Prediction and Analysis of Weather Data by Using Doppler Weather Radar For Aircraft Navigation

PREDICTION AND ANALYSIS OF WEATHER DATA BY
USING DOPPLER WEATHER RADAR FOR AIRCRAFT

NAVIGATION
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
Abdullah Al Faysal
Student No: 201122017
Khondoker Onosultana
Afroza Rokhsana
Abdullah Al Amin
SUPERVISED BY
Dr. Pran Kanai Saha
Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
BUET, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh.
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

MILITARY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
DHAKA, BANGLADESH
DECEMBER 2014
PREDICTION AND ANALYSIS OF WEATHER DATA BY

USING DOPPLER WEATHER RADAR FOR AIRCRAFT
NAVIGATION
A thesis submitted to the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Military
Institute of Science and Technology as a part of the requirements in order to
complete the BSc degree in Aeronautical Engineering.
SUBMITTED BY
Abdullah Al Faysal
Afroza Rokhsana
Abdullah Al Amin
SUPERVISED BY
Dr. Pran Kanai Saha
BUET, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh.
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

MILITARY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
DHAKA, BANGLADESH
CERTIFICATION
This thesis entitled as PREDICTION AND ANALYSIS OF WEATHER DATA BY USING
DOPPLER WEATHER RADAR FOR AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION submitted by the group as
mentioned below has been accepted as satisfactory as a part of the requirements in order to
complete the BSc degree at the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Military Institute of
Science and Technology, Bangladesh. This paper embodies the original work done under my
supervision. Undersigned is on deputation from department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering at BUET and had been the thesis supervisor for the group up to December, 2014.
GROUP MEMBERS
Abdullah Al Faysal
Afroza Rokhsana
Abdullah Al Amin
SUPERVISOR
------------------------------------------Dr. Pran Kanai Saha

BUET, Dhaka-1000,
Bangladesh.
ii
DECLARATION
We the authors hereby declare that, thesis entitled as PREDICTION AND ANALYSIS OF
WEATHER DATA BY USING DOPPLER WEATHER RADAR FOR AIRCRAFT
NAVIGATION is submitted to the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Military Institute
of Science and Technology as a part of the requirements in order to complete the BSc degree in
Aeronautical Engineering (Course Number 400). This is our original work and was not submitted
elsewhere for the award of any other degree or any other publication.
AUTHORS
-------------------------Abdullah Al Faysal
----------------------Afroza Rokhsana
----------------------------Khondoker Onosultana
------------------------Abdullah Al Amin
iii
ACKNOWLWDGEMENT
All praises to the most gracious and most merciful, the Almighty Allah who bestowed upon us
the will for the successful completion of our thesis work within the scheduled time.
We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude and indebtedness to the thesis supervisor Dr.
Pran Kanai Saha, Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, BUET,
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh, whose encouragement, continuous guidance, valuable suggestions,
cooperation and cordial support from the initial to the final level to enable us complete the thesis
successfully. His advice, initiative, moral support and patience are very gratefully acknowledged.
We are thankful to Bangladesh Meteorological Department for providing us the required
information. And also we are thankful to our department and our respected faculty members for
their support and co-operation.
iv
ABSTRACT
Weather prediction plays a vital role in day to day life. Prediction is done through analyzing the
nature of reflected signals from meteorological targets with respect to the transmitted signal.
In this thesis, radar reflectivity has been found out from drop diameter by using Marshal
Palmers Drop Size Distribution (DSD) formula. Then the relationship between radar reflectivity
and rain fall rate for a particular period of time in Bangladesh has been analyzed for proving the
validation of previously established formula (Z=aRb). Since the values of constants a and b
depends on geographical locations and seasonal changes, hence from the rainfall rate and
reflectivity data these values have been found out for a particular season. A correlation between
reflectivity, temperature and ice water contact for a particular place at a given period of time has
been found out. Effect of humidity on reflectivity has also been discussed from the acquired data.
Rainfall probably the key observable in any weather forecast. In this thesis, mostly the
discussions has been made about rain fall rate and reflectivity, factors for their dependence,
detection procedure and problems in rainfall estimation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION .......................................................................................................................... ii
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLWDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix
NOMENCLATURE ...................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF WORK ............................................................................................... 1
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 2
1.3 WEATHER RADAR OBSERVATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE .................................... 3
1.4 WEATHER FORECASTING ............................................................................................... 3
1.5 WEATHER FORECASTING FOR AIR TRAFFIC ............................................................. 4
1.6 WEATHER RELATED DECISION MAKING IN AVIATION ......................................... 4
1.7 WEATHER RADAR AND WEATHER RELATED DECISIONS ..................................... 5
1.8 BENEFITS OF USING WEATHER RADAR ..................................................................... 5
1.9 DISSERTATION OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................ 6
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................... 7
SCIENCE OF WEATHER RADAR .............................................................................................. 7
2.1
FUNDAMENTALS OF RADAR .................................................................................... 7
2.1.1 Definition ........................................................................................................................ 7

2.1.2 Components of Radar ..................................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Radar Classification ........................................................................................................ 8
2.2 WEATHER RADAR .......................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Weather Radar Principle .................................................................................................. 11
2.2.2 Weather Radar Equation ............................................................................................... 12
vi
2.2.3 Modes of Operation ...................................................................................................... 14

2.2.4 Key Terms Associated With Weather Radar ................................................................ 14
2.2.5 Weather Radar Network ............................................................................................... 16
2.2.6 Data Processing ............................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 23
DETECTION OF WEATHER CONDITIONS ............................................................................ 23
3.1 DETECTION OF AIR VELOCITY ................................................................................... 23
3.1.1 Frequency Shift Produced Due to Wind Velocity .............................................................. 24
3.2 ANALYZING THE REFLECTIVITY & RAINFALL ...................................................... 25
3.2.1 Rain ............................................................................................................................... 25
3.2.2 Types of Rain................................................................................................................ 25
3.2.3 Raindrop Size Distribution (DSD) ............................................................................... 26
3.2.4 Rainfall Rate, R ............................................................................................................ 28
3.3 ESTIMATING Z R RELATIONS ................................................................................... 30
3.4 RAINFALL RATE, REFLECTIVITY, Z-R RELATIONSHIP CONSTANT A AND B,
RECEPTION POWER .............................................................................................................. 33
3.4.1 Value of Coefficient a and b from Comparing Different Z-R Relationship for a
Specific Radar in Specific Region ......................................................................................... 33
3.4.2 Specific Values of a and b, Correction of Z-R Relation .............................................. 46
3.4.3 Reception Power from Reflectivity .............................................................................. 48
3.5 RELATION BETWEEN RADAR REFLECTIVITY FACTOR AND TEMPERATURE
WITH ICW ................................................................................................................................ 51
3.6 RELATION BETWEEN HUMIDITY & REFLECTIVITY .............................................. 57
3.7 DETERMINING WIND PROFILE FROM DOPPLER WEATHER RADAR ................. 60
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................. 64
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 64
4.1 CONCLUDING REMARKS .............................................................................................. 64
4.2 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS ............................................ 64
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 65
vii
TABLE OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 2
Figure 2.1: Basic Radar Block Diagram ...8
Figure 2.2: Basic Radar Classification ......9
Figure 2.3: Secondary Radar Block Diagram ....9
Figure 2.4: Frequency VS Time Curve ....11
Figure 2.5: Signal Transmission Principle ...12
Figure 2.6: Weather Radar Signal Observation ...17
Figure 2.7: Radar network Example in X-band: (a) Channel Allotment.
(b) Radar System Structure...18
8. Figure 2.8: Signal Processing Flow Diagram ..19
9. Figure 2.9: Snow Detection ..21
10. Figure 2.10: Representation of Different Detections ...22
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
CHAPTER 3
1. Figure 3.1: Frequency Changes due to Movement of Object ..23
2. Figure 3.2: PDF of Marshal-Palmer DSD with Diameter Interval 0.1 mm and 0.2mm
..............27
3. Figure 3.3: PDF of Marshall-Palmer DSDs with Three Different Rain Rates.29
4. Figure 3.4: Co- relation between Rainfall Velocity VS Raindrop Diameter....30
5. Figure 3.5: Normalized Gamma Distribution, with Variations.....31
6. Figure 3.6: Reflectivity VS Rainfall Rate Graph....34
7. Figure 3.7: Rainfall Data for Consecutive Three Months in Dhaka, Bangladesh35
8. Figure 3.8: Recorder Average Rainfall Rate of March 2011 in Dhaka,
Bangladesh.......................................................36
9. Figure 3.9: Graph for Comparing Different Z-R Relations......38
10. Figure 3.10: Comparison between Different Z-R Relation with Specific Z-R
Relation.43
11. Figure 3.11: Recorded Rainfall Rate of April 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.44
12. Figure 3.12: Z-R Relation Comparison from Z=200R1.6...............45
13. Figure 3.13: Comparison between Base Reflectivity VS Rainfall Rate..46
14. Figure 3.14: Graphical Representation of Z=142R1.7..48
15. Figure 3.15: Graphical Representation of Rainfall VS Reception Power51
16. Figure 3.16: Graphical Representation between ICW (Ice Water Content) and
Reflectivity....53
Reflectivity54
Reflectivity55
viii
19. Figure 3.19: Ice Water Content VS Reflectivity Factor for a Rayleigh Scattering
Radar......56
20. Figure 3.20: Specific Humidity VS Atmospheric Attenuation Curve.......58
21. Figure 3.21: Reflectivity Measurement from PPI Plot..59
22. Figure 3.22: Schematic of the Procedure Used to Calculate the Total Wind From Radial
Velocities....61
23. Figure 3.23: Schematic Describing the Calculation of the Total Wind ....62
24. Figure 3.24: Co-relation between Wind Speed VS Height....63
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Weather Data of Dhaka, Bangladesh for April, 2014.32

Table 3.2: Reflectivity VS Rainfall rate ..34
Table 3.3: Rainfall rate per day ..35
Table 3.4: Rainfall rate data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh...36
Table 3.5: Rainfall and Reflectivity Data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh ..38
Table 3.8: Rainfall and Reflectivity Data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh...40
Table 3.9: Rainfall and Reflectivity Data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh...40
Table 3.10: Rainfall and Reflectivity Data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.41
Table 3.11: Rainfall and Reflectivity Data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.41
Table 3.12: Recorded Rainfall Rate of April 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.44
Table 3.13: Rainfall Rate VS Reflectivity of April 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh45
Table 3.14: Rainfall Rate VS Reflectivity of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh..49
Table 3.15: Rainfall Rate VS Reception Power Chart50
Table 3.16: Temperature, Reflectivity and corresponding ICW data.........................................52
Table 3.17: Temperature, Reflectivity and corresponding ICW data.53
Table 3.18: Temperature, Reflectivity and corresponding ICW data.54
Table 3.19: Specific humidity and gaseous attenuation data..58
Table 3.20: Co-relation between , VTOTAL & VREDIAL...62
NOMENCLATURE
CHAPTER 1
Z
Radar reflectivity.
Rainfall Rate.
Coefficient of Z R relationship; Z = aRb.
Exponent of Z R relationship; Z = aRb.
CHAPTER 2
PRF
Pulse repetition frequency.
Number of pulses.
f0
Radar operating frequency.
Velocity of light in space.
Target range.
Pr
Received power.
Pt
Transmitted power.
Antenna gain.
Ae
Effective aperture.
Radar cross section .
Volume.
dB
Used to demonstrate something used in decibels.
|Kw|2
Coefficient related to the dielectric constant of water.
Radar reflectivity in units of m2
Diameter over a unit volume.
xi
Wavelength.
Ze
Effective radar reflectivity factor.
Z0l
Minimum detectable reflectivity of pulse compression radar.
Reference length.
SNR
Signal to noise ratio.
|K|2
Dielectric factor.
H0
Reference height.
Radar constant.
FN
Noise figure.
T0
Noise reference temperature.
Beam width.
Beam width (vertical).
Beam width (horizontal).
Lag time.
CHAPTER 3
Vr
Radial velocity.
N0
Drop concentration for drops of zero size.
Marshall and Palmer (1948) rain parameter, a function only of R.
Drop diameter.
Rainfall rate.
N(D)
Raindrop size distribution (DSD).
f()
Normalizing function in normalized gamma distribution relates to the shape parameter.
Nw
The drop concentration (normalized for constant liquid

water content. [close to R]).
xii
ZDR
Differential Reflectivity.
Shape parameter.
VN
Nyquist velocity.
SH
Specific humidity.
Ag
Gaseous Attenuation.
Reflectivity.
ICW
Ice water content.
Temperature.
Volume.
Visible extinction coefficient.
mi
Mass of particle j.
Density of solid ice.
|Ki|2
Dielectric factor of solid ice.
Ratio of the actual backscattering cross section to that

predicted by Rayleigh theory.
n(D)
Number concentration of particles with diameter

between D and D+Dd.
FZ()
A function of the shape parameter resulting from

integration for reflectivity.
Coefficient of Z R relationships; Z = aRb.
Exponent of Z R relationships; Z = aRb.
xiii
CHAPTER 4
ZDR
Differential Reflectivity.
Radar reflectivity.
Rainfall rate.
Coefficient of Z R relationships; Z = aRb.
Exponent of Z R relationships; Z = aRb.
Nw
Drop concentration (normalized for constant liquid

water content. [close to R]).
xiv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF WORK
The development of radar systems is accompanied by the development of radio
technology, where the word radar actually comes from the expression Radio Detection
And Ranging. Radar is a type of passive remote sensing device which uses microwave
frequencies for transmission and reception of signals [36].
Radar developed quickly after its invention by Watson-Watt in 1936 (although whether
this was the true invention is debated) [36].By the end of World War II radar had been
well developed and was very successful, especially for the Allied forces. During the war,
weather returns were generally considered a nuisance, but before the end of the war,
the Meteorological Office had 10 cm radar. Since, radar has evolved, with
improvements in all the technologies used in radar. Probably the greatest advances in
radar were the invention of the transistor and the computer. The computer was
especially important for radar meteorology, so that the large quantities of data
generated can be utilized and archived. The first work in the UK done on the accuracy
of precipitation from radar was in the late 1940s [37]. Meanwhile in Canada, Marshall et
al. (1947) derived an early Z-R relation. However, it was not until 1967 that the use of
radar to provide quantitative rainfall measurement in the UK was studied [37]. This
experiment used 10 cm radar but suffered from a number of problems including a large
beam width. Hence the radar was converted to 5.6 cm in 1973, reducing the beam to 1.
In the early 70s the Dee Weather Radar Project based in north Wales pioneered
research into the use of radar for rainfall rates, much of the work remains valid, though
perhaps too confident, this project lead us to have the operational network we now have
in the UK [37]. This is now the operational radar band in the UK. This wavelength
change means that the radar suffers more from attenuation of the radar beam in very
heavy rain, but means that smaller radar antennas are required for the same beam
width. In the UK and Europe, the very heavy, attenuating rains are less frequent than in
the USA which is a major reason for the difference in radar wavelengths in these
respective regions. The advent of polarization radar occurred in the early 1950s [37].
Initially polarization was exploited with circular polarization, where promise was found
for suppressing clutter. Drop shapes were found to depolarize the returns to the radar,
leading to the development of the linear depolarization ratio. Seliga and Bringi (1976)
used the shapes, sizes and orientation of rain drops to show differential reflectivity gave
a measure of drop size, and when used in combination with Z has the potential to derive
more accurate rainfall rate estimates. To measure differential reflectivity Seliga and
Bringi (1976) suggested a radar design which utilized horizontally and vertically
polarized pulses, measuring the returns at both polarizations [37]. The CAMR radar in
1
Chilbolton was the first to implement this technique with alternate horizontally and
vertically polarized beams, then as now this radar operated at S-band.(note the
operational radar network in Britain uses C-band). Sachid (1987) suggested the use of
differential phase shift to improve rainfall estimation [37]. Meanwhile, operational radar
networks grew throughout the world at various frequencies, mostly operating at S-band
in America, but at C-band in Europe and Japan. Recent years have seen the
development and installation of the first polarization radars in the operational
environment.
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Using radio as a way of communication, the radar technology went through evolutionary
progresses during World War II. Soon after the war, many realized the potential of using
radar for civilian purposes. As one of the most popular radar applications in our modern
day life, radar is able to detect the location and track down the movement of weather
systems.
The principle behind weather radar are the same as the air traffic radar, receiving back
scattered energy from a target. In this case, the targets are water drops, some energy is
scattered by drops while some continuous on to be scattered by other drops. If wave
length is too long, excessive energy passes through the cloud and it will not be visible. If
wave length is too short, all energy back scatters from the outer edge of the cloud and
no information arrives from its interior. Most weather radar operates at a frequency of
9375 MHz in the X band [34]. It suffers all the problems associated with primary radar,
particularly the received signal power. Again the same solution may be applied, such as
high radiated power and high gain antenna.
In our thesis we use Doppler weather radar. The term Doppler is in honor of the
Austrian physicist, Christian Johann Doppler, who first explained the principle of the
Doppler effect in 1842 [35]. The Doppler Effect is the increase or decrease in the pitch
or frequency of sound waves when a source of waves is moving toward or away from
the listener. This is quite evident to an observer who is listening to the blare of an
automobile horn as it passes by. The observer hears first a relatively high frequency
wave and then a marked drop in frequency.
Unlike sound waves, which have vibrations in the direction of propagation,
electromagnetic waves have vibrations in a plane transverse to the direction of
propagation. Through careful design of the radar, the direction of the electric field in the
plane of oscillation can be controlled thereby creating a particular polarization [35]. The
polarization of the electromagnetic waves has a profound effect on their interaction with
atmospheric scatters.
Radars are now used to help navigate ships in fog and airplanes in bad weather. Radar
can detect a speeding car and track a satellite. Most importantly for meteorologists,
radars can detect all sorts of atmospheric phenomena.
1.3 WEATHER RADAR OBSERVATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Radar is an active sensor that emits electromagnetic pulses into the surroundings. The
backscattered energy that is reflected from the objects in its path is received by the
radar. A typical radar system consists of at least the following four components: a
transmitter that generates high frequency signals, an antenna that sends the signal out
and receives the echoes returned, a receiver that processes the returned signals so that
they are ready to be used, and a data display system (Rinehart 1997). The radar part
that is visible to the general public is usually the antenna covered with a dome shield, a
random, and installed on top of an observation tower.
Weather radar is a ground based continuous remote sensing instrument. Both
transmission and reception of the signals are carried out by the same antenna. In order
to scan the entire atmosphere around the radar, the antenna first rotates horizontally
and then moves to another pointing angle. After scanning of a number of angles, the
whole volume scan of the atmosphere is completed.
The electromagnetic radiation in the nature has a very large range of frequencies,
where only the band from 100 MHz to 100 GHz is normally used by the radar
meteorologists. It was found convenient to designate letters to certain radar types based
on frequency bands.
Lower frequency and higher wavelength indicates that the radar has stronger signal
power and less attenuation, therefore larger antenna dimension is required.
1.4 WEATHER FORECASTING

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of
the atmosphere for a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the
weather informally for millennia, and formally since the nineteenth century. Weather
forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the
atmosphere on a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric
processes to project how the atmosphere will change.
Rainfall is probably the most important weather observable to the public: will it rain? If
so, how much? Rain is possibly the most important part of any weather forecast.
Rainfall information also affects many industries, notably agriculture, where rainfall
predictions can inuence sowing and harvesting times. Unfortunately, rainfall remains
one of the most difcult features of the weather to forecast. Until very recently
operational numerical weather prediction models operated with grid scales far too large
to resolve rainfall so cloud and rain must be parameterized within the models. However,
new high resolutions models are being developed and introduced that reduce the
resolution to 1-4 km, scales at which the rainfall is being much more accurately
represented.
Weather Service forecasters use radar to help determine:

The movement and trend of thunderstorms
Variability and concentration of precipitation
There are two important aspects of radar that were concerned with:
Amount of energy scattered back from a target to the radar estimate the intensity of
storms and the amount of precipitation
Velocity of a target relative to the radar estimate air motions and circulations within
clouds.
1.5 WEATHER FORECASTING FOR AIR TRAFFIC

Because the aviation industry is especially sensitive to the weather, accurate weather
forecasting is essential. Fog or exceptionally low ceilings can prevent many aircraft from
landing and taking off. Turbulence and icing are also significant in-flight hazards
.Thunderstorms are a problem for all aircraft because of severe turbulence due to their
updrafts and outflow boundaries, icing due to the heavy precipitation, as well as large
hail, strong winds, and lightning, all of which can cause severe damage to an aircraft in
flight. Volcanic ash is also a significant problem for aviation, as aircraft can lose engine
power within ash clouds. On a day-to-day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of
the jet stream tailwind to improve fuel efficiency. Aircrews are briefed prior to takeoff on
the conditions to expect en route and at their destination. Additionally, airports often
change which runway is being used to take advantage of a headwind. This reduces the
distance required for takeoff, and eliminates potential crosswinds.
1.6 WEATHER RELATED DECISION MAKING IN AVIATION

Despite significant advances in the technology related to the prediction and reporting of
weather conditions, the safety and efficiency of a flight remains dependent upon the
pilot making an accurate and expeditious decision concerning the impact of the
conditions reported. These so called weather-related decisions remain the province of
the operator and, therefore, are subject to the vagaries of human performance.
Errors in relation to weather-related decision-making are difficult to establish for a
number of reasons, not least of which is the fact that a significant proportion of these
accidents, especially in general aviation, result in fatalities. For example, in the 1999
calendar year, the National Transportation Safety Bureau (NTSB 2003) recorded that, of
the 106 general aircraft accidents involving Instrument Meteorological Conditions,
54.7% resulted in fatalities [38].
The rate of weather-related decision errors is also difficult to establish due to the
process of summarizing aircraft accident and incident statistics amongst investigative
authorities. In many cases, it is not clear whether aircraft accidents or incidents that
occurred in poor weather were due to poor decision-making on the part of the pilot or
due to some other factor, such as mechanical failure. The result is a possible
underestimation of the significance of weather-related decision errors in aircraft accident
and incident causation
4
1.7 WEATHER RADAR AND WEATHER RELATED DECISIONS

In addition to weather reports and forecasts, the pilots of advanced technology aircraft
now have available, weather radar systems that display a vast array of weather-related
information in real-time. It is assumed that the provision of this information has the
potential to improve weather-related decision-making by enabling pilots to recognize
changes in the weather conditions at a relatively early stage of the flight and thereby
take appropriate action. However, it is not clear precisely how or when these types of
decisions should take place to safeguard the integrity of the aviation system.
The experience of pilots in commercial environments is one of safeguarding the
passengers and aircraft while, simultaneously, ensuring the expeditious arrival of the
aircraft at the destination. This balance between safety and efficiency is particularly
evident in relation to decisions about weather. The difficulty associated with weather
conditions is that, despite an increase in the amount of information available to pilots,
notions of severity and the extent of the impact of a particular weather pattern, remain
both uncertain and dynamic.
Reference to the interpretation and use of weather radar systems remains
conspicuously absent from the vast majority of aircraft accident and incident reports
involving weather. Arguably, this is due to the fact that the use of the weather radar
display was not implicated in the accident or incidence sequence, and/or that the
weather radar was simply not identified as a significant factor in the occurrence. The
issue becomes slightly more complex when issues pertaining to design and training are
considered in relation to weather radar displays.
.
1.8 BENEFITS OF USING WEATHER RADAR

Weather radar provides detailed, instantaneous and integrated rainfall rates, a Real
rainfall estimates over a wide area and information in near real time. It gives
information in remote land areas and over adjacent seas, location of frontal and
convective precipitation. Monitoring movement and development of precipitation areas
are also made by weather radar. Data can be assimilated into numerical weather
prediction models. So, in a nutshell Doppler weather radar can be used for
Wind velocity measurement

Estimated prediction of rainfall rate
Detection of front location
Finding out clear air features
Forecasting of thunderstorm initiation
Severe storm detection like tornadoes, macro bursts, hails.
Detection of aviation weather like microbursts warnings, wind shift forecasts,
weather impacted airspeed.
1.9 DISSERTATION OBJECTIVE

Weather Radar detects the presence of precipitation in atmosphere from the power
received of the echo signal and the reflectivity. From the nature of these detected
signals wind velocity, wind turbulence, probability of rain, rain fall rate, thunderstorm,
snowfall etc. can be predicted.
The objective of our research work is summarized as follows:
a. To find out the reflectivity from drop diameter by using Marshal Palmers DSD
formula.
b. To analyze the relation between radar reflectivity and rain fall rate for a particular
period of time in Bangladesh.
c. To proof the validation of the formula (Z=a*Rb) between rainfall rate and
reflectivity by establishing the values of the constant factors (a and b).
d. To find out the effect of different atmospheric losses, attenuations and their
impact on reflectivity.
e. To find out the correlation between reflectivity, temperature and ice water contact
of a particular place.
f. To find out the relation between reflectivity and humidity.
g. To find out the velocity profile of precipitation.
CHAPTER 2
SCIENCE OF WEATHER RADAR
2.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF RADAR
2.1.1 Definition
RADAR stands for Radio Detecting And Ranging and as indicated by the name, it is
based on the use of radio waves. Radars send out electromagnetic waves similar to
wireless computer networks and mobile phones. The signals are sent out as short
pulses which may be reflected by objects in their path, in part reflecting back to the
radar. When these pulses intercept precipitation, part of the energy is scattered back to
the radar. This concept is similar to hearing an echo. For example, when you shout into
a well, the sound waves of your shout reflect off the water and back up to you. In that
same way, the pulse reflects off precipitation and sends a signal back to the radar. From
this information the radar is able to tell where the precipitation is occurring and how
much precipitation exists.
2.1.2 Components of Radar

Radars in their basic form have four main components:
1. A transmitter, which creates the energy pulse.
2. A transmit/receive switch that tells the antenna when to transmit and when to
receive the pulses.
3. An antenna to send these pulses out into the atmosphere and to receive the
reflected pulse back.
4. A receiver, which detects, amplifies and transforms the received signals into
video format. The received signals are displayed on a display system. [29]
Radar output generally comes in two forms: reflectivity and velocity. Reflectivity is a
measure of how much precipitation exists in a particular area. Velocity is a measure of
the speed and direction of the precipitation toward or away from the radar. Most radars
can measure reflectivity but you need a Doppler radar to measure velocity.
Figure 2.1: Basic Radar Block Diagram
2.1.3 Radar Classification

When we start reading about radar, we come across various terms which are explained
differently. There are various kinds of Radar classified in different ways. Following are
the various classification of radar types in a lucid manner.
Classification based on the primary function of radar is shown in the following figure.
Figure 2.2: Basic Radar Classification
Primary Radar
A Primary Radar transmits high-frequency signals toward the targets. The transmitted
pulses are reflected by the target and then received by the same radar. The reflected
energy or the echoes are further processed to extract target information.
Secondary Radar
Secondary radar units work with active answer signals. In addition to primary radar, this
type of radar uses a transponder on the airborne target/object.
A simple block diagram of secondary radar is shown below
Figure 2.3: Secondary Radar Block Diagram

The ground unit, called interrogator, transmits coded pulses (after modulation) towards
the target. The transponder on the airborne object receives the pulse, decodes it,
induces the coder to prepare the suitable answer, and then transmits the interrogated
information back to the ground unit. The interrogator/ground unit demodulates the
answer. The information is displayed on the display of the primary radar.
The secondary radar unit transmits and also receives high-frequency impulses, the so
called interrogation. This isn't simply reflected, but received by the target by means of a
transponder which receives and processes. After this the target answers at another
frequency.
Various kinds of information like, the identity of aircraft, position of aircraft, etc. are
interrogated using the secondary radar. The type of information required defines the
MODE of the secondary radar.
Pulsed Radar
Pulsed radar transmits high power, high-frequency pulses toward the target. Then it
waits for the echo of the transmitted signal for sometimes before it transmits a new
pulse. Choice of pulse repetition frequency decides the range and resolution of the
radar.
Target Range and bearings can be determined from the measured antenna position and
time-of-arrival of the reflected signal.
Pulse radars can be used to measure target velocities. Two broad categories of pulsed
radar employing Doppler shifts are
MTI (Moving Target Indicator) Radar
The MTI radar uses low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) to avoid range ambiguities,
but these radars can have Doppler ambiguities.
Pulse Doppler Radar
Contrary to MTI radar, pulse Doppler radar uses high PRF to avoid Doppler ambiguities,
but it can have numerous range ambiguities.
Doppler Radars make it possible to distinguish moving target in the presence of echoes
from the stationary objects. These radars compare the received echoes with those
received in previous sweep. The echoes from stationary objects will have same phase
and hence will be cancelled, while moving targets will have some phase change.
If the Doppler shifted echo coincides with any of the frequency components in the
frequency domain of the received signal, the radar will not be able to measure target
velocity. Such velocities are called blind speeds.
(2.1)
Where, f0 = radar operating frequency.
Continuous Wave Radar

CW radars continuously transmit a high-frequency signal and the reflected energy is
also received and processed continuously. These radars have to ensure that the
transmitted energy doesnt leak into the receiver (feedback connection). CW radars may
be bistatic or monostatic; measures radial velocity of the target using Doppler Effect.
CW Radars are of Two Types:
a. Un-modulated
An example of un-modulated CW radar is speed gauges used by the police. The
transmitted signal of this equipments is constant in amplitude and frequency. CW radar
transmitting un-modulated power can measure the speed only by using the Dopplereffect. It cannot measure a range and it cannot differ between two reflecting objects.
10
b. Modulated
Un-modulated CW radars have the disadvantage that they cannot measure range,
because run time measurements is not possible (and necessary) in un-modulated CWradars. This is achieved in modulated CW radars using the frequency shifting method.
In this method, a signal that constantly changes in frequency around a fixed reference is
used to detect stationary objects. Frequency is swept repeatedly between f1 and f2.
On examining the received reflected frequencies (and with the knowledge of the
transmitted frequency), range calculation can be done.
(2.2)
Figure 2.4: Frequency VS Time Curve

If the target is moving, there is additional Doppler frequency shift which can be used to
find if target is approaching or receding.
Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave radars (FMCWs) are used in Radar Altimeters.
2.2 WEATHER RADAR

2.2.1 Weather Radar Principle
The weather radar seen on local TV news program, The Weather Channel, or other
news channel is Doppler radar. Doppler radar emits beams (pulses) of microwave
energy from a transmitter into the atmosphere. When these beams collide with objects
in the atmosphere such as raindrops, hail stones, snowflakes, cloud droplets, birds,
insects, dust particles, trees, and even the ground, some of the energy bounces back
towards the radar. A receiver on the radar then collects the reflected energy and
displays it in different ways.
11
Figure 2.5: Signal Transmission Principle [25]
2.2.2 Weather Radar Equation

A simple form of radar equation for a point target is used to relate the dependence of
the received echo power (Pr) on the radar parameters; transmit power (Pt), antenna
gain (G) and effective aperture (Ae), and the target range (R) and the target radar cross
section (i)
Pr=
..(2.3) [36]
The effective area of the receiving antenna can be related to antenna gain
then equation (2.3) becomes:
Pr=
.(2.4)
However, for the meteorological target, such as rainfall the target is not a single
scattered; rather, the radar beam illuminates a volume containing a large group of
raindrops. Thus, the range gate defines the measurement volume V in terms of the
antenna beam widths (in orthogonal planes) and the transmit pulse length,
radar,
V=(
)(
)( ), m3..(2.5)
Within this volume, each raindrop backscatters some energy, and if we assume
raindrops are randomly distributed and do not interact (no multiple scattering), the total
backscattering cross section is the sum of the individual cross section of rain drops.
12
Thus, the backscattering cross section per unit volume is defined. It is also called radar
reflectivity,
m2m .
Since Rayleigh scattering applies, is related to the summation of the sixth power of
the diameters over a unit volume,
=10-10
(2.6)
Where |Kw|2 is a coefficient related to the dielectric constant of water
Kw =
...(2.7)
Where n is the complex index of refraction of the droplet relative to the air background;
Taken n=8.87-j 0.628 at 3GHz from [10], |Kw|2 0.93 for liquid water.
in equation
[4] is the summation of the sixth power of all drop diameters per unit volume. It defines
the radar reflectivity factor Z, in unit of mm6m . We can rewrite radar reflectivity as,
=10-10
m2/m3
.(2.8)
If reflectivity is approximately uniform over the backscattering volume V, the

backscattered cross section of scattering volume can be defined as:
= V , m2
Now we can replace the i in equation (1) with
back scattering from volume-distributed scattered as radar equation:
Pr= C|Kw|2
to
.(2.9)
where C is the radar constant depending on the characteristics of the radar. The use of
radar reflectivity factor Z is only valid for Rayleigh scattering and spherical raindrops,
but this is not always the case. Hence, it is common to replace Z with the effective radar
reflectivity factor Ze [7]. It is more appropriate to express the actual observed Pr as:
Pr= C|Kw|2
(2.10)
Ze has the same unit as Z (mm6m-3 ), but practical radar reflectivity may span several
orders of magnitude so, a logarithmic scale of Ze is introduced [3] and is expressed in
unit of dBZ.
13
dBZ=10 log10 (
).(2.11)
2.2.3 Modes of Operation

a. Clear Air Mode
In this mode, the radar is in its most sensitive operation. This mode has the slowest
antenna rotation rate which permits the radar to sample a given volume of the
atmosphere longer. This increased sampling increases the radar's sensitivity and ability
to detect smaller objects in the atmosphere than in precipitation mode. A lot of what you
will see in clear air mode will be airborne dust and particulate matter. Also, snow does
not reflect energy sent from the radar very well. Therefore, clear air mode will
occasionally be used for the detection of light snow. In clear air mode, the radar
products update every 10 minutes.
b. Precipitation Mode
When rain is occurring, the radar does not need to be as sensitive as in clear air mode
as rain provides plenty of returning signals. In Precipitation Mode, the radar products
update every 6 minutes.
2.2.4 Key Terms Associated With Weather Radar

a. Reflectivity
"Reflectivity" is the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar receiver. dBZ
stands for decibels relative to Z. It is a logarithmic dimensionless technical unit used in
weather radar, to compare the equivalent reflectivity (Z) of a radar signal reflected off a
remote object to the return a droplet of rain with a diameter of 1 mm. It is proportional to
the number of drops per unit volume and the sixth power of drops diameter and is thus
used to estimate the rain or snow intensity. With other variables analyzed from the radar
returns, it will help to determine the type of precipitation, too.
b. Attenuation
Attenuation is the weakening of a radar beam as it moves downstream due to some of
the energy being lost to scattering and absorption. The further a radar beam moves
downstream the more dust, hydrometeors, etc. the radar beam will have to pass
through. Because of attenuation, storms close to the radar are better sampled than
storms far from the radar site. Beam spreading and attenuation both combine to
produce a much poorer sampling of storms far from the radar. Attenuation is higher
when the radar beam has the flow through a large number of hydrometeors. Storms and
precipitation close to the radar degrade the radar energy before it reaches storms
14
further from the radar. Smaller wavelength radar beams attenuate more rapidly than
long wavelength radar.
c. The Radiated Beam Width

Generally, we consider the radar beam as being cone shaped.
To maximize the signal return from a weather target, it should be observed through the
center of the beam where the highest level of energy is located (or at least within the
advertised beam width for that antenna). That beam width for the 30-inch antenna is 3.0
degrees, for the 24-inch antenna is 4.5 degrees and for 12-inch it is 8.0 degrees.
d. Anomalous Propagation
When some special atmospheric conditions occur, such as sudden change in the air
density, the radar beam is likely to bend downwards and hit the ground. Therefore the
observed echoes are not real precipitation and are called radar clutters. It should be
noticed that not only anomalous propagation can cause clutters; they also appear when
side lobes hit ground objects at short range or stationary obstacles presence close to
the radar. For radar QPE, it is extremely important to remove spurious echoes, because
they can greatly damage the data quality.
e. Clutter
One type of interference that detracts from the performance of airborne weather radar is
ground clutter. Ground clutter of airborne weather radar is divided into the main lobe
clutter, side lobe clutter and altitude clutter .the main lobe clutter is the clutter that
generates when the main lobe of the radar antenna illuminate the ground. The side lobe
clutter is the clutter that generated when side lobe beam irradiate to the ground. The
altitude clutter is the clutter that generated when the side beams irradiation to the
ground along vertical direction.
There are several methods to eliminating ground clutter. The first is to improve antenna
designs to reduce side lobe in the ground direction. Asymmetrical reflector antennas are
often used, but the phased array antenna is inherently superior in side lobe reduction.
Another technique in the reduction of ground clutter is analysis of the Doppler shift of
the return signal. Knowing the aircraft altitude, ALG, and ground speed, the expected
Doppler shift of returns from the ground at specific ranges may be calculated.
Therefore, returns with Doppler shifts in this range may be eliminated as ground clutter.
f. Tilt
One of the least understood aspects of airborne weather radar is the subject of antenna
tilt. The display on the panel has a control that allows the pilot to tilt the antenna up or
down. This can be the most critical adjustment of all. The radar antenna platform up in
the nose is stabilized in the roll mode. The antenna platform is tied into the horizontal
gyro circuit so that the platform remains level in reference to the Earth's horizon as the
aircraft turns. Proper antenna tilt, when taking a read on a thunderstorm, makes the
difference between valuable information, and no information.
15
2.2.5 Weather Radar Network

A small-clustered radar network, rather than one with single large coverage radar, has
advantages in terms of information quality and measurement reliability. By covering
similar area with multiple radars, additional capabilities such as dual-Doppler estimation
of horizontal wind vectors or pinpoint tracking of storms are provided. Also, the effective
design of such network radar systems can provide reduced power and less antenna
size. Much research exists regarding the use of meteorological radar networks for
sensing weather phenomenon. Such work has focused on the node and network
structures, data link and transmission, adaptive scanning and radar control as well as
the advantages of small radar networks. Especially, CASA IP1 has implemented real
enhanced network using four relatively low-powered X-band magnetron-based radars,
the merits of each being clearly discernible. Conversely, additional consideration
regarding radar networks is required. In particular, the use of numerous narrow-pulse
network radars is not efficient with regards to frequency resources and interference.
Although a peak power, of tens of kilowatts, is relatively smaller than current large-scale
operating radars, such radars still aspect long distance areas and interfere with other
radars or radio systems with common frequency bands. For example, although a range
of 9:3 9:5 GHz is allotted for radar application in X-band including the meteorological
remote sensing | many military-purposed and marine radars have already used
considerable available resources in such frequency band. In regards to frequency
resource, pulse compression radar systems can provide advantages in weather
networks. For given resolution requirement, transmitting peak power is greatly reduced
by employing relatively long pulses. Since radar detection ability depends on average
rather other than peak power, peak power decreases with the use of high duty factor
radar. Thus, the effects from neighboring transmitting power become less in pulse
compression radar systems and this means frequency reuse planning, similar in cellular
communication, is more applicable for small clustered radar networks. especially
regarding maximum dual-Doppler overlapping, hexagonal cell arrangement, i.e., joining
three neighboring radar forms at a 60 degree angle, is most effective [15]. Fig. 1 depicts
four channel usage (frequency bands) for such a configuration. Frequency reuse
patterns are extendable with more numbers of channels translating into longer
distances for identical channel sites. Additionally, assuming scanning information for
adjacent radar sites is available, radar possibly acquires bi- or multi-static data as
shown in Fig. 2. Hence, dual or multi-Doppler estimation at a single site is possible.
When original velocity vectors of the targets are similar to the direction of tangential
beam injection, bi-static data is more effective in obtaining Doppler information.
Although such results increase the data quality, mono- and bi-static signals should be
processed simultaneously. Hence, we introduced identical baseband waveform for
adjacent radars [3].
16
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.6: Weather Radar Signal Observation: (a) A Hexagonal Weather Radar
Network Using 4 Different Channels, (b) Simultaneous Observation of Mono and Bistatic Signals [3].
Figure 2.7(a) illustrates one example of X-band frequency allotment. If 15MHz of
bandwidth are used for very fine range resolution of 10 m, then nearly 12 channels will
be available at X-band. By combining four channels into one band, then three bands
become available. Such a band concept especially applies to frequency availability in a
particular region. Radar system structures can be constructed as shown in Fig. 2.7(b).
By the combination of LO1 frequencies (local oscillator 1) for band selection and LO2
(local oscillator 2) for channel selection, the desired channel signals are transmitted. In
the receiver, the band is already selected by sharing LO1 with the transmitter and the
channel is selected in the digital domain with IF under-sampling techniques. In
fact, not only mono- but bi-static information from adjacent channel signals can simply
be extracted by adequately changing frequency values during down-converting signal
processing. Such a concept has been experimentally verified with signal generation,
acquisition and channel selection in signal processing easily.
17
(b)
Figure 2.7: Radar Network Example in X-band: (a) Channel Allotment. (b) Radar
System Structure [2].
2.2.6 Data Processing

Digitized data were processed on the PC. Processing was divided into signal
processing by extracting IQ data via pulse compression and data processing in order to
extract the parameters, i.e., received power and velocity from IQ data. As shown in Fig.
6, the first stage of the processing involved the digital down converter block, translated
100MHz digitized samples into complex data consisting of in-phase (I) and quadrature
(Q) components. During radar network consideration, multi-static data from the adjacent
sites were acquired by changing only channel selection frequency during down
converting. If the signal processing block had been built parallel, the radar would have
obtained bi- and mono-static data simultaneously. Low-pass anti-aliasing filter and
output data-reducing decimator were deployed [4]. In our case, the decimation number
18
stood at eight, determined by the ratio of the chirp bandwidth and the sampling rate. For
pulse compression, correlation processing was performed using FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform) in the frequency domain. Complex conjugate values of the reference data,
Figure 2.8: Signal Processing Flow Diagram [4]

Sampled from transmitted pulse and converted in the frequency domain were multiplied
with receiving data. And this value was again converted to the time domain value using
IFFT (inverse FFT). Before IFFT, weighting functions (windows) were used on the
compressed pulse spectrum in order to reduce side lobe levels. However, this also
broadened main lobe width and degraded range resolution slightly. Various window
functions such as Hamming, Hanning, Blackman and Blackman-Harris, were applicable.
For LFM (linear frequency modulation) waveform, the combination of Hamming and
Blackman- Harris were applied. For the NLFM (nonlinear frequency modulation),
waveform itself demonstrated window function characteristics with our proposed
method, thus being more effective than LFM in point of power conservation.
Data processing was initiated by arraying complex discrete signals resulting during
signal processing of pulse compression within the observation range. Fig. 2.7 reveals
the block diagram of the present data processing scheme. By arraying N = 64 pulse
repetition interval samples and applying FFT, the discrete power spectrum of the signal
was thus acquired. Afterwards, the S/N (signal to noise ratio) as well as Doppler velocity
and spectrum width were estimated. Although more than 70 dB of cross coupling
existed between transmitter and receiver due to antenna separation, a considerable
amount of power nevertheless owed directly into the receiver chain. For rejections of
non-moving clutters as well as such cross coupling effects, a fixed-width clutter filter
method was employed, removing zero-Doppler spectrum components and interpolating
across the gap. To obtain the S/N from received signals, noise power was estimated by
the mean power of reference noise heights where, as it is assumed, no meteorological
targets existed. By establishing experimentally-determined threshold values related to
noise variation, the scattered signal spectrum was thus obtained [4]. One form in the
received power point is as follows:
19
Pr=
..(2.12)
Minimum detectable reflectivity of pulse compression radar Z0l is:
Z0l =Z0
.(2.13)
The meteorological radar reflectivity factor was measured in dBZ, as follows:

Z (dBZ) =10log [Z (mm6/m3)] = 10 log [10-18.Z (m6/m3)] (2.14)
For convenience, the reference height H0 was also introduced, as follows:
| |
10log (SNR)= 10log[
+ 10log( ) +SNR(dB) (2.15)

Introducing radar constant C (dB), We had the following :
C (dB)= 10log[
| |
(
] ...........(2.16)
Z (dBZ) = C (dB) + 20 log ( ) + SNR (dB) .. (2.17)

Using weather radar we may detect snow here a Photo of the designed radar with
separated Tx and Rx Antennas & Doppler spectrum measured.
20
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.9: Snow Detection [6]
Compared with other forms of precipitation, snow has the characteristics of relatively
low refractive index and it demonstrates low reflection. Short wavelength radar is more
advantageous in detecting snow. Despite being weak, we confirmed that radar was able
to detect snow signals from as far away as 1 km. Because of the distance between
antennas, low altitude observation area was smaller than observation with single
antenna system. Based on frequency analysis, velocity components of snow were
distributed at nearly zero. A middle rain event occurred weather radar may observe it by
following procedure [8]:
a) Detection of clouds by LFM.
b) Detection of cloud & rain by NLFM.

21
c) Detection of Rain by NLFM.
d) Doppler Spectrum Measured.
Figure 2.10: Representation of Different Detections [8]
22
CHAPTER 3
DETECTION OF WEATHER CONDITIONS
3.1 DETECTION OF AIR VELOCITY
In addition to measurement of returned signal power from the targets, weather radar is
also capable of measuring the wind velocity by analyzing the Doppler frequency shift
which is introduced by the motion of air particles or the precipitation particles.
The amount of shift can be determined by comparing the frequency of the transmit
pulse with the frequency of the reflected pulse
Particles moving toward the radar are shifted to higher frequency
Particles moving away from the radar are shifted to lower frequency
Figure 3.1: Frequency Changes due to Movement of Object [25]
23
3.1.1 Frequency Shift Produced Due to Wind Velocity

The phase shifting of an electromagnetic wave from the radar antenna to the aim and
back results from the ratio of the covered distance and the wavelength of the
transmitted energy multiplied with the scale of the full circle (2):
..(3.1)
= phase-difference between the transmitted and the received signal
2r = the distance: the way and the way back
2 = 360: the period of an oscillation
= wavelength of the transmitted energy
If the aim has the radial speed,
( )
.(3.2)
Then the value of the phase changes to
( )
..(3.3)
This is equivalent to the Doppler- frequency fD according to:

( )
.(3.4)
.(3.5)
ftx = is the transmitters frequency

c0 = is the speed of the light
vr = is the radial speed of the aim
24
This means, in practice the Doppler- frequency occurs twice at radar. Once on the way
from the radar to the aim, and then for the reflected (and already afflicted by a Dopplershift) energy on the way back.
In the radar signal processing the Doppler frequency will be divided by the actual
transmitted frequency to eliminate the influence of different transmitters frequencies.
Now the Doppler frequency is a measure of the radial speed only and is called
normalized.
Weather radar utilizes the Doppler capability of the NEXRAD radars to detect
storm circulations (e.g., tornados and hurricane spiral bands) as well as to
identify air flow boundaries created by storms (e.g., outflows and microbursts)
In cases when only one radar is available, the air motion that is detected is
relative to the location of the radar: radar meteorologists call this radial velocity.
flow toward the radar is called inbound and flow away from the radar is called
outbound.
By convention, velocities toward the radar (inbound) are negative and velocities
away from the radar (outbound) are positive.
3.2 ANALYZING THE REFLECTIVITY & RAINFALL

3.2.1 Rain
Rain is formed by a very complex process, which involves the condensation of water
vapor and the coalescence of tiny droplets from clouds. Raindrops are typically two
orders of magnitude larger in diameter than cloud droplets. During their fall from clouds
to earths surface, small droplets may coalesce with each other forming bigger drops.
Sometimes droplets are surrounded by warm and dry air, and they may evaporate
before reaching ground. In general, rain consists of a distribution of drop sizes in the
range of 0.5 mm to 8 mm.
3.2.2 Types of Rain

There are different types of rain with different spatial scales that range from a few
kilometer in diameter to a few tens of kilometers. Among these types, two major ones
are convective and strati form rain. Their characteristics primarily differ in spatial extent,
rain drop sizes and in vertical air motion that is instrumental in the rain formation
process. Convective rainfall is usually formed from convective clouds (precipitation
cells) in the tropics that are associated with strong up-drafts that carry moisture quickly
25
to high altitudes well above the freezing level. Rain drops form rapidly through collision
and accretion with other droplets. Because these rain cells contain frozen precipitation
(above the freezing level where the air temperature is < 0 C), they are usually
associated with strong electrical activity and lightning; therefore they are commonly
called thunder storms, which are characterized by high spatial and temporal intensity
gradients. As opposed to the vertical development of convective rain, strati form rain is
formed from stably stratified clouds. Strati form clouds are horizontally widespread in
character, and its rain has extensive horizontal development. In strati form clouds,
precipitation grows in a widespread forced updraft of low magnitude. Raindrops form in
strati form clouds primarily by condensation. Because of a lack of a strong updraft to
keep droplets aloft, strati form rain falls out of the cloud with lower rain rate. Strati form
rain is more uniform in intensity and consists of relatively small raindrops. Although
most rain consists of a combination of the two, identifying the characteristics of rain help
the study of rain intensity and raindrop size distribution. Convective rain is generally
heavy due to large drop size and high rain intensity. Strati form rain is a gentle, long
lasting rain with no lightning. High reflectivity and reflectivity gradient separate the
convective rain from the strati form rain.
3.2.3 Raindrop Size Distribution (DSD)

Rain comprises drops of many different diameters, which are characterized by a
particular raindrop size distribution (DSD) that provides information on the number and
size of raindrops in a sample. Because the DSD is a unity area distribution, calculated
at different resolutions gives different distribution curves, which can be seen in Figure
3.2. Choosing the same rain rate, different scale of drop size interval defines a different
probability density function (pdf) of DSD within a unit volume. Thus DSD, usually
denoted by N(D) with units of m-4, is a fundamental quantity used to describe the
characteristic of rain.
26
Figure 3.2: PDF of Marshal-Palmer DSDs with Diameter Interval 0.1 mm and 0.2mm
The raindrop size distribution has been studied by many investigators and generally
modeled as an exponential distribution. The most widely used DSD in scientific
literature is Marshall and Palmer [1], which is a special case of the exponential
distribution with two fitting parameters N0 and . Marshall-Palmer DSD is defined as:
N(D)=N0 e-D ,m-4 ..(3.6)
Where N0 = 8.10 m-4, D is the drop diameter in unit of meters and is the slope
parameter. It is related to rain rate R (mm/h) as:
=4100R-0.21 m-1 .(3.7)
27
3.2.4 Rainfall Rate, R

Rain rate R is a measure of the intensity of rain by calculating the volume of rain that
falls to ground in a given interval of time. The rain rate is expressed in units of length
(depth) per unit time (mm/h), which is the depth of rain captured in a collection vessel
per unit time. Figure 3.3 shows a graphical representation of the PDF of MarshallPalmer DSD with three different rain rates. As rain intensity increase, the drop size
increases. Under strati form rainfall conditions, the vertical air motion is weak and is
usually neglected because its value is generally not known. The error introduced is
believed to be small compared to the terminal velocity of most rain drops. Rainfall rate R
is related to N (D).
R=
( )
( )
..(3.8)
Where v(D) represents the relationship between the raindrop terminal fall velocities in
still
air and the equivalent spherical raindrop diameter D (mm). An exponential expression of
fall speed to diameter relationship is derived:
v(D)=[(1-2) exp(-3D)](0/)0.4 ,m/s (3.9)

Where a1 = 9.65 m/s , a2 = 10.3 m/s, and a3 = 0.6 m/s. is a density ratio factor adjusting
terminal fall speed due to air density change with altitude. Equation 3.4 can be used to
estimate the diameter of the raindrops from weather Doppler motion (when vertical air
motion is not present). As drop size increases, the fall velocity increases rapidly and
following an exponential curve as shown in Figure 3.3.I have taken the raindrops
diameter sizes from 0 to 7mm with 0.1mm size interval as input to calculate the terminal
fall velocity. Due to aerodynamic forces, at larger drop diameters surface tension is
insufficient to overcome drag forces. As a result, raindrops larger than 7mm tend to
flatten out and break apart into smaller droplets; therefore these diameters do not exist
in the DSD.
28
Figure 3.3: PDF of Marshall-Palmer DSDs with Three Different Rain Rates
29
10
Raindrop diameter (mm)
Figure 3.4: Correlation between Rainfall Velocity VS Raindrop Diameter
3.3 ESTIMATING Z R RELATIONS

If the observed values of Z and ZDR over a small region are used to characterize the rain
drop spectra over that region, better rainfall rate estimates will be a reality. Recall the
normalized gamma distribution of raindrops.
N(D)=Nwf()(D/D0) exp(-
f()=(
(
)
)
(
) (3.10)
(3.11)
30
In this equation there are three variables:

Shape parameter . High values of imply a more truncated spectrum. Drop
Concentration Nw, normalized so that, despite changes in , liquid water content
remains constant.
Figure 3.5: Normalized Gamma Distribution, with Variations. For This Plot D0 is 1 m
and Nw is 8000m-3mm-1.
This drop spectrum only changes with rainfall rate, which would make converting
reflectivity to rainfall a trivial task (which leads to Z = 200R1.6). Unfortunately the
Marshall-Palmer drop spectrum does not represent the wide variation in drop spectra
found in nature, which lead to the introduction variation of drop concentration. A gamma
function for raindrops were suggested by Ulbrich (1983). However, variation in the
shape
parameter caused changes to the drop concentration required for the same rain
properties ,so a normalization was added.
By following the work of Bringi and Chandrasekar (2001), this leads to Z R
relationships of the form:
Z = aR1.5..(3.12)
with a dependent on Nw and . Integration of the suitably weighted normalized gamma
function produces the expression:
Z = Fz()Nw
(3.13)
31
Making the assumption that the terminal velocity is proportional to D.67,
R=FR() NwD04.67..(3.14)
& by removing DO this becomes:
= H() (
)1.5............................................(3.15)
Where H() =fz()fr()1.5,Hence
Z=H()Nw-.5 R1.5 =
( )
.(3.16)
From Equation (1) we may said that,
a=
( )
..(3.17)
So over the chosen region of data, if the drop spectrum can be characterized to
estimate Nw , it will be possible to derive the values of a in equation (3.12) (assuming a
value of ). Next consider the physical drop spectrum cause of variations in b. Initially
consider the case where Nw remains constant. Increased rainfall rate is caused simply
by an increase drop size D0 .Equation (3.13) shows Z varies as D07 and (3.14)
demonstrates R varies as D04.67 So, substituting into equation (3.12) gives b = 7/4.67 =
1.5. However, it is possible that Nw is a function of D0, and this possibility will result in
different values of b. Consider the case where Nw rises as D0 2 so as rainfall rates
increase there are both more and larger raindrops. This implies, via equations (3.13)
and (3.14) that Z and R vary as D09 and D06.67, leading to a b of 1.35. Now consider the
case where Nw varies as 1/Do, a case where as the drops get larger, their numbers
decrease, suggesting Z and R vary as D06 and D03.67 so b = 1.63. Now consider a more
extreme example. If, rather than Nw being constant, Do remains constant and as rainfall
rate increases it is a result of more drops of the same size, Z and R scale together with
Nw, so b = 1, Now consider the case with high aggregation of snowflakes leading to Nw
scaling with 1/D02 Now Z and R vary as D05 and D02.67 resulting in a, b of 1.87.
Varying a & b with the change of drop diameter D0, from equation (3.12)
Table 3.1: Weather Data of Dhaka, Bangladesh for April, 2014
No of equation
1
2
3
Drop
diameter(D0)
9-6.67
7-4.67
6-3.63
Varying a & b
a=190,b=1.62
a=289,b=1.5
a=244,b=1.35
32
Z R Relation
Z=190R1.62
Z=289R1.5
Z=244R1.35
From the above equation, we can determine the value of reflectivity on different value of
rainfall rate, R:
Date: 11-04-2014
R=25mm/h
Z1=34947.52
Date: 23-4-2014
R=14mm/h
Z2=8603
Date: 28-04-2014
R=11mm/h
Z3=10543
Approximate reflectivity which was measured by Bangladesh metrological center on that

particular date:
Z1=35261
Z2=8234
Z3 =11401
Percentage of Error:
Zerror1 = 0.89%
Zerror2 = 4.48%
Zerror3 = 7.52%
From that result we may say that Although the expected behavior can be seen from a
single day of heavy rain the best test would involve a longer record for statistics. Not
exact but appropriate value come out from our formula.so validity of our formula exists.
3.4 RAINFALL RATE, REFLECTIVITY, Z-R RELATIONSHIP

CONSTANT A AND B, RECEPTION POWER
3.4.1 Value of Coefficient a and b from Comparing Different Z-R
Relationship for a Specific Radar in Specific Region
Reflectivity VS rainfall rate equation can be given by the equation, Z = a Rb
Where, Z = reflectivity, R = rainfall rate
and a, b = constant
The changes in the coefficients of the Z-R relations for different rain events are different.
The coefficient a of the Z-R relation is higher for the convective stage followed by the
strati form and transition stages. The coefficient b values are higher for the transition
33
stage followed by the strati form and convective stages. So, depending on rain event or
rain type it is different in different region and season.
So, we see if we can measure the value of rainfall rate of a specific region for a season
and get the reflectivity from the radar which measured the rainfall rate then we will be
able to find the Z-R relationship ,in other word we will be able to find the value of a and
b for that specific region.
Consider a Doppler weather radar which has the below rainfall rate VS reflectivity chart,
Table 3.2: Reflectivity VS Rainfall Rate.
Reflectivity , Z (dBZ)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Rainfall rate ,R
0.25
0.5
1
2.5
4
7
13
25
48
92
If we plot it in graph, then we will get the graph given below:
Figure 3.6: Rainfall Rate Graph Reflectivity VS Rainfall Rate Chart.

34
If this radar is used in Bangladesh then what will be the value of coefficient a and b can
be found easily if we collect the rainfall rate chart of a specific month of specific season.
We, know a whole year can be divided into four season (pre-monsoon, monsoon, postmonsoon and winter) which countries are lies under monsoon climate region. So,
Bangladesh can be divided into four seasons. In this thesis, we will take the data of
rainfall rate of pre-monsoon season of Bangladesh of 2011.
The data of rainfall rate is given below for pre monsoon period:
Figure 3.7: Recorded Daily Country Average Rainfall of Pre-monsoon Season of

Bangladesh in 2011 [32]
From the above data taking the value of the month of get the value of rainfall rate of
month of March 2011 Dhaka, Bangladesh.
35
Figure 3.8: Recorded Daily Average Rainfall Rate of March 2011 in Dhaka,
Bangladesh.
From this chart we get the daily rainfall rate data as follows:
Table 3.4: Rainfall Rate Data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Day
Rainfall rate
Day
Rainfall rate
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.25
0
0
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0
3
0
0.25
1
0.75
0.25
0.25
0
0.25
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Rainfall
Rate
0.25
0
0
0
4
2.5
4
5
11
3
In month of March rainfall rate differs from 0 to 16 and the values are 0 , 0.25 ,0.5 , 0.75
, 1 , 2.5 ,3 , 4 , 5 , 16 from low to high .
36
There are total 7 types of Z-R relation is practiced all over the world and they are,
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Z = 75 R2
Z = 300 R1.4
Z = 250 R1.2
Z =316 R1.6
Z=250 R1.5
Z= 32 R1.65
Z= 200 R1.
Now, for different Z-R relation we will find reflectivity for rainfall rate of March 2011 and
compare it with actual relation of Z-R that is given for specific radar. Which relation will
be identical or close to the actual relation, that should be practiced in Bangladesh for
that specific radar.
(a) Z- R Relationship in Summer
37
(b) Z-R and Z-S Relationship in Winter

Figure 3.9: Z-R relations that are practiced all over world in different season [33].
Now, we will find the values of reflectivity for specific Z-R relation,
1) Z=75 R^2
Table 3.5: Rainfall and Reflectivity Data of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Rain fall rate

0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
Reflectivity
0
4.68
18.75
42.18
75
468.75
675
1200
1875
19200
Base reflectivity (dBZ)

0
6.7
12.73
16.26
18.75
26.70
28.29
30.79
32.73
42.83
38
2) Z= 300 R^1.4
Rainfall rate
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
reflectivity
0
43.07
113.67
200.54
300
1082.02
1396.7
2089.3
2855.5
14550.9

0
16.34
20.56
23.02
24.77
30.34
31.45
33.20
34.55
41.62
3) Z= 250 R^1.2
Rainfall rate
reflectivity
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
0
47.4
108.82
177.02
250
750.7
924.3
1319.5
1724.7
6964.4
Base reflectivity
(dBZ)
0
16.76
20.37
22.48
23.98
28.75
29.704
31.204
32.367
38.43
39
4) Z= 316 R^1.6
Rainfall rate
reflectivity
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
0
34.4
104.24
199.4
316
1368.93
1832.66
2903.9
4149.91
26685.7
Base reflectivity
(dBZ)
0
15.36
20.18
22.9
24.996
31.363
32.63
34.63
36.18
44.26
5) Z= 250 R^1.5
Rainfall rate
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
reflectivity
0
31.25
88.38
162.4
250
988.2
1299.04
2000
2795.04
16000

0
14.95
19.46
22.11
23.98
29.95
31.136
33.01
34.46
42.04
40
6) Z= 32 R^1.65
Rainfall rate
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
reflectivity
0
3.249
10.196
19.9
32
145.128
196.06
315.17
455.46
3104.19

0
5.117
10.08
12.99
15.051
21.617
22.92
24.986
26.586
34.919
7) Z= 200 R^1.6
Rainfall rate
Reflectivity
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
0
21.76
65.98
126.21
200
866.44
1160
1838
2626.53
16889.7
Base reflectivity
(dBZ)
0
13.37
18.19
21.09
23.01
29.38
30.64
32.64
34.193
42.28
41
From these values we can draw reflectivity VS rainfall rate graph and comparing with
these curves with given Z-R value curve we can assume the relation of Z-R that can be
performed in Bangladesh for that specific radar.
In the comparison graph,

1) Z indicates the Z-R relation of that specific radar that we assumed.
2) Z1 indicates the relation Z=75 R2
3) Z2 indicates Z=300 R1.4
4) Z3 indicate Z=250 R1.2
6) Z5 indicates Z= 250 R1.5
42
Figure 3.10: Comparison between Different Z-R Relation with Specific Z-R Relation for
a Specific Radar in Specific Region.
Observation from the Graph:

From the graph we see Z6, Z1, Z4 does not follow Z at all and Z2, Z3, Z6 intersects Z in
more than one point. But Z7 totally follows Z and some points it also intersects with Z,
we can see from the plot. So, from this observation we can decide that for Dhaka if we
use that radar then we need to follow the last Z-R relationship, which was Z=200 R^1.6
Now, taking another months rainfall rate data of another month of pre-monsoon period
we will find the value of reflectivity from Z=200R^1.6 and compare with the given data of
specific data of the specific radar.
This time we will measure the reflectivity of month of April 2011of Dhaka.
43
Figure 3.11: Recorded Rainfall Rate of April 2011
Table 3.12: Recorded Rainfall Rate of April 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Date
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Rainfall rate
12
3
2
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
Date
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Rainfall rate
1
0
0
4
0
4.5
0
4
3
5
Date
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Rainfall rate
8
0
0
7
6
4.5
9
17
2
2
From the rainfall rate data we see in April 2011 rainfall rate varies from 0 to 17.
44
Now finding the reflectivity from rainfall rate we get the chart which has given below:
Table 3.13: Rainfall Rate VS Reflectivity of April 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Rainfall rate
0
1
2
3
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
12
17
Reflectivity
0
200
606.29
1159.909
1837.9
2219.065
2626.52
3516.19
4499.734
5571.523
6726.94
10659.08
18610.081
Base reflectivity
0
23.01
27.83
30.64
32.64
33.46
34.19
35.46
36.59
37.45
38.28
40.28
42.69
Now plotting in graph we get:
Figure 3.12: Z-R Relation Comparison from Z=200 R^1.6 and given Chart
45
From, the above graph we see reflectivity VS the rainfall rate of month of April 2011
from Z= 200 R^1.6 relationship is almost identical to the Z-R chart of that specific radar
is almost identical.
So, we can say if this radar is used in Dhaka then Z-R relationship for pre-monsoon
period is Z=200 R^1.6.
3.4.2 Specific Values of a and b, Correction of Z-R Relation

Now plotting only Z-R relation for the radar and Z-R relation from Z=200R^1.6 we get,
Figure 3.13: Z-R Comparison for Two Different Result of Reflectivity That We
Get From given Chart of That Radar and from Z=200 R^1.6.
46
We see from here they are not identical, series 2 distorted in few places with series 1
which is the Z-R relationship of the specific radar.
Taking two points for the reflectivity and rainfall rate
When, R= 16, dBZ = 41.99 and Z=15839.127
And
When R = 4, dBZ= 33.4 and Z= 2190.47
We know, Z= a R^b
log Z = log a + b log R
Substituting the values of Z and R we get two equations,
log (15839.127) = log a + b log 16
4.2 = log a + 1.2 b(3.18)
and
log (2190.47) = log a + b log 16
3.34 = log a + 0.699 b..(3.19)
By solving this two equation (3.18) and (3.19) we get the value of a and b
Where a= 142 and b= 1.7
So, the new equation will be Z = 142 R1.7
47
Figure 3.14: Graphical Representation of Z=142R1.7
3.4.3 Reception Power from Reflectivity

The power received from a distribution of meteorological targets is given by the
equation:
Pr = (3 Pt G2 h |K|2 D6 )/ (1024 ln 2 2r2).(3.20)

Where,
Pr = Received Power
Pt = Transmitted Power
g = Antenna Gain
= Beam width (Horizontal)
= Beam width (Vertical)
h = Pulse Length
|K|^2 = The Dielectric Factor (0.93 for rain)
Di = Scatter Diameters
= Radar Wavelength
r = Distance Between Sample and Radar Antenna
48
With summation over a unit of volume.it may be written as
Pr = (C |K|2 Z) /r2
Where, we have the radar constant, C and the radar reflectivity factor, Z.
From this equation, we see if reflectivity is measured somehow then for a specific
distance reception power can be measured.
Lets consider a radar where r = 200km,
|K|2= 0.93 (as we are considering rain)
Radar constant C= 1670 X 10-10 Wm2
Now we will measure the reception power from the reflectivity that is get from the rainfall
rate of March 2011 Dhaka, Bangladesh.
We get the below chart of rainfall VS reflectivity of the month of March,
Table 3.14: Rainfall Rate VS Reflectivity of March 2011 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Rainfall rate
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
Reflectivity
0
21.76
65.98
126.21
200
866.44
1160
1838
2626.53
16889.7
Now calculating reception power from reflectivity we get,

When Z=0, Pr = 0
Z= 21.76, Pr = 0.16 pW
Z= 65.98, Pr = 0. 51 pW
Z= 126.21, Pr = 0.98 pW
Z= 200, Pr = 155 pW
49
Z=866.44, Pr = 672.83 pW
Z=1160, Pr = 900 pW
Z= 1838, Pr = 1427 pW
Z=2626.53, Pr = 2039.63 pW
Z= 16889.7, Pr = 13115.69 pW
From this values we get the chart of rainfall VS reception power and plotting in a graph
get the relationship between them,
Table 3.15: Rainfall Rate VS Reception Power Chart
Rainfall rate
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
2.5
3
4
5
16
Reception power (pWatt )

0
0.16
0. 51
0.98
155
672.83
900
1427
2039.63
13115.69
50
Figure 3.15: Graphical Representation of Rainfall VS Reception Power.
Thus from this value of reception power for specific rainfall rate, radar can be calibrated
to decrease the rainfall rate assumption error and give improved weather forecast.
3.5 RELATION BETWEEN RADAR REFLECTIVITY FACTOR

AND TEMPERATURE WITH ICW
The radar reflectivity factor of ice clouds is usually expressed assuming the particles to
be spheres of diameter D consisting of a homogeneous mixture of ice and
air with a density that varies with D alone:
Z=
( )| ( )|
) (
. (3.21)
51
Where, n(D) dD is the number concentration of particles with diameter between D and
D+Dd , |K|2 is the dielectric factor (proportional to particle density squared), and is the
Mie-to-Rayleigh backscatter ratio. In reality, ice particles are not spheres and a simple
density relationship will not be strictly applicable to all of the particles in a radar sample
volume, and so we generalize this formula to a summation over a volume V of particles
of arbitrary habit:
Z=
| |
(3.22)
Where mj is the mass of particle j, i is the density of solid ice and |Ki|2 is the dielectric
factor of solid ice (with the value 0.174 at all radar frequencies). The i factor is now the
ratio of the actual backscattering cross section to that predicted by Rayleigh theory and,
in principle, could be calculated using a method other than Mie theory. In the Rayleighscattering limit it is more convenient to consider Z as simply proportional to mass
squared as in (2) than to use (1) and to have to work with the concepts of diameter
and density, which are ill defined for arbitrarily shaped particles. In the geometric
optics approximation the visible extinction coefficient is simply 2 times the integrated
particle cross-sectional area A per unit volume. Thus, IWC and may be expressed as
summations over all particles in a volume V:
ICW=
..(3.23)
....(3.24)
Evaluating above equation 3.21, 3.22 & 3.23 Scientists estimate a co-relation between
temperature & Radar Reflectivity for different frequencies.
Formulas for radar reflectivity factor Z (dBZ) from deriving IWC (g m-3) and temperature
(C) for three different radar frequencies:
At 3 GHZ frequency:
Log10(IWC) = 0.060Z - 0.0197T 1.70
Table 3.16: Temperature, Reflectivity and Corresponding ICW Data
Date
05-09-2014
06-09-2014
07-09-2014
08-09-2014
09-09-2014
Temperature (T)oC
-31
-30
-28
-29
-31
Reflectivity(Z) dBZ
15.65
28.30
29.41
55.23
71.12
52
ICW (gm-3_)
0.11
0.39
0.45
0.67
0.82
Figure 3.16: Graphical Representation between ICW (Ice Water Content) and
Reflectivity
At 35 GHZ frequency:
Log10(IWC)= (0.000242)ZT -0.0699Z - 0.0186T -1.63
Table 3.17: Temperature, Reflectivity and corresponding ICW data
Date
05-09-2014
06-09-2014
07-09-2014
08-09-2014
09-09-2014
Temperature (T)oC
-31
-30
-28
-29
-31
Reflectivity (Z) dBZ

29
39.8
40.59
44.14
45.75
53
ICW(gm-3)
0.11
0.39
0.45
0.67
0.82
Figure 3.17: Graphical Representation between ICW (Ice water content) and
Reflectivity
At 94 GHZ frequency:
Log10(IWC)= (0.000580)ZT - 0.0923Z- (0.007 06)T - 0.992
Table 3.18: Temperature, Reflectivity and Corresponding ICW Data
Date
05-09-2014
06-09-2014
07-09-2014
08-09-2014
09-09-2014
Temperature (T)oC
-31
-30
-28
-29
-31
Reflectivity (Z)dBZ
20.72
28.9
29.9
32.5
33.8
54
ICW(gm-3)
0.11
0.39
0.45
0.67
0.82
Figure 3.18: Graphical Representation between ICW (Ice water content) and
Reflectivity
From the data table, it may clear that ICW Z (Reflectivity).But in case of lower value
of ICW Reflectivity may negative.
For a Rayleigh scattering radar,
ICW N0b/(2b+1)Z(b+1)/(2b+1)(3.25)
Mitchell (1996) found that for common particle habits b ranges between 1.8 and 2.3; so
we should find that for a given temperature the Z exponent lies in the narrow range of
0.590.61.Calibrating equation (4) & eliminating NO from ICW & Z relation to obtain,
IWC D0-b Z
..(3.26)
Hence, if temperature dependence arises because temperature is a proxy for D0 (or, in

more specific terms, because at a given temperature D0 does not vary systematical with
IWC or Z), then we should expect IWC to be proportional to Z at constant temperature.
55
Figure 3.19: Ice Water Content VS Reflectivity Factor for a Rayleigh Scattering
Radar [16].
56
3.6 RELATION BETWEEN HUMIDITY & REFLECTIVITY

Using the atmospheric attenuation estimation along a radial, it is possible to infer the
path integrated water vapor content using results of simulations with an electromagnetic
wave propagation model. The model used in this study is from Liebe (1985) that
computes the attenuation due to water vapor, liquid water and molecular oxygen
absorption over propagation paths through atmospheric layers. Each model layer is
defined by its depth as well as pressure, temperature, humidity, and liquid water content
at the bottom and top of the layers. The number of layers and meteorological conditions
are specified by the user. The model was run numerous times to compute humidity as a
function of kg-band atmospheric attenuation over the range of temperatures and
pressures found during RICO in the boundary layer as observed by the soundings.
Figure (1) shows a scatter plot of the model specific humidity (gm -3) versus the modelcomputed one-way atmospheric attenuation (A dBkm-1). The scatter is due to the
dependency of Ag on temperature and pressure. The tight scatter indicates that these
dependencies over the range of atmospheric conditions in question are small. Both
second and third degree polynomial fits were computed and it was found that the latter
fit the input slightly better. The best-fit line is plotted in Figure (1) as the solid line. The
third degree polynomial fit yielded the following equation for specific humidity (SH, in
gm-3),
SH=201.40Ag3 209.60Ag2 + 120.55Ag -2.25 ..(3.27)
Coincident S- and Kg-band reflectivity values are used to estimate the gaseous
attenuation (subsection a.) assuming the Rayleigh approximation is valid at both
wavelengths. Any contaminant or artifact that causes a violation of the Rayleigh
approximation in one or both wavelengths can cause large errors in attenuation, and
ultimately humidity, estimates. Therefore, several criteria have been developed to
ensure the data used in the water vapor retrieval is appropriate. Radar artifacts and
characteristics that could cause large errors in retrieved humidity include: Attenuation by
liquid water, non-Rayleigh scatters at S- or kg-band (for S-band these primarily include
Bragg scatter, ground clutter contamination, bird echoes, and for K g-band also include
water drops larger than about 1 mm and other large hydrometeors), partial beam
blockage, and others. First a small patch, or kernel, of data is selected, currently by
hand, at the edges of weather echoes nearest the radar in order to avoid contamination
by liquid water attenuation. Liquid attenuation at kg-band is much stronger than gaseous
absorption, therefore data were not collected more than 0.5 km into any weather echo.
The power returned from Bragg scatter can be strong at S-band, and is generally much
weaker at ka-band. Following Knight and Miller (1993) and Wilson et al. (1994), the
difference between S- and ka-band reflectivity from Bragg scatter can be computed as:
dBZS dBZKa = 10
.............................. (3.28)
57
From that Equation difference between s-band & k-band reflectivity is 40 dB for
maximum detectable signal from different reflectivity we can determine the value of A g.
From Bangladesh metrological center different value of reflectivity currently this
determination is made manually, however, the process is straightforward and can be
automated.
Table 3.19: Specific Humidity and Gaseous Attenuation Data
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Specific Humidity (SH)

5.65
12.61
19.21
21.01
22.32
24.03
Gaseous Attenuation (Ag)

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.5
Scatter plot of specific humidity (+ symbols, g m-3) versus one-way attenuation (dB
km-1) computed from the Liebe (1985) radioactive transfer model for the conditions at
RICO, overlaid with the third order polynomial fit curve (solid line).The third order
polynomial best fit resulting from the conditions at Refract is plotted as the dashed line.
Figure 3.20: Specific Humidity VS Atmospheric Attenuation Curve
58
PPI plots of k-band and S- band reflectivity values (left and right panels, respectively).
The arrows are meant to illustrate two methods of creating secondary rays for
attenuation estimation.
Figure 3.21: Reflectivity Measurement from PPI Plot [19].

The technique requires that clouds be present to facilitate the humidity retrieval.
Widespread strati form clouds present the problem that all ray segments will have a
midpoint at the same height and therefore would preclude a profile of humidity, although
the humidity could be monitored at one height. Humidity retrievals might not be possible
if heavy rain, which attenuates the Ka-band wavelength, is falling directly on the radar
system. Despite these limitations, the technique offers a viable option for accurately
observing boundary layer humidity profiles in many situations with high temporal
resolution.
59
3.7 DETERMINING WIND PROFILE FROM DOPPLER

WEATHER RADAR
There is an upper limit to the magnitude of the target velocity that stationary radar can
detect unambiguously. Velocity aliasing occurs when that limit is exceeded. The Nyquist
velocity (VN) is defined as:
VN =
.(3.29)
Where is the radars wave length & f is the pulse repetition frequency (PRF).Here is
fixed 10 cm so unambiguous velocity depends on PRF, If velocity increases then PRF
also increases .There is an optimum relation between VN & The range that radar can
observe since RN is related to VN by,
RN=
..(3.30)
Where c is the speed of light,thus a large PRF yields a large ambiguous velocity but
reduces the range at which the radar provides reliable information.
Assumptions are needed to calculate the total surface wind from a single radars radial
velocities. knowing the direction of the winds relative to the tropical cyclones center is
significant when determining wind speeds from observed radial velocity data. we initially
assumed that winds are oriented 90 degrees counter-clockwise from the radial vector,
producing cyclonic tangential winds along a constant radius from the center of the eye.
The translational speed associated with the progression of the tropical cyclone is
neglected for initial diagnosis of this algorithm. Figure 3.22 illustrates this wind field for a
generic tropical cyclone.
60
Figure 3.22: Schematic Diagram of the Procedure Used to Calculate the Total Wind
from Radial Velocities
The next step was to calculate at each grid point the angular difference , between the
radar beam & the direction that is less than or equal to 90 degrees, theta is easily
determined figure 3.23 since the azimuthal angle of the radar beam (providing angle
),the radial velocity & the assumed wind direction are known. considering the right side
of figure, the solution for the total wind speed becomes:
VTOTAL=
(3.31)
Where, VTOTAL is the total wind speed & VREDIAL is the redial wind speed.
61
Figure 3.23: Schematic Describing the Calculation of the Total Wind, the Blue Arrow
Denotes the Radar Beam & the Red Arrow Total Wind Vector.
Table 3.20: Co-relation between , VTOTAL & VREDIAL
45
30
20
VTOTAL
30
28.28
28.26
VR
15
20
25
Monin- Obukhov similarity theory was applied to reduce the winds of the surface
according to:
V10=VZ{log(H10/Z0)/log(HZ/Z0)} (3.32)
Where V10 is the wind speed at 10m.VZ is the wind speed at the top of the boundary
layer, HZ is the height of the boundary layer, z0 is the surface roughness length. The
reduction rate depends greatly of the roughness length. The greater the z0 more the
wind is reduced at the surface.
62
Figure 3.24: Co-relation between Winds Speeds VS Height. [18]
63
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
4.1 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This thesis work was aimed at finding out different weather parameters by analyzing the
echo signals coming from meteorological targets against the transmitted signals. Using
Doppler weather radar as the core, this thesis paper explained the correlation between
different meteorological conditions and showed the related mathematical expressions.
Measurement of reflectivity from rainfall rate was shown using different formulas and
plotted on graph for easy convenience. Calculated reflectivity VS rainfall rate chart was
considered for a specific period of time and from there the values of constants a and b
from the formula Z= aRb was found out. The values of a and b were also found out in
another way by substitution method where, in the Z-R equation different values of Z and
R were substituted to measure the values of a and b.
The relation between different weather conditions was established from the measured
reflectivity along with the constant values a and b.
4.2 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS

The work of this research can be continued in a number of ways. The statistics of
rainfall and the drop distribution parameters such as normalized drop concentration or
median drop diameter could be considered in a manner similar to the rainfall for further
works. This would give insight into the scales one must average on for algorithms such
as the integrated Z/ZDR technique.
A key improvement to the integrated Z/ZDR technique would be the introduction of a
calculated error in the derived Nw, a and R giving an indication of the quality of the
estimation. This would be important for data assimilation into numerical models.
The technique could also be used to investigate the development of rainfall events, for
instant tracking of a convective shower and using the technique could give an insight
into the micro-physical makeup of the rain in such a storm.
Finally, validation of the technique with operational radar must be performed to show
the benet of the algorithm, this is likely to be performed using the Thurman radar.
64
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67

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Prediction and Analysis of Weather Data by Using Doppler Weather Radar For Aircraft Navigation

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PREDICTION AND ANALYSIS OF WEATHER DATA BY

USING DOPPLER WEATHER RADAR FOR AIRCRAFT

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING