Chapter 5 Categorical Propositions

Deductive argument
An argument whose premises are claimed to provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion.
Classical or Aristotelian logic
The traditional account of syllogistic reasoning, in which certain interpretations of categorical
propositions are presupposed.
Validity
A characteristic of any deductive argument whose premises, if they were all true, would provide
conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion. Such an argument is said to be valid.
Modern or modern symbolic logic
The account of syllogistic reasoning accepted today. It differs in important ways from the traditional
account.
Class
The collection of all objects that have some specified characteristic in common.
Categorical proposition
A proposition that can be analyzed as being about classes, or categories, affirming or denying that one
class, S, is included in some other class, P, in whole or in part.
Venn diagram
Iconic representation of a categorical proposition or of an argument, used to display their logical forms
by means of overlapping circles.
Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions
1. Universal affirmative propositions

In these we assert that the whole of one class is included or contained in another class.
Any universal affirmative proposition can be written schematically as All S is P.
2. Universal negative propositions
This kind of proposition denies the relation of inclusion between the two terms, and
denies it universally. It tells us that no members of S are members of P.
3. Particular affirmative propositions
The proposition affirms that the relation of class inclusion holds, but does not affirm it of
the first class universallyit affirms it only partially; that is, it is affirmed of some
particular member, or members, of the first class. Some S is P.
4. Particular negative propositions
it does not affirm the inclusion of some member or members of the first class in the
second class; this is precisely what is denied. The denial is not universal. Some S is not
P.
Quality
An attribute of every categorical proposition, determined by whether the proposition affirms or denies
class inclusion. Thus every categorical proposition is either universal in quality or particular in quality.
Quantity
An attribute of every categorical proposition, determined by whether the proposition refers to all
members or only to some members of the class designated by its subject term. Thus every categorical
proposition is either universal in quantity or particular in quantity.
Copula
Any form of the verb to be that serves to connect the subject term and the predicate term of a
categorical proposition.
Distribution
An attribute that describes the relationship between a categorical proposition and each one of its
terms, indicating whether or not the proposition makes a statement about every member of the class
represented by a given term.
Opposition
The logical relation that exists between two contradictories, between two contraries, or in general
between any two categorical propositions that differ in quantity, quality, or other respects. These
relations are displayed on the square of opposition.
Contradictories
Two propositions so related that one is the denial or negation of the other. On the traditional square of
opposition, the two pairs of contradictories are indicated by the diagonals of the square:
Contraries

Two propositions so related that they cannot both be true, although both may be false.
Contingent
Being neither tautologous nor selfcontradictory. A contingent statement may be true or false.
Subcontraries
Two propositions so related that they cannot both be false, although they may both be true.
Subalternation
The relation on the square of opposition between a universal proposition and its corresponding
particular proposition (an I or an O proposition, respectively). In this relation, the particular proposition
(I or O) is called the subaltern, and the universal proposition (A or E) is called the superaltern.
Square of opposition
A diagram in the form of a square in which the four types of categorical propositions (A, E, I,
and O) are situated at the corners, exhibiting the logical relations (called oppositions) among these
propositions.
Immediate inference
An inference that is drawn directly from one premise without the mediation of any other premise.
Various kinds of immediate inferences may be distinguished, traditionally including conversion,
obversion, and contraposition.
Mediate inference
Any inference drawn from more than one premise.
Conversion
A valid form of immediate inference for some but not all types of propositions. To form the converse of
a proposition the subject and predicate terms are simply interchanged. Thus, applied to the proposition
No circles are squares, conversion yields No squares are circles, which is called the converse of
the original proposition. The original proposition is called the convertend.
Complement, or complementary class
The collection of all things that do not belong to a given class.
Obversion
A valid form of immediate inference for every standard-form categorical proposition. To obvert a
proposition
we change its quality (from affirmative to negative, or from negative to affirmative) and replace the
predicate term with its complement. Thus, applied to the proposition All dogs are mammals,
obversion yields No dogs are nonmammals, which is called the obverse of the original proposition.
The original proposition is called the obvertend.
Contraposition
A valid form of immediate inference for some, but not for all types of propositions. To form the
contrapositive of a given proposition, its subject term is replaced by the complement of its predicate
term, and its predicate term is replaced by the complement of its subject term. Thus the contrapositive
of the proposition All humans are mammals is the proposition Allnonmammals arenonhumans.
Boolean interpretation
The modern interpretation of categorical propositions, adopted in this chapter and named after the
English logician George Boole. In the Boolean interpretation, often contrasted with the Aristotelian
interpretation, universal propositions (A and E propositions) do not have existential import.
Existential import
An attribute of those propositions that normally assert the existence of objects of some specified kind.
Particular propositions (I and O propositions) always have existential import; thus the proposition
Some dogs are obedient asserts that there are dogs. Whether universal propositions (A and E
propositions) have existential import is an issue on which the Aristotelian and Boolean interpretations
of propositions differ.
Existential fallacy
Any mistake in reasoning that arises from assuming illegitimately that some class has members.