7th Feb,2002

San Moe Aung

Manoeuvring the vessels in Heavy weather at sea

Introduction
The experienced and well-trained master can attain good handling the ship in the
heavy weather but it will depend so much upon the type, size and capabilities of the
particular ship. It cannot be laid down the precise instructions as to how to act in various
circumstances. We have to study carefully the reactions of the ship in heavy sea and
thereby gains a sympathetic understanding of the ships sea-keeping qualities. He learns
how she should be handled, and how hard she can be driven without incurring danger or
damage.
Precautions
Before leaving harbour the ship should be fully prepared for sea, and this work
must include the proper securing of everything that is movable, particularly if it is evident
that heavy seas will be met as soon as the harbour entrance is passed.
Steps to increase the stability of the ship must be taken in ample time before the
weather deteriorates. Such steps include pumping, flooding or ballasting etc.
Characteristics of waves in the sea
The particles of water in an unbroken wave do not move along with the wave, but
oscillate within quite narrow limits, moving upwards as the crest approaches, forwards as
the crest passes, downwards as it recedes, and backwards almost to their original
positions as the trough passes. Both the length and steepness of waves increase with wind
speed, but when the wind rises above 10 knots the rate of increase of height becomes
much greater than that of length. No individual wave can, however, attain steepness of
more than that which corresponds to a height-to-length ratio of about 1 in 10 without
breaking at the crest. A group of waves moves at only half the speed of the individual
waves forming the group. Consequently the same wave does not remain the highest of a
group, but waves passing through a group attain their maximum height at the centre.
White horses do not, therefore, remain on the same waves, and in a simple wave
formation a wave only foams at the crest when passing near the centre of a group. In a
cross sea, which is the rule rather than the exception, waves will, however, break more
frequently. In deep water, the water forming the broken crest of a wave may be
considered as moving forward and downward at about half the speed of the wave.
An unbroken wave is far less dangerous than a breaking wave. A naturally
breaking wave is higher and steeper than its unbroken counterpart. An unbroken wave
can, however, be broken by impact with the ship, and its potential danger is then nearly as
great as the wave which has broken naturally.
A short steep sea, or a confused sea, is more dangerous to small vessels than to
large ships, and conversely, a long, heavy sea is more dangerous to large ships than to
small vessels.

Prof: D.J.House

Bridge Management

7th Feb,2002

San Moe Aung

Effects of wave motion on a ship

All ships have a natural period of roll and pitch according to their dimensions and
conditions of loading.
The period of roll is the time a ship takes to roll from one side to the other and
back again.
The period of pitch is the time the bows of a ship take to rise from the horizontal,
fall below the horizontal, and return to it.
The period of encounter is the time interval between the passage of two
successive wave crests past any given point in the ship.
The movement of a ship in roll or pitch depends on the size of the waves and the
relation between the period of encounter and the ships period of roll or pitch, the greatest
movement developing when there is synchronisation. The period of encounter depends
on the wave length (which governs the wave speed) and also on the course and speed of
the ship relative to the waves. Thus the period of encounter can be varied by alteration of
the ships course and speed.
When the period of the ship is small in comparison with the period of encounter
she will tend to ride the waves, keeping her deck parallel to their slope.

In a beam sea this will result in rapid, heavy rolling. In a head sea a small period
of pitch should result in an easy motion, without much water being shipped.
When the period of the ship is large in comparison with the period of encounter
she will roll or pitch independently of the waves. In a beam sea this should mean a
comparatively easy motion, though waves slapping against the weather side may make
her wet.

In a head sea a comparatively long period of pitch may result in occasional

burying of the bows and exposure of propellers and rudders.
When the period of encounter approaches synchronisation with the period of roll
or pitch , the ships motion will be violent. In a beam sea this may result in dangerously

Prof: D.J.House

Bridge Management

7th Feb,2002

San Moe Aung

heavy rolling, while in a head sea the severe and rapid pitching movement may cause
frequent racing of propellers and unfair hogging and sagging strains.
For a large ship, the natural period of roll is about 14-15 seconds, and for medium
size ships, it is from 8 to 10 seconds. Periods of pitch are about half those of roll. The
following little table can give the idea of period of encounter for ships heading into
waves of their own length.
Period of Encounter at ship Speed of:
15 knots
20 knots
Ship Size
Period of encounter in
Period of encounter in
seconds
seconds
220m long
8.2
7.5
160 m long
6.7
6.0
110 m long
5.2
4.6
An important effect of wave motion on a ship is the loss of stability she suffers as
she rides over the crest of a wave. In a ship with a low reserve of stability this may result
in a dangerous increase of roll or list, particularly in a high beam-wind.
Heavy Rolling
Causes and Remedies
1.
2.

Light Draught: Ballasting will be necessary to avoid weather damage due

to excessive rolling.
Free surface effect: The free movement of water from one side of the
ship to the other whether below the centre of gravity or on deck will
increase the period and degree of roll.
T =

2. . K
(GM . g)1/2

This effect will be more significant when the free water is high in the ship.
In ships with continuous bulwarks or well decks, the correct functioning of
freeing ports is essential to stability in rough weather.
3.
Snow and Ice: A considerable coating of snow and ice on rigging,
superstructure or on deck will obviously affect the stability of a ship adversely, but to an
extent which may not be generally appreciated.
Anti-rolling devices
Bilge keels are the simplest form of anti-rolling device. They are built
approximately at right-angles to the hull, at or near the turn of the bilge, and are usually
continuous over about half the length of the ship. In general, bilge keels materially
decrease the amplitude of roll and slightly increase the period. Their effectiveness
increases with the forward speed of the ship, and largely for this reason a ship will
usually roll most heavily when stopped and drifting in a beam sea.
Fin Stabilisers are fitted in modern ships nowadays. In this system, in its most
simplified form, rudder-type fins project almost horizontally through the side of the ship

Prof: D.J.House

Bridge Management

7th Feb,2002

San Moe Aung

at points near the turn of the bilge on each side. The angle of incidence of the fins to the
flow of water past the ship is varied automatically as the ship rolls, the leading edges of
the fins on the side which is moving down being turned up, and vice versa. The
disadvantage of this system of stabilisation, apart from its complexity and weight, is that
the effectiveness of the fins depends on the ships forward speed through the water, and
that their operation involves a small loss of speed.
Effect of wind on a ship
Once a ship has been obliged to reduce to slow speed in a storm the pressure of
the wind on her hull will have an increased effect on her handling qualities. The effect is
greater if the ship is lightly laden, or is of shallow draught, or has large superstructures.
When going very slowly or when stopped, most ships tend to lie broadside-on to the
wind, and in exceptionally strong winds it may be difficult to turn them up into the wind,
though it may be possible to turn them away down-wind. In a typhoon or hurricane it
may be impossible to turn certain ships into the wind.
Leeway caused by the wind
The amount of leeway a ship makes in a gale depends on her speed, draught and
freeboard, and on her course in relation to the direction of the wind and seas. In winds of
gale or hurricane force the leeway with the wind abeam can be very considerable, and
may amount to as much as two knots or more, particularly if the ship is steaming at slow
speed.
It is a common mistake among inexperienced seamen to make insufficient
allowance for leeway, particularly in a prolonged gale when, in addition to the wind,
there will be a surface current caused by it. The amount of leeway made by a ship in
various circumstances can only be judged by experience. But it is wise to allow a liberal
margin of safety when passing dangers to leeward, because cases abound of ships having
gone aground through failure to make sufficient allowance for leeway in the course
steered.
HANDLING A SHIP IN A SEAWAY
Steaming head to sea
There are three factors to be considered when a ship is heading into a seaway.
1.
The force of impact of the waves on her bows;
2.
The pitching of the ship and the resultant strains of hogging, sagging and
pounding; and
3.
Waves breaking on board, whether this is caused by their impact with the hull or
the pitching of the ship, or both.
The force of impact of the waves varies with the product of the ships mass
and the square of the combined velocity of the ship and the waves. A small
reduction of speed will therefore considerably lessen the force of impact.
The trim of a ship may have a considerable effect on her behaviour when
steaming into a head sea. If she is trimmed at all by the head, or if she is
heavily laden forward, she will probably pitch sluggishly and tend to bury her
bows in the waves. Conversely, if she is trimmed too much by the stern her
bows will tend to pay off to one side or the other, and it will be difficult to
keep her on her course heading into the seas. The best condition for a ship

Prof: D.J.House

Bridge Management

7th Feb,2002

San Moe Aung

steaming into a head sea is for her to be trimmed slightly by the stern and
lightly laden forward, thus ensuring that her propellers and rudder are well
immersed and that her bows are buoyant.
An alteration of speed may have a considerable effect on the pitching of a
ship because it alters the period of encounter. But a reduction of speed
does not necessarily reduce pitching, nor does an increase of speed
necessarily increase pitching. After a reduction of speed on account of the
weather the larger ships are sometimes more uncomfortable. In such
circumstances it may be better for the large ships to continue at their
original speed. In short head sea it may be possible to increase speed to a
point at which the period of encounter is considerably reduced and ship
rides comfortably over the waves at relatively high speed with little
pitching. The decision to order a large speed increase with this result in
view is, however, a difficult one to make. If outcome has been misjudged
the ship may sustain damage through pounding. Pitching can sometimes
be lessened by altering course so as to bring the seas on the bow, but the
resulting motion with both pitch and roll may be more uncomfortable and
more water may be shipped. Such action may be essential in order to
prevent the stern being continually lifted out of the water, possibly
causing the propellers to race, thus straining the propeller shafts,
bearings and the blades of the propellers.
Steaming with the sea abeam
The best way to reduce the rolling caused by a beam sea is to alter course so as
to prevent the ships rolling period from being synchronous with the period of encounter.
Alterations of speed are unlikely to affect the amount of rolling at all.
Running before the sea
Running before the sea carries with it certain dangers, but these can usually be
avoided by altering the speed and hence the period of encounter. The dangers consist of
broaching-to or being pooped and arise in the following way.
Broaching-to
If the ships length is comparable to, and her speed practically the same as, that of
the waves, she may find herself running for a considerable time on the crest of a
wave. The stern is high in the water, and control by the rudder becomes less
effective.
If she now pitches on to the forward slope of the wave and the wave
breaks, the entire ship is carried forward with the breaking water and she begins
to glide along with the wave, in other words, she starts surfing. The forward
motion of the water relative to the rudder and propellers further diminishes
steering control, and a yaw may develop rapidly and may be quite impossible to
correct. The bow now buries itself deep into the trough and the stern is swung
round until the ship lies broadside to the waves. This is the process called
broaching-to. She now begins to roll heavily, and if a following wave breaks upon

Prof: D.J.House

Bridge Management

7th Feb,2002

San Moe Aung

her in such a way as to reinforce her roll to leeward, she may be heeled further
over and capsize.
Pooped
If the ship is on the forward slope of a wave that breaks upon her, the water may
sweep along her upper decks from aft, causing damage. She is then said to be pooped. A
ship may be pooped without having lost steerage control, and usually when going slower
than the speed of the waves.
Of these dangers it is of paramount importance to avoid surfing and being
broached-to. Invariably this can be achieved by reducing the speed of the
ship to well below that of the waves. To be safe, ship speed should be at
least 40 per cent below wave speed.
Turning in a heavy sea
There may be considerable risk in attempting to turn a ship about in a heavy sea,
and good judgment is required in selecting the most suitable moment to start the turn.
If you are heading into sea and wish to turn and run before it, the risk of damage
will be greatest probably half-way through the turn, when the sea comes abeam. At that
moment also the ship will be most reluctant to turn. The best time to try to get the ship
round so that she is beam-on to the sea, is during one of the calmer periods. Avoid
gathering much headway during the first part of the turn, because this may cause heavy
pitching. But the turn should be completed as rapidly as possible by using fully angled
rudder. In a following sea, speed should be reduced as far as practicable before starting
the turn. Be prepared for the ship to roll very heavily to leeward when beam-on to the
sea.

Heaving-to
When weather becomes so violent in the open sea, the prudent master might decide
to subordinate the scheduled voyage and handle the ship in the best possible way to
avoid damage and to keep her afloat. The planned course and speed are abandoned
and the ship may either run before the sea or heave-to.
The method of heaving-to is lying with the sea on the bow and steaming ahead
at the minimum speed consistent with steerage way.
To keep the bow up the ship will require power for a speed of anything from 6 to
12 knots, but she may make little headway. If she has a relatively long and high forecastle
the ship may be protected to a certain extent from seas breaking over her decks. The
disadvantage of the method is that the engines are being used to drive the ship against the
sea. Heavy pitching and pounding may occur, even if the revolutions are reduced to the
minimum needed to keep steerage ways.
A single-screw right handed propeller ship may find it easier to keep the
ships head up with the wind fine on the port, rather than the starboard bow because of
the transverse thrust force of the propeller.
Having considered the above-mentioned handling the ship in the heavy weather,
the master, knowing his own ship and her stability and handling qualities, forecasting the

Prof: D.J.House

Bridge Management

7th Feb,2002

San Moe Aung

future trend of the weather and considering the sea room available, must decide do
himself which is the best action to do in the prevailing circumstances.

Prof: D.J.House

Bridge Management