Waves and Oscillations

Syllabus:
Simple harmonic motion, Damped simple harmonic
motion, types of damping, Forced oscillation, resonance,
group velocity and dispersion, Types of waves, Energy
Transport in Wave motion, Wave motion in one
dimension, the one dimensional Wave equation.
Objective: Illustrate the physics involved in the description and
analysis of waves through a wide range of examples, from purely
mechanical and purely electromagnetic to coupled electromechanical waves, such as plasma oscillations and hydromagnetic
waves.

Lecture Plan
Introduction
Types of wave
Oscillating Properties of waves
Wave equation
Simple Harmonic Motion
Damped oscillation
Forced oscillation

Introduction:

Water waves have two

features common to all
waves:
1. A wave is a traveling
disturbance.
2. A wave carries energy from
place to place.

Types of waves
Two basic types of waves,
transverse and
longitudinal.
A transverse wave is one
in which the disturbance
occurs perpendicular to
the direction of travel of
the wave.

Radio waves, light waves, and microwaves are transverse waves.

Transverse waves also travel on the strings of instruments such as
guitars and banjos.
4

Types of waves

A longitudinal wave is one in which the disturbance occurs

parallel to the line of travel of the wave.
A sound wave is a longitudinal wave.
5

Sound Waves result from periodic oscillations of air

molecules, which collide with their neighbours and
create a disturbance which moves at the speed of sound.

Some waves are neither transverse nor longitudinal.

A water wave is neither transverse nor longitudinal, since water
particles at the surface move clockwise on nearly circular paths as
the wave moves from left to right.
7

Periodic Waves

The transverse and longitudinal waves that we have been discussing are
called periodic waves because they consist of cycles or patterns that are
produced over and over again by the source.
8

Oscillating Properties
Each day we encounter many kinds of oscillatory motion, such as
swinging pendulum of a clock, a person bouncing on a trampoline,
a vibrating guitar string, and a mass on a spring.
They have common properties:
Amplitude A is the
maximum excursion of a
particle of the medium
from the particles
undisturbed position.
Wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave.

Oscillating Properties
Period T is the time required for the wave to travel a distance of
one wavelength. The period T is related to the frequency f

1
f =
T

v=

= f

These fundamental relations apply to longitudinal as well as to

transverse waves.
No matter what the direction of the displacement, the force
always acts in a direction to restore the system to its
equilibrium position. Such a force is called a restoring force.
10

Example 1. The Wavelengths of Radio Waves

AM and FM radio waves are transverse waves that consist of
electric and magnetic disturbances. These waves travel at a speed
of 3.00 108 m/s. A station broadcasts an AM radio wave whose
frequency is 1230 103 Hz (1230 kHz on the dial) and an FM radio
wave whose frequency is 91.9 106 Hz (91.9 MHz on the dial). Find
the distance between adjacent crests in each wave.

11

The simple harmonic oscillator and its motion

1. Simple harmonic motion; is a form of periodic motion of a
particle, etc., in which the acceleration is always directed
towards some equilibrium point and is proportional to the
displacement from this point,

This motion can be described in terms of sine and cosine

functions

The simple harmonic oscillator and its motion

The point P is rotating in the anticlockwise direction on the

circumference of a circle of radius a, with uniform angular velocity .
The foot of the perpendicular on any one of the diameters executes
simple harmonic motion. P0 is the position of the point at t = 0.

The simple harmonic oscillator and its motion

At t = 0, the point P is at P and therefore, the initial phase is .

How to understand

x = a cos( t + )

xm

o
xm

xt

=0

How to compare the phases of two SHOs with

same ?

x1 = xm1 cos(t + 1 )

{x = x
2

m2

cos(t + 2 )

= (t + 2 ) (t + 1 )

= 2 1

= 0

Fig 17-6 shows several simple harmonic motions.

H
L

x t

H
L

xt

a
(a)

(b)

0.5

0.5

t
2

-0.5

H
L

-1

x t
1

(a) same: ,x m
different:

(c)

0.5

t
1

-1

-0.5

-1

-0.5

(b) same: ,

different:
xm
(c) same: ,x
m
different:

Displacement, velocity, and acceleration

Displacement

Velocity

Acceleration

x = x m cos(t + )

vx =

dx
= x m sin(t + )
dt

= xm cos(t + + )
2

d 2x
a x = 2 = 2 x m cos(t + )
dt
= 2 xm cos(t + + )

When the displacement is a maximum in either

direction, the speed is zero, because the velocity
must now change its direction.

x = xm cos(t + )
T=

=0

v = x m sin( t + )

xm

xm

xm

2
x

a = xm cos(t + ) m

o
x m 2

vt

= xm cos(t + + )

x t

= xm cos(t + + ) x
m
2

a t

a body of mass m that slides on a frictionless horizontal surface. The

body moves in x direction.

origin is chosen at here

= kx
d 2x
kx = m 2
dt
2
d x k
+ x=0
2
m
dt
x

d 2x
ax = 2
dt

This equation is called the equation of motion of the simple

harmonic oscillator. It is the basis of many complex oscillator
problems.

3. Find the solution of Eq

Rewrite Equation of SHM as;

d 2x
k
= ( ) x
2
m
dt

(1)

We write a tentative solution to Eq(1) as

x = x cos(t + ) (2)
m

We differentiate Eq(2) twice with respect to the Time.

d 2x
2
=

x m cos(t + )
2
dt

Putting this into Eq(1) we obtain

k
x m cos(t + ) = x m cos(t + )
m
2

Therefore, if we choose the constant such that

(3)
k
=
m
It is in fact a solution of the equation of motion of a simple
harmonic oscillator.
2

Energy in simple harmonic motion

1.The potential energy
U =

1 2 1
2
kx = kx m cos 2 ( t + )
2
2

=0
U(t)

2.The kinetic energy

1
1
2
K = mv 2 = m 2 xm sin 2 (t + )
2
2
1
2
= kxm sin 2 (t + )
2

v = x m sin( t + )

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

K(t)
1

T/2

 both potential and kinetic energies oscillate with

time t and vary between zero and maximum value
1
of kx m 2.
2

Both U and K vary with twice the frequency of the

displacement and velocity.

3. The total mechanical energy E is

E = K +U =

1
2
kx m
2

(17-14)

U ( x) =

U(x)

K ( x) = E U ( x)

K(x)

xm

xm
Fig 17-8 (b)

1 2
kx
2

At the maximum displacement

At the equilibrium position,

K = 0

U=

0. K =

can be written quite generally as

1
1 2 1
2
2
K + U = mv x + kx = kx m
2
2
2
then

or

k
2
v x = ( xm x 2 )
m
k
2
vx =
( xm x 2 )
m
2

1
2
U = kx m
2
1
2
kx m
2

Website link for further information:

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/shm.html

Example-1

Fig 1
m

In Fig 1, m=2.43kg, k=221N/m, the block is stretched in

the positive x direction a distance of 11.6 cm from
equilibrium and released. Take time t=0 when the
block is released, the horizontal surface is frictionless.
(a) What is the total energy?
(b) What is the maximum speed of the block?
(c) What is the maximum acceleration?
(d) What is the position, velocity, and acceleration
at t=0.215s?

Solution:
1
1
2
E = kx m = (221N / m)(0.116m) 2 = 1.49 J
(a)
2

(b)

vmax =

2 K max
=
m

2E
=
m

2(1.49 J )
= 1.11m / s
2.43kg

(c) The maximum acceleration occurs just at the instant

of release, when the force is greatest
a max

(d)

Fmax kx m (221N / m)(0.116m)

=
=
=
= 10.6m / s 2
m
m
2.43kg

k
= 0.9536rad / s
m

x(t ) = x m cos(t + )

Since x = x m = 0.116m at t=0, then = 0

x(t ) = x m cos t = 0.116 cos(9.536t )
So at t=0.215s

x = 0.116 cos(9.536)(0.215 s ) = 0.0535 m

v x = x m sin t = 0.981m / s
a x = 2 x = (9.536rad / s ) 2 ( 0.0535m) = 4.87 m / s 2

Lecture Plan
Home work;
Example of Simple Harmonic motion
Simple Pendulum
Vibration of mass by two stretched
springs
Vibrations of stretched string.
Damped oscillation.

Damped harmonic motion

Up to this point we have assumed that no
frictional force act on the system.
This loss in amplitude is called damping and
the motion is called damped harmonic
motion.
Liquid exerts a damping force opposed to the
motion

Fd = bv
b = damping constant (kg/s)
Assumption:
Gravitational force on block is negligible compared to the damping
force and the force on the block from the spring.
Damping force is to be proportional to the velocity of the particle.
No damping force acts when particle is at rest.

0.5

-0.5

(a)

-1

1.5
1
0.5

1
-0.5

-1
-1.5

Fig. compare the motion of undamped and damped oscillators.

(b)

Assume the damping force is bv x , where b is a positive

constant called the damping constant.

= kx bv x

kx bv x = ma x
d 2x
dx
m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt
dt

The solution is
where

x (t ) = xm e

bt
2m

cos( ' t + )

k
b 2
=
(
)
m 2m
'

(a) If b is negligible, ' . It is ideal simple harmonic

oscillation.
If b < 2 km , ' < that is , damping slows down
the motion. This case is called under damping.

(a) When we add a small damping force, the amplitude

gradually decreases to zero but the frequency changes
by a negligible amount. In this case Eq(2) becomes

x(t ) = x m e t / cos(t + )

(3)

where is called the damping time constant or

the mean lifetime of the oscillator.

is the time necessary for the amplitude to drop to 1/e of

its initial value.

(b) When the damping force is not large, the mechanism

energy is

1
2 2t /
E (t ) = kx m e
2
shows that the mechanical energy of the oscillator decreases
exponentially with time.
The energy decreases twice as rapidly as the amplitude.

(b) When b = 2 km , ' = 0 , the motion decays exponentially

to zero with no oscillation at all.
This condition is called critical damping.

(c) When b > 2 km, the motion also decays exponentially

to zero with no oscillation, called overdamping.

x
(c)

(b )
(a)

Forced oscillations and resonance

Examples:
1) Person swinging in a swing without anyone pushing
Free oscillation
2) Someone pushes the swing periodically
Forced or driven oscillations
Driven oscillations
Two frequencies:

(1) Natural angular frequency 0 of the system

when system oscillates freely after a sudden
disturbance.
(2) External frequency of the system
angular
frequency of the external driving force
causing the driven oscillations.
If rigid support moves up and down
forced
simple harmonic oscillator
Xm depends on d and

x(t ) = xm cos(d t + )

Velocity of oscillations greatest when: 0=

Resonance
Displacement amplitude greatest

Let us consider mass-spring system with resistive

force and applied force Fmcost
-bv
-kx

ma
Fm cost

Here a mechanical oscillator of mass m, force

constant k and resistance b is being driven by an
alternating force Fm cos t
Equation of motion is

ma = kx bv + Fm cos t
2

d x
dx
or m 2 + b + kx = Fm cos t
dt
dt

Considering the effect of external periodic sinusoidal force of frequency

d 2x
dx
m 2 = F cos t b k0 x
dt
dt

F
b
Q G = ; 2K =
m
m

d 2x
dx
2
+
2
K
+

0 x (t ) = G cos t
2
dt
dt
Solution of the above equation will be of the form,

x(t ) = a cos(t )
dx
= a sin(t )
dt

d2x
2
a
=

cos(t )
2
dt

Replacing the above values in the equation

a 2 cos(t ) 2 Ka sin(t ) + a02 cos(t ) = G cos (t ) +

a(02 2 ) cos(t ) 2 Ka sin(t )

= G cos (t ) cos G sin (t ) sin
For above equation to be valid in all case we must have

a(02 2 ) = G cos
2 Ka = G sin
If we square and add, we have

a=

G
(02 2 ) 2 + 4 K 2 2

1
2

Further

2 K
tan =
02 2

Since K, nd a is positive, sin should be positive.

Thus we must add solution of damping case in this solution .

Thus assuming 02 greater than K2 the general solution will be,

x(t ) = Ae kt cos( 02 K 2 t ) + a cos (t )

The first term on RHS represent the transient solution
corresponding to natural vibration of the system which will be
eventually die out. The second term represents the steady state
solution which corresponds to forced vibrations imposed by the
external force. Notice that the frequency of the forced vibration
is the same as that of the external force.

If the frequency of the driving force is equal to the natural

frequency of the oscillating system, maximum energy will
be transferred to the system and its amplitude of vibration
becomes maximum. This phenomenon is called resonance
and this frequency is known as resonant frequency.
The amplitude of the forced vibration is given as,

a=

(02 2 ) 2 + 4K
4 K 2 2

1
2

This clearly shows that it depends upon frequency of the driving force and is
maximum when (02 2 ) 2 + 4K 2 2 is minimum, i.e.

d
(02 2 ) 2 + 4 K 2 2 = 0
d

= 0 1

Manhattan Press (H.K.) Ltd.

2 02 2 (2 ) + 8 K 2 = 0

2K

02
2

1
2

Forced oscillations and resonance

G

A=

b 2
( 0 ) +
m
2

tan =

2 2

(b m)

2
0

Forced oscillations and resonance

Driving Force applet
In the next slide, it will show how a driving frequency will
affect the natural frequency of the oscilliating object
Try this:
1. Adjust the damping constant to 0.
2. Then adjust the natural frequency to maximum, which is
about 0.40Hz. Observe how the motion of the mass will look
like
3. Then, press the rewind button, and change the natural
frequency to 0.20Hz, which is the same as the driving
frequency. Observe how the motion of the mass has changed

For example

http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Flash/ClassMechanics/DrivenSHM/DrivenSHM.html

Resonance
Takes place when the driving frequency of the
external oscillatory force is equal to the natural
frequency of the oscillating system
Thus the energy received by the mass is at
maximum, and so the system will oscillate at
maximum amplitude

( )

b
= 0 1 m 2
(20 )

Examples of Resonance

This can be seen when sitting in

a bus or van
When the vehicle is stationary,
the people will often feel that
the bus is shaking very violently
and vibrating vigorously
However, when the vehicle is
moving, the shaking gets less
violent

 This is because when the vehicle is stationary,

frequency of the engine vibration is slow. It equals to
the natural frequency of the cab of the vehicle, thus
resonance occurs
There is maximum amplitude of vibrations violent
vibrations
However, when the lorry is moving faster, frequency
of engine vibrations increase, and is much faster than
the natural frequency of the engine, thus no
resonance occurs

Useful applications of Resonance

Microwave ovens
Heat up food through
radiation/ electromagnetic
waves
Food mainly gets heated up due to the absorption
of heat energy in the water molecules in the food

Useful applications of Resonance

The frequency of microwaves corresponds to the
natural frequency of water molecules.
The water molecules in the food placed in the
microwave oven resonate when subjected to
microwaves.
Thus, they absorb energy and consequently heat
up the food, enabling the food to be cooked

Useful applications of Resonance

Magnetic Resonance
Strong, varying radio frequency electromagnetic
fields are used to cause the nuclei of atoms to
oscillate.
In any given molecule, there will be many
resonant frequencies. Energy is absorbed
whenever resonance appears.

 The pattern of energy

absorption can be used to
detect the presence of
particular molecules within any
specimen
False colour magnetic
resonance image on the right
shows womans abdomen at 8
months of pregnancy

Harmful effects of Resonance

Vibrations of bridge structures

Bridges especially suspension bridges are exposed
to variable amounts and frequencies of wind
everyday
Bridges have multiple natural frequencies,
therefore as long as there is 1 driving frequency
equal to the natural frequency of the bridge, it
may possible rupture it

Forced resonant torsional oscillations due to wind - Tacoma

Narrows Bridge

Roadway collapse - Tacoma Narrows Bridge

What happened?

Wind, in this case, was the driving oscillating

force that matched the natural frequency of
the bridge
This caused huge vibrations and amplitudes
built up, which eventually put stress on the
concrete, thus rupturing it

Another case
Besides wind, there was also another peculiar
incident that happened on a bridge
In 1831, a French battalion was marching over a
suspension bridge in Angers

 The bridge collapsed due to large amplitude of

oscillations built up in the system when the rhythm
of the marching steps matches the natural frequency
of vibration of the bridge
Since then, it has been common practice to order
soldiers to break steps when crossing a bridge.

The Phase Velocity

How fast is the wave

traveling?
Velocity is a reference
distance divided by a
reference time.
v=f
The phase velocity is the wavelength / period: v = /
Since f = 1/ :

In terms of k, k = 2 / , and
the angular frequency, = 2 / , this is:

v =/k

The Group Velocity

This is the velocity at which the overall shape of the waves amplitudes,
or the wave envelope, propagates. (= signal velocity)
Here, phase velocity = group velocity (the medium is non-dispersive)

Like vacuum

Dispersion: phase/group velocity depends on

frequency

Black dot moves at phase velocity. Red dot moves at group velocity.
This is normal dispersion (refractive index decreases with increasing )

Dispersion: phase/group velocity depends on

frequency

Black dot moves at group velocity. Red dot moves at phase velocity.
This is anomalous dispersion (refractive index increases with increasing )