CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1

Background of the Study

The banana (musaacuminata) is an edible fruit that is elongated and

curved, with soft flesh rich in starch. It is a herbaceous flowering plant

that replaces itself by growing from a bulb or rhizome. As a non-seasonal
crop, banana is available fresh all year-round and is the second largest
fruit produced next to citrus, contributing about 16% of the worlds total
fruit production

(1)

. The fleshy stalks or pseudo stems formed by upright

concentric layers of leaf sheaths constitute the functional trunk that grows
approximately 3-4 m. Each stalk produces one huge flower cluster and
then dies (2). After harvesting the banana bunch in over an acre of land, a
large amount of waste biomass remains. Each banana plant is cut down
and will be as organic waste but maximizing its properties will benefit the
environment. In view of the shortage of conventional raw materials for
paper, non-wood plants and agricultural residues attracted pulping.
Motivated by the problem of an increasing demand of fiber-based
products, the banana pseudo-stem would be the raw material for this
study.
The paper making process involves three major steps, namely: the
pulping process, pressing section, and drying process. The paper making
process is essentially a very large dewatering operation where a diluted
solution of pulp suspension with less than 0.5% fiber solid is used and is
usually the final step before packaging (3). Drying is the removal of
relatively small amounts of water from the pressed pulp. Paper drying is
associated with both heat and mass transfer. The heat energy released
when steam condenses is transmitted through the dryer shell to the wet
paper and this constitutes the heat transfer aspect of drying. The air
receives the water vapor evaporated from the paper. The removal of this
1

vapor from the sheet into the air stream constitutes the mass transfer
aspect of paper drying. As a result, the operation of a dryer section must
be optimized in terms of both heat transfer and water removal. The
factors which most influence paper drying operation are (i) steam
pressure and temperature; (ii) temperature and humidity of air; (iii)
energy content of steam and (iv) heat and mass transfer coefficients (3).
With a determined drying rate, time, which is the most important factor in
drying calculations, is required to dry a material from the given initial free
moisture content X1 to final moisture content X2. Steam-heated air of the
dryer, with a maximum pressure of 60 psia, is circulated by a fan parallel
to the surface of the tray (4).

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of different

drying conditions, namely the effects of air velocity: 1.5 m/s, 3.5m/s and
5.5m/s, gas temperature: 60 0C, 70 0C, and 80 0C, and the thickness of the
pulp being dried are the parameters being observed and studied in the
experimental data using the compartment tray dryer of Cebu Institute of
Technology-University.

1.2

Statement of the Problem

Agricultural waste management in banana plantations is a major

problem of the banana industry. By utilizing this fiber-rich waste for paper
and textiles industries, the problem can be minimized.
In paper industry, drying is directly affected by the thickness of the
material being dried, the drying temperature, and air velocity. This study
determines the effect of these parameters on the total drying time of
paper made from banana pseudo- stem fibers.

1.3

Objectives
2

The main objective of this study is to determine the effect of the

different drying conditions specifically, the air velocity, temperature, and
thickness to the total drying time using a compartment tray dryer in Cebu
Institute of Technology- University.
Specific:
1. To determine the effect of the paper thickness to the drying time at
constant drying conditons.
2. To determine theeffect of the air velocity and air temperature to the
drying time.
3. Toplot the rate against the moisture content at varying thickness,
temperatures and velocities.
4. To determine the humidity with respect to time at varying thickness,
temperature and air velocity.

1.4

Purpose of the Study

This study aims to find another source of pulp for paper production

that is economical, and utilize biomass generated from the banana

industry. Thisstudy also aims to determine the effect of drying conditions
of banana pseudo-stem paper. This factor is important for optimum
management of operating parameters and it provides useful information
in the drying process. Studies and analysis of drying curves allow us to
understand and better visualize the drying process. Determining the effect
of the drying conditions can be useful not only in paper manufacturing but
also in different kind of drying processes.

1.5

Scope And Limitations

The paper making process involves three major steps, namely: the

pulping process, pressing section, and drying process. This study,

3

however, revolves around and is only limited to the drying of paper made
from banana pseudo-stem. A compartment tray dryer shall be used. The
study will determine the drying conditions of paper at different
thicknesses, and various air velocities and drying air temperatures. The
study only focuses on the constant rate period of the drying process.
There will be no pre-treatments done before drying and bleaching is
neglected as it is not the focus of this study. Moreover, the quality of the
paper produced will not be studied such as optical properties, dry and wet
strength or resistance to water absorption among others.

1.6

Definition of Terms

AIR VELOCITY is the rate of motion of air in a given direction; in mine

ventilation it is usually expressed in meters per second.
BANANA- an edible fruit, in the genusMusa,elongated and curved, with
soft flesh rich in starch, which in the Musa Espispecies, is covered with a
yellow rind when ripe.
CRITICAL FREE MOISTURE CONTENT - the change in drying rates, from
constant drying rate to falling drying rate, occurs at point C and the
moisture content is known as Critical free moisture.
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE OF AIR (DBT) is the temperature of the air
measured by the ordinary thermometer, commonly referred as DBT. When
ordinary thermometer is exposed to the atmosphere, it indicated the dry
bulb temperature, which is nothing but the atmospheric temperature.
DRYING - is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or
another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid.

DRYING RATE is defined by the loss of moisture from the wet solid paper
per each unit of time, and more specifically by the differential quotient (dX/d) operating in a constant drying conditions, when air conditions
(temperature, pressure, humidity, and air velocity) are constant along
time.
FORCED CONVECTION - is a mechanism, or type of transport in which fluid motion is
generated by an external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). It should be considered
as one of the main methods of useful heat transfer as significant amounts of heat energy can be
transported very efficiently.

HEAT CONDUCTION (OR THERMAL CONDUCTION) the heat is conducted

by the transfer of the energy of motion between adjacent molecules. This
type of transfer is present to some extent in all solids, gases or liquids in
which a temperature gradient exists.
HEAT CONVECTION this implies the transfer of heat by bulk transport
and mixing of macroscopic elements of warmer portions with cooler
portions of gas or liquid. It also often refers to the energy exchange
between a solid surface and a fluid. A distinction must be made between
forced-convection heat transfer, where a fluid is forced to flow past a solid
surface by a pump, fan, or other mechanical means, and natural or free
convection, where warmer or cooler fluid next to the solid surface causes
a circulation because

of a density difference resulting

from the

temperature differences of the fluid.

HEAT TRANSFER - is the way the heat moves from one physical system (or
body) to another. Heat transfer requires a difference in temperature. Heat
moves from the hotter body (higher temperature) to the colder one (lower
temperature). The bodies in question may be in a solid state, a liquid state
or

a gaseous state. There

are

three

modes

of

heat

transfer: conduction, convection and radiation.

HUMIDITY is defined as the kg of water vapor contained in 1kg of dry air.

The humidity so defined depends only on the partial pressure of water
vapor in the air and on the total pressure.
PSEUDO STEM a false stem made of the rolled bases of leaves, which
may be 2 or 3 m tall just like a banana.
PULP - a process that extracts fibrous material, cellulose, from wood or
other raw material as a prelude to papermaking.
TRAY DRYER - a rectangular batch, direct-heat dryer with tray/s on fixed
rack/s; trays are manually loaded and unloaded. Hot gas blows through
the housing to dry the material. It is also called a forced-convection tray or
shelf dryer.
WET BULB TEMPERATURE OF AIR (WBT) it is the temperature of the
ordinary air measured by the thermometer when it is covered by wet cloth
or wick commonly referred to as WBT.

CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Drying in general usually means the removal of relatively small
amounts of water from material. The water is usually removed as a vapour
by air. In some cases water may be removed mechanically from solid
materials by presses, centrifuging and other methods. This is cheaper
than drying by thermal means for removal of water. The moisture content
of the final dried product varies depending upon the type of product.
Drying methods and processes can be classified in several different
ways. Drying processes can be classified as batch, where the material is
inserted into the drying equipment and drying proceeds for a given period
of time, or as continuous, where the material is continuously added to the
dryer and dried material continuously removed.
7

Drying processes can also be categorized according to the physical

conditions used to add heat and remove water vapor: in the first category,
heat is added by direct contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure,
and the water vapor formed is removed by the air; in vacuum drying, the
evaporation of water proceeds more rapidly at low pressures, and the heat
is added indirectly by contact with a metal wall or by radiation (low
temperatures can also be used under vacuum for certain materials that
may discolor or decompose at higher temperatures); and

(3)

in freeze

drying, water is sublimed from the frozen material.

Compartment Tray Dryer
Tray dryers are the most common drying equipment used. In tray
dryers which are also called shelf, cabinet, or compartment dryers, the
material, which may be a lumpy solid or pasty solid, is spread uniformly
on a metal tray to a depth of 10 to 100 mm.
Steam is used to heat the incoming air which is used to dry the
material inside. The air can be recirculated by a fan over and parallel to
the surface of the trays. Electrical heat is also use, especially for low
heating loads. About 10 to 20% of the air passing over the trays is fresh
air, the remainder being recirculated air.
After drying, the cabinet is opened and trays are replaced with a
new batch of trays. A modification of this type is the tray-truck type,
where trays are loaded on trucks which are pushed into the dryer. This
saves considerable time, since the trucks can be loaded and unloaded
outside the dryer.
Pulping

In virtually all papermaking of today, cellulose fibres are used as the

raw material. The prime source of cellulose is trees, especially pine,
spruce, birch and eucalyptus. Modern papermaking uses both virgin and
recycled fibres, depending on the requirements of the final products.
Pulp production from virgin fibres is generally divided into two main
categories: chemical and mechanical pulping. In chemical pulping process
wood chips are cooked in a digester with chemicals under pressure and at
elevated temperatures. The relatively undamaged fibres are recovered via
various unit operations. The yield is around 50%. Mechanical pulps have a
much higher yield, more than 95%, but the fibres are treated more
violently and are significantly shorter than chemically treated fibres. The
most common method of mechanical pulping employs large rotating discs
with sharp edges. The wood chips are pressed against the discs so that
the chips are torn apart. Recycled fibres could be mixtures of both
chemical and mechanical pulps at various proportions with varying level
ofcontaminations as the papers used are post-consumer. The recycled
papers are re-slushedwith water followed by separation of contaminants
before being used in the papermakingprocess(3).

Equilibrium Moisture Content

As in other transfer processes, such as mass transfer, the process of
drying of materials must be approached from the viewpoint of the
equilibrium relationships together with the rate relationships. In most
drying apparatus, material is dried in contact with an air water vapor
mixture. When a material containing moisture is exposed in a stream of
air having a constant humidity for sufficiently long for equilibrium to be
reached, the material will attain a definite moisture content. This definite
moisture content is known as the equilibrium moisture content. The
9

moisture content is usually expressed on a dry basis as kg of water per kg

of moisture free (bone dry) solid.
Equilibrium moisture content varies greatly with the type of material
for any given percent relative humidity. Desorption happens when a
material contains more moisture than its equilibrium value in contact with
a gas of a given humidity and temperature. Adsorption on the other hand,
happens when a material contains less moisture than its equilibrium value
at a given humidity and temperature.
Bound and Unbound Water
Water present in a wet or moist paper consists of bound and
unbound or free water. The bound water is in the micro pores at the
amorphous region in the cell wall and in accessible hydrophilic groups,
while the unbound or free water is in the large pores (macro pores)

(5)

Capillary flow of unbound water ends totally when moisture content falls
below the fiber saturation point and all moisture is in the form of bound
water.
The bound water in a substance may exists under several different
conditions. Moisture in cell or fiber walls may have solids dissolved in it
and have a lower vapor pressure(4). Liquid water in capillaries of very small
diameter will exert a lowered vapor pressure because of the concave
curvature of the surface. Water in natural organic materials is in chemical
and physical chemical combination.

Free Moisture Content

The free moisture content in a material is the moisture above the
equilibrium moisture content. The free moisture is the moisture that can
be removed by drying under the given percent relative humidity.
10

Rate of Drying
Because equilibrium moisture contents of various materials cannot
be predicted, it must be determined experimentally. Similarly, since the
knowledge of basic mechanisms of rates of drying is quite incomplete, it is
necessary in most cases to obtain some experimental measurements of
drying rates. The rate is composed of mainly two parts: the constant rate
and the falling rate.
In constant rate drying period, the surface of the solid is initially
very wet and a continuous film of water exists on the drying surface. This
water is entirely unbound or free water acts as if the solid is not present.
Under given conditions, the rate of evaporation is independent of the solid
and is essentially the same as the rate from a free liquid surface. When a
porous material undergoes drying, most of the water that is removed from
the material in a constant rate period is supplied from the interior. This
period continues only as long as the water is supplied to the surface as
fast as it evaporates.
In falling rate period, there is insufficient water on the surface to
maintain a continuous supply of water. The entire surface will no longer be
wetted, and the wetted area continually decreases in the first falling rate
period until the surface is completely dry. A second falling rate period
begins when the surface is completely dry. The plane of evaporation
slowly recedes from the surface. Heat for the evaporation is transferred
through the solid to the zone of vaporization. Vaporized water moves
through the solid into the air stream. The amount of moisture removed
from the falling rate period may be relatively small, but the time needed
may be long(4).

11

Figure 2.1 Moisture Content (X) as a Function of the Drying Time

(t )1

1Geankoplis, CJ.Principles of Transport Processes and Separation Processes.

4th Edition. New Jersey : Pearson Education, Inc., 2003. p. 577
12

Figure 2.2 Drying Rate as a Function of Free Moisture Content

(db)1
Processing of Drying Kinetics Data
There are three principal methods of obtaining drying kinetics data:
(a) Periodic Sampling. This is when the sample is extracted out of the
dryer at intervals to be weighed in an external weighing balance and
then reintroduced back to the dryer. The weighing of the sample
outside the dryer should be done at the shortest possible time to
prevent the moisture from re-entering the sample.
(b)Continuous Weighing. The sample is mounted on a microbalance or
an accurate balance suspended in the drying tunnel, and its weight
is recorded continuously. This gives a larger amount of points on the
moisture-time graph but the small changes in weight can be
concealed due to the vibration of the sample in the airstream.
(c) Intermittent Weighing. Just like with continuous weighing, the
sample is mounted on a balance suspended in the drying section
and at intervals. However, airflow is cut off or diverted so that an
accurate weight reading can be obtained when the system has
stabilized (which takes a few seconds)(6).
After obtaining the needed data by any of the said methods, there is
a need to process it to produce sound drying curves for further analysis.
The first thing that must be done is to calculate for the moisture content
of the sample using the following equation:

Xt=

W Ws g total water
Eq .2.1
Ws
g dry solid

By plotting the X against time, the moisture-time drying curve can

then be made. Figure 2.1 is an example of the moisture-time drying curve.

13

To be able to predict the drying time of a sample, the drying rates

constant and falling rate must be known. The drying rates of a sample
can be plotted as a function of time or as a function of moisture. The
moisture-time curves appear smooth however on differentiating the curve
to give a rate-time plot or Krischer rate-moisture plot (Fig 2.2), it is clear
that there is some scatter on the data. Hence, some smoothing is
desirable.
There are three methods suggested by Kemp et al. The first one is to
draw a line through all the points with a small degree of smoothing by
averaging between two successive points, also removing any spurious
outlying points. However, at times the line produced cannot be described
as smooth. The second method is to fit the points with a suitable equation.
However, question arises whether some peaks and troughs are
experimental error or are genuine phenomenon. If it is the latter, then
using this method may conceal valuable information.
A third method is to make use of the drying theory and plot a
section with a horizontal line (constant rate region), then fitting one or
more polynomials to the remainder of the curve (falling rate region) (6) and
choosing the polynomial function that fits best with the points.
The figure below shows the difference between the three methods
presented above.
Figure 2.3 Rate Data fitted as constant and falling rate 2
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RAW MATERIAL
2Methods for Processing Drying Kinetics Data. Kemp, Ian C., et al. 1, s.l. :
Marcel Dekker Inc., 2001, Vol. 19
14

Banana (Musa Acuminata) pseudo-stems were collected. Determination of

the pseudo-stem used was based through visual observation. The pseudostem procured was cut into small flat pieces approximately 4-5 cm (7). The
pieces were placed in a sunny area such as windowsill or deck until they
turned from yellow to brown. The pseudo-stems were ready to use if they
are completely devoid of 90% of the moisture and pliability.

PULPING PROCESS
Kraft process was used in the pulping process. Cooking liquor (1 N
NaOH) was added to the dried banana pseudo stem chips stirring
occasionally. It was cooked at approximately 1 hours in a casserole. It
was left to cool down and the pulp was then separated to the cooking
liquor and was washed 2 times or until the pulp lightens in color. The pulp
was then blended for 2 minutes (8).

COMPARTMENT TRAY DRYER

15

In order to study the drying of paper made from banana pseudostems the compartment tray dryer of Cebu Institute Of TechnologyUniversity was used. There were damages on the dryer so it undergoes
rehabilitation.
The dryer was a steam-heated, one-pass compartment tray dryer.
The framework was made of welded steel angles and channels; the sides,
top, bottom, and the tray wasmade of galvanized steel sheet; the external
air ducts are galvanized stove pipes; the heating units are made by
welding standard black steel pipes.
Airflows over the trays and heating units by a conoidal ventilating
fan and an extension was made for measuring its velocity with an
anemometer, and its temperature, as it entersthe compartment, with dry and wet-bulb thermometer.
The rehabilitation of the compartment tray dryer of CIT-University
begins with the insulation of the steam pipes and the dryer itself using
fiber glass insulator. Lubrication of the dampers will also be made A steam
trap was installed on the dryer. To determine the weight of the sample
inside the pan, a beam balance was installed outside the dryer that was
connected to the pan. The specifications of the compartment tray dryer is
presented in table 3.1.

16

Figure 3.1 Compartment Tray Dryer

Table 3.1 Compartment Tray Dryer Specifications

17

Quantity

Description

Size

Material
Black
wrought
steel
Black

Std. pipe

wrought

steel

Std. pipe

2 in.

Black

10 ft.

Std. nipple

1 in.

steel

50 ft.

Std. nipple

in. x 5 in. long

Black

Std. nipple

3/8 in. x 2 in. long

steel

20

Std. tee

1/8 in. x 6 in. long

Black

Std. tee

2 in.

steel

Std. 90o elbow

in.

Black

Std. 90o elbow

2 in.

steel

Ground

union

Ground

union

2 in.

steel

Std. gate valve

in.

Black

Std. globe valve

1 x 1 x 1/8 in.

steel

82 ft.

Angles

x x in.

Black

95 ft.

Angles

2 x 1 x 3/16 in.

steel

17 ft.

Channels

1 x x 1/8 in.

Black

19 ft.

Channels

1 x 1/8 in.

steel

5.5 ft.

Flats

2 ft. wide x 16 gage

Steel

70 ft2

Sheet

3 ft. wide x 24 gage

Steel

60 ft2

Sheet

20 x 28 in. x 30 gage

Steel

78 ft2

Sheet

4 in. diam x 24 in. Steel

Stove pipe

long

Steel

lengths

Stove

90o 4 in.

Steel

elbow

4 in.

Cold rolled steel

Stove-pipe

in.

Galv. steel

damper

0 to 60 lb. press 3 Galv. steel

Steam trap

in. face

Galv. steel

Pressure gage

in.

Galv. steel

Stem gage siphon

15/16 x 2 in.

Galv. steel

Sash fastener

1 x 4 in.

Steel

2 pair

Sash lift

2 x 1 7/8 in.

Steel

300

Butt hinge

3/16 x in.

Steel

25 ft.

Stove boat

in.

Black

Tubing

98 ft3 free air/minute

steel

joint in.
2 in.

joint in.

pipe

Black

wrought
wrought
wrought
wrought
malleable

steel
Black

malleable
malleable
malleable
malleable

18

wrought

TEMPERATURE
The compartment tray dryer was pre-heated before the loading of

the pulp. The air velocity was held constant. It was adjusted using the
pressure valve by setting it to the appropriate pressure. Three different
temperatures were used: 60oC, 70oC, and 80oC. The time of drying were
recorded.

AIR VELOCITY
The air velocity will be adjusted to the desired values by adjusting

the dampers to its proper opening. A specific drying air temperature will
be held constant.

THICKNESS
To achieve a varying thickness of paper different mass of the

pulpwere measured. In the experiments done the mass used were 25g,
50g, and 75g. The temperature and air velocity will be held constant for
this trial.
BONE DRY
To determine the weight of the bone dry, a sample of the paper
made was placedin a weighing bottle and it was weighed in the digital
balance to the nearest milligram. It was heated for about 30 min at 105 oC.
The weight was then recorded.After an initial drying period,a secondary
drying period was used, at least equal to the first, and subsequent drying
periods, each of which was at least one-half the total of all previous drying
periods, until two successive weighings do not differ by more than 0.1%
of the weight of the specimen.

19

Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
4.1 Dry Weight of the Paper (Ls)
To calculate for the moisture contents of the paper being dried as a
function of time, the mass of the dry solid must be first determined. Table
20

4.1 shows the average of the three trials done per varying conditions and
paper thickness. The mass of the dry solids at varying air temperatures
can be seen to be decreasing as the temperature increases. Also, at
increasing thickness, the dry solids mass increases too while at varying
velocities, the mass of the dry solid was somewhat controlled to 6.2
grams.

Table 4.1 Average Mass of the Dry Solid at Various Conditions and
Paper Thickness
Temp (oC)
Weight of Dry Solid

60
7.172

70
6.368

80
6.172

0.6
3.241

1.2
6.172

1.7
9.59

1.5
6.483

3.5
6.13

5.5
6.172

(g)

Thickness (mm)
Weight of Dry Solid
(g)

Air Velocity (m/s)

Weight of Dry Solid
(g)

4.2 Thickness

21

1.2
1
0.8
0.6 mm (experimental)
0.6
Moisture Ratio
0.4

1.2 mm (experimental)

0.2
1.7 mm (experimental)
0
0 10 20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100

Time, min

Figure 4.1 Drying Curves of Varying Thickness

Paper thickness is another factor contributing to the drying
characteristics of the paper itself. According to Figure 4.2, the drying time
increased as the paper thickness increased. When 0.6 mm thick paper
was dried, it took 40 minutes to reach equilibrium conditions at 80 0C
drying temperature and 5.5 m/s air velocity. Equilibrium conditions were
reached at 80 and 100 minutes with 1.2 and 1.7 mm thick paper.

Rate, g/s

0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0
0
0

0.6 mm
1.2 mm
1.7 mm

Moisture Content (db), X

Figure 4.2 Rate-Moisture Curve at Varying Thicknesses

Just by looking at the rate-moisture curve (Fig 4.2), the rate at the
constant region is greatly affected by the thickness of the sample to be
dried. This is because, when conduction of heat through the solid occurs,

22

Rc, or the constant rate decreases with an increase in the thickness of the
drying solid.
There are two basic mechanisms involved in the drying process; the
migration of moisture from the interior to the surface, and the evaporation
of moisture from the surface to the surrounding air (9). For moisture to
migrate to the surface, energy is required. This energy is supplied through
heat conduction from the surface to the interior. The rate of heat transfer
to the fibers below the surface is equal to the ratio between the driving
force (T1- T2) and the resistance, R. The greater the resistance, the lesser
heat will be transferred per unit time to the interior of the sample being
dried.
q=

T 1T 2
R

The resistance, however, is greatly influenced by the thermal

conductivity of the material (k), its cross sectional area, and the thickness
of the material (x).
R=

x
kA

Assuming

that

the

thermal

conductivity

is

constant

with

temperature and is 0.05 W/(mK)(10) and the measured area of the paper is
0.031 m2, the resistance just varies directly with the thickness of the
sample.
Table 4.2 Resistances (K/W) at different thickness
Paper Thickness (m)

Resistance (K/W)

0.6 x 10-3

0.38710

1.2 x 10-3

0.77419

1.7 x 10-3

1.09677

Because resistance is inversely proportional to the rate of heat

absorbed through conduction, the larger the resistance the lesser is the
rate of heat transfer. The rate of removal of the water vapor (drying) is
23

controlled by the heat transfer rate to the surface, which furnishes the
latent heat of evaporation for the liquid. The lower the heat transfer rate,
q, the lower is the rate of drying.
4.3 Temperature

1.2
1
0.8

Moisture Ratio (db)

0.6

80 deg C (exp)
70 deg C (exp)

0.4

60 deg C (exp)

0.2
0
0

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Time, min

Figure 4.3 Drying Curves of Varying Temperatures

In Figure 4.1, a difference in the drying time is clearly present

among the varying temperatures. An increment in drying air temperature
was accompanied byreduction in time taken to reach equilibrium moisture
content. Equilibrium moisture content was reached at 75, 99, and 117
minutes for samples dried at 60, 70 and 800C respectively.

24

0.01
0.01
0.01
ARc (g/sec)

80 C

70

60

0
0

Moisture Content, X

Figure 4.4 Rate-Moisture Curve at Varying Temperatures

The rate of convective heat transfer q (J/s) from the air to the
surface of the solid is
q=h ( T T w ) A
whereh is the convective heat-transfer coefficient and A is the exposed
drying area. The heat transfer coefficient for where the air is flowing
parallel to the drying surface is

h=0.0204 G

0.8

. Having the same area of

0.031 m2 for all trials, the rate of heat transfer is tabulated below.

Table 4.3: Rate of Convective Heat Transfer (J/s)

Air

Surface

Temperatur

Temp

e ( C)

( C)

80

39

70

37

60

34

Humidi

Mass

Heat

Rate of

ty (kg

Velocity

transfer

Convective

H20/kg

(kg/h

Coefficient

Heat

dry air)

m2)

(W/m2 K)

Transfer(J/s)

0.0282

19484.9

55.13

70.07

56.45

57.74

57.89

46.66

1
0.0267

20069.8
8

0.0232

20713.8

25

This same heat is used to vaporize the moisture on the surface,

neglecting the small sensible heat changes(4).
A Rc =

q
w

Table 4.4 Calculated Rate of Drying at Constant Region (g H 2O/s)

Air Temperature (0C)

Rate of Convective
Heat Transfer(J/s)

ARc(g H20/s)

80

61.06

0.0291141922

70

57.74

0.02389663278

60

46.66

0.0192541791

The higher the drying temperature, the higher is the rate of

evaporation of water from the material. This happens because at high
temperatures, the vapor pressure of pure water would also be high, so the
difference in partial pressure of water vapor with a vapor pressure of pure
water is great. This difference in pressure is the driving force for the water
to evaporate into the air. The greater the driving force will be greater the
rate of evaporation of water into the air(11).

Table 4.5 Difference in Pure Water Vapor Pressure and

Partial Vapor Pressure of the Water at Different Air Temperatures
Air

Humidity

Temperature

(kg H20/kg

(0C)

dry air)

80

0.0282

Vapor
Pressure of
Pure Water
(kPa)
47.39

Partial Pressure
of the Water
Vapor (kPa)
4.40

Difference
(kPa)
42.99
26

70

0.0267

31.19

4.18

27.01

60

0.0232

19.94

3.65

16.29

4.4 Air Velocity

1.2
1
0.8
Moisture Ratio (db)

0.6

1.5 m/s (experimental)

3.5 m/s (experimental)

0.4

5.5 m/s (experimental)

0.2
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Time, min

Figure 4.5 Drying Curve of Varying Air Velocities

At varying flow rates of 1.5 m/s, 3.5 m/s and 5.5 m/s, there is a
slight difference in their respective drying time. At a constant temperature
of 80 0C, the drying times are 90, 80, and 70 minutes at 1.5 m/s, 3.5 m/s
and 5.5 m/s, respectively.

27

0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
ARc (g/sec)

0.01

1.5 m/s

0.01

3.5 m/s

5.5 m/s

0
0
0

Moisture Content, X

Figure 4.6 Rate-Moisture Curve at Varying Air Velocities

Table 4.6 Heat Transfer, h (W/m2K)
Velocity

Air Temp.

(m/s)

(0C)

(W/m2K)
Trial 1

(W/m2K)
Trial 2

(W/m2K)
Trial 3

(W/m2K)
Average

1.5

80

19.43

19.59

19.43

19.48

3.5

80

38.27

38.59

38.27

38.38

5.5

80

54.95

55.39

54.95

55.10

Heat transfer coefficient is affected by the physical properties of the

fluid, the type of flow, the velocity of the flow, the temperature difference,
and the geometry of the specific physical system.

As observed from experimental data on the table above, an increase

in the velocity of air coming into the system to dry the paper would
increase the heat transfer coefficient, h. This proportionality conforms to
the equation

h=0.0204 G0.8

for air flowing in parallel to the drying surface

where mass velocity, G is equal to the velocity of the air times the density
of the air.

28

Table 4.7 Computed Constant Drying Rates at Different Air

Velocities
Air Velocity
(m/sec)

Mass

Heat Transfer

Velocity, G

Coefficient

(Kg/ h.m2)

(W/m2 K)

ARc(g H20/s)

5.5

19404

55.10

0.028988804

3.5

12348

38.38

0.020192709

1.5

5292

19.48

0.010252108

Rate of drying, ARc, at constant rate drying period increases as the

heat transfer coefficient increases as shown in the table above. Because
the rate of drying is directly proportional to the heat transfer coefficient, it
also follows that an increase in velocity would result in an increase in the
rate of drying.

In a forced convection heat transfer, the air coming in the system is

heated and is used to remove the moisture in the paper. The incoming
heated air also acts as the absorber of moisture that was removed from
the paper. At lower air velocities, contact time between the heated air and
the paper would be longer while at higher air velocities, contact time
would be shorter. The air is faster to be saturated at lower air velocity
than it is at higher air velocity. The reason for this is that fresh and
unsaturated air coming in is slower at lower air velocities.

In the falling rate drying period, the rate of drying R is not

constant but it decreases when drying past the critical free moisture
content of the paper. The drying during the falling rate is governed by
water diffusion in the solid(12).

29

4.4 Discussion on the Predicted and Experimental Constant

Drying Rates

The predicted constant drying rates were comparatively higher than

that of the experimental constant drying rates. The predicted rates differ
from the experimental data because in the computation for these rates, it
was assumed that drying was adiabatic. However, with the compartment
tray dryer, there was no insulation that would ensure that the dryer will
operate adiabatically. Heat loss was prevalent in the whole drying process.
Assuming that there were no sensible heat changes, heat absorbed by the
paper per unit time can be calculated using heat balance.
q air ql oss =q paper

4.5 Humidity as a Function of Time

30

80 0C
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02

Humidity 0.02
0.01
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time, min

Figure 4.7a Humidity as a Function of Time at 80 C

70 oC
0.03
0.03
0.02

Humidity 0.02
0.01
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time, min

Figure 4.7b Humidity as a Function of Time at 70 C

31

60 oC
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
Humidity 0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time, min

Figure 4.7c Humidity as a Function of Time at 60 C

0.6 mm
0.06
0.05
0.04

Humidity 0.03
0.02
0.01
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Time, min

Figure 4.8a Humidity as a Function of Time at 0.6 mm

32

1.2 mm
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02

Humidity 0.02
0.01
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time, min

Figure 4.8b Humidity as a Function of Time at 1.2 mm

1.7 mm
0.03
0.02
0.02

Humidity

0.01
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Time, min

Figure 4.8c Humidity as a Function of Time at 1.7 mm

33

1.5 m/s
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02

Humidity 0.02
0.01
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time, min

Figure 4.9a Humidity as a Function of Time at 1.5 m/s

3.5 m/s
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02

Humidity 0.02
0.01
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Time, min

34

Figure 4.9b Humidity as a Function of Time at 3.5 m/s

5.5 m/s
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02

Humidity 0.02
0.01
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time, min

Figure 4.9c Humidity as a Function of Time at 5.5 m/s

35

Table 4.8 Average Humidity at Various Conditions and Paper

Thickness
Thickness
(mm)

Average
Humidity
(Kg/Kg)

0.6

0.04255

1.2

0.026847368

1.7

0.02079

3.5

1.2

0.02498125

1.5

1.2

0.027321053

70

5.5

1.2

0.018573684

60

5.5

1.2

0.032928571

Temperature
(C)

Velocity
(m/s)

5.5

80

36

4.5 Total Drying Time

The total drying time of the paper using the compartment tray dryer
varied when you change the thickness of the paper and the drying
conditions, namely air temperature and air velocity. In the drying of paper,
the constant drying rate governed the whole process with the falling rate
only playing a minor part.

Table 4.7 Total Drying Time (min)

A. Varied Thickness
Thickness (mm)

Experimental Drying Time (min)

0.6 mm

39.75

1.2 mm

73.32

1.7 mm

95.00

B. Varied Temperature
Temperature (oC)

Experimental Drying Time (min)

60

115

70

89.71

80

73.32

C. Varied Air Velocity

Air Velocity (m/s)

Experimental Drying Time (min)

37

1.5

87.66

3.5

80.20

5.5

73.32

Varying the thickness of the sample and the air temperature had a
significant effect in the total drying time. The air velocity, though had an
effect in the total drying, did not have a very significant effect in the
drying time.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
Drying using the compartment tray dryer at Cebu Institute of
Technology University is tested on samples of paper made from banana
pseudo-stem fibers. Drying kinetic curves of drying paper for various
parameters were determined. Paper drying time is affected the drying rate
and the rate is generally affected by the thickness of the sample being
dried, the temperature of the drying air and, to a lesser extent, the air
velocity. Drying at 800C and an air velocity of 5.5 m/s is the best way to
dry the paper. Drying was also shortest with the 0.6 mm thin sample.

5.2 Recommendations
One can try to determine the effect of bleaching in this study and
how this could affect the drying time of the paper made from banana
pseudo-stem fibres.

38

It is also recommended to determine the effect of the drying

temperature, air velocity and the drying time in this study in the physical
property of the paper such as; optical property, bursting strength, tensile
strength, compressing strength and other propertiesandoptimize the
drying mechanism to produce a paper with the optimal properties.
The next researchers can also try to determine the drying conditions
of paper made from banana pseudo-stem using different parameters such
as relative humidity, strength and moisture content.
One can also use different types of fibrous materials as a raw
material for this study and determine which type of material is the ideal
material in paper making.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The proponents of this research would like to express great

appreciation to Dr. ir Jerome B. Taboada for his counsel and constructive
suggestions during the forethought and progress of the research work.
To Dr. Roland Villegas and Mrs. Jeanie Castor for providing the dried
banana pseudo-stems that was used as raw materials for this study.
To Mr. Jaime Quianola for assisting us in the Chemical Engineering
Unit Operations Laboratory and for his patience and dedication in
attending our concerns regarding the rehabilitation and the use of the
Compartment Tray Dryer of Cebu Institute of Technology-University.
To Engr. Rosario Dangin for providing the group invaluable help in
the Chemical Engineering Laboratory of Cebu Institute of TechnologyUniversity. To the Powerhouse of Cebu Institute of Technology-University
for providing electrical assistance during our research work at the
39

Chemical Engineering Unit Operations Laboratory of Cebu Institute of

Technology-University.
And lastly to Engr. NicarterTeves for permitting us to use his
personal anemometer, free of charge, and for constantly providing
recommendations on how to effectively work with the fabricated
Compartment Tray Dryer of Cebu Institute of Technology-University.

REFERENCES

1. Production of Bananas. FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization.

[Online] 2009. www.fao.org/production/faostat.
2. Grow Bananas Indoor. Weekend Gardener. [Online]
http://www.weekendgardener.net/fruit/grow-bananas-indoors-011001.htm.
3. Ghosh, Ajit K.Fundamentals of Paper Drying Theory and Application
from Industrial Perspective. [ed.] Dr. Amimul Ahsan. 2011. 978-953-307583-9.
4. Geankoplis, CJ.Principles of Transport Processes and Separation
Processes. New Jersey : Pearson Education, Inc., 2003.
5. Weise, Ulrich.Characterization and mechanism of changes in wood
pulp fibres caused by water removal. Esposo : Finnish Academy of
Technology, 1997. p. 282.

40

6. Geankoplis, CJ.Principles of Transport Processes and Separation

Processes. 4th Edition. New Jersey : Pearson Education, Inc., 2003. p. 577.
7. Methods for Processing Drying Kinetics Data. Kemp, Ian C., et al. 1,
s.l. : Marcel Dekker Inc., 2001, Vol. 19.
8. Handmade Paper From Banana Stem. Singh, Lakhan and
Bandyopadhyay, Dr. Tarun Kanti. 7, 2013, International Journal of
Scientific & Engineering Research, Vol. 4, pp. 2074-2079.
9. Blender Table. Nash, Catherine. Arizona : s.n.
10. Drying Principle and General Considerations. FAO Corporate Document
Repository. [Online] http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1838e/t1838e0u.htm.
11. Thermal Conductivity of Some common Materials and Gases. The
Engineering Toolbox. [Online] [Cited: March 15, 2015.]
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html.
12. The Effects of Drying Air Temperature and Humidity on the Drying
Kinetics of Seaweed. Yahya, M, et al. Wisconsin : World Scientific and
Engineering Academy and Society (WSEAS), 2011. 978-1-61804-022-0.
13. Effect of Air Velocity and Temperature on the Drying Kinetics of
Drumstick Leaves (Moringa Oleifera). Premi, Monica, Sharma, Harish
and Upadhyay, Ashutosh. 4, 2012, International Journal of Food
Engineering, Vol. 8.

41

APPENDIX A
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
A.1 PROCEDURE
A.1.1 Preparation of the Raw Material
Materials/ Equipment/ Apparatus

Banana pseudo-stems

2N NaOH

1-Blender

5-Frames
42

1-Sieve (70 mesh)

5-Basin

Banana pseudo-stem will be collected. Determination of the pseudo-stem

to be used will be based through visual observation. The pseudo-stem
procured will be cut into small flat pieces[11].
The pieces will be placed in a sunny area such as your windowsill or deck
until the color changes from yellow to brown. They will be ready to use as
soon as they are completely devoid of 90% of the moisture and pliability.
A.1.2 Pulping of the Banana pseudo-stem fibers
Cooking liquor (2N NaOH) will be added to the dried pieces of
banana pseudo stem chips stirring occasionally

[12]

. It will be cooked at

approximately 1 hours in a casserole.

Washing of the Pulp
The resulting pulp will be washed through water and will be blended.
When a slurry thick paste is achieved, it will be washed again with water.
The screen and deckle will be placed at the bottom of a plastic basin with
the glass frame facing up.
Prepare three samples of 25g, 50g, and 75 g of paper slurry in a
beaker.Slowly pour one of the 25g samples of paper slurry being prepared
inside the frame while concurrently raising the double frame so all the
excess water in your paper mixture drains through. Make sure the paper
pulp covers the entire surface area of the mold by hand-pressing it into
place; this step will reduce the moisture content.
With a large damp cloth covering your table, place the deckle on top
so the deckle frame can be immediately removed, followed by the mold
itself. Leave it for some time until 80% of the moisture is lost. Place the
recovered paper in a container.
A.1.3 Determination of the Drying Condition
43

1. Weigh the sample in the digital balance.

Note: The compartment tray dryer should be set on the desired air
velocity and temperature before placing the first sample on the
dryer.
2. The temperature will be adjusted to 60oC.
3. The air velocity will be adjusted to 1.5 m/s with the help of the
anemometer.
4. Place the sample inside the compartment tray dryer and immediately
start the timer as the drying process starts. The drying proceeds until a
constant weight is obtained. Record the change in weight of the sample
using the beam balance and time the drying is finished.
2. Measure the wet bulb and dry bulb temperature of the sample.
Measure the thickness of the paper being dried.
3. Repeat step 1-5. Adjust the temperature to 70 oC and 80oC respectively.
The air velocity should be set constant at 1.5 m/s.
4. Repeat step 1-6 but this time with constant temperature. The air
velocity now will be set to 3.5 m/s then 5.5 m/s.
5. Repeat step A. Repeat steps 1-7 with constant air velocity now with
different weight of the sample. Use the 50g sample prepared in the
mold then 75g.

A.2 MATERIALS

44

Sun
dried

banana pseudo stem

Washed pulp container

NaOH powder

70 mesh sieve

45

Plastic Wire Mesh

cloth

Casserole

thermocouple

NaOH
solution

of

Pulping
banana
fibers

46

Washed pulp

Drying of banana pseudo stem using

paper

slurry of banana paper

Dried banana

compartment tray dryer

47

APPENDIX B
RAW DATA
B.1 VARYING THICKNESS
B.1.1 Mass at 25 g
Table B.1.1.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt. of Paper
(g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Dry Bulb
Temperatur Temperatur
e
e

25.42

32.4

78.7

20.00

5.42

32.7

80.1

10

17.30

2.70

35.4

79.3

15

12.92

4.38

35.8

80.3

20

8.82

4.10

37.2

81.1

25

5.93

2.89

38.3

81.3

30

4.78

1.15

38.8

80.8

33

3.88

0.90

39.2

82

35

3.43

0.45

39.7

81.1

38

3.43

40.1

80.9
48

40

3.43

40.5

80.1

Table B.1.1.2 Trial 2

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper
(g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatu
re

Dry Bulb
Temperatu
re

26.41

46.2

80

22.11

4.30

42.6

80.6

10

16.61

5.50

41.3

78.5

15

12.49

4.12

42.1

79.5

20

8.64

3.85

42.5

79.1

25

5.20

3.44

43.2

81.3

30

3.98

1.22

43.4

80.1

32

3.73

0.25

43.7

80.8

35

3.73

43.9

80.9

37

3.73

44.1

80.8

Table B.1.1.3 Trial 3

Time

Wt. of Paper

(min)

(g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperature

Dry Bulb
Temperature

49

26.20

45

83

20.10

6.10

46

81.5

10

16.20

3.90

45.4

75.9

15

10.40

5.80

45.2

79.1

20

6.20

4.20

45.3

82

25

3.99

2.21

45.3

81.8

27

3.49

0.50

45.5

80.4

30

3.49

45.4

79

32

3.49

45.4

79.8

B.1.2 Mass at 50 g
Table B.1.2.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt. of Paper
(g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

50.19

37.6

80.7

50.19

5.00

37.9

79.2

10

45.19

2.78

38.1

79.9

15

42.41

3.90

38.1

78.9

20

38.51

5.02

38.3

79.8

25

33.49

4.20

37.9

79.9

30

29.29

3.70

38.1

79.9

35

25.59

4.08

38.2

80.06

40

21.51

3.20

38.4

79.2

45

18.31

3.50

38.5

79.7

50

14.81

1.95

38.6

80.1

55

12.86

2.40

38.5

80.5

60

10.46

1.50

38.8

79.9

50

65

8.96

1.10

39.1

80.2

70

7.86

0.70

39

80.5

75

7.16

0.25

39.2

80.2

80

6.91

0.45

39.4

79.9

82

6.46

0.10

39.6

79.1

85

6.36

39.2

80

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

Table B.1.2.2 Trial 2

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper
(g)

47.21

31.6

80.9

45.25

1.96

33.1

80.1

10

41.31

3.44

34.3

77.1

15

37.71

3.60

36.1

78.9

20

33.72

3.99

37.5

79.8

25

30.12

3.60

37.9

79.5

30

25.78

4.34

38.9

80.6

35

22.38

3.40

39

80

40

19.18

3.20

39.7

79.6

45

15.01

4.17

39.5

79.5

50

12.21

2.80

39.3

79.6

55

9.26

2.95

39.1

79.9

60

8.11

1.15

39.6

79.3

65

7.06

1.05

39.6

79.3
51

70

7.06

39.6

79.4

75

7.06

40

78.3

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

Table B.1.2.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper
(g)

50.75

40

79.6

46.65

4.10

40

79.8

10

41.75

4.90

40

79.3

15

38.05

3.70

40.1

79.8

20

34.65

3.40

40.1

79.6

25

30.32

4.33

40.1

80.1

30

26.42

3.90

40.1

79

35

22.67

3.75

39.9

78.2

40

19.47

3.20

40.1

81.4

45

15.87

3.60

40

81.1

50

11.87

4.00

40.1

81.2

55

9.47

2.40

40.1

79.6

60

8.36

1.11

40

79.9
52

65

7.56

0.80

39.9

79.7

70

7.26

0.30

40

80.9

72.5

6.86

0.40

40

81.1

75

6.86

40.1

80.7

77.5

6.86

40

79.4

80

6.86

40

79.6

B.1.3 Mass at 75 g
Table B.1.3.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt. of Paper
(g)

W (g)

WetBulb
Temperatur
e

DryBulb
Temperatur
e

75.96

28.8

80

72.56

3.40

29.5

79.7

10

69.36

3.20

31.3

80.9

15

64.73

4.63

33.0

80.5

20

60.13

4.60

34.4

79.6

25

55.53

4.60

35.9

79.9

30

51.53

4.00

37.0

81.1

35

46.71

4.82

38.1

80.6

40

42.71

4.00

38.6

80.3

45

38.71

4.00

39.4

79.6

50

34.11

4.60

40.2

81.4

55

30.11

4.00

40.5

81.2
53

60

25.9

4.21

40.8

81.8

65

22.3

3.60

41.1

81.6

70

19.4

2.90

41.3

78.6

75

15.08

4.32

41.6

81.3

80

13.78

1.30

41.7

80.1

85

11.98

1.80

41.7

80.6

90

10.78

1.20

41.7

80.3

95

10.18

0.60

41.9

80.1

100

9.98

0.20

41.8

79.5

105

9.88

0.10

41.7

81.7

110

9.88

41.9

79.3

115

9.88

41.9

80.0

DryBulb
Temperatur
e

Table B.1.3.2 Trial 2

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

WetBulb
Temperatur
e

74.67

28.3

79.1

70.47

4.20

29.6

79.8

10

66.27

4.20

31.5

81.0

15

62.37

3.90

33.0

80.0

20

58.77

3.60

34.4

80.8

25

53.86

4.91

35.9

79.4

30

49.66

4.20

37.0

80.0

35

45.14

4.52

38.0

80.8

40

42.14

30

38.6

79.9

45

37.51

4.63

39.4

80.6

50

33.41

4.10

40.0

79.6

55

29.01

4.40

40.5

79.4
54

60

25.51

3.50

40.8

79.9

65

21.21

4.30

41.1

80.1

70

17.71

3.50

41.3

79.6

75

15.03

2.68

41.6

79.8

80

13.23

1.80

41.7

79.0

85

11.73

1.50

41.9

80.9

90

11.23

0.50

41.9

78.0

95

11.23

41.8

79.6

DryBulb
Temperatur
e

Table B.1.3.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

WetBulb
Temperatur
e

74.52

29.0

80.1

74.52

3.90

29.6

79.9

10

70.62

5.16

31.6

80.9

15

65.46

4.70

33.2

80.5

20

60.76

5.12

34.4

79.8

25

55.64

4.50

35.9

79.9

30

51.14

5.54

37.4

81.1

35

45.6

3.80

38.1

80.5

40

41.8

4.75

38.6

80.3

45

37.05

4.70

39.4

79.6

50

32.35

4.60

40.1

81.4

55

27.75

3.93

40.5

81.2
55

60

23.82

3.60

40.9

81.8

65

20.22

4.02

41.1

81.6

70

16.2

2.20

41.3

78.9

75

14

2.00

41.6

81.3

80

12

1.10

41.6

80.1

85

10.9

0.50

41.7

80.4

90

10.4

41.8

80.0

95

10.4

41.8

80.2

B.2 VARYING TEMPERATURES

B.2.1 Temperature at 60C
Table B.2.1.1 Trial 1
Wt. of paper (g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatu
re

51.84

29.9

31.3

50.34

1.50

30.0

60.2

10

48.14

2.20

30.2

61.0

15

46.19

1.95

30.5

59.2

20

44.49

1.70

31

61.3

25

42.14

2.35

31.3

60

30

39.69

2.45

31.4

64.4

Time
(min)

Dry Bulb
Temperatu
re

56

35

37.29

2.40

32.1

62.4

40

36.13

1.16

32.9

59

45

34.03

2.10

33

59

50

31.93

2.10

33.3

59.5

55

30.03

1.90

33.5

65.2

60

28.13

1.90

34.2

61.4

65

25.87

2.26

39.5

59.5

70

23.57

2.30

39.1

61.4

75

21.87

1.70

37.9

59.5

80

20.27

1.60

38.1

62.4

85

18.87

1.40

34.0

58.5

90

17.47

1.40

35

60.6

95

16.57

0.90

35.2

60.4

100

15.17

1.40

35.0

60.7

105

13.77

1.40

35.0

60

Table B.2.1.2 Trial 2

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

51.25

29.7

31.2

49.04

2.21

29.8

60

10

47.44

1.60

30.1

61.2

15

46.68

0.76

30.5

59.2

20

43.34

3.34

31

61.3

25

41.64

1.70

31.5

60

30

39.34

2.30

31.5

64.4

35

37.34

2.00

32.3

62.4

40

35.44

1.90

32.9

59

45

32.84

2.60

33

59

50

31.54

1.30

33.3

59.5
57

55

29.24

2.30

33.5

65.2

60

26.64

2.60

34.2

61.4

65

23.04

3.60

39.5

59.5

70

20.84

2.20

39.1

61.4

75

19.74

1.10

37.9

59.5

80

17.92

1.82

38.1

62.4

85

13.09

4.83

34.0

58.5

90

11.49

1.60

35

60.6

95

9.79

1.70

35.2

60.4

100

8.64

1.15

35.0

60.7

105

7.79

0.85

35.0

59.9

110

7.79

34.5

60.5

115

7.79

35.1

60.9

Table B.2.1.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

WetBulb
Temperatu
re

DryBulb
Temperatu
re

48.22

39.7

62.0

47.03

1.20

39.7

62.0

10

44.32

2.70

39.5

61.6

15

41.87

2.45

39.2

60.3

20

39.72

2.15

38.3

59.9

25

36.67

3.05

38.6

60.0

30

34.37

2.30

38.6

60.3

35

31.87

2.50

38.0

60.8

40

30.17

1.70

37.9

60.4

45

26.64

3.53

37.7

60.3
58

50

24.04

2.60

37.5

61.9

55

21.34

2.70

37.3

60.3

60

18.29

3.05

37.1

60.7

65

15.92

2.37

37.0

61.0

70

12.81

3.11

36.9

59.6

75

10.71

2.10

36.8

59.4

80

9.21

1.50

36.7

59.4

85

8.52

0.69

36.7

60.8

90

8.12

0.40

36.6

59.6

95

7.92

0.20

36.6

60.2

100

7.92

36.5

62.9

B.2.2 Temperature at 70C

Table B.2.2.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt. of paper (g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

52.91

36.6

70.6

46.92

5.99

36.8

67.6

10

39.61

7.31

36.8

69.5

15

36.41

3.20

37.1

70.4

20

32.93

3.48

37.1

70

25

29.73

3.20

37.1

71.1

30

26.23

3.50

37.1

71.5

35

22.83

3.40

36.9

69.7
59

40

18.93

3.90

37.1

70.6

45

14.93

4.00

37.2

70.4

50

11.99

2.94

37.2

69.2

55

9.09

2.90

37.2

70.7

60

5.69

3.40

37.1

69.8

65

3.41

2.28

37.3

69.7

70

2.41

1.00

37.2

69.9

75

2.21

0.20

37.2

70.6

80

2.11

0.10

37.2

69.9

85

2.11

37.1

69.8

Table B.2.2.2 Trial 2

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

49.91

28.90

70.3

49.45

3.00

29.4

72.2

10

46.45

2.42

29.9

69.0

15

44.03

2.85

30.8

72.2

20

41.18

2.80

31.6

69.9

25

38.38

2.85

32.4

69.3

30

35.53

3.50

33.4

70.7

35

32.03

2.50

34.0

79.9

40

29.53

2.80

34.3

67.8
60

45

26.73

2.48

34.9

69.4

50

24.25

3.00

35.2

69.0

55

21.25

2.80

35.5

71.7

60

18.45

2.20

35.6

69.8

65

16.25

4.63

35.8

68.9

70

11.62

1.20

35.8

70.1

75

10.42

2.00

35.9

70.2

80

8.42

1.50

36.1

72.0

85

6.92

0.47

36.1

69.0

90

6.45

0.30

36.2

69.8

95

6.15

0.05

36.2

71.2

100

6.1

36.2

70.3

DryBulb
Temperatur
e

Table B.2.2.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

WetBulb
Temperatur
e

50.79

38.0

69.3

47.39

3.40

38.0

70.1

10

43.35

4.04

38.1

70.1

15

39.95

3.40

38.0

70.7

20

36.25

3.70

38.1

70.6

25

32.74

3.51

38.2

69.3

30

28.74

4.00

38.3

69.7

35

25.51

3.23

38.5

69.9

40

22.81

2.70

38.5

69.8
61

45

18.61

4.20

38.5

69.5

50

17.01

1.60

38.4

69.3

55

14.45

2.56

38.5

70.9

60

12.35

2.10

38.5

69.8

65

11.05

1.30

38.5

70.3

70

9.55

1.50

38.6

69.6

75

8.75

0.80

38.5

70.8

80

8.45

0.30

38.5

68.8

85

7.85

0.60

38.5

69.9

90

7.85

38.5

70.7

95

7.85

38.5

70.1

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

B.2.3 Temperature at 80C

Table B.2.3.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

50.19

37.6

80.7

45.19

5.00

37.9

79.2

10

42.41

2.78

38.1

79.9

15

38.51

3.90

38.1

78.9

20

33.49

5.02

38.3

79.8

25

29.29

4.20

37.9

79.9
62

30

25.59

3.70

38.1

79.9

35

21.51

4.08

38.2

80.06

40

18.31

3.20

38.4

79.2

45

14.81

3.50

38.5

79.7

50

12.86

1.95

38.6

80.1

55

10.46

2.40

38.5

80.5

60

8.96

1.50

38.8

79.9

65

7.86

1.10

39.1

80.2

70

7.16

0.70

39

80.5

75

6.91

0.25

39.2

80.2

80

6.46

0.45

39.4

79.9

83

6.36

0.10

39.6

79.1

86

6.36

39.2

80

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

Table B.2.3.2 Trial 2

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

46.71

31.6

80.9

44.75

1.96

33.1

80.1

10

41.31

3.44

34.3

77.1

15

37.71

3.60

36.1

78.9

20

33.72

3.99

37.5

79.8

25

30.12

3.60

37.9

79.5

30

25.78

4.34

38.9

80.6

35

22.38

3.40

39

80

Time (min)

63

40

19.18

3.20

39.7

79.6

45

15.01

4.17

39.5

79.5

50

12.21

2.80

39.3

79.6

55

9.26

2.95

39.1

79.9

60

8.11

1.15

39.6

79.3

65

7.06

1.05

39.6

79.3

70

7.06

39.6

79.4

75

7.06

40

78.3

Dry Bulb
Temperatur
e

Table B.2.3.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

Wet Bulb
Temperatur
e

50.75

40

79.6

46.65

4.10

40

79.8

10

41.75

4.90

40

79.3

15

38.05

3.70

40.1

79.8

20

34.65

3.40

40.1

79.6

25

30.32

4.33

40.1

80.1

30

26.42

3.90

40.1

79

64

35

22.67

3.75

39.9

78.2

40

19.47

3.20

40.1

81.4

45

15.87

3.60

40

81.1

50

11.87

4.00

40.1

81.2

55

9.47

2.40

40.1

79.6

60

8.36

1.11

40

79.9

65

7.56

0.80

39.9

79.7

70

7.26

0.30

40

80.9

72.5

6.86

0.40

40

81.1

75.5

6.86

40.1

80.7

77

6.86

40

79.4

81

6.86

40

79.6

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

Temperatur

Temperatur

B.3VARYING AIR VELOCITY

B.3.1 Velocity at 1.5 m/s
Table B.3.1.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt of Paper (g)

W (g)

51.08

31.2

80.3

48.98

2.10

33.5

80.0

10

46.21

2.77

34.3

77.8

65

15

43.41

2.80

36.1

78.9

20

40.91

2.50

37.5

79.7

25

38.11

2.80

37.9

79.9

30

35.28

2.83

38.6

80.6

35

32.28

3.00

39.3

80.3

40

29.28

3.00

39.7

79.6

45

26.68

2.60

39.5

79.5

50

23.72

2.96

39.3

79.6

55

20.82

2.90

39.1

79.9

60

18.37

2.45

39.6

79.3

65

15.45

2.92

39.6

79.3

70

13.25

2.20

39.6

79.4

75

11.17

2.08

40

78.3

80

9.2

1.97

31.6

80.9

85

7.9

1.30

33.1

80.1

90

7.55

0.35

34.3

77.1

95

7.25

0.30

36.1

78.9

100

7.25

37.5

80.1

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

W (g)

Temperatur

Temperatur

31.6

80.9

33.1

80.1

34.3

77.1

36.1

78.9

37.5

79.8

Table B.3.1.2 Trial 2

Time (min)

Wt of Paper (g)

50

47.7

2.30

10

45.17

2.53

15

41.97

3.20

20

39.07

2.90

66

25

36.47

2.60

30

33.51

2.96

35

30.51

3.00

40

27.81

2.70

45

24.96

2.85

50

22.16

2.80

55

19.16

3.00

60

16.29

2.87

65

13.89

2.40

70

11.59

2.30

75

9.79

1.80

80

8.19

1.60

85

7.44

0.75

90

7.04

0.40

95

6.64

0.40

100

6.64

37.9

79.5

38.9

80.6

39

80

39.7

79.6

39.5

79.5

39.3

79.6

39.1

79.9

39.6

79.3

39.6

79.3

39.6

79.4

40

78.3

31.6

80.9

33.1

80.1

34.3

77.1

36.1

78.9

37.5

79.8

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

Temperatur

Temperatur

e
40

e
79.6

40

79.8

40

79.3

40.1

79.8

40.1

79.6

Table B.3.1.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt of Paper (g)

W (g)

50.52

48.02

2.50

10

45.12

2.90

15
20

41.97
40.07

3.15
1.90

67

40.1

80.1

40.1

79

39.9

78.2

40.1

81.4

40

81.1

40.1

81.2

40.1

79.6

40

79.9

39.9

79.7

40

80.9

40

81.1

40.1

80.7

40

79.4

40

79.6

40

79.6

40

79.8

40

79.3

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

W (g)

temperatur

Temperatur

31.1

80.8

33.0

80.1

34.1

77.9

25

36.33

3.74

30

33.73

2.60

35

30.98

2.75

40

27.73

3.25

45

24.68

3.05

50

21.88

2.80

55

19.18

2.70

60

16.41

2.77

65

14.11

2.30

70

12.11

2.00

75

10.91

1.20

80

9.71

1.20

85

8.71

1.00

90

8.31

0.40

95

7.71

0.60

100

7.41

0.30

105

7.41

B.3.2 Air Velocity at 3.5 m/s

Table B.3.2.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt of Paper (g)

51.08

48.08

3.00

10

44.14

3.94

68

15

40.04

4.10

20

36.48

3.56

30

28.88

7.60

35

25.28

3.60

40

21.68

3.60

45

18.08

3.60

50

14.55

3.53

55

11.95

2.60

60

9.95

2.00

65

8.45

1.50

70

7.47

0.98

75

7.27

0.20

80

7.27

36.0

78.9

37.2

79.8

37.5

79.5

38.9

80.6

39.2

80.1

39.4

79.6

39.5

79.5

39.3

79.6

39.1

79.9

39.6

79.3

39.6

79.7

39.6

79.4

40.0

78.9

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

Temperatur

Temperatur

Table B.3.2.2 Trial 2

Time (min)

Wt of Paper (g)

W (g)

51.46

47.7

3.76

10

44.5

3.20

31.6

80.9

33.1

80.1

34.3

77.1
69

36.1

78.9

37.5

79.8

37.9

79.5

38.9

80.6

39

80

39.7

79.6

39.5

79.5

39.3

79.6

39.1

79.9

39.6

79.3

39.6

79.3

39.6

79.4

40

78.3

31.6

80.9

33.1

80.1

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

W (g)

temperatur

Temperatur

e
40

e
79.6

40

79.8

15

41.1

3.40

20

37.74

3.36

25

34.04

3.70

30

30.24

3.80

35

26.38

3.86

40

23.28

3.10

45

19.98

3.30

50

16.63

3.35

55

13.63

3.00

60

11.23

2.40

65

9.33

1.90

70

8.17

1.16

75

7.57

0.60

80

7.27

0.30

85

7.27

Table B.3.2.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt of Paper (g)

49.8

47.13

2.67

70

10

43.43

3.70

15

39.73

3.70

20

36.07

3.66

30

32.67

3.40

35

29.11

3.56

40

25.61

3.50

45

21.91

3.70

50

18.16

3.75

55

15.06

3.10

60

11.66

3.40

65

9.16

2.50

70

6.9

2.26

75

5.7

1.20

80

5.6

0.10

85

5.6

90

5.6

40

79.3

40.1

79.8

40.1

79.6

40.1

80.1

40.1

79

39.9

78.2

40.1

81.4

40

81.1

40.1

81.2

40.1

79.6

40

79.9

39.9

79.7

40

80.9

40

81.1

40.1

80.7

40

79.4

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

Temperatur

Temperatur

e
37.6

e
80.7

B.3.3 Air Velocity at 5.5 m/s

Table B.3.3.1 Trial 1
Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

50.19

W (g)

71

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
83
86

45.19
42.41
38.51
33.49
29.29
25.59
21.51
18.31
14.81
12.86
10.46
8.96
7.86
7.16
6.91
6.46
6.36
6.36

5.00

37.9

79.2

2.78

38.1

79.9

3.90

38.1

78.9

5.02

38.3

79.8

4.20

37.9

79.9

3.70

38.1

79.9

4.08

38.2

80.6

3.20

38.4

79.2

3.50

38.5

79.7

1.95

38.6

80.1

2.40

38.5

80.5

1.50

38.8

79.9

1.10

39.1

80.2

0.70

39

80.5

0.25

39.2

80.2

0.45

39.4

79.9

0.10

39.6

79.1

39.2

80

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

W (g)

Temperatur

Temperatur

e
31.6

e
80.9

Table B.3.3.2Trial 2
Time (min)
0

Wt. of Paper (g)

46.71

72

44.75

1.96

33.1

80.1

10

41.31

3.44

34.3

77.1

15

37.71

3.60

36.1

78.9

20

33.72

3.99

37.5

79.8

25

30.12

3.60

37.9

79.5

30

25.78

4.34

38.9

80.6

35

22.38

3.40

39

80

40

19.18

3.20

39.7

79.6

45

15.01

4.17

39.5

79.5

50

12.21

2.80

39.3

79.6

55

9.26

2.95

39.1

79.9

60

8.11

1.15

39.6

79.3

65

7.06

1.05

39.6

79.3

70

7.06

39.6

79.4

75

7.06

40

78.3

Wet Bulb

Dry Bulb

Temperatur

Temperatur

Table B.3.3.3 Trial 3

Time (min)

Wt. of Paper (g)

W (g)

73

50.75

40

79.6

46.65

4.10

40

79.8

10

41.75

4.90

40

79.3

15

38.05

3.70

40.1

79.8

20

34.65

3.40

40.1

79.6

25

30.32

4.33

40.1

80.1

30

26.42

3.90

40.1

79

35

22.67

3.75

39.9

78.2

40

19.47

3.20

40.1

81.4

45

15.87

3.60

40

81.1

50

11.87

4.00

40.1

81.2

55

9.47

2.40

40.1

79.6

60

8.36

1.11

40

79.9

65

7.56

0.80

39.9

79.7

70

7.26

0.30

40

80.9

72.5

6.86

0.40

40

81.1

75

6.86

40.1

80.7

77.7

6.86

40

79.4

80

6.86

40

79.6

APPENDIX C
TIMETABLE OF ACTIVITIES
74

Table C.1 Gantt Chart

Session
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Activity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Requesting of Materials for
the Rehabilitation of
Compartment Tray Dryer
Rehabilitation of
Compartment Tray Dryer
Gathering of Apparatus
Purchasing of Chemicals
needed
Gathering of Banana Pseudo
stem
Drying of the Banana Pseudostem
Chopping and Grinding of
Banana Pseudo-stem
Kraft process
Drying of pulp extracted
Determination of the drying
condition of paper

APPENDIX D
75

RESEARCH BUDGET
Table D.1 Research Cost
Raw materials
PhP
Distilled H20

91.00
PhP

NaOH powder

240.00
TOTAL: Php 331.00

Equipment
PhP
Blower

393.98
PhP

Fuel Consumption

6810.00
PhP

Fuel Pump

81.10
PhP

Water Pump

1.41
TOTAL: Php 8311.19

Miscellaneous
PhP
Fare

128.00
PhP

Printing

1682.00
PhP

Other Materials

1949.95
PhP

Weighing bottle

134.00
TOTAL: Php 3893.95
TOTAL: 11,511.43

76

Raw materials; 3%
Miscellaneous; 31%

Equipment; 66%

77

Figure D.1 Study Budget Chart

Legend:
Raw materials

[1]-2.60%

Equipment

[2]-31.15%

Miscellaneous

[3]-66.35%

APPENDIX E
CURRICULUM VITAE
Eljie Ann Marie A. Castor was born on the
27th of August 1995 at Cebu City, She is the
third child among the five children of Jeanie
Castor and Elmer Castor.
She

attended

her

primary

education

at

Landahan Elementary School and graduated

as the class valedictorian on 2007. She
finished her secondary education at Toledo City Science High School and
graduated class salutatorian on the year 2011. She was also awarded with
National Leadership award given by Vice-President JejomarBinay. She was
78

the president of the Troubadors Club and the secretary of the YESOrganization. She was also a member of the Science and Math Club and
the head coordinator of the Liturgy Ministry. She is a member of the Toledo
Parish Youth Coordinating Council, and the Lady Lectors of Liturgy. With
her passion in singing she became a member of two different choral
group, Los Cantantes and Atlas Fertilizer Corporation Choir.
She took up Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering in Cebu Institute
of Technology- University on 2011, she is a member of the Junior
Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers and the University Choir. She is
a CHED scholar.
Currently, she is a fourth year student studying Bachelor of Science in
Chemical Engineering at Cebu Institute of Technology- University, Cebu
City.

Khaela Dawn S. Cortejoswas born in Baybay City, Leyte on February 04,

1995. She is the second among the three children of William Cortejos and
Marcela Cortejos.

79

She attended her primary education at Visca

Foundation Elementary School and graduated
on 2007. She finished her secondary education
at Visayas State University Laboratory High
School on 2011.
She first took up Bachelor of Science in
Chemical Engineering at Eastern Visayas State University, Tacloban City
on 2011. She later transferred to Cebu Institute of Technology University
on 2012. She is a member of the Junior Philippine Institute of Chemical
Engineering since 2011.
Currently, she is a fourth year student studying Bachelor of Science in
Chemical Engineering at Cebu Institute of Technology University, Cebu
City.

80

Esther Jyil B. Espos was born in Zamboanga

City on th 22nd of February 1995. She is the
eldest among the four children of Jaime D. Espos
and Grace B. Espos. She is currently living in
Elisa Valley, Sudlon, Lahug Cebu City.
In 2007, she graduated her primary education in
Capitol

Center

Seventh

Day

Adventist

Elementary School and has earned the Academic Excellence Award. In

2011, she finished her secondary education in Abellana National School.
Now, she is taking up Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering in Cebu
Institute of Technology-University and a member of the Junior Philippine
Institute of Chemical Engineers in the said university and in the Cebu
Chapter. Currently, she is a 4th year taking up the same course.

81

Charmaine C. Natividad was born on July 30,

1994. She is the youngest among the six
children of Lilia C. Natividad and Engr. Robert
C. Natividad. She currently lives at Golden
Valley Homes, Lahug, Cebu City.
She attended her primary and secondary
education at Cebu Institute of TechnologyUniversity in year 2007 and 2011. She was quite active in extracurricular
activities when she was in high school. She was elected as Supreme
Student Government Press Information Officer and at the same time was
chosen as the Wing 4 Supplies and Logistics in Citizens Advancement
Training.
She took up Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering in Cebu Institute
of Technology-University in year 2011. She was a Parangal Awardee in the
same year. She was a member of Peer Facilitators Club in year 20112013. She was a year level officer from year 2011-2014. She is the current
treasurer of Junior Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers for CITUniversity and Cebu Chapter.
She is a CHED scholar and currently a 4th year student taking up Bachelor
of Science in Chemical Engineering at Cebu Institute of TechnologyUniversity.

82

Kimberly Rae R. Rama was born on the 3rd of

July 1994 at Cebu City, She is the eldest child
among the three children of Ramon E. Rama
and Ma. Cleofas R. Rama.
She

finished

her

primary

and

secondary

education at the University of San Carlos Basic

Education Department South Campus on the
year 2007 and 2011, respectively. She was a consistent honor student and
also finished her secondary education with honors. She was also a
consistent recipient of the Otis-Lennon Excellence Award since her first
year in high school. She was the Lyre Major of the USC AvanteGarde Drum
and Lyre Corps and the vice president of the Mathematics Club at her
school. She is a member of the Tabunok Parish Youth Coordinating Council,
and the head of the education ministry of the organization, Marys Young
Apostles.
She took up Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering in Cebu Institute
of Technology- University on 2011, She is a member of the Junior
Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers during the A.Y. 2014- 2015. She
was a Parangal Awardee for the first two years in college.
Currently, she is a fourth year student studying Bachelor of Science in
Chemical Engineering at Cebu Institute of Technology- University, Cebu
City.

83

Jaypee Joel A.Teveswas born on December

13, 1991 at Tacloban City, Leyte. He grew up
in Tagbilaran City, Bohol. He is the eldest
among the five children of Joel P. Teves and
Maria Ligaya A. Teves.
He took up his primary education at Tagbilaran
Grace Christian School and graduated with
honors in 2004. Later in 2008, he finished his secondary education at
Tagbilaran Grace Christian Military High School and graduated with honors
of Class Magiting.
Having interest in chemistry and engineering, he took up his Bachelors
degree in Chemical Engineering at the University of San Carlos TC, Cebu
City from June 2008 to October 2010 and continued his studies at Cebu
Institute of Technology University then after. He had his internship at
Coca-Cola Femsa Philippines, TipoloMandaue City, Cebu.
Currently, he is a 5th year Chemical Engineering student of Cebu Institute
of Technology University, Cebu City.

84