BJT AC Analysis (Chapter 5 - Boylestad)

5.1 Introduction
*Three models used in Small Signal AC Analysis - re model, Hybrid and hybrid equivalent model.
*The application and the magnitude of the input signal determines whether small signal analysis or large-signal techniques will
be applied.
5.2 Amplification in the AC Domain
*Amplification - output sinusoidal signal is greater than the input sinusoidal signal / output ac power is greater than the input ac
power
a. This should not be valid due to law of conservation of energy, but the applied DC power made it possible.
b. Exchange of DC power to AC power.
c. Conversion efficiency (n) = Po(AC)/Pi(DC)
*Superposition Theorem - applicable for the analysis and design of the DC and AC components of a BJT network, permitting the
separation of the analysis of the DC and AC responses of the system.
5.3 BJT Transistor Modeling
*Model - combination of circuit elements , properly chosen, that best approximates the actual behavior of a semiconductor
device under specific operating conditions.
*Hybrid Equivalent Network - was employed more frequently before, and was quite reliable but was only defined for a set of
operating conditions that might not match the actual operating conditions.
*re model - reduced version of the hybrid model that became the more desirable approach because an important parameter
of the equivalent circuit was determined by the actual operating conditions, rather than using a data sheet value that in some
cases could be quite different.
a. Disadvantages: (1) one must still turn to the data sheets for some parameters, (2) failed to include a feedback term
*hybrid model - used mostly on high frequency analysis
Analysis

Capacitor

DC Analysis

Open

AC Analysis

Short

Input Impedance (Zi) - ac resistance from base to ground ("looking into the system" impedance)
Output Impedance (Z0) - "looking back to the system" impedance
Output Voltage (Vo) - collector to ground
Input Current (Ii) - base current of the transistor (made to enter the system)
Output Current (I0) - Current through the load resistor RC (made to exit the system)

Steps in AC analysis:
1. Setting all dc sources to zero and replacing them by a ground.
2. Replacing all capacitors by a short circuit equivalent. (Open Circuit for DC)
3. Removing all elements bypassed by the short-circuit equivalents introduced by steps 1 and 2.
4. Redrawing the network in a more convenient and logical form.

ECE 402 Page 1

5.4 The re Transistor model

Diode Resistance:

Common Emitter Configuration

*180 degrees phase shift (negative output voltage)

James M. Early (1952)

*Early Voltage (VA) - allows good representation of the output impedances

50 to 200

re

7K

Common Base
*No Phase Shift (Positive Output voltage)

5.5 Common-Emitter Fixed Bias Configuration

*180 degrees phase shift (negative Vo)

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*Beta () - can be obtained by a direct measurement using a curve tracer or transistor testing instrument

*ro laging nakaparallel kay RC

5.6 Voltage-Divider Bias
*Voltage-Divider Bias - result of the voltage divider at the input side set to determine the DC level of V B
*RE will be removed since it is parallel to a capacitor.
*180 degrees phase shift

5.7 CE Emitter-Bias Configuration

Unbypassed (180 degrees phase shift)

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Unusual Case:

5.8 Emitter Follower Configuration

*Output is taken from the emitter terminal of the transistor
*Output is slightly less than the input voltage and Av = 1.
*Output is in phase with the input.
*Output "follows" the magnitude of VI with an in-phase relationship = Emitter Follower
*Also a common collector configuration.
*Used for impedance matching purposes.
*Walang RC

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Output Impedance

5.9 Common Base Configuration

5.10 Collector Feedback Configuration

*Kapag horizontal na resistor, naka-series in between.
*180 degrees phase shift

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5.11 Collector DC Feedback Configuration

5.12 Effect of RL and Rs

*The presence of RL reduces the voltage gain, but the larger it is, the greater the voltage gain.
*The presences of RS reduces the input voltage and the lower it is, the greater the voltage gain.
*AVNL > AVL > AVS
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*AVNL > AVL > AVS

5.13 Determining the Current Gain

*For each transistor configuration, the current gain can be determined directly from the voltage gain, the defined load and the
input impedance.
5.15 Two Port Systems Approach
*the data surrounding a packaged system is the no load data.

*The parameters Zi and Avnl of a two port system are unaffected by the internal resistance of the applied source.

Input Impedance
short-circuit input impedance

hie

h11

Voltage Feedback Ratio

open-circuit reverse transfer voltage ratio

hre

h12

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Small-signal current gain

Short-circuit forward transfer current ratio

hfe

h21

Output admittance
open-circuit output admittance

hoe

h22

Skipped Hybrid Model

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FET Analysis (Chapter 9 - Boylestad)

9.1 Introduction
*Characteristics of a JFET:
1. Excellent Av
2. High input impedance
3. Low power consumption
4. Good frequency range
5. Minimal size and weight.
*BJT is current controlled (controls Ic through IB), while JFET is voltage controlled (ID through VGS).
* in BJT is gm is FET.
*In FET, input current is assumed to be 0 and output current is an undefinable quantity.
9.2 FET Small-Signal Model
*VGS controls ID.

Specification Sheet Parameters:

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Specification Sheet Parameters:

gm or Yfs or g0s= transfer forward admittance
Yos = transfer output admittance

9.3 Fixed-Bias Configuration (2 DC Sources)

8.4 Self-Bias Configuration (One DC Source)

a) Bypassed
*Same as fixed bias.

b) Unbypassed

9.5 JFET Voltage-Divider Configuration

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9.6 JFET Source-Follower (Common-Drain) Configuration

*Pataas ang current source!

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9.7 JFET Common-Gate Configuration

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BJT and JFET Frequency Response (Chapter 9 - Boylestad)

9.1 - 9.2 Introduction, Logarithms

9.3 Decibels
*1 decibel = 10 bels
*The terminal rating of electronic communication equipment (amplifiers, microphones, etc.) is commonly in decibels.
*Decibel rating is a measure of the difference in magnitude between two power levels.
*The resistance associated with the 1-mW power level is 600 ohms.
*Because the decibel rating of any piece of equipment is a comparison between levels, a reference level must be selected
for each area of application.
*9For audio systems, the reference level is generally accepted as 1mW.

*Decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the sum of the decibel gains of each stage.
*Speaker is an output resistance!

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ECE 402 Page 14

BJT and Frequency Response (Chapter 11 - Boylestad)

11.15 Low-Frequency Analysis - Bode Plot
*When solving AC analysis, we are limited to a particular frequency.

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Cascaded Systems (Chapter 5.16 - Boylestad)

*Av1 is determined with the input impedance to Av2 acting as the load on AV1.
Total Gain of the System - product of the individual gains

*AVS = total gain

*AV = loaded gain
Kapag two-port system ang given:
1. Yung RL = Zi nung next stage.
2.
3.
4.

Kapag circuit diagram ang given:

1. Solve from right to left. The Zin of the next stage will serve like the RL of the preceding stage.
Questions:
1. How RL affects Zi?
2. How the first stage and RS affect Z0?
3. Phase relationship between Vi and Vo.

Cascode Connection:
1. Provides high input impedance.
2. Low voltage gain on the first stage to ensure the input Miller capacitance at a minimum
3. Excellent high frequency response

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Cascade Amplifier:

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Darlington Connection
*Darlington Connection - composite transistor acts as a single unit with a current gain that is the product of the current gains of
individual transistors.
1. Provides much higher input impedance.
2. High current gain.
3. Voltage gain slightly less than 1.

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Feedback Pair (Chapter 5.18 - Boylestad)

*Feedback Pair - is a two-transistor circuit (pnp and npn) that operates like the Darlington connection and operationally work as a
single pnp transistor
1. Provides very high gain. (B1B2)
2. High input impedance.
3. Low output impedance.
4. Voltage gain less than 1.
5. Similar to emitter follower circuit.

ECE 402 Page 19

Frequency Effects (Chapter 16 - Malvino)

Lower Cutoff Frequency Upper Cutoff Frequency
DC Amplifiers

None

Yes

AC Amplifiers

Yes

Yes

16-1 Frequency Response of an Amplifier

*Frequency response of an amplifier - graph of its gain versus the frequency.
*Middle range of frequencies = voltage gain is maximum.
*At low frequencies, the voltage gain decreases because the coupling and bypass capacitors no longer act like
short circuits. Instead, their capacitive reactances are large enough to drop some of the AC signal voltage.
*At high frequencies,
1. The internal capacitances across the transistor's junctions, which provide bypass paths for the ac signal,
become low enough to prevent normal transistor action. This results to voltage gain loss.
2. Stray-wiring capacitance - Any connecting wire in a transistor circuit acts like one plate of a capacitor and
the chassis ground acts like the other plate. The stray-wiring capacitance that exists between this wire and
ground is unwanted. At higher frequencies, its low capacitive reactance prevents the AC current from
reaching the load resistor, which results to loss on voltage gain.

Cutoff Frequencies = frequencies at which the voltage gain equals 0.707 of its maximum value.
*f1 (lower cutoff frequency) and f2 (upper cutoff frequency)
*also called as half-power frequencies because the load power is half of its maximum value at these
frequencies. 0.7072 = 0.5
Midband of an amplifier = band of frequencies between 10f1 and 0.1f2
*Voltage gain here is at maximum (AV(MID)\
Voltage Gain of an AC Amplifier

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*Dominant capacitor = more important than all the other capacitors in determining the cutoff frequency
*DC Amplifier - utilizes direct coupling between amplifier stages
*Av(mid) and f2 are the only ones needed
*1 dominant capacitor
*Op Amp - dc amplifier that has high voltage gain, high input impedance and low output imepdance
*When f/f2 increases, the normalized voltage gain decreases until it reaches 0.707 at the cutoff frequency.
*f/f2 = 0.1 -> voltage gain is 100% of maximum.

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Operational Amplifiers
10.1 Introduction
*Operational Amplifier - (1) high gain, (2) high input impedance and (3) low output impedance

Single-Ended Input: input signal is connected to input with the other input connected to the ground.
(1) If connected to the + or noninverting input = same polarity.
(2) If connected to the - or inverting input = negative polarity

Double-Ended (Differential Input): neither input is at ground. Vd = Vi1 - Vi2

Double-Ended Output: An input applied to either input will result in outputs from both output terminals, these outputs
always being opposite in polarity. 1 or 2 inputs = 1 or 2 outputs.
*Differential Output = Vo1 - Vo2, also called as floating signal since neither output terminal is the ground terminal.

Common-Mode Operation: same input signals are applied to both inputs. Ideally, since they are equal in amplitude but
opposite in polarity, they will cancel! Practically, it isn't possible and results to a very small output signal instead.

Common-Mode Rejection (AC): A basic op amp feature is to highly amplify the differential signal and slightly amplify the
common signal between the inputs. Since noise and any unwanted inputs are both common in the inputs, they are

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common signal between the inputs. Since noise and any unwanted inputs are both common in the inputs, they are
attenuated.
10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
*Differential Amplifier Circuit - (1) two separate inputs and outputs, (2) emitters are connected together. (3) Can have one
or two voltage supplies
*Very large gain when opposite signals are applied, but very small gain from common inputs.
*Has a very large difference gain

Types of Differential Amplifier

1. Single-Ended - an input signal is applied to either input with the other input connected to the ground, yet both
transistors operate.
2. Double Ended - Two opposite and different polarity input signals are applied.
3. Common Mode - Two opposite but same magnitude input signals are applied, which results to zero output signal. In
reality, these signals do not cancel but produce very small signals.
DC Operation:

AC Operation: (Parang Two Opposite BJTs na connected lang sa emitter.)

A) Single Ended:

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KVL na iniwasan ang RE:

Always remember!

A. Double Ended Differential Amplifier

A. Common-Mode Operation of Circuit

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Constant Current Sources - improves the common-mode rejection ability of the circuit by making it as small as possible,
ideally zero.
*Based on the equation for common mode, the larger the RE, the smaller the Ac.

10.3 BiFET, BiMOS, and CMOS Differential Amplifier Circuits (Skipped)

*BIFET - BJT + FET
*BiMOS- BJT + MOSFET
*CMOS (complementary MOS)- a circuit built using opposite-type MOSFET. Uses both n-channel and p-channel
enhancement MOSFET
10.4 OP-AMP Basics

(1) Basic Op Amp:

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*Since there are two sources, use superposition.

Virtual Ground: Although ideally Ri = , vi is never equal to 0V, but there is still no current running between the input and
the ground.

10.55 Practical Op-Amp Circuits

Op Amp Circuits

Formula

Description
Inverting Amplifier
*most widely used constant-gain
amplifier
*inverted output

Non-Inverting Amplifier

Unity Follower
*a gain of unity and no phase reversal

Summing Amplifier
-algebraically summing (adding) three
voltages, each multiplied by a
constant gain

Integrator
*Feedback component = capacitor
*Input element = resistor

Differentiator

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Differentiator
*Feedback element: Resistor
*input element is capacitor

Offset Output Voltage = voltages appearing even if the input is 0V.

*where VIO is the input offset Voltage (Vio)

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Op-Amp Applications
Op-Amp Applications
Inverting Constant-Gain Multiplier

Noninverting Constant Gain Multiplier

Multiple Stage Gains

Formula

Comments
*Inverting if the positive side is grounded.

*If the positive side is not grounded and has input signal, then
it is noninverting.

*Make sure to check first the individual stages if their

inverting or noninverting.
*Noninverting + 2 inverting
*LM 348IC - ALL INVERTING.

Voltage Summing

Voltage Subtraction

- Beware of the locations of the resistors.

Voltage Subtraction Circuit II:

*Use superposition to solve this.

*(1) Turn off V1 -> Inverting Amplifier
*(2) Turn off V2 -> Get the value of the reduced V1, then you'll
get Noninverting Amplifier

Voltage Buffer

*Voltage Buffer - provides a means of isolating an input signal

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Voltage Buffer

*Voltage Buffer - provides a means of isolating an input signal

from a load by using a stage having unity voltage gain, with no
phase or polarity inversion, and acting as an ideal circuit with
very high input impedance and low output impedance.
*Advantage: load connected across one output has little or no
effect on the other output

11.4 Controlled Sources:

Controlled Sources
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

*Parang constant magnitude

multiplier lang.

Voltage-Controlled Current Source

*Assuming that Io = Ii.

Current Controlled Current Source

*I2 is obtained by current division.

ECE 402 Page 29

Operational Amplifiers (Chapter 2 - Nise)

Jorge Mario Bergoglio
Veronica Roth

ECE 402 Page 30

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

13.1 Comparators
- Comparing two input voltage magnitudes and produces an output that is always at either one of two states:
indicating the greater or less than relationship between the inputs
- Op-amp without negative feedback
Zero-level Detection
- Comparator to determine when an input voltage exceeds a certain level.
- An input of 0.25mV inserted into a 100,000 gain would yield 25V.

Non-Zero level Detection

*Formula:

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Step 1: Voltage division to get the reference voltage on the inverting side.
Step 2: Plot the new graph on top of the older graph.
Step 3: Draw a horizontal line that distinguishes the Voltage reference.
Step 4: Trace downwards to get how wide each square wave is. Hindi pantay yung peak width at bottom width.
Effects of Input Noise on Comparator Operation:
- Noise are normally superimposed.
- Causes erratic output voltage, because the op amp comparator switches from its negative output state to its
positive output state at the same input voltage level that causes it to switch in the opposite direction.
Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis
- Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger) - applying positive feedback to make the comparator less sensitive to noise.
- There is a higher reference level when the input voltage goes from a lower to higher value than and it goes
from a higher to a lower value. Reference levels: Upper Trigger Point (UTP) and Lower Trigger Point (LTP).

Output Bounding
- bounding - limiting the output voltage levels of a comparator to a value less than that provided by the
saturated op-amp.
- Zener diode is used

Key Terms
Bounding - the process of limiting the output range of an amplifier or other circuit.
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Bounding - the process of limiting the output range of an amplifier or other circuit.
Comparator - a circuit that compares two input voltages and produces an output in either of two states indicating
the greater than or less than relationship of the inputs
Differentiator - a circuit that produces an output which approximates the instantaneous rate of change of the input
function
Hysteresis - characteristic of a circuit in which two different trigger levels create an offset or lag in the switching
action
Integrator - circuit that produces an output which approximates the area under the curve of the input function
Schmitt Trigger - a comparator with built-in hysteresis
Summing amplifier - an op amp configuration with two or more inputs that produces an output voltage that is
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages

ECE 402 Page 33

Feedback and Oscillator Circuits (Chapter 14 - Boylestad)

14.1 Feedback Concepts
Feedback - depending on the relative polarity of the signal being fed back into the circuit
a. Negative feedback = decreased voltage gain, for which a number of circuit features are improved.
i. Opposite in polarity with the input signal
1) Higher input impedance
2) Better stabilized voltage gain
3) Improved frequency response
4) Lower output impedance
5) Reduced noise
6) More linear operation
b. Positive feedback = drives a circuit into oscillation as in various types of oscillator circuits
Example of Negative Feedback

*Vs is the input signal of the network

*Vf is the negative feedback
*Vi is the difference between Vs and Vf, which makes it the input voltage of the amplifier.
14.2 Feedback Connection Types
Voltage

Decrease Output Impedance

Current

Increase Output Impedance

Series

Increase Input Resistance

Parallel / Shunt

Decrease Input Resistance

Voltage-series Feedback

Voltage-shunt Feedback

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Current-series Feedback

Feedback Circuit

Current-shunt Feedback

AF

Voltage-Series

Vo / Vs

Voltage-Shunt

Vo / Is

Current-Series

Io / Vs

Current Shunt

Io / Is

*Feedback offers the designer a choice of trading away some of the available amplifier gain for other desired circuit
features.
*Negative Amplifier Feedback
ECE 402 Page 35

*Negative Amplifier Feedback

1. Reduction in Frequency Distortion
2. Reduction of Noise and Nonlinear Distortion

Change of Gain:

14.3 Practical Feedback Circuits

Voltage-Series Feedback

ECE 402 Page 36

Negative Feedback (19 - Malvino)

*Harold Black - origin of negative feedback
* Op amp with no negative feedback? too unstable to be useful.
*A negative feedback OPPOSES an input signal.
*Voltage between input terminals: (1) Ideal - Zero, (2) Reality -Very small
*Open loop voltage gain equals the differential voltage gain of an op amp.
*Only voltage are allowed to flow on a virtual ground.
No Output / Saturated
VCVS

No output voltage? Shorted Load Resistor

ICVS

No output voltage? Shorted Feedback Resistor Saturated? Open Feedback Resistor

ICIS

Saturated? R2 is open.

19-1 Four Types of Negative Feedback

*Negative Feedback - stable voltage gain, Zin and Zout
*curative effects on distortion and voltage offsets
*does not improve power bandwidth!
*has no effect on slew-rate distortion!
*Make the closed loop voltage gain dependent primarily on external resistances.
Types of Feedback

Input

Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

(VCVS)

Voltage

Voltage *Ideal Voltage Amplifier / Voltage Series

Current Controlled Voltage Source

(ICVS)

Current

Voltage *Transresistance Amplifier (rm) / Voltage Shunt

* Ideal Current to Voltage Converter

Voltage Controlled Current Source

(VCIS)

Voltage

Current *Transconductance Amplifier (gm) / Current

Series
*Ideal voltage to current converter.

Current Controlled Current Source (ICIS) Current

Output

Current *Ideal Current Amplifier / Current Parallel

*ICVS and VCIS aren't appropriate to be called as amplifiers because input and output quantities are different.
They are called Converters instead.

19-2 VCVS Voltage Gain

*Any decrease in open-loop voltage gain produces an increase in error voltage.

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*Feedback attenuation factor B - feedback voltage / output voltage

*Indicates how much the output voltage is attenuated before the feedback signal reaches the inverting
input.
Loop Gain: voltage gain of the forward and feedback paths.
- The larger it is, the better, because it stabilizes the voltage gain and has an enhancing or curative effect on
quantities such as gain stability, distortion, offsets, input impedance and output impedance.
- It must be much greater than unity: AB >> 1

- If we follow the ideal closed loop gain equation, then Av is simply the reciprocal of B.
19-3 Other VCVS Equations
*The worst case error of a closed loop voltage gain occurs when the open-loop voltage gain is minimum (based
on the formula, the closed loop gain is inversely proportional to open loop gain.)
*RCM is the common mode resistance and is normally ignored.
*Nonlinear distortion or harmonic distortion
- Happens normally at very large signals
- Harmonics are all of the frequencies besides the fundamental frequency.
- Can be measured through a distortion analyzer.

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- To get the reduced total harmonic voltage, the total harmonic voltage should be divided by 1 + AB. Same
as output resistance.
19-4 The ICVS Amplifier
- The input current flows on the feedback resistor.

19-5 The VCIS Amplfiier

19-6 The ICIS Amplifier

19-1 Bandwidth
*Negative feedback increases the bandwidth of an amplifier, because the roll-off in open-loop voltage gain
means that less voltage is fedback, which produces more input voltage as a compensation.
*Closed loop cutoff frequency > open loop cut off frequency.
*Open loop bandwidth = f2(OL)
*Closed loop bandwidth = funity / AV(CL)
*For any op amp, AV(CL)fCL is always constant. --> Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP)

*Since their product is constant, designer has to trade off gain for bandwidth!

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ECE 402 Page 40

Oscillators (23 - Malvino)

*Oscillators - to produce sine waves
Under 1 MHz RC Oscillators Op Amps and RC resonant circuits
Above 1MHz LC Oscillators Transistors and LC Resonant Circuits
555 timers - to produce time delays, voltage-controlled oscillators and modulated output signals
23-1 Theory of Sinusoidal Oscillation
*Sinusoidal oscillator - amplifier with positive feedback. The idea is to use the feedback signal in place
of the input signal.
*The amplifier voltage gain must be large enough to overcome the losses in the feedback network.
*AvB > 1 --> increasing oscillation
*AvB = 1 --> maintained oscillation
*

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Integrator and Differentiators (13-3 Floyd)

Practical
Integrator

Parallel to the feedback capacitor Prevent saturation

Differentiator Series with the comparator

Reduce high frequency noise

Op Amp Integrator

- Simulates the summing process that determines the total area under the curve of a ]
- In a simple RC circuit, VC is not linear but is exponential. The charging current continuously
decreases as the capacitor charges and causes the rate of change of the voltage to continuously
decrease.
- In an OP Amp integrator, the charging current is made constant, hence linear.
- The capacitor voltage Vc is also called as negative ramp. (kasi negative slope siya).
- Compensating resistor Rc - to balance the effects of bias current.
- KV/s = mV / uS
Sample Problem:

Op Amp Differentiator
- simulates the determination of the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
- Produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage

ECE 402 Page 42

Active Filters (15 - Floyd)

*RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) - tracking and identification of objects. Used in metering applications .
(1) RF tag - containing an IC chip that transmits data about the object
(2) Reader - receives transmitted data from the tag
(3) data-processing system - processes and stores the data passed to it by the reader.
Filters - circuits that are used for signal processing that are capable of passing signals with certain selected
frequencies while rejecting signals with other frequencies (property of selectivity)
- Usually categorized by the manner in which the output voltage varies with the frequency of the input
voltage.
(1) Active devices - provide voltage gain
(2) Passive circuits - provide frequency selectivity.
Basic Filter Response (15-1)
*Filter - circuit that passes certain frequencies and attenuates or rejects all other frequencies.
*Passband of a filter - range of frequencies that are allowed to pass through the filter with minimum
attenuation (usually defined as less than -3db)
*Critical frequency or cutoff frequency (fc) - defines the end of the passband and is normally specified at the
point where the response drops - 3dB (70.7%) form the passband response.
*Transition Region - beyond the critical frequency region or beyond -3db (70.7%)
*Stop Band - no amplification occurs
*Active Filters - filters that include one or more op-amps
- Op amps are added to make the transition region steeper and can optimize the roll off rate
*Ideal Responses are not attainable by any practical filter, because actual filter responses depend on the number
of poles
*Poles - number of RC circuits contained in the filter. The more poles = faster its roll-off rate.
*One pole = -20db / decade
*Roll-off rate = measures the steepness of the drop beyond the passband
*Critical frequency of a low-pass and high-pass RC filter occurs at XC = R, where

Filters

Definition

Illustration

Low-Pass
Filter

- Passes frequency from dc to fc

- Ideal LPF is also called "Brickwall", because nothing
gets through
- Voltage is measured across the capacitor
-

High-pass
filter

- Significantly attenuates or rejects all frequencies

below fc
- Voltage is measured across the resistor

Band-Pass

- passes all signals lying within a band between a lowerECE 402 Page 43

Band-Pass
Filter

- passes all signals lying within a band between a lowerfrequency limit and an upper frequency limit and
essentially rejects all other frequencies that are
outside this specified band.
Center Frequency - frequency about which the
passband is centered / geometric mean of the critical
frequencies

Quality factor = ratio of the center frequency to the

bandwidth

Band-Stop
- opposite to that of the band-pass filter because
Filter
frequencies within a certain bandwidth are rejected
Response
- Notch filter
- Band-reject
filter
- Bandelimination
filter

Filter Response Characteristics (15-2)

- An active filter can be designed to have either a Butterworth, Chebyshev or Bessel response characteristic
regardless of its type.

Characteristics

Definition

Phase
Response

Phase Shift

Application

Varies
nonlinearly
with
frequency

- When all frequencies in the

passband must have the
same gain.

1. Butterworth

- provides a very flat amplitude

response in the passband and a
roll-off rate
of -20db/decade/pole
- will cause overshoots on the
output with pulse applied
- maximally flat response

Not Linear

2.

- provides a roll-off rate greater

less linear

Chebyshev

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-useful when a rapid-roll off

2.

Chebyshev

3. Bessel

- provides a roll-off rate greater

than -20dB/decade/poles
- Filters can be implemented with
fewer poles and less complex
circuitry
- Characterized by overshoot or
ripples in the passband
(depending on the number of
poles)

less linear
phase
response

- exhibits a linear phase

characteristic
- Almost no overshoot on the
output with a pulse input

-useful when a rapid-roll off

is required

Phase shift
increases
linearly with
frequency

Used for filtering pulse

waveforms without
distorting the shape of the
waveform

The Damping Factor - determines which response characteristic the filter exhibits.
- Affects the filter response by negative feedback action. Any attempted increase or decrease in the input voltage
is offset by the opposing effect of the negative feedback.
- This tends to the make the response curve flat (Butterworth characteristic) in the passband of the filter if the
value for the damping factor is precisely set.
- Depends on the order (number of poles) of the filter

- To achieve second order Butterworth response, DF must be 1.414.

Butterworth Reponses First Order (One-pole) Second Order (Two poles) Third Order (Three Poles)
-20 dB/ decade

-40 dB/ decade

*Cascaded Arrangement = to reach higher order (higher number of poles)

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-60dB/ decade

Active Low-Pass Filters (15-3)

- Advantages of Active filters (uses op- amps as the active element) against passive filters (R, L and C elements)
1. Op Amp provides gain, so that the signal is not attenuated as it passes through the filter.
2. Op Amp has high input impedance which prevents excessive loading of the driving source.
3. Op Amp has low output impedance

Sallen-Key - most common configuration for a second-order (two-pole filter).

Also known as VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage source) filter
Capacitor CA provides feedback for shaping the response near the edge of the passband.
Third Order - Single pole cascade to Sallen-Key
Fourth Order - 2 Sallen-keys cascaded to one another
Active High-Pass Filters (15-4)

ECE 402 Page 46

- The roles of the capacitor and the resistor are reversed.

- Ideally, a high-pass filter passes all frequencies above fc without limit.
- In reality, it is quite impossible since all op amps inherently have internal RC circuits that limit the amplifier's
response at high frequencies. Hence, there is an upper-frequency limit on the high-pass filter's response, which
in effect, makes it a band-pass filter with a very wide bandwidth.
- In reality, this internal high frequency limitation is so much greater than that of the filter's critical frequency that
the limitation can be neglected.

ECE 402 Page 47

Active Filters (11.6 - Boylestad)

Filter Circuit can be constructed using passive components: resistors and capacitors
- Active filter - uses an amplifier to provide voltage amplification and signal isolation or buffering

Filters

Definition

Diagram

Low Pass Filters - Provides a constant output

from dc up to a cutoff
frequency and passes no
signal above that frequency

High Pass
Filters

- Provides or passes signals

above a cutoff frequency

Bandpass Filter - Passes signals that are

above one ideal cutoff
frequency and above a
second cutoff frequency

Low Pass Filter

First Order

Second Order

ECE 402 Page 48

Voltage Gain

*below cutoff

Cutoff
Frequency

High Pass Filter

First Order

Second Order

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Active Filters (21 - Malvino)

- Almost all communication systems used filters.
- Filters passes one band of frequencies while rejecting another.
Can separate desired signals from undesired signals, block interfering signals, enhance speech
and video and alter signals in other ways.
Filters

Components

Passive R, L, C
Active

Frequencies

Av

Used above 1MHz

No Power Gain

Tunability
Relatively difficult to tune

R, C, Op Amps Useful below 1MHz With Power Gain Relatively easy to tune

21-1 Ideal Responses

Frequency Response - graph of its voltage gain, versus frequency.

Filters
1. Low pass filter
(Brick wall
response)

- Passes all frequencies from zero to

cutoff frequency and blocks all
frequencies above the cutoff
frequency
- Ideal LPF = 0 attenuation in the
passband, in the stop band and a
vertical transition
Zero phase shift in the
passband / needs to preserve
the shape of a nonsinusoidal
input

2. High-Pass Filter

- Blocks all frequencies from zero up to

the cutoff frequency and passes all
frequencies above the cutoff
frequency

3. Bandpass filter

- Useful when you want to tune in a

radio or television signal.
- Useful in telephone communications
equipment for separating the
different phone conversations that
are being simultaneously transmitted
over the same communication path.
- Passband = all frequencies between
the upper and lower limit
- Center frequency = geometric
average

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4. Bandstop Filter

Passband - frequencies between zero and the cutoff frequency

Stopband - frequencies above the cutoff frequency
Transition - roll off region between the passband and the stop band

ECE 402 Page 51