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VECTOR FUNCTIONS

VECTOR FUNCTIONS

12.3
Arc Length
and Curvature
In this section, we will learn how to find:
The arc length of a curve and its curvature.

PLANE CURVE LENGTH

In Section 10.2, we defined the length


of a plane curve with parametric equations
x = f(t),

y = g(t),

atb

as the limit of lengths of inscribed polygons.

PLANE CURVE LENGTH

Formula 1

For the case where f and g are continuous,


we arrived at the following formula:

L=

[ f '(t )] + [ g '(t )]
2

dx dy
+ dt
dt dt

dt

SPACE CURVE LENGTH

The length of a space curve is defined


in exactly the same way.

SPACE CURVE LENGTH

Suppose that the curve has the vector


equation
r(t) = <f(t), g(t), h(t)>,

atb

Equivalently, it could have the parametric


equations
x = f(t), y = g(t), z = h(t)
where f, g and h are continuous.

SPACE CURVE LENGTH

Formula 2

If the curve is traversed exactly once as t


increases from a to b, then it can be shown
that its length is:

L=

[ f '(t )] + [ g '(t )] + [ h '(t )]


2

dx dy dz
+ + dt
dt dt dt

dt

ARC LENGTH

Formula 3

Notice that both the arc length formulas


1 and 2 can be put into the more compact
form
b

L = r '(t ) dt
a

ARC LENGTH

That is because:
For plane curves r(t) = f(t) i + g(t) j

r '(t ) = f '(t ) i + g '(t ) j =

[ f '(t )] + [ g '(t )]
2

For space curves r(t) = f(t) i + g(t) j + h(t) k

r '(t ) = f '(t )i + g '(t ) j + h '(t )k


=

[ f '(t )] + [ g '(t )] + [ h '(t )]


2

ARC LENGTH

Example 1

Find the length of the arc of the circular helix


with vector equation
r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k
from the point (1, 0, 0) to the point (1, 0, 2).

ARC LENGTH

Example 1

Since r(t) = -sin t i + cos t j + k,


we have:

r '(t ) = ( sin t ) + cos t + 1


2

= 2

ARC LENGTH

Example 1

The arc from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 2)


is described by the parameter interval
0 t 2.
So, from Formula 3, we have:

L=

r '(t ) dt
2 dt

= 2 2

ARC LENGTH

A single curve C can be


represented by more than
one vector function.

ARC LENGTH

Equations 4 & 5

For instance, the twisted cubic


r1(t) = <t, t 2, t 3>

1t2

could also be represented by the function


r2(u) = <eu, e2u, e3u>

0 u ln 2

The connection between the parameters


t and u is given by t = eu.

PARAMETRIZATION

We say that Equations 4 and 5 are


parametrizations of the curve C.

PARAMETRIZATION

If we were to use Equation 3 to compute


the length of C using Equations 4 and 5,
we would get the same answer.

In general, it can be shown that, when Equation 3


is used to compute arc length, the answer is
independent of the parametrization that is used.

ARC LENGTH

Now, we suppose that C is a curve given by


a vector function
r(t) = f(t) i + g(t) j + h(t) k

atb

where:
r is continuous.
C is traversed exactly once as t increases
from a to b.

ARC LENGTH FUNCTION

Equation 6

We define its arc length function s


by:
t

s (t ) = r '(u ) du
a

dx dy dz
+ + du
du du du

ARC LENGTH FUNCTION

Thus, s(t) is the length of the part of C


between r(a) and r(t).

ARC LENGTH FUNCTION

Equation 7

If we differentiate both sides of Equation 6


using Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus (FTC1), we obtain:

ds
= r '(t )
dt

PARAMETRIZATION

It is often useful to parametrize a curve


with respect to arc length.
This is because arc length arises naturally from
the shape of the curve and does not depend on
a particular coordinate system.

PARAMETRIZATION

If a curve r(t) is already given in terms of


a parameter t and s(t) is the arc length
function given by Equation 6, then we may
be able to solve for t as a function of s:
t = t(s)

REPARAMETRIZATION

Then, the curve can be reparametrized


in terms of s by substituting for t:
r = r(t(s))

REPARAMETRIZATION

Thus, if s = 3 for instance, r(t(3)) is


the position vector of the point 3 units
of length along the curve from its starting
point.

REPARAMETRIZATION

Example 2

Reparametrize the helix


r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k
with respect to arc length measured from
(1, 0, 0) in the direction of increasing t.

REPARAMETRIZATION

Example 2

The initial point (1, 0, 0) corresponds to


the parameter value t = 0.

ds
From Example 1, we have:
= r '(t ) = 2
dt
So,
t

s = s (t ) = r '(u ) du =

2du = 2t

REPARAMETRIZATION

Therefore,

Example 2

t = s / 2 and the required

reparametrization is obtained by substituting


for t:

r (t ( s ))

) (

= cos s / 2 i + sin s / 2 j + s / 2 k

SMOOTH PARAMETRIZATION

A parametrization r(t) is called smooth


on an interval I if:
r is continuous.
r(t) 0 on I.

SMOOTH CURVE

A curve is called smooth if it has


a smooth parametrization.
A smooth curve has no sharp corners or cusps.
When the tangent vector turns, it does so
continuously.

SMOOTH CURVES

If C is a smooth curve defined by the vector


function r, recall that the unit tangent vector
T(t) is given by:

r '(t )
T(t ) =
r '(t )
This indicates the direction of the curve.

SMOOTH CURVES

You can see that T(t) changes direction:


Very slowly when C is fairly straight.
More quickly when C bends or twists more sharply.

CURVATURE

The curvature of C at a given point


is a measure of how quickly the curve
changes direction at that point.

CURVATURE

Specifically, we define it to be the magnitude


of the rate of change of the unit tangent vector
with respect to arc length.
We use arc length so that the curvature will
be independent of the parametrization.

CURVATUREDEFINITION

Definition 8

The curvature of a curve is:

dT
=
ds
where T is the unit tangent vector.

CURVATURE

The curvature is easier to compute if


it is expressed in terms of the parameter
t instead of s.

CURVATURE

So, we use the Chain Rule (Theorem 3


in Section 13.2, Formula 6) to write:

d T d T ds
d T d T / dt
and =
=
=
dt
ds dt
ds
ds / dt

CURVATURE

Equation/Formula 9

However, ds/dt = |r(t)| from Equation 7.


So,

(t ) =

T '(t )
r '(t )

CURVATURE

Example 3

Show that the curvature of a circle


of radius a is 1/a.
We can take the circle to have center the origin.
Then, a parametrization is:
r(t) = a cos t i + a sin t j

CURVATURE

Example 3

Therefore, r(t) = a sin t i + a cos t j


and

So,
and

|r(t)| = a

r '(t )
T(t ) =
= sin t i + cos t j
r '(t )
T '(t ) = cos t i sin t j

CURVATURE

Example 3

This gives |T(t)| = 1.


So, using Equation 9,
we have:

T '(t ) 1
(t ) =
=
r '(t ) a

CURVATURE

The result of Example 3 showsin


accordance with our intuitionthat:
Small circles have large curvature.
Large circles have small curvature.

CURVATURE

We can see directly from the definition of


curvature that the curvature of a straight line
is always 0because the tangent vector is
constant.

CURVATURE

Formula 9 can be used in all cases


to compute the curvature.
Nevertheless, the formula given by
the following theorem is often more
convenient to apply.

CURVATURE

Theorem 10

The curvature of the curve given by


the vector function r is:

(t ) =

r '(t ) r ''(t )
r '(t )

CURVATURE

Proof

T = r/|r| and |r| = ds/dt.


So, we have:

ds
r' = r' T = T
dt

CURVATURE

Proof

Hence, the Product Rule (Theorem 3


in Section 13.2, Formula 3) gives:
2

d s
ds
r '' = 2 T + T '
dt
dt

CURVATURE

Proof

Using the fact that T x T = 0 (Example 2


in Section 12.4), we have:
2

ds
r ' r '' = ( T T ')
dt

CURVATURE

Proof

Now, |T(t)| = 1 for all t.


So, T and T are orthogonal
by Example 4 in Section 13.2

CURVATURE

Proof

Hence, by Theorem 6 in Section 12.4,


2

ds
r ' r '' = T T '
dt
2

ds
= T T'
dt
2

ds
= T'
dt

CURVATURE

Proof

Thus,

T' =

r ' r ''

( ds / dt )

and

T'
r'

r ' r ''
r'

r ' r ''
r'

CURVATURE

Example 4

Find the curvature of the twisted cubic


r(t) = <t, t2, t3>
at:
A general point
(0, 0, 0)

CURVATURE

Example 4

First, we compute the required


ingredients:
r '(t ) = 1, 2t ,3t

r '(t ) = 1 + 4t + 9t
2

r ''(t ) = 0, 2, 6t

CURVATURE

Example 4

i j k
2
r '(t ) r ''(t ) = 1 2t 3t
0

6t

= 6t i 6t j + 2 k
2

r '(t ) r ''(t ) = 36t + 36t + 4


4

= 2 9t + 9t + 1
4

CURVATURE

Example 4

Then, Theorem 10 gives:

(t ) =

r '(t ) r ''(t )
r '(t )

2 1 + 9t + 9t
2

(1 + 4t

+ 9t

4 3/ 2

At the origin, where t = 0, the curvature is:

(0) = 2

CURVATURE

For the special case of a plane curve


with equation y = f(x), we choose x as
the parameter and write:
r(x) = x i + f(x) j

CURVATURE

Then,
r(x) = i + f(x) j
and
r(x) = f(x) j

CURVATURE

Since i x j = k and j x j = 0,
we have:
r(x) x r(x) = f(x) k

CURVATURE

We also have:
r '( x) = 1 + [ f '( x) ]

CURVATURE

Formula 11

So, by Theorem 10,

( x) =

f ''( x)
2 3/ 2

1 + ( f '( x) )

CURVATURE

Example 5

Find the curvature of the parabola y = x2


at the points
(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4)

CURVATURE

Example 5

Since y = 2x and y = 2, Formula 11


gives:

( x) =
=

y ''
2 3/ 2

1 + ( y ')
2

(1 + 4 x )

2 3/ 2

CURVATURE

Example 5

At (0, 0), the curvature is (0) = 2.


At (1, 1), it is (1) = 2/53/2 0.18
At (2, 4), it is (2) = 2/173/2 0.03

CURVATURE

Example 5

Observe from the expression for (x)


or the graph of here that:
(x) 0 as x
This corresponds
to the fact that
the parabola appears
to become flatter
as x

NORMAL AND BINORMAL VECTORS

At a given point on a smooth space curve


r(t), there are many vectors that are
orthogonal to the unit tangent vector T(t).

NORMAL VECTORS

We single out one by observing that,


because |T(t)| = 1 for all t, we have T(t) T(t)
by Example 4 in Section 13.2.
So, T(t) is orthogonal to T(t).
Note that T(t) is itself not a unit vector.

NORMAL VECTOR

However, if r is also smooth, we can


define the principal unit normal vector N(t)
(simply unit normal) as:

T '(t )
N(t ) =
T '(t )

NORMAL VECTORS

We can think of the normal vector as


indicating the direction in which the curve
is turning at each point.

BINORMAL VECTOR

The vector
B(t) = T(t) x N(t)
is called the binormal vector.

BINORMAL VECTORS

It is perpendicular to both T and N


and is also a unit vector.

NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

Find the unit normal and binormal vectors


for the circular helix
r(t) = cost i + sin t j + t k

NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

First, we compute the ingredients


needed for the unit normal vector:
r '(t ) = sin t i + cos t j + k

r '(t ) = 2

r '(t )
1
T(t ) =
=
( sin t i + cos t j + k )
r '(t )
2

NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

1
T '(t ) =
( cos t i sin t j)
2
T '(t )
= cos t i sin t j
N(t ) =
T '(t )
= cos t , sin t , 0

1
T '(t ) =
2

NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

This shows that the normal vector


at a point on the helix is horizontal and
points toward the z-axis.

NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

The binormal vector is:

j
k
i
1

sin
cos
1
t
t
B(t ) = T(t ) N(t ) =

2
cos t sin t 0
1
sin t , cos t ,1
=
2

NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS

The figure illustrates


Example 6 by showing
the vectors T, N, and B
at two locations on the helix.

TNB FRAME

In general, the vectors T, N, and B, starting


at the various points on a curve, form a set
of orthogonal vectorscalled the TNB
framethat moves along the curve as
t varies.

TNB FRAME

This TNB frame plays an important


role in:
The branch of mathematics known as
differential geometry.
Its applications to the motion of spacecraft.

NORMAL PLANE

The plane determined by the normal and


binormal vectors N and B at a point P on a
curve C is called the normal plane of C at P.
It consists of all lines that are orthogonal
to the tangent vector T.

OSCULATING PLANE

The plane determined by the vectors


T and N is called the osculating plane
of C at P.
The name comes from the Latin osculum,
meaning kiss.

OSCULATING PLANE

It is the plane that comes closest to


containing the part of the curve near P.
For a plane curve, the osculating plane is
simply the plane that contains the curve.

OSCULATING CIRCLE

The osculating circle (the circle of


curvature) of C at P is the circle that:
Lies in the osculating plane of C at P.
Has the same tangent as C at P.
Lies on the concave side of C (toward which N points).
Has radius = 1/ (the reciprocal of the curvature).

OSCULATING CIRCLE

It is the circle that best describes how


C behaves near P.

It shares the same tangent, normal,


and curvature at P.

NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

Find the equations of the normal


plane and osculating plane of the helix
in Example 6 at the point
P(0, 1, /2)

NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

The normal plane at P has normal


vector r(/2) = <1, 0, 1>.
So, an equation is:

1( x 0 ) + 0 ( y 1) + 1 z = 0
2

or

z = x+

NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

The osculating plane at P contains


the vectors T and N.

So, its normal vector is:


TxN=B

NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

From Example 6, we have:


1
B(t ) =
sin t , cos t ,1
2

B =
2

1
1
, 0,
2
2

NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

A simpler normal vector is <1, 0, 1>.


So, an equation of the osculating plane
is:

1( x 0 ) + 0 ( y 1) + 1 z = 0
2

or

z = x +

NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES

The figure shows the helix and


the osculating plane in Example 7.

OSCULATING CIRCLES

Example 8

Find and graph the osculating circle


of the parabola y = x2 at the origin.
From Example 5, the curvature of the parabola
at the origin is (0) = 2.
So, the radius of the osculating circle at
the origin is 1/ = and its center is (0, ).

OSCULATING CIRCLES

Example 8

Therefore, its equation is:

x +(y
2

1 2
2

1
4

OSCULATING CIRCLES

Example 8

For the graph, we use parametric


equations of this circle:
x = cos t

y = + sin t

OSCULATING CIRCLES

Example 8

The graph is displayed.

SUMMARY

We summarize the formulas for unit tangent,


unit normal and binormal vectors, and
curvature.
r '(t )
T(t ) =
r '(t )

T '(t )
N(t ) =
T '(t )

B(t ) = T(t ) N(t )

dT T '(t ) r '(t ) r ''(t )


=
=
=
3
ds
r '(t )
r '(t )

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