Developments in the

American Space Industry

Government Sector: Resen Praytor

Public Sector: Andrew Hawkins
Private Sector: Jesse Harter
29 April 2015

Today, American engineering remains at the forefront of technology development,

and nowhere is that more evident than in the modern space race. With economic freedom
and backing by large amounts of capital, the space industry has been allowed to begin
commercialization. Meanwhile, NASA has gained the freedom to focus its efforts on
scientific endeavors and exploration efforts. The experience this industry has gained over
the last sixty years, coupled with modern computational techniques and abilities, has led
to the most advanced space technology in the world today. This is allowing for longer
missions and greater payloads. Over the next twenty years, the United States plans to
send ever more people into space, some beyond the protection of the Van Allen Belts, to
the moon, to Mars and beyond.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA, has always been
one of the leading organizations in the race to explore outer space and strives to maintain
its position in the coming years. As technology advances, NASA is planning missions
that will go further, last longer, and discover more than ever before.
InSight is a mission designed to study the deep interior of Mars in order to gain a
better understanding of how it, and planets like it, were formed. The mission is scheduled
to launch in March of 2016. It is scheduled to last a full 720 days and gather more than 29
Gigabytes worth of new scientific data.
The mission lander is designed similarly to the Phoenix lander developed by
Lockheed-Martin Space Systems in 2007. This delivery system was selected based on its
success in studying the ground ice near Mars north pole [1].
The payload will consist of two new scientific instruments. The Seismic
Experiment for Interior Structure is the result of the cooperation between numerous
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European agencies and will be the first European seismograph to touch down on Mars.
The instrument will record ground movements of a minimum of .001 mm. The
instrument will record the various changes created by marsquakes, meteor strikes, and
other events. The data will then be sent back to Earth for analysis [2]. The Heat Flow and
Physical Properties Package, provided by the German Space Agency, will drive a 5 meter
long tether into the Martian surface. The tether will be lined with thermal sensors and
accelerometers, which will record the thermal flow and other various aspects of the soil
[3].
The data sent back by InSight will be analyzed to determine the composition and
behavior of the deep interior of Mars. It is hoped that this will bring new understanding to
the development of the rocky planets in our solar system.
While InSight seeks to gain more knowledge about the closest and most familiar
of the planets, Dawn seeks to examine new and strange worlds. Part of the NASA
Discovery Program, Dawn was designed to investigate the asteroid Vesta and dwarf
planet Ceres. These two bodies were selected due to the fact that, despite apparently
having been formed in the same area, around the same time, and out of the same
materials, they formed into two very different structures. It is hoped that, by discovering
what caused these two bodies to evolve down completely different lines, we can gain a
better understanding of the processes that shaped the Earth and the solar system as a
whole [4].
Dawn is propelled by a recently developed ion propulsion system, which will
drive the system between its two destinations. This thruster system was selected for its
high efficiency. Using another propulsion system would require significantly more fuel

and would greatly increase the cost of the mission. The system consists of three
individual thrusters. Due to the length of the mission, the thrusters will be fired
individually. Two thrusters are required to extend the total thrust time to the required
2,000 days. The third thruster is reserved as a backup in case one of the two primary
thrusters should fail.
To perform its study, Dawn is equipped with four primary instruments. A camera
is attached to capture images of the surface both in black and white and in color. A visible
and infrared spectrometer will measure the light reflectivity of the surface to create a
detailed map of the topography. A gamma ray and neutron detector will measure the
levels of various elements. Finally, audio tracking signals bounced off the surface will be
used to gather information about the bodies mass, gravity, principal axis, and moments
of inertia [5].
Another NASA effort, New Horizons, is a mission launched in 2006 to explore
the Pluto system and nearby Kuiper Belt. It is the first mission to perform a detailed study
of the outer planet systems. The mission was launched with the hope of gaining a better
understanding of the outer solar system, how it formed, and how it fits in with the rest of
the solar system.
Launched in January 2006, it approached Jupiter in 2007 where it performed basic
scientific studies and received a gravity boost to assist it in its travels. It is scheduled to
begin its study of the Pluto system in the summer of 2015, with its closest flyby occurring
on July 14, 2015.

Because New Horizon is the first mission to study the outer solar system, the
spacecraft has been fitted with a wide variety of instruments and backup systems to
ensure that a complete data set can be collected.
New Horizons is equipped with seven different scientific instruments. Ralf is a
visible and infrared spectrometer that will create a thermal map of surfaces of Pluto and
its moons. Alice is an ultraviolet spectrometer that will analyze Plutos atmosphere to
determine its composition. It will also check different objects in the Kuiper Belt to see if
they have their own atmosphere. The radio science experiment will measure the
atmospheric composition and temperature of each body that New Horizon investigates. A
long-range reconnaissance imager will capture high-resolution images of Plutos surface.
Additionally, a solar wind and plasma spectrometer will measure the atmospheric escape
rate and observe how Pluto reacts to solar winds. The Pluto Energetic Particle
Spectrometer Science Investigation, or PEPSSI, will measure the composition and
density of the plasma escaping from Plutos atmosphere. Finally, a student created device
will record the dust particles that collide with New Horizons during the mission.
Several of these devices perform similar tasks and act as backup systems in the
case that one of the other instruments should fail. This will ensure that a full set of data is
collected and sent back [6].

The public sector also has many projects currently being developed. The three
major publicly traded companies include Boeing, Lockheed-Martin, and Northrop
Grumman. All of these companies have projects that are being developed for the United
States government and some for their own commercial enterprises.

The X-37b is a reusable spaceplane currently under development by Boeing. The

unmanned aircraft is designed to execute orbital flights and provide a flexible space test
platform to conduct various experiments and allow satellite sensors, subsystems,
components and associated technology to be efficiently transported to and from the space
environment where it will need to function [7]. The aircraft is basically a test bed for
various systems to help further reusable spaceplane technology.
While much of the information related to the X-37b is classified, the vehicle
configuration and certain specifications are non-proprietary. The aircraft is designed as a
scaled down version of the now retired Space Shuttle Orbiter. The aircraft is about 30 feet
long and has a loaded weight of 11,000 pounds [8]. It is powered by a Pratt & Whitney
Rocketdyne AR2-3 rocket engine, which can produce a maximum of about 6,600 pounds
[9].
Three test flights have been conducted, launching from an Atlas V rocket
vertically, before activating its own engine in low earth orbit. Two of these flights have
exceeded a duration of one year, and while the actual mission profiles are classified, it is
surmised that they are testing are systems as mentioned earlier.
The X-37b may be leading toward a future of greater access to space. Boeing is
also in the process of developing a method for commercial space travel. Their current
project seeks to allow for ferrying to and from the International Space Station or other
future space stations.
This spacecraft is known as the CST-100, or Crew Space Transportaion-100. It is
similar in appearance to the Apollo capsule, maintaining the classic bell shape. It is being
designed to carry a payload of up to seven passengers, with room for other cargo and

supplies as well. As it is being designed solely for ferrying passengers, it does not have
the durability to remain in orbit for extended periods of time.
Design is currently ongoing, and the rocket that will carry the capsule into space
has not been chosen. The capsules are designed to be reusable for up to ten missions. The
capsules are also designed for ease of use, allowing for less training time for the
astronauts that will be piloting the craft [10].
Recently drop tests have been conducted on the capsule to examine its durability as it
relates to the descent it would experience during the parachute landing of a mission, and
tests will continue into 2016 [11].
Perhaps Boeings most significant technological advancement is its research and
development of a satellite that maneuvers through the use of an ion engine, as opposed to
a traditional chemical rocket. Using an ion engine greatly reduces fuel requirements for a
given mission, as the satellite no longer requires an onboard fuel supply to maintain its
orbit.
The thrusters are powered by a xenon-ion propulsion system, which works by
charging heavy gas molecules and firing them at extremely high speeds. The energy
used to charge the gas is obtained from solar panels. The thrusters provide very low
thrust, compared to chemical rockets, so while it may take several weeks to move from
LEO to Geostationary orbit for a chemical rocket powered satellite, a satellite powered by
an ion engine may require several months [12]. Nevertheless, Boeings utilization of this
form of propulsion marks a step forward in the usage of ion engines as they may become
more viable for space travel, greatly reducing future costs.

One of the largest ventures in the Space industry is the joint United Launch
Alliance between Boeing and Lockheed-Martin. Operating out of Denver, Colorado, the
ULA provides spacecraft launch services for various government agencies including the
Department of Defense, NASA, the National Reconnaissance Office, the U.S. Air Force
and other organizations [13].
Missions vary based on the needs of the client, which range from launching
satellites related to telecommunications, national security and weather monitoring. The
payloads vary depending on the mission requirement. They currently utilize Atlas V and
Delta II and IV rockets [13].
Lockheed-Martins most significant development is the Orion project. While the
whole system is a great technological advancement in and of itself, the data system that
will be used to analyze all of the various inputs encountered during spaceflight is just as
significant.
The Orion Multipurpose Crew Vehicle conducted its first flight, Exploration
Flight Test-1, on December 5, 2014. The flight was conducted to test the various systems
related to the avionics and stages of flight the spacecraft experienced. During this fourhour flight, hundreds of thousands of measurements were taken to examine how the
spacecraft performed as it travelled through Earths Van Allen Belts [14].
The system used for data analysis is known as Mach-5 Insight. Its primary
function is taking the billions of measurements needed during a mission and then to
present that information in a way the analyst can understand. It combines traditional big
data batch processing with a near-real-time layer, and allows for current data to be
compared with previously collected data instantly [14]. Mach-5 can be used to

determine if a system is nearing failure, and allow engineers to adjust that system
accordingly.
Lockheed-Martin is also developing a space cargo resupply system for the
International Space Station. Known as Jupiter, the spacecrafts mission is to act as a tug
to move freight to and from the ISS. The Exoliner, carries the actual cargo, and is to
launch from Earth and meet with the Jupiter propulsion system in orbit, which guides it to
the ISS.
The Exoliner is approximately the size of an ISS module, measuring 14 feet by 30
feet, and able to hold about 14,300 pounds of cargo. After docking with the ISS, with the
help of the Jupiter system and the ISSs robotic arm, it is to be unloaded, at which point it
would be will with waste from the space station and fall back to Earth, where it will
disintegrate in the atmosphere. The Jupiter system then returns to orbit and waits for the
next Exoliner to arrive so it can repeat the process [15]. Ultimately, this technology will
decrease the cost of resupplying the ISS or any other future space stations.
Northrop Grumman also has several projects regarding space technology. The XS1 is one of the companys most significant projects. The XS-1 is a spaceplane currently in
the design stage. It is being designed to fulfill a mission requirement of 10 flights in 10
consecutive days for less than $5 million per flight. It is similar in appearance to the X37b, and it is also reusable. However, while the X-37b is to enter Low Earth Orbit, the
XS-1 is designed to be suborbital [16].
The unmanned spaceplane will launch vertically and may carry at least one
smaller stage with a payload capacity between 3000 and 5000 pounds. The upper stage or
stages are to be expendable, and the aircraft is to glide back to Earth, where it would be

refitted and prepared for the next launch. With testing currently underway, the projected
initial launch is estimated to be in 2018 [16].
Aside from reusable space vehicles, Northrop Grumman is also examining
technologies related to solar power. While there are currently several challenges
associated with harvesting solar energy from space, Northrop Grummans Space Solar
Power Initiative is attempting to address those issues. Research is currently being done by
researchers at Caltech, who are working in conjunction with Northrop Grumman, to
address various difficulties such as the weight of the photovoltaic cells, their supporting
structure, and the process of transporting the energy back to Earth [17].
Along that same line, NASA awarded Northrop Grumman a contract, which
allows the company to study the use of solar powered spacecraft for long duration, LEO
to GEO space missions, similar to Boeings ion powered satellites. Jim Munger, Northrop
Grummans solar electric propulsion program manager, stated, "Our concept will be
scalable to 300 kilowatts and beyond and have the potential for reducing the cost and
complexity of high-power requirements" [18].
With this technology, comparatively heavier payloads could be transferred from
low earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit, while using the same launch vehicles currently
available, allowing for more cargo to be transported for the same cost.
The private sector of Americas space industry has seen particularly interesting
growth in recent years with companies taking a particular interest in suborbital and low
Earth orbit (LEO) missions, especially for space tourism and satellite placement.
Furthermore, the retirement of the Space Shuttle program has furthered opened this niche.
However, a few new businesses have their goals set further away on such things as
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colonization and asteroid mining. Examples of this recent growth include companies with
origins around the early 2000s like SpaceX, Bigelow Aerospace and Blue Origin who
have rapidly matured into influential industry players, as well as multiple new startups
entering the game such as Planetary Resources in 2010 and Ad Astra Rocket Company in
2005. Additionally, Sierra Nevada Corporation fully came onto the scene when it began
operating a Space Systems group after acquiring SpaceDev in 2008 and Orbital
Technologies Corporation in 2014.
Arguably one of the greatest influences in the private industry at present is Space
Exploration Technologies (SpaceX). Founded in 2002 by Elon Musk, SpaceX
immediately began developing its own series of rocket engines, launch vehicles, and an
orbital vehicle. It took SpaceX a meager 10 years before it made history with the first
private resupply mission to the International Space Station (ISS) in May 2012. This led to
a subsequent $1.6 billion dollar contract with NASA under which SpaceX will perform
12 resupply missions to the ISS, carrying cargos ranging from vital supplies to science
experiments. Furthermore, SpaceX is also currently working to prepare the Dragon
capsule for manned spaceflight, which is scheduled to have an initial test flight in about 2
years. Despite their current mission plan with orbital destinations, SpaceX has an ultimate
goal of extending human life beyond Earth, with a focus on Mars colonization [19].
To accomplish these tasks SpaceX has designed a spacecraft, Dragon, which
currently has two variants, cargo and crew, with plans for a third, DragonLab, to perform
experiments. The Dragon craft is designed to maintain an orbit for up to 2 years making
use of its 18 Draco thrusters, which are powered by nitrogen tetroxide and
monomethylhydrazine and provide 90 pounds of thrust each, as well as a special Phenolic

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Impregnated Carbon Ablator variant (PICA-X) heat shield developed with NASA. The
manned Dragon can accommodate a 7-person crew, while the cargo variant can launch up
to a 6000 kilogram payload in its 11 cubic meter internal cargo hold or 14 cubic meter
unpressurized trunk, which supports the spacecraft during ascent. Dragon can also
return up to a 3000 kilogram payload from orbit.
Additionally, SpaceX is currently working on in-house rocket engine designs,
currently being referred to as SuperDraco and Raptor. SuperDraco is being designed for
use with a cutting edge escape system in which 8 SuperDraco engines attached to Dragon
will allow astronauts to jettison from the rocket at any point during launch. The high tech
new engines have a chamber that is manufactured using direct metal laser sintering
(DMLS), also known as 3D printing. Furthermore, the new SuperDraco engines, with
their 16,000 pounds of thrust each, are destined for wider use than just escape; SpaceX
plans to use them to allow Dragon to make pinpoint landings on Earth or other bodies
[19].
Raptor, which SpaceX plan to use on future rockets, is being designed to run on
liquid methane and liquid oxygen (LOx) and expected to provide around 500,000 pounds
of thrust. Methane was chose for its higher specific impulse than RP-1 and ability to be
refined on Mars, as well as being easier to handle than hydrogen fuel. Raptor will be used
to power future versions of Falcon rockets, including Falcon Heavy, and possibly others
dubbed Falcon X, Falcon XX and Mars Colonial Transport (MCT). Falcon Heavy, which
is planned to begin operating later this year, will be the largest rocket flown since Saturn
V in 1973. Falcon Heavy will be capable of lifting some 53 metric tons (117,000 pounds)
to LEO and 21.2 metric tons to geosynchronous transfer orbit. The first stage will have 3

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cores and 27 engines, providing 3.97 million pounds of thrust at sea level and 4.5 million
pounds in vacuum. The second stage will have a single Merlin engine capable of 180,000
pounds of thrust.
Falcon X and XX have less clear objectives and exist primarily as rumors;
however, Elon Musk has mention the MCT on various occasions and even stated he plans
for it to be capable of delivering 100 metric tons of useful cargo to Mars and have a
vacuum specific impulse of about 380 versus a more standard 345 for stages of roughly
equivalent mass ratio [20].
The current Falcon 9 rocket is capable of 1.3 million pounds of thrust at sea level
using the in-house designed Merlin 1-D rocket engines. Furthermore, the Falcon 9 is the
only vehicle currently flying with engine out capability; Falcon 9 can lose up to two of its
Merlin engines on the first stage and still complete its mission. [19]. The Merlin 1-D is
capable of producing between 147,000 and 161,000 pounds of thrust per engine varying
from sea level to vacuum. Additionally, the Merlin has a thrust-to-weight ratio exceeding
150, which means that thanks to modern design capabilities, this is the most efficient
booster engine built [19].
However, SpaceX is revolutionizing the space industry most with its progress
towards reusable rockets, first with their Grasshopper test version and more recently,
attempting landings on an autonomous spaceport drone ship with the latest Falcon 9Reusable or 9R. The Falcon 9R has deployable landing legs made of carbon fiber with
aluminum honeycomb, a design that was not possible until recent times, and grid fins
which help slow and stabilize the vehicle to enable the first stage to return from
separation and make a landing [19].

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Blue Origin, unknown until 2003, was incorporated in 2000 and later performed
research with suborbital vehicles Charon in March 2005 and Goddard in 2006. All
current missions performed by Blue Origin focus on research and development, with
payloads comprised of instruments necessary for data acquisition and testing.
Research at Blue Origin is currently focused on the development of the New
Shepard suborbital vehicle and BE-4 rocket engine. The BE-4 is intended for use on the
recently announced Vulcan rocket, the successor to the Atlas V, by United Launch
Alliance, an announcement that, should it come to fruition, will foster Blue Origin to a
rapid growth. The BE-4 uses liquefied natural gas and LOx in a staged combustion cycle
and can produce 550,000 pounds of thrust at sea level [21].
Blue Origins current engine, the BE-3, is slated for its first test flight this year
and is the first completely new liquid hydrogen-fueled engine to be developed for
production in the U.S. since the RS-68 which was first flown in 2002 [22]. The BE-3
provides 110,000 pounds of thrust and is the engine in use in current plans for the New
Shepard project. The reusable launch vehicle, New Shepard, is planned for use to get
science experiments to suborbital space and consists of a capsule and propulsion module.
Thrust data has not been solidified but current plans account for 25 to 50 pound payloads.
Another new contender in the private space industry is Sierra Nevada
Corporations Space Systems (SNCSS) group, operational in 2009 after the acquisition of
SpaceDev by SNCSS in 2008, and later strengthened by the 2014 gaining of Orbital
Technologies Corporation [23]. Much of Sierra Nevadas early work focused on
development of its spaceplane, Dream Chaser, a contender in NASAs Commercial Crew
Development program, competing against SpaceXs Dragon and Boeings CST-100.

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Dream Chaser is a reusable spaceplane style lifting-body vehicle capable of a quartering

a crew of seven. Dream Chaser is designed to use non-toxic propellants to be able to land
on any commercial runway. Current plans make use of an Atlas V rocket to reach space
[23]. Moreover, Sierra Nevada Corp. was instrumental in the development of the rocket
engine RocketMotorTwo for Virgin Galactic.
Virgin Galactic was founded in 2004 with the primary purpose of establishing the
first commercial spaceline and opening space to the common person [24]. Their vehicle
roster includes a dual-fuselage jet aircraft, WhiteKnightTwo, which carries
SpaceShipTwo to approximately 50,000 feet for launch to space using its hybrid solid
thermoplastic polyamide fuel and liquid nitrous oxide oxidizer rocket engine,
RocketMotorTwo, which provides 60,000 pounds of thrust [24].
Another private company worthy of recognition is Bigelow Aerospace. Bigelow
deals in the market of space habitat modules, focusing on expandable habitats for
minimal storage and easy deployment [25]. Their product, Bigelow Expandable Activity
Module (BEAM) is scheduled for launch this year on a two-year test mission to the ISS.
Expandable habitats have potential to change how we view living in space, especially in
the interim before any true space colonies begin.
A few other recent companies include XCOR Aerospace, Ad Astra Rocket
Company and Armadillo Aerospace, all of which are involved in pushing the boundary of
the current space industry. XCOR works largely on rocket technology and is currently
developing a suborbital craft called Lynx and the rocket engines XR-2P1, an N2O-Ethane
engine, and the XR-5K18, which runs on LOx-Kerosene [26]. Ad Astra Rocket is
currently researching electric rockets, specifically Variable Specific Impulse

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Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) technology, which hopes to make electric rockets

viable for a wider array of applications [27].
Lastly, companies like Planetary Resources and Deep Space Industries, new
names with similar big plans, may someday attempt to mine asteroids. Both companies
have similar plans to prospect and mine asteroids for their valuable materials; however,
Planetary Resources has a short-term goal of developing a market for small space
telescopes and plans to work at lowering overall costs, while Deep Space Industries short
term plans jump straight to prospecting and acquiring samples [28].
By taking advantage of modern advances in technology, NASA seeks to expand
our understanding of the universe, while the public and private sectors seek to secure our
place within it. By studying the bodies in the solar system, we can come to understand the
processes that shaped them and thus better understand our place amongst them. Through
the accomplishments made by American engineers from both the public and private
sector, we are seeing the lowest costs yet, in addition to technology that pushes the
boundaries further than ever before. With this American excellence we are setting goals
that are far beyond the capabilities of nearly every other country in the world to meet, and
this is how we intend to keep it.

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[19] http://www.spacex.com/
[20]http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/2rgsan/i_am_elon_musk_ceocto_of_a_roc
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[23] http://www.sncspace.com/
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[25] http://bigelowaerospace.com/
[26] http://www.xcor.com/
[27] http://www.adastrarocket.com/
[28]http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2013/01/22/deep_space_industries_vs_plan
etary_resources_is_outer_space_asteroid_mining.html

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