart,ratherthanjustreproductiveprints,followingthecommonpatternforcommercial
galleriesduringthisperiod.Thefirmfocusedlargelyontheprimarymarket,buildingrelationshipswithlivingartists,butalsoworked
inthesecondarymarketandwould,forexample,makepurchasesatauctions.RichardThomsonhasdescribedhowthefirmchanged
itsprofileoverthecourseofthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,movingfromacademicpainterssuchasJeanLonGrme
andWilliamAdolpheBouguereautocostumegenrepainterssuchasMariFortunyinthelate1860sand1870s.In1887the
companyrestructured,endingalongstandingcontractwithBouguereauinfavorofsigningacontractwithnaturalistpainterLon
AugustinLhermitte.Inthemid1880s,onceTheovanGoghhadtakenoverthemanagementoftheBoulevardMontmartrebranch,
thefirmenteredtheImpressionistmarket.Throughout,asThomsonnotes,landscapesandruralsceneswereasteady"staple,"
creatingfavorablemarketconditionsforartistssuchasCamilleCorot,whoseworkTheoknewwell.[52]
Thefirm'sownershipstructurealsochangedoverthecourseofthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturythiswaseventually
reflectedinthedecisiontorenamethefirmBoussod,Valadon&Ciein1884.InLondon,whilethisnewname(nowAnglicizedas
Boussod,ValadonandCompany)wasusedforbusinesstransactions,theretailspaceretainedthenameGoupilGallery.TheGreat
Wardrewseveraldecadesofexpandinggrowthtoadramaticclose,andtheParishousedidnotsurvive.TheLondonbranch,however,
continuedbecausemanagerWilliamMarchantpurchasedthebusinessin1901fromtheParisfirmandhisfamilycontinuedto
managetheGoupilGalleryinLondonuntiltheSecondWorldWarwhenthebusinesswasdestroyedbybombing.
ThefirmofGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cieisthusanexcellentlensthroughwhichtoaddressmylargerresearchquestionabout
theroleplayedbyLondonintheinternationalizationoftheartmarketoverthecourseofthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.
Whileafairlyrobustpictureoftheexchangesbetweenartists,particularlybetweenthoselocatedinFranceandthoseinGreatBritain,
hasemerged,ingreatpartthroughtheworkofscholars,suchasAnnaGruetznerRobinsandRichardThomson,lesswellunderstood
aretheexchangesbetweeninstitutions,inwhichIincludedealersandgalleries.[53]Moreover,whilethesignificanceofGoupil&
Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CieforFrenchartiswellrecognized,itsimportancefortheLondonartmarketislesswellstudied.But,infact,
ithandledartistswhoweredecisiveforthecourseofBritishmodernism,includingGeorgeClausen,PhilipWilsonSteer,andJames
McNeillWhistler.[54]
InmystudyoftheGoupilGalleryoverthepastnineyears,Ihaveadoptedavarietyofapproaches,includingbiography,inexploring
thesignificanceofgallerymanagerDavidCroalThomsonhistoriography,inexaminingThomson'swritingsinthecontextofthe
emergenceofarthistoryinGreatBritainandsocialhistoricalanalysis,inanalyzingthefirm'sstrategiesinnegotiatingbetweenlocal
andinternationalmarkets.[55]
Forthesestudies,thestockbooksofGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,nowheldbytheGettyResearchInstitute,werean
invaluableresource.Whilelikelytobeanincompleterecordofthefirm'sactivitiesonaninternationalscale,sincetheindividual
branchesalsokepttheirownstockbooksandconsideredaspectsoftheirbusinessautonomousfromthemainhouse,thesestock
booksnonethelessconstituteanunparalleledrecord.Thefifteenvolumescovertheyearsfrom1854to1919andincludeover
40,000transactions.[56]
Weareaccustomed,asarthistorians,toavailourselvesofsuchresourceswhen
conductingprovenanceresearch,tryingtotrackdownthehistoryofaparticular
object.Butthequantityofdataheldbythestockbookstantalizinglysuggestsother
possibilities,whichcanbeillustratedbyexploringfurtheroneofthemostfamous
transactionshandledbythefirm.Whistler'sportraitofhismother,Arrangementin
GreyandBlack:PortraitoftheArtist'sMother(1871Fig.4),isnowinthecollections
oftheMused'Orsaythankstothebrokeringeffortsofthefirm.In1891,Thomson,
whowouldgoontoorchestrateWhistler's1892retrospectiveatthefirm'sLondon
branch,proposedtotheParismainhousethattheportraitbeofferedtotheMusedu
Luxembourg(whosecollectionshavesincebeenabsorbedintothed'Orsay).To

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facilitatethis,thepaintingwasshippedfromLondontoParisandputondisplayinthe
firm'sgalleries,andlocalcritics,particularlyGustaveGeffroyandStphaneMallarm,
mounteda"campaign"toproposetheacquisition,which,aftermuchdiscussion,was
finalizedbythecloseoftheyear.[57]

Fig.4,JamesMcNeillWhistler,Arrangementin
GreyandBlack:PortraitofthePainter's
Mother,1871.Oiloncanvas.Mused'Orsay,
Paris.

Buthowdoesourunderstandingofthisepisodeoftenusedtoheraldtheeventualascensionofmodernismintothesacredsphereof
themuseumchangeifitbecomesclearthatthiswasnottheonlyinstanceofamuseumacquiringartfromGoupil&Cie/Boussod,
Valadon&Cie.?AsurveyofthedatabasecompiledbytheGettyResearchInstitutefromthefirm'sstockbooksrevealsthatthe
followinginstitutionsalsopatronizedthefirm:LeedsArtGallery,ManchesterArtGallery,thePrestonArtGallery,theNationalGallery
ofVictoria(Melbourne),theNationalGallery(Berlin),theLouvreMuseum,theDordrechtsMuseum,andtheNationalMuseumofFine
Arts(BuenosAires).TounderstandandassessmorefullytheLuxembourg'saction,itwouldbeproductivetocomparetheacquisition
ofWhistler'scanvaswithothermuseumacquisitionswithinthefirm'snetwork.Justasthesignificanceofanyonecommercialart
gallerychangeswhensituatedwithinthelargerlandscapeoftheLondoncommercialandartisticfields,theconsequenceofanyone
transactionalterswhenpositionedwithinalarger,contextualdomain.
Producingthisdomain,createdoutofthousandsuponthousandsoftransactions,isdifficultwithtraditionalarthistorical
methodologies,whicharearguablybettersuitedfortheinvestigationofindividualorsmallgroupingsofartworksand/orartists
becausetheyprivilege"closereading."TostudythewholeoftheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cienetworkrequiresadifferent
intellectualframework,whatliteraryscholarFrankMorettihasdescribedas"distantreading,"whichallowsthescholartolookat
"unitsthataremuchlargerorsmallerthanthetext."Morettiaddsthat"ifwewanttounderstandthesysteminitsentirety,we
mustacceptlosingsomething,"butjustifiesthislossbypointingouthowdistantreadingholdsthepromise,byallowingalarger
corpusthanbeforetobestudied,ofproducinganalyses"thatgoagainstthegrainofnationalhistoriography."[58]
Howtoachievethisdistantview,howtoshiftfromtheindividual,tellingtransaction,toanalyzethebehaviorandhistoryofa
networkandthestrategiesembeddedwithinit?Toanswerthesequestions,Iturnedtothemethodologyofnetworkanalysis,which
allowsmetostudywithgreaterprecisionthenatureoftherelationshipbetweenLondonandtheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie
networkandthepossibilitiesthisrelationshipengendered.Toadoptthismethodologyrequiresconceptualizingthemarketasatriadic
relationshipbetweenartist,buyer,andartdealer.Thetransactiontheactofconsigning,exchanging,selling,orbuyingaworkofart
formsthelinksbetweentheseagents.Theartistsellsorconsignstheworkofarttotheartdealer,thusestablishingarelationship,
andthebuyeracquirestheworkofart(orexchangesoneworkforanotherorsellsbacktothedealer),establishingyetanother
relationship.Inthelanguageofnetworkanalysis,theartist,buyer,anddealerarenodesandthetransactionsareedgesorties.
InordertoassessLondon'srolewithinthisnetwork,thenetworkanalysisdiscussedherehasbeenorganizedaroundthe
metropolitanlocationswithintheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciecorporatestructureaswellasothersignificantlocationsof
sales,suchasmajorexhibitionsorauctions.Thesedifferingsitesreflectculturalpracticesassociatedwithsellingart.InLondon,for
example,bythetimeGoupilopeneditspicturegalleryinthecity,thesystemofrotatingexhibitionstoattractclientelewaswell
established,whereasinTheHaguesuchexhibitionswerenotcustomarysothattheGoupilbranchtherefocusedmuchattentionon
sendingworkstolargeinternationalfairsandexhibitions,aswellasothervenues,particularlyinAmsterdam.[59]Inordertoidentify
broadpatterns,thenetworkanalysisfocusesonartistsandbuyersassociatedwiththeseparticularlocations(asopposedtoindividual
worksofartthatchangedhandsatthesesites).Forthesakeofsimplicity,thenameGoupilhasbeenusedthroughouttheversionof
thestockbookdatabaseusedhereandthevisualizationsproducedfromthedatabase.
Mostanalysesofnetworksrelyheavilyonvisualizationasameansbywhichtobothinterpretanddisseminateresults.This
methodologythusseemsparticularlywellsuitedforarthistoricalapplication,givenourdiscipline'sreadycapacityforvisual
argumentation.Inthevisualizationsofthenetworksshownhere,thedatahavebeenprocessedaccordingtothefollowingprotocols:
thegreaterthenumberoftransactionsrelatedtoaparticularlocation(ornode),thelargerthatnode.Therelativethicknessofthe
edgesbetweenanytwonodesreflectsthenumberoftransactionsaswellthegreaterthenumberoftransactions,thethickerthe
line.Inaddition,nodesarebroughtintocloseproximitytoreflectacloserelationshipmeaningarelativelyhighernumberof
transactionsbetweenthem.(Here,inordertoensurethelegibilityofthelabels,Ihaveappliedalabeladjustlayoutafteraninitial
forcelayoutsothattheinitialproximityofnodeshassometimesbeenaltered.)Networkanalysisalsoallowsforvariousmodesof
algorithmicanalysis,suchasmodularity(awayofdetectingsubcommunitieswithinthenetwork),closeness,andbetweenness
(whichmeasurethedistancesbetweennodesinthenetworkinordertoassessthesignificanceofanyonenodewithinthenetwork),
andpagerank(whichfunctionslikeawebsearchenginetoassessthenumberoflinkstoandfromaparticularnode).[60]Ihave
found"betweennesscentrality"tobeparticularlyhelpfulinassessingLondon'srolewithintheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie
networksincebetweenness"measurestheextenttowhichanagentcanplaythepartof'broker'or'gatekeeper'withapotentialfor
controloverothers"andrevealshowdependenttherestofthenetworkisonthatagentornode.[61]Whenthisalgorithmisrunin
thenetworktoolusedhere,Gephi,thosenodesthatexhibitthehighestdegreeof"betweennesscentrality"meaningtheyarethe
closesttoothernodesinthenetworkbecauseofthestrengthofthetiesbetweenthemarerenderedlargerinscalethanothers.In
thesevisualizations,yellownodesmarktransactionlocationswithintheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cienetworkbluenodes
representclientsandrednodesindicateartists.
Ishouldhastentoaddthatinmanycasesthevisualizationsraiseanumberofquestionsthatoftensendmebacktothestockbooks
andotherprimaryandsecondarysources.Inthesectionthatfollows,Iamusingthevisualizationstosupportabroadnarrativeabout
thenatureoftheLondonbranchwithintheoverallGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cienetwork,includingtheartistsitfavoredand
promoted,andtheindividualsthatpatronizedit.Evenwithinthatnarrative,anumberofperplexingquestionsraisedbythe
visualizationsremainunanswered:forexample,whydoestheLondonbranchshowupassuchastrongpatronofitselfin1875
perhapsthebranchhadtoacquireworksthatwereinitiallyplacedthereonconsignment?Otherviewersofthesevisualizationsare
likelytobringtheirownquestionstobearuponthemandderiveevenfurtherqueries.
TheopeningoftheLondonbranchin1857doesnotappearinthestockbooksheldby
theGettyResearchInstitute,anabsenceexplainedbybranch'sfocusonprintsand
bookswhereasthesestockbooksgenerallyregistertransactionsconcerningpaintings
andsculpture.By1865,theLondonbranchappearsinthenetwork,butisnotnearly
asrobustas,forexample,theGoupilbranchesatBoulevardMontmartreinParis,The
Hague,orBrussels,norisitwellintegratedinthatitisnotlinkedcloselywithanyof

Clickontheiconsbelowtoenlargeeach
visualization,andthenzoominoroutandpan
toexploretheentirenetwork.Toclose,click
theiconinthetoprightofeachwindoworuse
theescapekey.

theotherbranches(fig.5).Thisbecomesreadilyapparentwhenbetweenness
centralityismeasuredandthenodesrepresentingtheParis,TheHague,andBrussels
branchesemergeasthethreelargest,faroutscalingLondon,whichiseven
outstrippedbyGoupil'sauctionsinRotterdam(fig.6).

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ThisperhapsisnotasurprisetheBoulevardMontmartrebranchwaswellestablished
by1865andTheHaguebranchwasbuiltonanalreadysuccessfulbusiness,whereas
theLondonbranchwasfindingitsway.ThepainterVincentvanGogh,forexample,
whenhewasworkingfortheLondonbranch,reportedtohisbrotherTheoin1873,
"we'vehadquiteafewpaintingsanddrawingsandsoldalotofthem,butwestillhave
alongwaytogo,ithastobecomemoresolidandlastingandsubstantial.Ibelieve

thatthere'sstillalottodohereinEngland,butitcan'tbedoneallatonce,andof
coursethefirstthingweneedistohavegoodpaintings&c.,andthatwillbequitea

Fig.5,Goupil&Cienetwork,1865.

feat."[62]
WhenVincentvanGoghwasassociatedwiththeLondonbranchofGoupil,hewas
workingforCharlesObach,whosucceededGutekunstinmanagingthebusiness.
Obachsuccessfullygrewthebusiness,eventuallyacquiringanewretailspaceat25
BedfordStreetbettersuitedfordisplayingoriginalworksofart.Thisgalleryopenedin
1875anditappearstohavehadadramaticimpactonthescaleoftheLondon

branch'soperations.VanGoghreportedwithgreatenthusiasmabouttheinaugural
exhibition:"Ourgalleryisnowfinishedandit'sbeautiful,wehavemanybeautiful
thingsatthemoment:JulesDupr,Michel,Daubigny,Maris,Israls,Mauve,Bisschop,

Fig.6,Goupil&Cienetwork,1865,
betweennesscentralitymeasured.

&c.We'regoingtoholdanexhibitioninApril.MrBoussodhaspromisedtosendusthe
bestthatcanbehad:MalariabyHbert,ThecliffbyJ.Breton,&c."[63]
Asthemeasureofbetweennesscentralityreveals,in1875theLondonbranch
outstrippedtheBoulevardMontmartrebranchandwasonlyovershadowedbythe
branchatTheHague(fig.7).CloseranalysisofthenetworksrevealsthattheLondon
andTheHaguebrancheswerecloselylinkedwhenthevisualizationisfilteredtoshow
thosebuyersandartistswhohadmorethanonetransactionwithaparticularbranch,
thebondsbetweenLondonandTheHagueareevenmoreemphasized(fig.8).What
thisalsosuggestsisthatwhileMr.BoussodoftheParismainhousehad"promised"

goodstoLondon,itwas,infact,TheHaguethatdelivered.
TheHaguebranch,atthistime,wasmanagedbyHermanusGijsbertusTersteeg,a

Fig.7,Goupil&Cienetwork,1875,
betweennesscentralitymeasured.

closeacquaintanceoftheVanGoghfamilywhomthepainterVincentvanGogh
describedas"apersonalfriendof[Anton]Mauveandmanyothers,andhehasthatje
nesaisquoithatwinsartloversover."[64]Tersteeghadassumedhispositionin1867
anddecidedtofocusonyounger,lesserknownartists.WhenVincentvanGoghhad
beenstationedwithGoupilinParis,hehadcultivatedrelationshipswiththeyoung
Dutchartistsstudyingthere,suchasJacobMaris,MatthijsMaris,andD.A.C.Artz,
andTersteegsubsequentlycapitalizedontheseconnections.Helaterclaimedthathe

hadtheentireoeuvresofMauveandJacobMaris"athisdisposalforanumberof
years."[65]ThestarsofTheHaguebranchofGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,by
the1880s,wereJacobMaris,Mauve,Artz,andJozefIsrals.Manyoftheseartists
werealsofavoredinBritain,particularlyIsralsandWillemMaris,andtheGoupil

Fig.8,Goupil&Cienetwork,1875,filteredto
showonlythosebuyersandartistswhohad
morethanonetransactionwiththefirm.

Gallerybecameamajorsource.[66]But,itshouldbemadecleartheLondongallery
wasfollowingon,ratherthaninnovatingtaste.
Isralshadachievedrenownin1862whenhissubmissiontotheInternationalExhibitionof1862inLondon,FishermanCarryinga
DrownedMan,waspopularlyreceivedandeventuallyacquiredbytheLondonaccountantAlexanderYoung,whosewidowdonatedit
totheNationalGallery,London.[67]Bythe1870s,Londonemergedasthe"leadingcentre"fortheacquisitionofIsrals'swork.[68]
Indeed,asDieuwertjeDekkershasestablished,IsralsincreasinglyfocusedontheBritishmarket,particularlyLondon,turninghis
backonhisnativemarket.[69]CollectorJamesStaatForbes,arailwayentrepreneurwhohadlivedintheNetherlandsearlyinhis
careerandpatronizedGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,helpedtostimulatetheoverseasmarketforworkbyIsralsashe
aggressivelyamassedalargecollectionandevenspeculatedbysellingoffportionswheneconomicallyadvantageoustohim(and
perhapsGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cieaswell).[70]
WillemMariswastheyoungerbrotherofJacobMarisandMatthijs(Matthew)Maris,bothofwhomworkedcloselywithGoupil&
Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie.JacobMarisquicklyearnedareputationasapleinairpainterofruralscenesthatowedadebtbothtothe
workofhiselderbrothersandthatoftheBarbizonSchoolinFrance.ManycollectorswhofavoredIsralsalsopatronizedWillemMaris,
asinthecaseofJ.C.J.Drucker,aDutchfinancier.DruckermovedtoLondonin1883[71]and,in1912,donatedWillemMaris's
DucksAlightingaPooltotheNationalGallery,London.[72]He,likeForbes,wasanimportantplayerintheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,
Valadon&Cienetwork.
Thebehaviorofthesepatronssuggeststhatpursuinganartworktrumpedmaintaininganexclusiverelationshipwithanyparticular
branchwithinthefirm'snetwork.Young,forexample,clearlyfavoredtheLondonbranch,asindicatedbythethicklinesothickit
hasbecomearectanglelinkinghimtothecityinthisvisualization,buthealsopatronizedTheHague,Parisl'Opra,andNewYork
branches(fig.9).ForbesalsoworkedheavilywiththeLondonbranch,registeredbythethick,longrectanglebindinghimtothat
location,butnearlyasmuchwithTheHagueandParisl'Oprabranches,perhapsasaresultofhisspeculativeactivities(fig.10).

Fig.9,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,filtered
tofocusonAlexanderYoung.

Fig.10,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,
filteredtofocusonJamesStaatForbesintheentirenetwork.

By1883,asthetasteforTheHagueSchoolandBarbizonschoolartistswithwhomGoupilwascloselyaffiliatedbecameevenstronger

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inBritain,theLondonbranchbecameevenmorerobust.ThisbecomesimmediatelyevidentinavisualizationoftheGoupilnetworkof
1883whichrevealsthatLondonis,infact,slightlymoresignificantwithinthenetworkthantheParisianbranchesatBoulevard
Montmartreorl'OpraorthebranchatTheHague(fig.11).Inthisyear,theLondonbranchmovedfromBedfordStreettoNewBond
Street,puttingitincloserproximitytomanyofitscompetitorsandendowingthefirmwithgreatervisibilitywithinthemarket.The
greaterprominencetheGoupilGalleryobtainedinLondonwithitslargerspaceanddesirableNewBondStreetaddressisreflectedin
itsascendingpositionwithintheoverallcorporatestructureofthefirm.Infact,in1883,Londonwasresponsibleformore
transactionsthananyoftheotherbranchesofthefirmshownhere.
Again,artistsweresharedacrossthenetwork,asthisvisualization,whichfocusesonthoseartistswiththegreatestnumberof
transactions,makesclear(fig.12).Broadlyspeaking,mostoftheseartistswereassociatedwitheitherTheHagueSchool(e.g.,Jacob
Maris,WillemMaris,andAntonMauve),ortheBarbizonSchool(e.g.,JulesDupr,ConstantTroyon,andCharlesDaubigny).David
CroalThomsondidmuchtopopularizetheBarbizonSchoolinGreatBritainheauthoredaseriesofarticlesontheartistsinthe
MagazineofArtandthenorganizedaseriesofonepersonexhibitionsattheGoupilGallery.HepositionedCorotaspartofthisschool
ofartistsandcapitalizedontheseartists'growingpopularitywithinGreatBritain.[73]

Fig.11,Goupil&Cienetwork,1883,betweennesscentrality
measured.

Fig.12,Goupil&Cienetwork,1883,filteredtoshowonlythose
buyersandartistswhohadmorethanthreetransactionswiththe
firm.

Yet,whereastheBritishmarketincreasinglyprivilegedtheDutchHagueschool,thebehavioroftheFrenchBarbizonartistsCorot,
Daubigny,Dupr,andTroyontellsadifferentstory(figs.13,14,15,16).Lookingattheoverallnetworkovertheentire
chronologicalframe,thebranchatl'Oprawasthemostsignificantpointfortransactionsassociatedwiththeseartists,withLondon,
TheHague,andNewYorkjockeyingforsecond,third,andfourthposition.

Fig.13,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,filteredto
focusonCamilleCorot.

Fig.14,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,filteredto
focusonCharlesDaubigny.

Fig.15,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,filteredto
focusonJulesDupr.

Fig.16,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,filteredto
focusonConstantTroyon.

In1894,theLondonbranchmovedagain,thistimetoalocationonRegentStreet
thatgavethefirmanevenlargersequenceofgalleries.Theexpectation,basedonthe
previouslinksbetweengeographiclocationinLondonandrobustnesswithintheGoupil
&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cienetwork,isthatthismovewouldleadtoyetanotherrise
inscaleandvolumefortheLondonbranch(fig.17).Butthevisualizationofthe
networkrevealedanunexpectedresulttheappearanceofasubstantialnodeinNew

York,whichisdistinctfromKnoedler's.Thissentmebacktotherelevantsecondary
literature.Dekkers,whohascloselystudiedTheHaguebranch,brieflymentionsthata
branchofBoussod,Valadon&CiewasfoundedinNewYorkin1887[74]thisis

Fig.17,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,
1894,betweennesscentralitymeasured.

confirmedbyreportsintheNewYorkTimes.OnNovember15,1887thenewspaper
praisedtheappearanceofa"newartbranchhousewhichMessrs.Boussod,Valadon,&Co.,successorstoGoupilandCo.,havejust
openedat303Fifthavenue."Theauthordrewattention,inparticular,tothedisplaystrategiesadoptedthere:theproprietors
eschewedalargedisplaywindowandinsteadjudiciouslydisplayeda"limitednumberofpaintingsbythebestmasters"inaninterior
thatresembledatastefullyappointedparlor.Thisaesthetic,theauthorexplained,followedthemodelof"thebestarthousesin
Europe,"indicatingthatBoussod,Valadon&Ciewasexportingnotonlyartbutalsostrategiesforretailingart.[75]
InLondon,by1894,DavidCroalThomsonhadextendedhisstockbeyondtheDutchandFrenchartworksmadeavailabletohim
throughtheBoussod,Valadon&Cienetwork,anddevelopedarosterofartistsworkinginLondon,includingWhistler,Clausen,Steer,
andArthurPeppercorn,allofwhomhadtiestoprogressiveFrenchartthroughtheirtrainingandsubsequentcareertrajectories.[76]
In1894,therotatingrosterofexhibitionsincludeddisplaysoftheworkofSteer(whostudiedinParisandwasdeeplyengagedinthe
practicesassociatedwithImpressionism),HamiltonAid(aFrenchbornwriterandamateurartistlivinginLondon),Dutchartist

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AntonMauve,andBritishwatercoloristHerculesBrabazon(whowaschampionedbyJohnSingerSargent).[77]
LiketheFrenchBarbizoncircle,thoseartistsbasedinLondonsuchasClausen,Peppercorn,WalterSickert,andSteerlargelyfound
theirmostrobustmarketathome(figs.18,19,20,21).Whistleristheexception,servingatripartitemarketofLondon,Paris,and
NewYork(fig.22).ButtheprominentroleofLondonwithinWhistler'snetworkrevealsthat,despitehisclaim,inalettertoThomson
in1895,that"Idon'twantasinglecanvass[sic]ofminetoremaininEngland"(wherepatronswereprofitinghandsomelyonselling
worksacquiredearlierinWhistler'scareer),thecitywasnonethelessasignificantlocusthroughouthiscareer.[78]
In1901,aroundthetimethatMarchantboughtouttheLondonbranchfromthecorporatemanagement,thebranchwashighly
robust,butovershadowedbyNewYorkandTheHague(fig.23).TheLondonbranchcontinuedtoshareartistswithotherbranchesin
thenetwork,privilegingTheHagueSchoolartists,includingBernardBlommers,ThophiledeBock,JacobMaris,Mauve,andWillem
Roelofs,butretainingitslongstandinginterestinCorot.

Fig.18,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,
filteredtofocusonGeorgeClausen.

Fig.19,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,
filteredtofocusonArthurPeppercorn.

Fig.20,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,filtered
tofocusonWalterSickert.

Fig.21,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,
filteredtofocusonPhilipWilsonSteer.

Fig.22,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,18461919,
filteredtofocusonJamesMcNeillWhistler.

Fig.23,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,1901,betweenness
centralitymeasured.

Insum,theactivitiesoftheLondonbranchofGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CierevealthattheLondonmarketwasporousand
pluralistic,abletosustainthecareersofbothnativebornandforeignartiststhatflowedthroughthefirm'snetwork.Moreover,we
shouldbemindfulthattheboundariesofthegeographytracedoutbytheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cienetworkexceedsthat
ofthelocationsoftransactions.Firstly,theclientsthatpatronizedthevariouslocalesrepresentedintheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,
Valadon&CienetworkweremobileandtheirhomeaddressesindicateawidespreadterrainbeyondEuropeandGreatBritain:in
NorthAmerica,forexample,Boston,Buffalo,Cincinnati,Cleveland,Minneapolis,Montreal,NewOrleans,Philadelphia,Pittsburgh,Saint
Louis,andSanFranciscoinSouthAmerica,BuenosAires,Santiago,andSaoPauloandintheEmpire,Calcutta.[79]Secondly,other
artdealerswereamongstthemostactivebuyersintheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cienetwork.Thismeansthattheartworks
thatflowedthroughthisnetworkcouldbemobilizedtocirculateevenmorewidelythroughtheactionsofthesedealers,who
representedabroaddiversityofmetropolitanlocations,primarilyinGreatBritain,Europe,andNorthAmerica.But,intriguingly,many
ofthesefirmswerelocatedinthesameurbancentersasweretheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciebranches.Forexample,in
London,thefollowingcommercialartgalleriesacquiredworkthroughthenetwork:ArthurTooth&Sons,Colnaghi,DanielCottier,
Dowdeswells,theFineArtSociety,ErnestGambart,HollenderandCremetti(whomanagedtheHanoverGallery),Obach,Thomas
AgnewandSons,ThomasMacLean,andWallisandSons.Moreover,thesefirms,likemanyotherbuyersinthenetwork,patronized
morethanonebranchofGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie.
ThissuggeststhatoneofthesignificantconclusionsdrawnfromthemappingofLondon'sartgalleriesthattherelationshipbetween
exhibitionsocietiesandgalleriesisastoryofmutualbenefitcanbeextendedtothecommercialrealm.Dealersbenefittedfromthe
presenceofvigorouscompetition,whichprovidedyetanothermarketfortheirgoods.ThisalignswithBayerandPage'sobservation
thatintheVictorianperiod,dealersheavilyavailedthemselvesofauctionhousesnotonlytoconsignworksbutalsotopurchase.[80]
BayerandPagespeculatethattheseactionsmayhavebeen"intendedtoinfluencethepublic'sperceptionofthestateofthemarket
forspecificartists'works."[81]ThisinteractiveandinterdependentfieldofcompetitionmayalsoexplainwhysomuchBritishart,at
thefirstpointofsale,didnotleavetheshoresofGreatBritain,sincewithintheboundariesofLondonitselfcouldbefoundahighly
functioningmarket.Thismarketcouldreadilyabsorbandredistributewhatwasmadeavailablewithinitsperimeters,aswellas
importandexportbeyondthecity'sborders.AsinthecaseofthemapofLondon,theseconclusionsrestuponpatternsonly
discerniblewhenlargedatasetsareexamined.
backtotop

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Introduction|TheLocal|TheGlobal|Conclusion|AbouttheProject
Conclusion:TheLocalandtheGlobal
HenryJames,inhisnovellaTheFigureintheCarpet(1896),describesanongoingdisputebetweenthefirstpersonnarratorandthe
criticGeorgeCorvickoverthemeaning,the"generalintention,"ofthebookswrittenbytheirfriendHughVereker.Themetaphorof
thefigureinthecarpetisdeployedtodescribetheprocessofsearchingformeaninghiddeninthetext,lookingfor"thestringthe
pearlswerestrungon,theburiedtreasure."Atonepointinthenarrative,MissErmereportsthatCorvickhasdiscoveredthe
treasure:"It'sthethingitself,letseverelyaloneforsixmonths,thathassimplysprungoutathimlikeatigressoutofthejungle....
Theyallworkedinhimtogether,andsomedaysomewhere,whenhewasn'tthinking,theyfell,inalltheirsuperbintricacy,intothe
onerightcombination.Thefigureinthecarpetcameout."[82]
LikeJames,whousesthistaletoraiseskepticismaboutthepracticesofnineteenthcenturycriticism,wearenotadvocatingfora
singlehiddenmeaningthatcanbeexcavatedfromoursources.Instead,wearearguingfortheadoptionofnewmodesofanalysis
thatwillallowustoviewthehistoricalrecordinnewwaysfromapointofviewofdistancethatpermitsustoobservepatternsthat
wouldotherwiseeludeus.Asthenarrativeaboutourprojectaccompanyingthisarticleattests,thesemodesofanalysisareboth
experimentalandlaborintensive.And,asthisarticledemonstrates,thesenewmethodsdonotdisplaceothermodesofarthistorical
analysis,butinsteadworkinconcertwiththem.
Perhapsamoreusefulmetaphor,atthisjuncture,wouldbeaconstellation.Justasasinglestargainsnewsignificancewhensetin
thecontextofaconstellation,hereweproposethatanysingleinstanceofaLondoncommercialartgallerytakesonanew
significancewhenseeninalargerhistoricalconstellation.Herewehavebeguntochartatleasttwoconstellations,thatofthecityof
Londonandthatoftheinternationalarttrade.Thelocalandtheglobal,wewishtounderscore,didnotconstituteconstellations
widelyseparatedbytimeandspace,butintermingledpatternsthatsharedmanypointsincommonwhileholdingothersdistinct.As
theexampleoftheGoupilGallerydemonstrates,manyLondongalleriesnotonlyoperatedwithinthelocalcontextofLondonbutalso
onaninternationalstage.And,evenforthoseLondongalleriesthatdidnotpursueinternationaltrade,thesignificanceoftheirchoice
wasframedbythosewhodid.Justasbeing(ornotbeing)aBondStreetgallerycarriedparticularassociationsandsignificances,so
toodidadopting(oreschewing)transnationaltraderelationships.
Herethefigureofthenetwork,withitsattendantimplicationofcirculation,becomesmoreusefulasithelpstocharacterizetheflow
ofobjectsandpeople.Invisualterms,themapofLondonandthevisualizationsoftraderelationshipsreinforcetheusefulnessofthis
conceptandrenderiteasiertograspandtest.Whiletheselocalandglobalnetworksheldpromiseoffluidexchanges,andtheease
andfrequencybywhichsuchexchangescouldoccuracceleratedoverthecourseofthenineteenthcenturyasthenetworksgrew
apace,theflowwithinthesenetworkswasnotalwayseven,aswehavedemonstrated.Therefore,thetaskoftheresearcherisboth
toreconstructthesenetworks,astheydevelopedovertimeandspace,andtoinvestigatewhichpossibilitieswithinthenetworkcould
beactivatedbyparticularagentsorobjectsandwhy(orwhynot).Justasadialecticisformedbetweenthelocalandtheglobal,sois
adialecticformedbetweentheagent/objectandthenetwork.Suchdialectics,astheeditorsofthenewjournalMobilitiespointout,
arecharacteristicofmobilities,"thelargescalemovementsofpeople,objects,capitalandinformationacrosstheworld,aswellasthe
morelocalprocessesofdailytransportation,movementthroughpublicspaceandthetravelofmaterialthingswithineverydaylife."
[83]
Themobilitymadepossiblebythesenetworkshasamarkedimpactonhowweconceiveofreceptioninnineteenthcenturystudies,
reinforcingtheneedtorecognizemultiplehistoricalmomentsandgeographicpointsofreceptionthatmustbereckonedwith,even
withinthespanofafewshortyearsaftertheworkofart'sinitialproduction.Thissuggests,returningtotheproblemthatplagued
James,thatwemustcontinueinourpursuitofnewmodesofinterpretation,settingasidethepursuitofasingularhiddenmeaning.
Thusthemodesofanalysismadepossiblebythedigitalhumanitiesalignwellwith,andarguablyhelptoreinvigorate,therevisionist
programwithinourdisciplinethathasbeenunderwayforatleastthelastthirtyyears.Moreover,thetoolsusedheregeographic
mappingandnetworkanalysisareembeddedinthepracticesofwhathasbeenrecentlydubbedthe'spatialturninthehumanities'
anddemonstratethecapacityofarthistorytoengagemeaningfullywiththisemergentmodeofinquiry.
AsJoGuildinotes,thephrase"toturn"impliesbothalookbackwardsandalookforwards.[84]Thisholdstrueforourworkhereas
well.Thesenewmodesofanalysisbothsupportparadigmshiftsinthedisciplinethespatialturnandtherecognitionoftransnational
mobilitiesandallowustoreinvigoratetraditionalquestionsregardinganartist'scareerandprovenance.So,wecloseonanoteboth
cautionaryandliberating.Forthosecolleagueswhoarguethatthetestofthevalidityofthedigitalhumanitiesiswhatnewquestions
thesenewmodesofanalysisanddisseminationmakepossible,wesuggestthatwedonothavetowaitfornewquestionstoemerge
fromthemethodology.Thedigitalhumanitiesallowustoaddressbothquestionsregardedascoretothediscipline'sformationof
knowledgeandinquiriesthatstimulatenewinterdisciplinaryperspectives.
backtotop

Introduction|TheLocal|TheGlobal|Conclusion|AbouttheProject
Digitalscholarshipinvolvestechnologicalexperimentationandsignificantcollaboration.Inthissupplementaryessay,wedocument
andreflectuponthoseprocesses.In"LessonsLearned,"weoffersomethoughtsontheimplicationsofthiskindofworkforart
historicalscholarship,includingproduction,dissemination,andevaluation.Inthe"ProjectNarratives,"weprovideanoverviewofthe
datausedinouranalysesandourworkingprocessaswellasbriefintroductionstothekeyindividualsinvolvedinthisprojectand
theirrolesandresponsibilities.
LessonsLearned[85]
1.Understandthatdigitalscholarshiprequiresanextensivetimecommitment:Thistypeofworkisverylabor,and
therefore,timeintensive.First,theprimarysourcedatamustbeobtainedandverified,thenitmustbeingestedintothedigital
platform(s).Thelatterstep,becauseitiscomputerized,holdsthepromiseofquickness,but,inourprojects,welearnedittakes
considerableeffort.
2.Digitalscholarshiprestsondatastandardization:Onereasondigitalprojectscantakeconsiderabletimeisthatthedata
requiresacertainlevelofstandardization.Thisisparticularlychallengingforhistoricdatathatisoftenidiosyncraticand"dirty"
(meaning,typically,ambiguousorincomplete).Moreover,inourfieldwetendtoprivilegetranscriptionretainingallthetracesofthe
originalsourcebutthecomputerrequiresstandardizedspellingsandotherrepeatableformatsinordertoorganizethedata
effectivelyandperformefficientsearches.

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3.Revisetraditionalscholarshipandpublishingworkflows:Intraditionalscholarship,thecontentexperts/scholarsare
responsibleforauthoringthetextandthenthemanuscriptishandedofftothepublisherforeditingandpublishing.Withdigital
projects,however,thepublishingformatisvariableandthereforealloptionsviablefortheintendedpublishermustbeconsideredat
theoutsetoftheproject.Thetwostrandsoftheprojectgeneratingnewscholarshipandpublishingnewscholarshipmustbe
managedintandemandindialogue.
4.Collaborationiscrucialforsuccess:Asscholarswepossessconsiderablecontentexpertise,buttoundertaketheseprojectswe
mustseekouttheexpertiseofspecialistsindatamanagement,databaseconstruction,computingprograms,andwebdesignand
development,justtonameafewrelevantdomains.Criticaltothesuccessofdigitalprojectsisfortheseexpertstocometogetheras
equals,sharingtheirrelevantknowledge(asopposedto,forexample,contentexpertsregardingtechnologistsasserviceproviders).
Workingtogethertheywillidentifyandsolveproblemsmoreefficientlyanddevelopmorerobustandeffectivesolutions.
5.Rethinktraditionalmodelsofauthorship:Thenewmodelsofcollaborationrequiredfortheseprojectschallengetraditional
notionsofauthorship.Throughoutourprocess,wefoundourselvesengagedrepeatedlyinthoughtfulconversationsaboutwhat
constitutedauthorshipandwho,fromourprojectteams,shouldbeidentifiedasauthors.Asindicatedinthearticletext,wechoseto
identifyFletcherandHelmreichasthecoauthorsofthearticletoreflectthefactthatthetextwascowrittenandthatthe
argumentswithinthetextitselfaretheproductoftheirintellectualcollaboration.But,invaryingdegrees,theprocessesofdata
standardization,interpretation,andvisualizationuponwhichtheseargumentsarebasedwerelargercollaborativeeffortsinvolving
manyothercontributors.Theprojectnarrativestatementisthusanessentialcomponentofthispublication,asitattributesand
acknowledgesthediversecontributionsofourcolleagues.
6.Digitalscholarshipisaformofscholarlyinterpretation:TheLondonGallerymapandtheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&
CievisualizationsrelyheavilyonGeographicInformationSystems(GIS)andquantitativemethods,respectively.Thedataheavy
aspectoftheprojectsmayobscurethefactthatthisworkrestsonactsofinterpretationdistributedthroughouttheentireprocess,
fromdecipheringnineteenthcenturyscripttoselecting,modeling,andpresentingthedata.Generallyspeaking,scholarly
interpretationtookplaceattwocriticalstagesinourprojectsinassembling,processing,andanalyzingthearchiveandindeveloping
ouranalysisasascholarlyargumentforpublication.Attimesourinterpretationwasshapedbycomputationalanddatabase
requirementsillsuitedtotheambiguitythatoftencharacterizestheprimarysourcematerialusedbyhumanists.Forexample,the
datastructureunderlyingthemappingprojectrequiredaprecisestartingandendingdateforeachgallery'stenureatagivenaddress,
butsometimesthearchivedoesnotprovidedefinitiveclarityonsuchinformation.Thedatabaseunderlyingthenetworkvisualizations
requiredauniformnameforeachsaleslocationforthepurposesofclusteringthedata,butthearchiveusedmultiplenomenclatures.
Decisionsweremadeastowhichnamesshouldbeconsideredvariants,butanotherresearchermight,forexample,interpretthe
varietyofnamesdifferently.Boththemethodsandresultsofdigitalhumanitiesprojectsshouldbeunderstoodasscholarly
interpretations,andthusofapiecewithlongstandingpracticesinthehumanities.
7.Reconsidertraditionalmodelsofscholarlyargument:Herewereemphasizeakeypointinourarticle:ourargumentisnot
limitedtothetext,butisalsoembeddedinthemapandvisualizations.Wehopethatanyscholarlyconversationourworkmight
initiatewillengagewiththemapsandvisualizations,aswellaswiththetextofthearticleitself.

ProjectNarratives
TheLondonGalleryProject
PamelaFletcher
TheLondonGalleryProjectisanintegralpartofthelargerprojectonthehistoryofthecommercialartgallerythatIhavebeen
workingonsince2004.Theprimaryscholarlyoutcomesofthisprojecthavebeenpublicationsintheconventionalformatsofjournal
articlesandacoeditedanthology.[86]Fromtheearlydaysoftheresearchprocess,however,Ihaveusedthismaptoorganizeand
interpretmydata.NineteenthCenturyArtWorldwide'smovetowardexpandingdigitalpublishingopportunitieshasprovidedaforum
inwhichtheprojectcanbepublished,givingmethechancebothtoexploretheresearchquestionsitgeneratesinafashionnot
possiblebasedonstaticimagesofthemap,andtomakethedataavailabletootherscholars.
Myresearchprojectbeganwithaquestion:howdidthecommercialartgallerysystemoperateinnineteenthcenturyLondon?My
interestinthisquestionwasanimatedbyafocusonreception:wheredidpeopleencounterworksofart,andhowdidthephysical
andsocialcircumstancesofthoseencountersshapetheirresponses?Mygoalwastowriteanarrativehistoryoftheemergenceand
consolidationofthegallerysystem,butIquicklybecameoverwhelmedbythesheerquantityofthedataanditsfragmentednature.
Informationaboutindividualgalleriesisscatteredacrossverydifferentkindsofarchives.Myresearchfocusedonfourmajorsources:
theextensivecollectionofnineteenthcenturyexhibitioncataloguesattheNationalArtLibraryattheVictoriaandAlbertMuseumin
LondonreviewsandadvertisementsintheperiodicalpresstheexhibitionandeventlistingscompiledannuallybyTheYear'sArt
and,toalesserextent,collectionsoflettersbetweenartistsanddealersinthecollectionsoftheNationalArtLibraryandtheGetty
ResearchInstitute.Asmyfilesofdatagrew,IrealizedIneededawaytoorganizethatdata,andmoreimportantly,toputthe
individualaccountsofgalleriesintoalargerpattern.
Mappingseemedanobviouschoicetoseethecontoursofthelargersystem,andso,atthesuggestionofDavidIsrael(Bowdoin
College),Ibegantoinvestigateavailableoptions.WechosetouseERSI'sGISfortwointerrelatedreasons.Inthe1990sand2000s,
GISwasincreasinglyvisibleinhistoricalscholarship.[87]Asaresult,therewasavailablefundingandtechnicalsupportforhumanities
scholarstouseGIS.Inthesummerof2005,DavidIsrael,BowdoinstudentKarenFossum,andIreceivedagrantfromtheNational
InstituteforTechnologyinLiberalEducation(NITLE)toattenda"GISatNITLEStudentImmersion/FacultyFocusworkshop"at
MiddleburyCollege,whichwasledbyDianaStinton.TheworkshopwasdesignedtointroduceusalltothepossibilitiesofGIS,totrain
KarenandDavidinthesoftware,andtogetadvicefromexpertsonthespecificchallengesofourproject.TheGibbonsSummer
ResearchInternshipFundatBowdoinsponsoredKaren'sworkontheprojectfortherestofthatsummer.
Thereweretwoprimaryoutcomesfromthisworkshop.ThefirstwasaseminarItaughtatBowdoininfall2006on"TheCommercial
ArtGallery."Studentsdividedintothreegroups,onefocusingonLondon18751900oneonNewYork19501975andoneon
NewYork19762005.Eachgroupgathereddataonthenamesandaddressesofgalleries,andKarenFossumentereditintoGISto
createmapsofthechangingculturalgeographyofthesetwometropolitancenters.ThestudentresearchonLondonhasbeen
incorporatedintothemap.Thestudentsalsoworkedonindividualresearchpapersusingthecasestudymodel.TheGISmapswere
presentedinasymposiumtoBowdoinarthistoryfacultyandotherstudents.
Thesecondmajoroutcomewastheinteractivemapandwebsite,whichwasbuiltin2007withthefinaldataenteredinthesummer
of2012.Thefirstpartoftheprojectinvolvedmappingallthedatapoints(i.e.,commercialgallerylocations)inGIS,acomplexyear

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longprojectundertakenbystudentresearchassistantKarenFossum.Thesecondstepwascreatingtheanimatedmap.Asmany
scholarshavenoted,onemajorlimitofGISishowithandlestime,aprimaryconcernofhistoriansandarthistorians.[88]Because
modesofmappingtimeinGISwereinadequatewhenthisprojectlaunchedin2007,wechosetoanimatethemapusingFlash.Many
membersofBowdoin'sInformationTechnologydepartmentcontributedtotheprojectatthisstage.DavidIsraelconceivedofthe
overallstructureofthetimeline,anddesignedandbuiltthewebsitewithinwhichthemapisviewed.TadMacyconverteddatainto
XMLthatcouldbeconsumedbytheActionScripttoprovidegeographicalcoordinates,aswellasgallerynames,dates,andaddresses,
intheFlashmultimediaplatformfordisplayonthewebsite.HealsorevisedandwrotenewcodeinActionScripttocontrolthesliders
onthemap,andsettheplacementofmapcoordinates.KevinTraversassembledthemap'sinterfaceasatimelineinFlash,which
allowsfortheincrementalanimationofthedataandoverlays.ChristinaFinneranhelpedmanagetheworkflowinthefinalweeksof
theproject'sconstructionin2007.And,finally,in2012,DavidIsraeladdedinformationtoeachindividualdatapointrepresentedin
thegallerylayerofthemap.
ThefirstpublicpresentationofthemaptookplaceatasymposiumontheLondonArtMarketatTateBritaininFebruary2007.But
themap'sprimaryfunctioncontinuedtobeasaresourceandsupportformyresearch.TheMellonfundedinitiativeatNineteenth
CenturyArtWorldwide(NCAW)offeredmetheperfectopportunitytomakeitmorewidelyavailabletoscholars,andtopublishthe
results.WhenIreturnedtothemapin2012,theresourcesmostcruciallythededicationoftime,butalsothefinancialmeans
werenotavailabletorecreatethemapanimationonadifferentplatformdespitetheimprovementsincomputingtechnologyinthe
interveningyears.I,therefore,decidedtopublishthemapinits2007version,butwithupdatedwebpagesandtheinclusionof
detailedessaysandinformationpagesforeachoftheseventysixuniquegalleries(onehundredandfourteendatapoints)includedon
themap.
Inconclusion,itisworthemphasizingthewaysinwhichtechnicalconsiderationsshapedtheprojectinfundamentalways.First,a
gallery's"start"and"end"datesatagivenaddressareconstrainedbytheabilitytoidentifythempreciselyonemayknowthata
galleryofthatnamewasoperatingearlierorlater,butifthespecificaddressisunknown,itcannotbeenteredontothemap.Spatial
locationthusbecomesakeyattributeinagallery'sdefinitioninwaysthatdonotallowfortheexplorationofthefrequentambiguities
andvagariesinherentinanemergingform.Second,usingFlashtoanimatethatmapmeansthatitisdifficulttoaddlayersorto
changeanyindividualdatapointonthemapwithoutredoingtheentireanimation.Thiswasnotaseriousproblemwhenthemap
functionedprimarilyasaresearchtool,butitdoeslimitthetool'sabilitytoadoptnewinformationthatitspublicationwillinevitably
generate.
TheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CieNetworkVisualizationProject
Here,thetwomaincollaboratorsonthisproject,AnneHelmreichandSethErickson,describetheirworkingprocesses.
AnneHelmreich
AspartofaprojectinvestigatingthestateoflandscapepaintinginGreatBritainafterthedeathofJ.M.W.Turner,Ibegantostudy
thefirmGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon,&CiewhichhelpedtointroduceFrenchnaturalismandimpressionismintoGreatBritain.This
ledmetolargerquestionsaboutthestateoftheartmarketinLondoninthisperiod,therelationshipoftheLondonmarkettothose
onthecontinent,andLondon'ssignificancewithinaninternationalnetwork.Myinquiryintothepossibilitiesthatnetworkanalysis
mightholdforthestudyofthehistoricartmarketbeganin2009whenIreceivedasmallgrantfromCaseWesternReserve
Universitytoexplorevisualizationtools.Atthattime,IwasguidedtousingTableauSoftware,whichIusedtovisualizethesales
networksofartistJamesMcNeillWhistler,whowasassociatedwiththefirm.Thisexperienceconvincedmethatinformation
visualizationandnetworkanalysiswerepromisingmodesofanalysis,butthedifficultiesIhadinlocatingrelevantexpertiseand
assistancewithintheuniversityalsoconvincedmethatIneededtoacquiregreatersophisticationinthesemodesofinvestigationso
thatIcouldarticulatebettertheneedsofmyprojectandalsopotentiallypursuegrantsupport.
IthenappliedforandwasacceptedtoaNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitiesSummerInstituteonAdvancedTopicsintheDigital
Humanities,dedicatedtoNetworksandNetworkAnalysis,ledbyTimothyTangherlini,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles.[89]This
was,inshort,atransformativeexperience.OvertwoweeksinAugustof2010,withadynamicgroupofhumanitiesscholars,I
learnedaboutnetworkanalysisdirectlyfromleadingexperts,andengagedinhandsonworkshopsthatprovidedbasicandadvanced
proficiencyinvarioussoftwaretoolsandprograms.Mostimportantly,inlearningthesetoolsandprograms,ourgroupgainedinsight
intothealgorithmsandprinciplesthatinformedthemsothatwewouldbecomecriticalconsumers.Attheendofthetwoweeks,I
wasabletopresentmyfirstvisualization,drawnfrom50samplerecordsextractedfromtheonlinedatabaseoftheGoupil&
Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CiestockbookscreatedbytheGettyResearchInstitute.Thisvisualizationwasderivedusing*ORA,anetwork
analysistooldevelopedbyComputationalAnalysisofSocialandOrganizationalSystemsatCarnegieMellonUniversity.[90]
MyabilitytoundertakethisanalysisrestedupontheworkontheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciedatabasethathadbeen
completedbytheProvenanceIndexteamattheGettyResearchInstitute(GRI).SinceacquiringthestockbooksofGoupil&
Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie,theGRIhadarrangedforthestockbookstobescannedandmadeavailabletothepublicasPDFs.[91]
TheGRIalsodevelopedasearchabledatabase,basedonthestockbooks.ChristianHuemer,(ProjectfortheStudyofCollectingand
Provenance,GRI),plannedandsupervisedtheproductionofthedatabase.RuthCuadra,(ApplicationSystemsAnalyst,GRI),was
responsibleforstructuringthedatabaseanditswebinterfaceAgnesPenotLejeune,independentscholar,transcribedthestockbook
information.
AsGoupilscholarPenotLejeuneexplains,whilethedatabaseislargelyatranscriptionofthestockbooks,itnonethelessrequired
distinguishinginformationthatwasoftencollapsedintoasingleentryintheoriginalbooks.[92]Throughitswebinterface,this
databaseiswellsuitedfortypicalprovenanceresearch,whichentailssearchingforanindividualworkofart.But,itspresentinterface
doesnotallowforsearchesthatwouldelicitbroadpatternsaboutparticularregionalmarketsforexample,whatartworksweresold
inNewYorkbetween1885and1890?[93]Whilethewebinterfacedoesnotallowfortheexplorationofconnectionsbetweenentities
whichartists,forexample,soldbothinNewYorkandLondon?theflexibilityofthebackendsystem,mostcriticallytheunderlying
database(intheSTARformat),madeitpossibletorepurposethedataforthisproject.
BecomingaGettyemployeeinthespringof2011,followingatenureasaresearchfellowattheGettyResearchInstitute,permitted
meobtaintheentiredatabaseinspreadsheetform,withthepermissionofHuemerandtechnicalassistancefromCuadra.Aswe
begantoworkwiththedata,weencounteredanumberofproblemsthatstemmedfromthefactthatthedatabasewascreatedasa
transcriptionofthehandwrittenstockbooks.Itcontainedmultiplespellingsofthesameentity,makingcomputerrecognitionof
similaritiesdifficult.Forthe"artist"field,thisproblemwasrectifiedasthedatabasewascreatedbyvalidatingthenamesagainstthe
GettyProvenanceIndex'sauthoritylistofartistnames,butthesaleslocationfieldandpatronfield,forexample,stillcontained
multiplevariants.WiththeconsultationandsupportofUCLAPhDstudentSethErickson,Idevelopedanameauthorityforthesales
locationfieldandalsorectifiedthespellingofpatrons'names.(Unfortunately,theprocessofmovingdatatotheGephisoftwareledto
thelossofaccentsandotherdiacritics,butcorrectspellingshavebeenpreservedinthesourcedatabase.)

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Erickson,buildingonhisexpertiseininformationscienceandonlinepublishing,thendevelopedacommandlinescript,writtenin
Ruby,toextracttherelevantfieldsfromthespreadsheetthatwascreatedfromtheGRI'sdatabase,standardizethedata,andprepare
themforingestionintonetworkanalysissoftwareprograms,asdescribedbelow.Itisworthwhile,atthisjuncture,tounderscorea
pointthathasbeenthusfarimplicitinmynarrative:thecollaborativenatureoftheworkinthedigitalhumanitiesandthewaysin
whichprojects,inordertosucceed,mustdrawontheexpertiseofdiverseexperts.Thisprojecthasbeenabletomakesignificant
advancesbecauseoftheGRI'sinvestmentincreatingastructureddatabasefortheGoupilstockbooks,andbecauseIhavebeenable
togaintheinsightsandexpertiseofawiderangeofdigitalhumanists.
Basedonthisongoingwork,IsharedtheresultsofmyresearchfirstattheDigitalArtHistoryworkshoporganizedbyNuriaOrtega
andMurthaBacaattheUniversityofMlaga,andthenwithmycolleaguesfromtheNEHInstituteinasymposium,organizedat
UCLAbyTimTangherlini,inOctober2011.[94]Inthesepresentations,Ihadmadethedecisiontoadopttwomodesofanalysis,as
canbeseeninthisarticle:a)analyzingthenetworksbyannualslicesoftimeb)studyingthebehaviorofartistsandpatronswithin
thenetworkovertime.Thisentailedcreatingindividualnetworksforeachyear,andthenonegiantnetworkfortheentiretime
period.Thelatterisextremelyunwieldyandgnarly.BecauseIwasworkingonatypicaldesktopandlaptopconfiguration,Ifoundit
usefultoapplyfilterssothatlargeamountsofdataaresuppressedandkeytransactionsarehighlighted.
Sincethesepresentations,Ithenmadethedecisiontoswitchthesoftwareprogramfornetworkanalysisfrom*ORAtoGephi
becauseGephiisanopensourceprogramsupportedbyalargedevelopmentcommunity,andIhopedtobenefitfromtheongoing
improvementofkeyfeaturesandtheadditionofnewonesovertime.[95]WiththesupportoftheMellongranttothisjournal,Ithen
workedfurtherwithEricksontopreparethedataforthisprogram(seebelowforafullerexplanation).InearlyAugust2012,through
theMellonfunding,IorganizedaworkshoponGephi,ledbydigitalhumanistElijahMeeksandattendedbyChristianHuemer,Emily
Pugh(WebDeveloper,NCAW),SethErickson,andmyself.Thegoalsofthisworkshopweretoidentifythebestmeansofpublishing
thegraphsderivedfromGephi,toexploretheanalyticalcapacitiesofGephiandhowthesemightbebestdeployedforthisproject,
andtocontributetobuildingacommunityofhumanitiesscholarsengagedwithGephiandnetworkanalysis.Theopportunityforthe
grouptoworkcollaborativelyinidentifyingproblemsandsolutionsandinsharingideasaboutthestateofthedigitalhumanities
allowedustomovetheprojectforwardsubstantiallyandinexcitingways.Meeksprovidedinvaluableinputmostcriticallyhe
envisionedanewwayofstructuringtheartmarketnetworktobeabletofocusonindividualtransactions,anapproachIhopetotake
upmorefullyinthefuture.Healsorecommendedusingarelationaldatabasetostructurethedata,anapproachthatwas
immediatelyadoptedasthisissuehadbeenalongstandingquestionforourteam.
MeeksalsoofferedusapublishingmodelviatheprojectORBIS,recentlycompletedatStanfordUniversity.[96]Inparticular,the
sectionsoftheproject"UnderstandingORBIS"and"NetworkVisualization"suggestedhowadynamicinterfacefornetworksofselect
yearsoftheGoupildatabasemightbemanagedwithinapublishinginterface.Again,Ihopethatafutureopportunitywillallowmeto
explorethismodelmorefully.
Thenetworkvisualizationsshowninthisarticle,developedviaGephi,werefirstgeneratedusingaForcedAtlaslayout(10,000
repulsion).Nodeswerethencolored(redforartists,blueforbuyers,andyellowforsaleslocations).Thisallowedmetoidentify
clustersvisually.Oncethelabelswereaddedtothenodes,IchangedthelayouttoLabelAdjusttoavoidoverlappinglabelsthat
obscuredreadingthenetworks.WithinthisnetworkIcouldundertakesubsequentanalyses,mosttypicallydeployingstatistical
analysistoderivebetweennesscentrality,orfiltering(usingtheegonetworkfunctionalityofGephi)forthebehaviorofaparticular
agentwithinthenetwork.ThesenetworkswereexportedasSVGfiles,whichEricksonpreparedforpublicationbydevelopingan
interactiveinterface.
SethErickson
Asbrieflydescribedabove,migratingGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cie'srawstockbookdataintoaformsuitablefornetwork
analysisinvolvedaprocessoffirstidentifyingthefeaturesinthedatathattheauthorwasinterestedinanalyzing,thencleaningthe
relevantfieldsand,finally,developingamechanismforqueryingorselectingportionsofthedataforexporttoGephi.Thetabulardata
providedbytheGRIconsistedofan18MBcommaseparatedvalue(CSV)filewithseveraldozencolumnsandoverfortythousand
rowsrepresentingtransactionsbetween1846and1919.Despitethesizeofthedataset,isolatingthetablecolumnsrelevanttothis
researchwasastraightforwardprocessthenatureofeachtransaction(e.g.,sale,returntoartist,etc.),thetransactionlocation,the
date,theartist,andthebuyerdirectlyallmappedtocolumnsintheCSVfile.
Cleaningthedataanddecidinghowtorepresentitasanetworkgraph,however,posedmoreseriousquestions.Thedatawasfraught
withinconsistentspellingsforbuyernamesandGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciesaleslocations,asnotedabove.Indeed,the
variationsinspellingweregreatenoughtonecessitateamanualcleaningprocessbeforewecouldbeginnetworkanalysis.(As
mentionedabove,theartists'nameswerealreadyrepresentedbytheGRI'sauthorityterm).Weproceededbygeneratingtables
listingeveryuniquevalueforbuyernamesandsaleslocationsasfoundintherawdata.Theresultinglistsincluded7,757unique
spellingvariationsforthebuyersand356uniquespellingsforthesaleslocations.Helmreichthenmanuallyassociatedeachspelling
variationwithherownauthorityterm.Thisprocesswaspartiallyexpeditedbysortingthelistsalphabeticallytoincreasethe
collocationofspellingvariationsthatreferredtothesameentity.Theresultingtables,whichwerefertoasauthoritytables,were
usedlatertomapthe"dirty"buyernamesandlocationsfoundintheoriginaldatatothe"clean"valuesthatwouldbeexportedfor
networkanalysis.Whilethisapproachwasextremelylaborintensive,weareconfidentintheresults.Further,becausetheauthority
tablesencapsulateallofthetextualmodificationswemadetotheoriginaldata,theymayassistfutureeffortsbytheGRItocleanthe
dataatitssource.
Withthedatacleanedinthismanner,thenextchallengesweretoimplementameansforselectingsubsetsofthedataandtodecide
whichkindsofnetworkgraphswewereinterestedingenerating.AlthoughGephiandothernetworkanalysissoftwarepackages
providefilteringfeatures,theyarenotdesignedorintendedtobeusedasgeneralpurposequeryingtoolsfordatasetsaslargeasthe
Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciestockbooks.Atypicalsolutionistostorelargedatasetsinarelationaldatabase(suchasMySQL
orPostgres)andconfiguretheanalysissoftwaretoquerythedatabaseforthegraph'snodeandedgelists.(Networkanalysisgraphs
arecomposedofnodesandedges.)Gephi,forexample,canbeconfiguredtoqueryaSQLdatabasethroughits"ImportDatabase"
tool.Inourcase,theadministrativetroubleassociatedwithsettinguparelationaldatabasemanagementsystemandpopulatingit
withdata,combinedwiththefactthatwedonotshareworkspacesorcomputingsystems,madethisapproachproblematic.Further,
ourselectioncriteriawerenotcomplicatedHelmreichsimplyneededtoisolatethetransactionsfromaparticularyear.Consequently,
Idecidedtoimplementaperyearfilterasaconfigurationoptionforthesamecommandlinetoolthatwouldbeusedtoextractfields
fromtherawdata,integratethemodificationsfromtheauthoritytables,andexportthenetworkgraph.
Beforethiscommandlinetoolcouldbecreated,however,onequestionremained:whatkindsofnetworkgraphsshouldwegenerate?
DataasfoundintheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciestockbookscanberepresentedasanetworkinamyriadofwaysbecause

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eachcolumnisapotentialnodetypeandeachadditionalnodetypeincreasestheoptionsforassociatingnodeswithoneanother.
Herewewereinterestedinonlythreenodetypes:theGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciebranch,andothertransactionlocations,
theartist,andthebuyer.Evenso,manygraphconfigurationswerepossible:thoseinvolvingjustonenodetype(e.g.,locationto
locationviacommonartists,orcommonbuyers)thoseinvolvingtwotypes(e.g.,locationslinkedtoartists)orthosewithallthree.
(ElijahMeekslaterpointedoutyetanotheroption:thatthetransactionsthemselvescouldbeafourthnodecategory,functioningasa
"metanode"linkingartists,buyers,andlocations).
Ourinitialstrategy(whichwecontinuedtousethroughtheproject)wastogenerategraphswithallthreenodetypeseach
transactioninthedatasetisrepresentedbytwoedgesonebetweenalocationandanartistandanotherbetweenalocationanda
buyer.Thisgraphconfigurationworkedwellbecauseitwasarelativelytransparentrepresentationofthedata.Further,because
Helmreichwasprimarilyconcernedwiththetransactionlocations,itwaseasytogeneratethetwotypegraphswerequired(location
artistandlocationbuyer)bysimplyfilteringouttheunwantednodetypewithinGephi.Laterintheproject(thankstogenerousinput
fromElijahMeeks)wealsoimplementedtheonetypegraphsforlocationslinkedbytransactionswithcommonartistsandlocations
linkedbytransactionwithcommonbuyers.
ThecommandlinetoolusedforconstructingthenetworkgraphswaswritteninRubybecauseitisarobustscriptinglanguagewith
goodsupportforhandlingthefiletypesusedhere(CSVfortheinputandGraphMLanXMLstandardfornetworkgraphsforthe
output).Furthermore,asdescribedbelow,Ruby'sobjectrelationalmappinglibrary(ActiveRecord)wasveryuseful.Nonetheless,other
languages,suchasPythonorPerl,havesimilarfeaturesandwouldhaveservedjustaswell.Asforitsdesign,initially,thetoolwas
implementedinaveryproceduralmanner:itsimplyiteratedthroughalltherowsintheCSV,cleaningthecolumndatausingthe
authoritytables,andwritingtheresultstoaGraphMLfile.Laterintheproject,whenitbecameclearthatweshouldexplore
alternativegraphconfigurationsmorerigorously,thetoolwasreimplementedusingobjectrelationalmappingandaSQLitedatabase
(arelationaldatabaseinfileform).Thismadeitmucheasiertoimplementthequeriesassociatedwitheachofthegraphtypes.Inits
presentform,thetoolconsistsoftwocomponents:onethatimportstherawdata,cleansit,buildstheobjectrelationshipmappings,
andwritesthemtoaSQLitefileandanothercomponentthatqueriestheSQLiteaccordingtothegraphtyperequested(selecting
onlytransactionfromacertainyear,ifspecified),andexportsittoGraphML.
PublishinginNineteenthCenturyArtWorldwide
EmilyPugh
Thenarrativesaboveillustrateboththepotentialsandthechallengesofusingtechnologies,suchasGISandnetworkanalysis,forart
historicalresearchandscholarship.Thesepotentialsandchallengesextendintothepublicationphaseoftheproject,which,as
indicatedabove,mustbeconsideredsimultaneouslywithresearchanddevelopment.Publishingencompassesintegratingtheanalysis
intheformofanargumentandessayaswouldberecognizedbythescholarlycommunity,andinaformateasilyaccessibleacross
differingcomputingplatforms.Developingapproachesandtechniquesforpublishingthiskindofscholarshipisthereforeascrucialto
theimplementationofdigitalhumanitiesinarthistoryasisthecreationofdigitallyadvancedresearchtoolsandmethodologies.
ThepublicationofthecurrentarticlewasachallengebecausesomeofthecomputingapplicationsusedbyFletcherandHelmreichdid
notgenerateresultsinaformatthatcouldbepresentedimmediatelyinanonlineformat.Forexample,thefileformatproducedby
Gephi(.gephi)isviewableonlyifreadershavethesoftwareloadedontheircomputers.ThedynamicmapcreatedbyFletcherand
IsraelusesFlash,whichismorewidelyaccessible,butwhichmakesitdifficulttodirectusers,viahyperlinksforexample,tospecific
datesorlayerswithinthemap.Tosolvethe.gephifileformatissue,Ericksondevelopedapresentationformatthatemploysboth
javascriptingandSVGfiles(whichisanexportfileformatallowedbyGephi)allowingforadynamicpresentationoftheevidence
producedinGephithatworksacrossbrowsersandacrossplatforms.FortheLondonGalleryProjectmap,videofilesprovideaway
aroundthelimitationsofFlash,takingtheNCAWreaderthroughspecificviewsofthemapwithouthavingtorebuildthemapitselfin
anewformat.
StanfordUniversity'sORBISsiteonceagainprovidedavaluablemodelinaddressingpublishingconcerns.Asa"DigitalScholarly
Work,"ORBISprovidesitsreaderswithboththefruitsoftheresearchconductedusingthegeospatialnetworkanalysistoolandthe
analyticalframeworkitself.ORBIS'sreaderscanbenefitfromthescholarshipbyreadingascholarlyessay,andbyusingthe
frameworkontheirown,potentiallytoexploretheirownresearchquestions.Similarly,here,wehaveprovidedbothguided"views"of
thevisualevidenceandinterpretationassembledbyFletcherandHelmreichandaccesstothemapsandnetworkvisualizations
themselvessothatNCAWreaderscanexplorethesescholarlyresourcesfurther.Whilesomeofthesolutionsdevelopedforpublishing
"Local/Global:MappingNineteenthCenturyLondon'sArtMarket"wereuniquetothisproject,manyofthelessonslearnedin
publishingthisarticlecanandwillbeusedbyNCAWinthefuturetopublisharticleswhichusesimilarmethodologies.Ourexperience
withthisarticlehasshownthatitispossibletodeveloppublishingapproachesthatarecustomizableaswellasscalableandadaptable
todifferentkindsofscholarlyresearchandcontent.

ProjectMembers
TheLondonGalleryProject
PrincipalInvestigator:PamelaFletcher,AssociateProfessorofArtHistory,BowdoinCollege
SecondaryInvestigatorandTechnicalAdvisor:DavidN.Israel,BowdoinCollegeInformationTechnologyandCommunications
ResearchandTechnicalAssistant:KarenFossum(BowdoinCollege'07)
BowdoinCollegeInformationTechnologyandCommunicationsStaff:TadMacy,KevinTravers,RobertDenton,ChristinaFinneran
Studentparticipants(Spring2006):KendallBrown,SophieCikovsky,JillianGrunnah,NitashaKawatra,AllegraRich
TheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CieNetworkVisualizationProject
PrincipalInvestigator:AnneHelmreich,SeniorProgramOfficer,GettyFoundation(AssociateProfessor,ArtHistory,CaseWestern
ReserveUniversity,onleave)
SecondaryInvestigator:SethErickson,PhDstudent,InformationStudies,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles
ProjectConsultants:
ElijahMeeks,DigitalHumanitiesSpecialist,StanfordUniversity
ChristianHuemer,ProjectfortheStudyofCollectingandProvenance,GettyResearchInstitute
NineteenthCenturyArtWorldwide
EmilyPugh:WebDeveloper

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ThisarticlewouldnotbepossiblewithoutthegeneroussupportoftheMellonFoundation,whichhasprovidedNineteenthCenturyArt
Worldwidewithathreeyeargranttobuildcapacityinnewtechnologiesinscholarship.
[1]WalterL.Arnstein,BritainYesterdayandToday:1830tothePresent,4thed.(Lexington,MAandToronto:D.C.HeathandCompany,
1983),7374.
[2]TheLondonGalleryProjectwasbegunin2005,asajointprojectbetweenPamelaFletcherandDavidIsrael.Thedataoncommercial
gallerieswasdrawnfromFletcher'sresearch,whileIsraeloriginatedtheconceptofananimatedmapwithatimeline.Themapdeveloped
asafullycollaborativeproject,withsubstantialupdatesin2012,inpreparationforitspublicationinthisjournal.FortheGoupil&
Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Cieproject,SethEricksondesignedaninterfacethatallowedtheappropriatedatatobeextractedfromthestock
bookdatabasecreatedbytheGettyResearchInstituteandmodeledforingestionbyGephi.WehavechosentoidentifyFletcherand
Helmreichastheprimarycoauthorsofthisarticletoreflectthefactthatthetextitselfisaproductoftheirintellectualcollaboration.Israel
andEricksonhavebeenidentifiedassecondaryauthorsbecauseoftheirsubstantiveintellectualcontributionstothetechnologicalprojects.
FurtherexplanationofthecollaborativenatureofthedigitalprojectsonwhichthisarthistoricalargumentrestscanbefoundinAboutthe
Project.
[3]TheCollegeArtAssociation'smostrecentconference(LosAngeles,2012),forexample,featuredsessionson"Happenings:
Transnational,Transdisciplinary,""TheInterconnectedTenthCentury,""MappingCulturalAuthority:Revisionism,Provincialism,
Marginalization,""InternationalizingtheField:ADiscussionofGlobalNetworksforArtHistorians,""CivilizationanditsOthersinNineteenth
CenturyArt,""Avant'68:FranceandtheTransnationalFlowofCultureintheGlobal'LongSixties,'"and"'UsefultothePublicandAgreeable
tothePublic':AcademiesandtheirProductsinSpainandNewSpain."
[4]HarrisonC.WhiteandCynthiaA.White,CanvasesandCareers:InstitutionalChangeintheFrenchPaintingWorld(NewYork:Wiley,
1965).
[5]See,forexample,MalcolmGee,Dealers,Critics,andCollectorsofModernPainting:AspectsoftheParisianArtMarketbetween1910
and1930(NewYork:GarlandPublishing,1981)NicholasGreen,"DealinginTemperaments:EconomicTransformationoftheArtisticField
inFranceduringtheSecondHalfoftheNineteenthCentury,"ArtHistory10,no.1(March1987):5978NicholasGreen,"Circuitsof
Production,CircuitsofConsumption:TheCaseofMidNineteenthCenturyFrenchArtDealing"ArtJournal48,no.1(Spring1989):2934
RobertJensen,MarketingModernisminFindeSicleEurope(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1993)andDavidW.Galensonand
RobertJensen,"CareersandCanvases:TheRiseoftheMarketforModernArtinNineteenthCenturyParis,"CurrentIssuesin19thCentury
Art,VanGoghStudies,vol.1(Zwolle:WaandersAmsterdam:VanGoghMuseum,2007),155.GalensonandJensenhavemostdirectlyre
evaluatedtheargumentsofWhiteandWhite.Theyreexaminethestructureofthe"Salonsystem,"toshowhowitsupportedcareers
ratherthanindividualcanvasesasWhiteandWhitehadasserted.Withregardtodealers,whereasWhiteandWhiteassignthema
significantroleinstimulatingcompetitionandsustainingpatronageoutsidethestatesystem,GalensonandWhiteargue"artdealersproved
inadequatesubstitutesforstatepatronage."GalensonandJensen,"CareersandCanvases,"155.
[6]DianneSachkoMacleod,ArtandtheVictorianMiddleClass:MoneyandtheMakingofCulturalIdentity(Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress,1996)ThomasM.BayerandJohnR.Page,TheDevelopmentoftheArtMarketinEngland:MoneyasMuse,17301900
(London:Pickering&Chatto,2011)andPamelaFletcherandAnneHelmreich,eds.,TheRiseoftheModernArtMarketinLondon,1850
1939(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2011).
[7]Forafullerdescriptionofthesedatabasesandtheanalysestheymadepossible,seeBayerandPage,ArtMarket,811.Formodelsof
theapplicationofquantitativeanalysisintheearlymodernperiod,seeJ.MichaelMontias,"CostandValueinSeventeenthCenturyDutch
Art,"ArtHistory10,no.4(1987):45566J.MichaelMontias,"SocioEconomicAspectsofNetherlandishArtfromtheFifteenthtothe
SeventeenthCentury:ASurvey,"ArtBulletin72,no.3(1990):35873NeildeMarchiandHansJ.VanMiegroet,eds.MappingMarketsfor
PaintingsinEurope14501750(Turnhot:Brepols,2006)andNeildeMarchiandHansJ.vanMiegroet,"TheHistoryofArtMarkets,"in
HandbookoftheEconomicsofArtandCulture,ed.VictorA.GinsburgandDavidThrosby(Amsterdam:ElsevierB.V.,2006),1:69122.For
theperiodcoveredbythisarticle,seeGuidoGuerzoni,"TheBritishPaintingMarket17891914,"inEconomicHistoryandtheArts,ed.
MichaelNorth(Cologne,Weimar,andVienna:BhlauVerlag,1996),97130,whichprovidesastructuralistanalysisofthemarketand
focusesonauctionsales.Guerzoninotesthat"economistshaveerredinconsideringthispattern[thatestablishedbyWhiteandWhite]as
predominant"(118).
[8]MorrisEaves,RobertEssick,andJosephViscomi,eds.,TheWilliamBlakeArchive,accessedSeptember7,2012,
http://www.blakearchive.org/blake/JeromeJ.McGann,ed.,TheCompleteWritingsandPicturesofDanteGabrielRossetti,accessed
September7,2012,http://www.rossettiarchive.org/index.htmlLeoJansen,HansLuijten,andNienkeBakker,eds.,VincentvanGoghThe
Letters(AmsterdamandTheHague:VanGoghMuseum&HuygensING.,2009),modifiedJune2012,accessedSeptember21,2012,
http://www.vangoghletters.org/vg/andMargaretF.MacDonald,PatriciadeMontfort,andNigelThorp,eds.,TheCorrespondenceofJames
McNeillWhistler,includingTheCorrespondenceofAnnaMcNeillWhistler,18291880,ed.GeorgiaToutziari,UniversityofGlasgow,
accessedSeptember7,2012,http://www.whistler.arts.gla.ac.uk/correspondence/.
[9]ExhibitionCultureinLondon18781908,UniversityofGlasgow,2006,http://www.exhibitionculture.arts.gla.ac.uk/accessedSeptember
7,2012.
[10]DinoFrancoFelluga,ed.,BRANCH:Britain,Representation,andNineteenthCenturyHistory,http://www.branchcollective.org/,accessed
July29,2012.
[11]HelenaBonett,YsanneHolt,andJenniferMundy,eds.,TheCamdenTownGroupinContext,May2012,accessedSeptember7,2012,
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/researchpublications/camdentowngroup/.
[12]ThiswasakeythemeoftheCAA2012session,"InformationVisualizationasaResearchMethodinArtHistory,"organizedby
ChristianHuemerandLevManovich.Foranexampleofnewadigitallyembeddedmodeofanalysisembeddedinatextualargument,see,
DianeFavroandChristopherJohanson,"DeathinMotion:FuneralProcessionsintheRomanForum,"JournaloftheSocietyofArchitectural
Historians69,no.1(March2010),1237.
[13]SeeDianeZorich,"TransitioningtoaDigitalWorld,ArtHistory,ItsResearchCenters,andDigitalScholarship,AReporttoTheSamuel
H.KressFoundationandTheRoyRosenzweigCenterforHistoryandNewMedia,"May2012,accessedOctober7,2012,
http://www.kressfoundation.org/uploadedFiles/Sponsored_Research/ahrc_report.pdf.
[14]ElijahMeeks,"MoreNetworksintheHumanitiesorDidBookshaveDNA,"DigitalHumanitiesSpecialist,StanfordUniversity,December
6,2011,accessedJune30,2012,https://dhs.stanford.edu/visualizations/morenetworks/.Meeksliststhefirstthreeasthe"pillars"of
digitalhumanitiesresearchbutrecognizesthefourthasadevelopingfieldworthyofrecognitiononaparwiththefirstthree.
[15]Forabriefintroductiontospatialanalysisinthedigitalhumanities,see,thetoolkitavailableviaStanfordUniversity,in"ToolingUpfor
DigitalHumanities,"accessedJuly29,2012http://toolingup.stanford.edu/?page_id=1135.Forabriefintroductiontonetworkanalysisinthe
digitalhumanities,see,ScottWeingart,"DemystifyingNetworks,"TheScottbotIrregular(blog),December14,2011,accessedJuly29,
2012,http://www.scottbot.net/HIAL/?p=6279.Forsampleintroductionstothedigitalhumanities,forwhichacopioussecondaryliterature
hasalreadydeveloped,seePatrikSvensson,"TheLandscapeoftheDigitalHumanities,"DigitalHumanitiesQuarterly4,no.1(2010),
modifiedSeptember4,2010,accessedJuly29,2012,http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.htmlLisaSpiro,"Getting
StartedinDigitalHumanities,"JournalofDigitalHumanities1,no.1(Winter2011),modified,March2012,accessedJuly29,2012,
http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/11/gettingstartedindigitalhumanitiesbylisaspiro/andMatthewGold,ed.,DebatesintheDigital
Humanities(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2012).
[16]Ihaveattemptedtochartthistrajectoryisaseriesofarticles:PamelaFletcher,"CreatingtheFrenchGallery:ErnestGambartandthe
RiseoftheCommercialArtGalleryinMidVictorianLondon,"NineteenthCenturyArtWorldwide6,no.1(Spring2007),accessedOctober
10,2012,http://www.19thcartworldwide.org/index.php/spring07/143creatingthefrenchgalleryernestgambartandtheriseofthe
commercialartgalleryinmidvictorianlondonPamelaFletcher,"ShoppingforArt:TheRiseoftheCommercialArtGallery,1850s1890s"
inFletcherandHelmreich,RiseoftheModernArtMarket,4764andPamelaFletcher,"TheGrandTouronBondStreet:Cosmopolitanism
andtheCommercialArtGalleryinVictorianLondon,"VisualCultureinBritain12,no.2(July2011):13952.Ihavegreatlybenefittedfrom
theworkofotherscholarsworkingontheLondonartmarketinrecentyears,mostnotablytheworkofAnneHelmreichPatriciade

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MontfortandtheExhibitionCultureinLondon18781908projectThomasBayerandJohnPageandthecontributorstoTheRiseofthe
ModernArtMarketinLondon18501939.Foramoreextensivelistofrelevantscholarship,seetheresourcespage.
[17]Inordertoisolatethedevelopmentandriseofthisnewinstitutionalform,thecommercialartgalleryisdefinedhereasaprivateand
forprofitinstitutiondevotedtotheexhibitionandsaleoffineartinadedicatedretailspace.Theemergenceofretaildisplayspaceswhere
paintingsandsculptureaswellasfineartandreproductiveprintsandthedecorativeartsweresingledoutasdistincttypesofcommodities
wasakeydevelopmentinthemarketinLondon,andonethatalsooccurredinotherartmarketcenterssuchasParisatthesametime.
Green,"DealinginTemperaments"andGreen,"CircuitsofProduction."Thedatasetthususuallyomitsdealerswhoworkedfromprivate
homesoroffices,andshopsthatsoldpaintingsamongotherformsofhomedecoration,sundries,orantiques.
[18]"Introduction,"toTheSpatialHumanities:GISandtheFutureofHumanitiesScholarship,ed.DavidJ.Bodenhamer,JohnCorrigan,and
TrevorM.Harris(BloomingtonandIndianapolis:IndianaUniversity,2010),vii.Foranoverviewofthesetrends,seetheessaysinthat
collectionandinMichaelDear,JimKetchum,SarahLuria,andDouglasRichardson,eds.,GeoHumanities:Art,History,TextattheEdgeof
Place(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2011).
[19]Foradiscussionofthesetrends,seeDavidJ.Bodenhamer,"ThePotentialofSpatialHumanities,"inBodenhamer,Corrigan,and
Harris,SpatialHumanities,1430andDouglasRichardson,"Geohistories,"inDear,Ketchum,Luria,andRichardson,GeoHumanities,209
14.ManyHistoricalGISprojectsareindexedattheAssociationofAmericanGeographerswebsite,,accessedAugust22,2012,.
[20]QuotedinPatriciaCohen,"DigitalMapsareGivingScholarstheLayoftheLand,"NewYorkTimes,July26,2011,C1.
[21]EdwardL.Ayers,"TurningTowardPlace,SpaceandTime,"inBodenhamer,Corrigan,andHarris,SpatialHumanities,11.
[22]Arthistoriansarebeginningtoexplorethepotentialofgeospatialtechnologies.See,forexample,JimTiceandErikSteiner,Imago
Urbis:GiuseppeVasi'sGrandTourofRome,accessedAugust22,2012,http://vasi.uoregon.edu/andARTL@S:UneHistoireSocio
Spatialedesartsetlettres,accessedAugust22,2012,http://www.artlas.ens.fr/?lang=en.
[23]Cohen,"DigitalMaps,"C1.
[24]"ArtNotes:AnArtisticHotchPot,"Truth,February22,1905,502.
[25]Fletcher,"ShoppingforArt,"5556.
[26]Ontheprevalenceofexhibitionsocieties,seeJulieCodell,"Artists'ProfessionalSocieties:Production,ConsumptionandAesthetics,"in
TowardsaModernArtWorld,ed.BrianAllen(London:YaleUniversityPress,1995),16987.
[27]ErikaRappaport,ShoppingforPleasure:WomenintheMakingofLondon'sWestEnd(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2000).
[28]ThedevelopmentoftheartgalleryinParisfollowedasimilartrajectory.Green,"DealinginTemperaments"andGreen,"Circuitsof
Production."
[29]Advertisement,TheYear'sArt1883,5.
[30]Fletcher,"CreatingtheFrenchGallery,"andFletcher,"ShoppingforArt."
[31]Advertisement,Times(London),June20,1891,1.
[32]HarryFurniss,TheConfessionsofaCaricaturist(NewYorkandLondon:HarperandBrothers,1902),2:12.
[33]WilliamPowellFrith,MyAutobiographyandReminiscences(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1888),1:58,59,4650.
[34]FordetailsofFrith'scareer,seeChristopherWood,WilliamPowellFrith:APainterandHisWorld(Stroud:SuttonPublishing,2006).
[35]Frith,AutobiographyandReminiscences,1:22930.
[36]Foratypicalexampleofthepresscoverage,see:"TheRailwayStation,"Times(London),April19,1862,5.
[37]Advertisement,Times(London),January20,1859,1.
[38]"ArtandArtists,"Critic,April12,1862,370.
[39]"HomefromtheColonies,"Chambers'sJournalofPopularScience,LiteratureandtheArts,June1862,404.
[40]"MinorTopicsoftheMonth,"Athenaeum,April19,1862,533.JacobBellownedthepaintingGambartownedthecopyright,inorderto
publishandsellanengravingafterthepainting.FormoreonGambart'sdealingswithFrith,seeJeremyMaas,Gambart:Princeofthe
VictorianArtWorld(London:BarriesandJenkins,1975),100105.
[41]"MinorTopicsoftheMonth,"ArtJournal,n.s.24,1(June1862),147.
[42]"FineArtGossip,"Athenaeum,April19,1862,535.
[43]"MinorTopicsoftheMonth,"ArtJournal,n.s.24,1(October1862),210.
[44]"MinorTopicsoftheMonth,"ArtJournal,n.s.24,1(December1862),247.
[45]Advertisement,Athenaeum,March7,1863,335.
[46]Frith'shistoryofexhibitingattheAcademyisrecordedinAlgernonGraves,TheRoyalAcademyofArts:ACompleteDictionaryof
ContributorsandtheirWorkfromitsFoundationin1769to1904(London:HenryGravesandCo.Ltd.,1905),3:17177.Theexhibitionof
TheRaceforWealthwaswidelyadvertised,asforexample,intheTimes(London),March17,1880,1.
[47]"OurLondonCorrespondent,"LiverpoolMercury,October28,1880,5.
[48]RichardThomson,"Modernity,Figure,Metropolis:ImportingtheNewPaintingtoBritaininthe1870s,"inDegas,SickertandToulouse
Lautrec:LondonandParis,18701910(London:TatePublishing,2005),22.SeealsoPetratenDeoesschateChu,"TheLu(c)reofLondon:
FrenchArtistsandArtDealersintheBritishCapital,18591914,"inMonet'sLondon:Artists'ReflectionsontheThames,18591914,exh.
cat.(St.Petersburg,FL,:MuseumofFineArts,2005),3954.
[49]ThehistoryoftheGoupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&Ciefirmprovidedherehasbeenlargelyassembledfromthefollowingsources.
Archivalsources:Stockbooks(900239)inthecollectionsoftheGettyResearchInstitute,LosAngeles,CA,
http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/digital_collections/goupil_cie/index.htmlpapersofDavidCroalThomson(910126)heldbytheGetty
ResearchInstituteandRecordsoftheGoupilGallery,PapersoftheMarchantFamilyandMiscellaneousMaterial,(TGA8314),heldbyTate
GalleryArchives,TateBritain,London.FortheoriginsoftheGoupilGallery,seeDeCourcyMcIntosh,"TheOriginsoftheMaisonGoupilin
theAgeofRomanticism,"TheBritishArtJournal5,no.1(Spring/Summer2004),6476.Forahistoryofthefirm,focusinglargelyonthe
ParismainhouseanditsrelationshiptotheartistJeanLonGrme,seeGrme&Goupil,ArtandEnterprise(Paris:Editionsdela
RuniondesMusesNationaux,2000).Theperiodofthefirm'sinternationalizationisaddressedinAgnsPenot,"L'internationalisationdes
galeriesd'artfranaisesdurantlasecondemoitiduXIXesicle:L'exempledelamaisonGoupil(18461884),"(PhDdiss.,l'Universit
ParisIPanthonSorbonne,2012).Forahistoryofthefirminlateryears,focusingonitsactivitiesinParisandrelationshipswith
Impressionistartists,seeRichardThomson,"TheoVanGogh:AnHonestBroker,"inTheoVanGogh18571891:ArtDealer,Collectorand
BrotherofVincent,ed.ChrisStolwijkandRichardThomson(Amsterdam:VanGoghMuseumZwolle:WaandersPublishers,1999),61149.
ForahistoryoftheDutchbranch,see,DiewertjeDekkers,"GoupilendeinternationalverspredingvanNederlandseeigentijdsekunst,"
JongHolland11,no.4(1995):2236,6364.ForahistoryoftheLondonbranch,see,AnneHelmreich,"TheArtDealerandTaste:The
CaseofDavidCroalThomsonandtheGoupilGallery,"VisualCultureinBritain6,no.2(2006):3148,andAnneHelmreich,"TheGoupil
GalleryattheIntersectionbetweenLondon,ContinentandEmpire,"inFletcherandHelmreich,RiseoftheModernArtMarket,6584.

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FletcherHelmreichMappingtheLondonArtMarket
[50]JeremyMaas,Gambart:PrinceoftheVictorianArtWorld(London:Barrie&Jenkins,1975),31.
[51]TheOprabranchclosedaround1884andanotherbranch/officeopenedat24,BoulevarddesCapucine,in1893.Furtherresearchis
neededonthedatesandlocationsofthesebranchesandtherelationshipsbetweenthemaswellasbetweenthebranchesandtheParis
mainhouse.
[52]Thomson,"TheovanGogh,"75,8991.
[53]PatriciaMainardi,"NineteenthCenturyFrenchArtInstitutions,"ArtJournal48,no.1(Spring1989),78.Thethemeofinstitutional
connectivityinthenineteenthcenturyemergedverystronglyintheCAAsessionIchairedin2009:"TheNetworkedNineteenthCentury,"
AssociationofHistoriansofNineteenthCenturyArt,CollegeArtAssociationAnnualMeeting,LosAngeles,February26,2009.
[54]FormoreontheGoupilGalleryandmodernisminGreatBritain,seeAnnaGruetznerRobins,"TheLondonImpressionistsattheGoupil
Gallery,"inImpressionisminBritain,ed.KennethMcConkey(London:YaleUniversityPress,inassociationwithBarbicanArtGallery1995),
8796.
[55]ForThomson,seeAnneHelmreich,"DavidCroalThomson:TheProfessionalizationofArtDealinginanExpandedField,"Getty
ResearchJournal5(forthcoming2013)Helmreich,"ArtDealerandTaste"andPamelaFletcherandAnneHelmreich,"ThePeriodicaland
theArtMarket:Investigatingthe'DealerCriticSystem'inVictorianEngland,"VictorianPeriodicalsReview41,no.4(Winter2008):32351.
Forexamplesofsocialhistoricalanalysis,seeHelmreich,"GoupilGalleryattheIntersection,"andAnneHelmreich,"TraversingObjects:
TheLondonArtMarket,"inMarketingArtintheBritishIsles,1700tothePresent:ACulturalHistory,ed.CharlotteGouldandSophie
Mesplde(Farnham:AshgatePublishing,2012),forthcoming.
[56]Thedatawithinthestockbooksisalreadystructured:eachtransactionincludessuchfieldsasinventorynumber,titleorsubjectofthe
workofart,dimensions,artist,datepurchased,purchaseprice,saleprice,seller,buyer(andsometimesthegeographiclocationsof
purchaseandsale),anddatesold.Certainpricesareincode.
[57]MargaretF.MacDonaldandJoyNewton,"TheSellingofWhistler'sMother,"inWhistler'sMother:AnAmericanIcon,ed.MargaretF.
MacDonald(Aldershot:LundHumphries,2003),7477.
[58]FrancoMoretti,"ConjecturesonWorldLiterature,"NewLeftReview1(JanuaryFebruary2000),61.
[59]Dekkers,"Goupil,"26.SeealsoD.S.MacColl,whodescribes"thehouseofGoupil,"as"asortoftripodwithlegsinAmsterdamand
LondonaswellasParis.""ModernDutchPainters,"SaturdayReview,October7,1899,451.
[60]Theseareverysimplifieddescriptionsofthesealgorithmicfunctionsreaderssearchingformoreinformationaredirectedtothe
relevantprofessionalliterature.See,forexample,JohnScott,SocialNetworkAnalysis,AHandbook,rev.ed.(London:SAGEPublications,
2000).ThesoftwareprogramGephiusedforthevisualizationsdeployedinthisarticledescribes"betweennesscentrality"asmeasuring
"howoftenanodeappearsontheshortestpathsbetweennodesinthenetwork."
[61]Scott,SocialNetworkAnalysis,8687.
[62]VincentVanGoghtoTheovanGogh,November1873,inLeoJansen,HansLuijten,NienkeBakker,VincentvanGoghTheLetters,
letter15,accessedAugust25,2012,http://vangoghletters.org/vg/letters/let015/letter.html.Seealso,MartinBailey,VanGoghinEngland:
PortraitoftheArtistasaYoungMan(London:BarbicanArtGallery,1992),31.
[63]VincentvanGoghtoTheovanGogh,London,betweenMonday,January4andFriday,March5,1875,inJansen,Luijten,andBakker,
VincentVanGoghTheLetters,letter29,accessedAugust25,2012,http://vangoghletters.org/vg/letters/let029/letter.html."Ourgalleryis
readynowandisverybeautiful,wehavesomesplendidpictures:JulesDupr,Michel,Daubigny,Maris,Israls,Mauve,Bisschop,etc.In
Aprilwearegoingtohaveanexhibition.Mr.Boussod[inParis]haspromisedtosendusthebestthingsavailable."Bailey,VanGoghin
England,32.
[64]VincentvanGoghtoTheovanGogh,March25,1888,inJansen,Luijten,andBakker,VincentVanGoghTheLetters,letter589,
accessedAugust25,2012,http://vangoghletters.org/vg/letters/let589/letter.html.In1875,TersteeghadvisitedLondonwithCorneliusVan
Gogh,anAmsterdamartdealerandbookseller.VincentcomplainedtoTheothatthetwomen"wentalittletoooftentotheCrystalPalace
andotherplacesthatdidn'tconcernthem."VincentvanGoghtoTheovanGogh,May8,1875,inJansen,Luijten,andBakker,VincentVan
GoghTheLetters,letter33,accessedAugust25,2012,http://vangoghletters.org/vg/letters/let033/letter.html.
[65]Dekkers,"Goupil,"28.
[66]CharlesDumas,"ArtDealersandCollectors,"inTheHagueSchool,DutchMastersofthe19thCentury,ed.RonalddeLeeuw,John
Sillevis,andCharlesDumas(TheHague:HaagsGemeentemuseumLondon:TheRoyalAcademypublishedinassociationwithWeidenfeld
andNicolson,London,1983),12527.
[67]JohnSillevis,"InternationalFame,"TheHagueSchoolBook(Zwolle:WaandersPublishers,2004),1718.
[68]DieuwertjeDekkers,JozefIsrals,18241911(Groninger:GroningerMuseum,1999),105.
[69]Ibid.
[70]Ibid.,107,109.
[71]Ibid.,111.
[72]Acquisitioncredit,NationalGalleryofArt,London,accessedOctober2,2012,http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/willem
marisducksalightingonapool/*/keyfacts.
[73]L.Whiteley,"L'coledeBarbizonetlescollectionneursbritanniquesavant1918,"inL'EcoledeBarbizon:PeindreenPleinAiravant
l'Impressionism(Lyon:MusedesBeauxArts,2002),100107seealsoSarahHerring,"TheNationalGalleryandtheCollectingof
BarbizonpaintingsintheEarlyTwentiethCentury,"JournaloftheHistoryofCollections13,no.1(2001):7789,andHowardL.Rehs,
"JulienDupr:TheMaking,Unmaking,andRemakingofanAcademicReputation,"TwentyfirstcenturyPerspectivesonNineteenthCentury
Art:EssaysinhonorofGabrielP.Weisberg,ed.PetratenDoesschateChuandLaurindaS.Dixon(Newark:UniversityofDelawarePress,
2008),9399.
[74]Dekkers,"Goupil,"33.
[75]"BeautifulArtRooms,"NewYorkTimes,November15,1887,8.
[76]Thomson'srosterofartistsisestablishedviatheexhibitioncataloguespublishedbytheGoupilGallery.Iconsultedthoseheldinthe
collectionsoftheNationalArtLibrary,VictoriaandAlbertMuseumsee,forexample,Pressmark200.B.174,200.B.175,200.B.176,
200.B.177,200.B.178.TheGoupilGalleryScrapAlbums(18851891,TGA739),heldbyTateGalleryArchives,werealsoaninvaluable
sourceofinformationaboutthehistoryofthefirm,andcontainnumerousexhibitioncatalogues,noticesofexhibitionsandother
miscellaneousephemera.
[77]CataloguesdocumentingtheseexhibitionscanbefoundinthecollectionsoftheNationalArtLibrary,Victoria&AlbertMuseum.See
Pressmark200.B.175whichincludesthefollowingitems:28.PaintingsbyP.WilsonSteer,189429.DrawingsandsketchesbyHamilton
Aid,189430.PicturesbyAntonMauve,189431.DrawingsbyH.B.Brabazon,1894.JohnSingerSargentauthoredanessayabout
Brabazon'sworkforanexhibitionattheGoupilGalleryin1892.See,GoupilGalleryScrapAlbum,TateGalleryArchives,TGA739.1,vol,2,
p.14.
[78]JamesMcNeillWhistlertoDavidCroalThomson,July11,1895,Systemnumber08305,MacDonald,deMontfort,andThorp,
CorrespondenceofJamesMcNeillWhistler,http://www.whistler.arts.gla.ac.uk/correspondence/.

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[79]ForahistoryofcollectingTheHagueSchoolinCanada,seeMartaH.Hurdalek,TheHagueSchool:CollectinginCanadaattheTurnof
theCentury(Toronto:ArtGalleryofOntario,1984).Seealso,PetratenDoesschateChu,"AntonMauveinAmerika,"(Haarlem:Teyler
MuseumLaren:SingerMuseum,2008),14865.
[80]BayerandPage,ArtMarket,110.
[81]Ibid.,111.
[82]HenryJames,TheFigureintheCarpet(18961916MartinSeckeredition,transcribedbyDavidPrice,ProjectGuttenberg,ebook
#645,modifiedSeptember2,2002,accessedSeptember16,2012,http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/fgcpt10h.htm.
[83]KevinHannam,MimiSheller,andJohnUrry,"Editorial:Mobilities,ImmobilitiesandMoorings,"Mobilities1,no.1(March2006):1.
[84]JoGuldi"WhatistheSpatialTurn,"Scholar'sLab,UniversityofVirginia,accessedSeptember2,2012,
http://spatial.scholarslab.org/spatialturn/whatisthespatialturn/.Seealso,RichardWhite,"WhatisSpatialHistory,"TheSpatialHistory
Project,StanfordUniversity,February1,2010,accessedSeptember2,2012,http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi
bin/site/pub.php?id=29.
[85]TheselessonslearnedareinspiredbytheInterimReportoftheOnlineScholarlyCatalogueInitiative,sponsoredbytheGetty
Foundation,accessedSeptember1,2012,http://www.getty.edu/foundation/funding/access/current/osci_report.html.
[86]PamelaFletcher,"CreatingtheFrenchGallery:ErnestGambartandtheRiseoftheCommercialArtGalleryinMidVictorianLondon,"
NineteenthCenturyArtWorldwide6,no.1(Spring2007),accessedOctober1,2012,http://www.19thc
artworldwide.org/index.php/spring07/143creatingthefrenchgalleryernestgambartandtheriseofthecommercialartgalleryinmid
victorianlondonPamelaFletcher,"ShoppingforArt:TheRiseoftheCommercialArtGallery,1850s1890s"inTheRiseoftheModernArt
MarketinLondon,18501939,ed.PamelaFletcherandAnneHelmreich(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2011),4764and
PamelaFletcher,"TheGrandTouronBondStreet:CosmopolitanismandtheCommercialArtGalleryinVictorianLondon,"VisualCulturein
Britain12,no.2(July2011):13952.
[87]DavidJ.Bodenhamer,JohnCorrigan,andTrevorM.Harris,eds.,TheSpatialHumanities:GISandtheFutureofHumanities
Scholarship(BloomingtonandIndianapolis:IndianaUniversityPress,2010).
[88]See,forexample,IanGregory,"ExploitingTimeandSpace:AChallengeforGISintheDigitalHumanties,"inBodenhamer,Corrigan,
andHarris,SpatialHumanities,5875.
[89]FormoreinformationconcerningthisNEHInstitute,seeSectionsofthesuccessfulgrantapplication,"NarrativeSectionofaSuccessful
Application,"accessedOctober1,2012,
http://www.neh.gov/files/grants/universityofcalifornialosangelesnetworkanalysisforthehumanities.pdfBriefoverviewoftheprogram,
"NetworksandNetworkAnalysisfortheHumanities:AnNEHInstituteforAdvancedTopicsinDigitalHumanities,"InstituteforPureand
AppliedMathematics,August1527,2010,accessedOctober1,2012,http://www.ipam.ucla.edu/programs/hum2010/default.aspx#top
BriefoverviewofpresentationsattheInstitutebyfacultyandstaffofUniversityofIndiana,"NEHInstituteonNetworkAnalysisforthe
Humanities,"September2,2010,accessedOctober1,2012,http://www.slis.indiana.edu/news/story.php?story_id=2202Institutepaperby
JohnMohr,"NetworkMethods,TextsandtheFormalAnalysisofSocialInstitutions"(paperpresentedattheUCLAInstituteforPureand
AppliedMathematics(IPAM)&TheCenterforDigitalHumanitiesConferenceon"NetworksandNetworkAnalysisfortheHumanities,"
August16,2010),postedAugust17,2010,accessedOctober1,2012,http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/ct/pages/JWM/TalksFolder/UCLA03.pdf.
[90]*ORA,CarnegieMellonUniversity,accessedOctober1,2012,http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/ora/.
[91]Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CieStockBooks,TheGettyResearchInstitute,accessedOctober1,2012,
http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/digital_collections/goupil_cie/index.html.
[92]Formore,seeAgnsPenot,"TheGoupil&CieStockBooks:ALessononGainingProsperitythroughNetworking,"GettyResearch
Journal2(2010):17782.Seealso,AgnsPenot,"Lescoulissesd'unecrationdebasededonnes:Leslivresd'inventairesdelamaison
GoupilconservsauGettyResearchInstitute,LosAngeles,"LeBlogdeL'Apahau(blog),June15,2011,accessedOctober1,2012,
http://blog.apahau.org/lescoulissesd%E2%80%99unecreationdebasededonneesleslivresd%E2%80%99inventairesdelamaison
goupilconservesaugettyresearchinstitutelosangeles/.
[93]OnlineDatabase,SearchInterface,Goupil&Cie/Boussod,Valadon&CieStockBooks,TheGettyResearchInstitute,accessedOctober
1,2012,http://piprod.getty.edu/starweb/goupil/servlet.starweb?path=goupil/goupil.web.
[94]DigitalArtHistory:Challenges,ToolsandPracticalSolutionsWorkshop,September2022,2011,UniversityofMlaga,accessed
October11,2012,http://digitalarthistory.weebly.com/IATDHNetworksConference,October2022,UCLA,accessedOctober10,2012,
http://www.cdh.ucla.edu/research/lecturesandseminars/613iatdhnetworksconferenceoct2022ucla.html.
[95]Gephihomepage,accessedOctober1,2012,http://gephi.org/.
[96]ORBIS,TheStanfordGeospatialNetworkModeloftheRomanWorld,accessedOctober1,2012,http://orbis.stanford.edu/.Formore
onORBIS,seealso,ElijahMeeksandKarlGrossner,"ORBIS:AnInteractiveScholarlyWorkontheRomanWorld,"JournalofDigital
Humanities1,no.3(Summer2012),accessedOctober8,2012,http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/13/orbisaninteractivescholarly
workontheromanworldbyelijahmeeksandkarlgrossner/andElijahMeeksandKarlGrossner,
"ModelingNetworksandScholarshipinORBIS,"JournalofDigitalHumanities,1,no.3(Summer2012),accessedOctober8,2012,
http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/13/modelingnetworksandscholarshipwithorbisbyelijahmeeksandkarlgrossner/.

2015NineteenthCenturyArtWorldwide.AllRightsReserved.

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