Week 1 Topics

Alternating Current Signals

3 Classifications of Electric Signals
1. Constant or DC Signals - have constant value all the time
2. Periodic Signals - have values that recur at regular time intervals.
a. Period - interval of recurrence
3. Alternating or AC Signals - periodic signal wherein the average value over a period is zero.
2 Types of Periodic Waveform
1. Saw tooth Waveform - used in testing the response of electronic circuits, available in function generator (special
type of signal generator)

2. Periodic (Rectified) sinusoidal waveform - full wave rectified sinusoidal waveform

a. Direct current waveform
b. Capacitors and inductors are used to filter the output to produce these
c. Cannot replace the direct current for some sensitive equipment
d. Peak voltage is identical to the peak voltage of the original waveform

Alternating Current Waveforms

1. Triangle waveform - quite similar to saw tooth produced waveform, produced by function generator

2. Sinusoidal Waveform - sine wave generally used in the electrical power industry.

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*Note: The area enclosed by the waveform and the time axis is a product of the quantity represented and a time
interval.

Above the time axis Positive area

Below the time axis Negative area

*Current = time rate of transfer of charges.

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Direct Current = (1) flows in one direction from negative to positive, (2) source = dry cell
Alternating Current = (1) constantly reverses its direction of flow, (2) source = generator
Types of Current

Flow

Source

Direct Current

One direction from negative to positive Dry Cell or Storage Battery

Alternating Current Constantly reversing flow

Advantages of AC
1. Easily Produced
2. Cheaper to maintain
3. Transformable to higher or lower voltage
4. Distributable to far distances with low voltage drop
5. More efficient than DC.

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Generator

Signals

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Week 2 Topics
*Functional Transformation: conversion from peak to rms values.

*Circuit Elements (Alternating Current Circuit)

a. Pure Resistance
*In resistors, voltage and current are in phase

*voltage and

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Series RC Circuits
Impedance:

*Both can be obtained by converting the impedance expression in polar form.

*In series RC, the angle should be negative.

Power in the Circuits

1. True Power - power dissipated by resistive components (Unit: Watts)
a.
2. Reactive Power - power dissipated by the capacitor

a.
3. Apparent Power - power delivered by generator (Unit: va)
a.
Power Factor Expressions
1.
2.
3.
4.

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AC Fundamentals (Chapter 11 - Theraja)

11.1 Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Alternating voltage can be generated through:
(a) rotating a coil in a magnetic field
(b) rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil (most commonly used)

Value of the voltage depends on (1) number of turns in the coil, (2) strength of the field and (3)
speed at which the coil or the magnetic field rotates
11.2 Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents
*Flux Linkages: flux density passing through the loop multiplied by its surface area
*Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: the emf induced in the coil is given by the rate of
change of flux linkages of the coil.

*The angles inside the trigonometric functions must be consistently in radians!

Situations where equation changes:
1) When it says after passing through the positive maximum value: Im sin (wt - 90)
2) After the instant the current is zero and its value decreasing thereafter: Im sin (wt - 180)
3) After the instant the current is zero and increasing thereafter wards: No changes

*Sinusoidal emf = induced emf that varies as sine function of the time angle wt
*The instantaneous value of e is equal to the projection of the Em vector on the Y-axis.
11.3 Alternate Method for the Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents

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11.4 Simple Waveforms

Distorted Waves - waves deviating from the standard sine wave

Alternating Current or Voltage - circuit direction of which reverses at regularly recurring intervals
11.5 Complex Waveforms
Complex Waves - depart from the ideal sinusoidal form
Fundamental - lowest alternating wave frequency or the first harmonic
Harmonics (e.g second harmonics, third harmonics)- integral multiples of the fundamental.

11.6-11.9 Cycle, Time Period, Frequency, Amplitude

Cycle - one complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity (360 degrees or 2
radians)
Time Period - time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle (in seconds)
Frequency - number of cycles per second (in Hz)

Amplitude - maximum value, positive or negative of an alternating quantity

11.10 Different Forms of EMF Equation

11.11 - 11.12 Phase, Phase Difference

Phase - fraction of the time period of the alternating current which has elapsed since the current
last passed through the zero position of reference.
Leading alternating quantity - one which reaches its maximum (or zero) value earlier as compared
to the other quantity. Lead angle = + (Nauuna from the left)
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to the other quantity. Lead angle = + (Nauuna from the left)

Lagging alternating quantity - is one which reaches its maximum or zero value later than the other
quantity. Lag Angle: -

11.13-11.15 Root Mean Squared Values, Mid-Ordinate Method and Analytical Method
RMS Value of an alternating current - is given by that steady (DC) current which when flowing
through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
*Also called the effective or virtual value of the alternating current.
*Ammeters and Voltmeters measure the RMS values.

*For computing RMS, we can use (1) Mid-ordinate Method or (2) Analytical Method
*The RMS value and the maximum value are equal on a Rectangular Wave.
11.16 RMS Value of a Complex Wave
*RMS Value of a Complex Wave - geometric sum of the all the RMS values of the individual sine
waves.
*equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the RMS values of its individual
components.

*If given a nonsinusoidal wave, RMS = Sum of the averaged squares and Average value is the
literal average value.
11.17 Average Value
*Average Value Ia of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current which transfers
across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating current during the same
time.
*Symmetrical alternating current has a zero average value over a complete cycle.
*RMS value is always greater than the average value except in the case of a rectangular wave
when both are equal.

11.18 Form Factor

11.19 Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor

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11.19 Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor

11.20 RMS Value of HW Rectified Alternating Current

Half-wave (HW) rectified alternating current - one half cycle has been suppressed.
*Key term: Flow of current in one direction, while preventing the flow of current in the opposite
direction

Skipping Example 11.9-11.28

Skipping Tutorial Problems No. 11.1 (Item #4, #6, #14, #15, #16)
11.23, 11.24, 11.25 Addition of Two Alternating Quantities
*To add two vectors, convert them first to an equation with the same angular frequency.
*For magnitude, get the square root of their geometric sum.
*For angle, use tan-1 (y/x).

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Series RL Circuit (13.1 - Teraja)

*In an RL circuit, Voltage leads the current by an angle .

*

Power Factor:
*If RL = always put (lags). If RC = always put (Ieads)

Three Types of Power

=
13.5 Q-Factor of a Coil
Q-factor - quality factor of the coil / reciprocal of the power factor

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Series RC (13.7 - Teraja)

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Parallel AC Circuits - Chapter 14

14.1 Solving Parallel Circuits
When circuit is in parallel, there are three methods to use:
1. Vector or phasor Method
2. Admittance Method
3. Vector Algebra
14.2 Vector or Phasor Method

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Kirchoff's Laws (Chapter 15.1 -Theraja)

15.2.Kirchoff's Laws
1. Kirchoff's Current Law: The phasor sum of the currents meeting at a junction is zero.
a. Phasor sum of Current towards = Phasor sum of Current away
2. Kirchoff's Voltage Law: The phasor sum of the voltage drops across each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network, plus the phasor sum of the EMFs connected in that path is zero.
Steps:
1. When doing KVL, follow the direction that makes the sources positive!
2. Convert to a+bi form all the sources.
3. Use Cramer's Rule to avoid errors.

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Superposition Theorem
*Superposition Theorem - In any network made up of linear impedances and containing more than one source of emf, the
current flowing in any branch is the phasor sum of the currents that would flow in that branch if each source were considered
separately, all other emf sources being replaced for the time being , by their respective internal impedances (if any).
Steps 1:
1. Replace a voltage source with a short and a current source with an open -> BALIKTAD!
2. Solve per case to case.

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Thevenin's Theorem
*Thevenin's Theorem - The current through a load impedance ZL connected across any two terminals A
and B of a linear network is given by VTH / (ZTH + ZL) where VTH is the open-circuit voltage across A and B
and ZTH is the internal impedance of the network as viewed from the open-circuited terminals A and B
with all voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances (if any) and current sources by infinite
impedance.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Redraw the circuit by treating ZL as an open circuit element.

Get Zn. When getting Zn, get Zn as is. No need to remove anything.
Get Vn. When getting Vn, remove all dangling resistances only. Do not remove voltage sources!
If there are voltage sources, do KVL.

Kapag may nakaparallel sa AB, like these, ingat.

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Norton's Theorem - Chapter 15.8

Norton's Theorem - any two terminal active linear network containing voltage sources and impedances when
viewed from its output terminals is equivalent to a constant current source and a parallel impedance.

Steps:
1. Redraw the circuit by shorting the load.
2. Get the looking back impedance ZN.
3. Make sure that anything that's parallel to the load would be shorted too.
4. Get the current that will flow on the shorted wire path = IN.
5. To get VL, redraw the circuit in its Norton Equivalent first!

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Method of Determinants

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Superposition Theorem (Chapter 15.5 - Ulaby)

Superposition Theorem: In any network made up of linear impedances and containing more than one source of emf, the current
flowing in any branch is the phasor sum of the currents that would flow in that branch if each source were considered separately, all
other emf sources being replaced for the time being, by their respective internal impedances (if any).
1. When removing a voltage source, V = 0 / short
2. When removing a current source, I = 0 / open.

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Thevenin's Theorem

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Polyphase Circuits
19.1 Generation of Polyphase Voltage
Single-phase voltage and current - consist of a single alternating current and voltage wave

Alternators

Armature Windings

Independent Voltage Waves

Single Phase

1 only

1 only

Poly Phase

Multiple Armature Windings Multiple, displaced from one another by equal angles

*Two-phase alternator - armature windings are displaced 90 electrical degrees apart (exception)
*3-phase alternator - 120 electrical degrees apart

*Three-phase systems are most common. Used for modern generators.

*Six-phase or twelve phase - mercury-arc rectifiers for power purposes, rotary converters
Why polyphases are used:
1. More efficient
2. Uses less material for a given capacity
3. Costs less than a single phase apparatus

*all coils are separated by 120 degrees

*a is able to achieve its maximum at 0 degrees
*b is able to achieve its maximum after 120 degrees of a
*c is able to achieve its maximum after 240 degrees of a
*All three are similar in all respects except that they are 120 degrees out of time phase with one another.

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*The sum of ea, eb and ec are zero.

19.2 Phase Sequence:
*Phase sequence = meant the order in which the three phases attain their peak or maximum values
*abc phase sequence = clockwise
*acb phase sequence = counter clockwise

19.3 - 19.4 Phase Sequence at Load

Clockwise - 123 / ABC / RYB
Counter Clockwise - 132 / ACB / RBY

19.5 Interconnection of Three Phases

*If the three armature coils are not connected, and are kept separated, each coil would need two conductors. Then, in total,
it would require six conductors. = Complicated and expensive!
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it would require six conductors. = Complicated and expensive!

*Hence, they are connected together to save copper and money:
1) Star or Wye (Y) Connection
2) Mesh or Delta () Connection
19.6 Star or Wye (Y) Connection
*Four-wire, three-phase system
*Similar ends of three coils are joined together at point N called the star point or neutral point.
*The three conductors meeting at point N are replaced by a single conductor known as neutral conductor.

*The neutral wire carries the three currents. If all of them are given balanced symmetrical load, all of their magnitudes are
equal but 120 degrees out of phase to one another, hence:
*Phase or star voltage = any terminal (or line) and neutral (or star): VAN, VBN and VCN.
*Line-to-line Voltage or line voltage = perpendicular between any lines: VAB, VBC and VAC.
19.7 Values of Phase Currents
(1) The directions of the current above are its direction when the current is positive.
(2) There are no instant will all the three currents flow in the same direction either outwards or inwards.
(3) The current flowing outwards in one or two conductors is always equal to that flowing inwards in the remaining conductor
or conductors. Total I = 0.
(4) The algebraic sum of Instantaneous values of the three currents is zero:

19.8 Voltages and Currents in Y-Connection

*Phase Voltage / Phase Current- voltage or current induced in each winding
*Line Voltage / Current - voltage or current available between any pair of terminals
*Instantaneous value of the perpendicular between any two terminals = arithmetic difference
*Rms value of this perpendicular = vector difference
Line and Phase Voltages:

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Take note that:

1. Line voltages are 120 degrees apart.
2. Line voltages are 30 degrees ahead of their respective phase voltages.
3. The angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltages is 30 + x with current lagging.

Line Currents and Phase Currents

*Each line is in series with its individual phase winding, hence:

Total Power:

Where the angle is between phase voltage and phase current and NOT between the line voltage and line current.

Power per Phase

- Same as the standard power

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Delta Connection (Chapter 19.9 - Theraja)

*Dissimilar ends of the three phase winding are joined together.
*Starting end of one phase is joined to the end of the other phase.

*If the loads are balanced = sum of voltage is zero / current is equal to zero.
*Vph = VL (equal)
*Ia = IAB-ICA (vector difference)
*Ib = IBC - IAB
*Ic = ICA - IBC
Current:
1. Line currents are 120 degrees apart.
2. Line currents are 30 degrees behind the respective phase current.
3. The angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltage is 30+.

Kapag Balanced:

Phasor Sum of all Line Currents = 0

When getting the other line currents = 120 degrees

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Power Factor Improvement (19.12 - Theraja)

Power Factors

Loads

0.95 - Unity

Heating and lighting loads

0.5 - 0.9

Motor Loads

0.4

Single-phase motors

0.2-0.3

Electric Welding Units

Single-Phase Supply
Three-Phase Supply

*KVA is directly proportional to the current.

*Chief advantage of a low power factor is that the current required for a given power, is very high.
1. Large KVA for a given amount of power.
2. Poor Voltage regulation

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Power Correction Equipment (19.13 - Theraja)

1. Synchronous Motors (or capacitors) - these machines draw leading kVAR when they are overexcited and, especially, when
they are running idle.
- Employed for correcting the power factor in bulk and have the special advantage that the amount of correction can be
varied by changing their excitation.
2. Static Capacitors - installed to improve the power factor of a group of AC motors and are practically loss-free (i.e. they draw a
current leading in phase by 90 degrees). Since their capacitances are not variable, they tend to over-compensate on light
loads, unless arrangements for automatic switching off the capacitor bank are made.
3. Phase Advancers - They are fitted with individual machines.

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