UNIVERSIDAD

AUTNOMA DEL ESTADO DE MXICO

FACULTAD DE QUMICA
PROGRAMA EDUCATIVO DE INGENIERO QUMICO

POLMERO: BAQUELITA (ADELANTO)

TRABAJO QUE PRESENTA:

ALVIRDE GENARO SELENE MARITZA
CAMACHO VARA BRYAN
CONTRERAS MARTINEZ MIRIAM
GONZALEZ GONZALEZ CESAR
XINGU VILCHIZ JAZMIN

QUMICA ORGNICA HETEROALIFTICA Y POLMEROS

Profesor: Dra. SUSANA HERNNDEZ LPEZ

Lugar y Fecha de presentacin

TOLUCA, ESTADO DE MXICO. 23 DE NOVIEMBRE DE 2015

JUSTIFICACIN
En la industria qumica, las cetonas y los aldehdos se utilizan como disolventes, como
sustancias iniciales y como reactivos para la sntesis de otros productos. A pesar de que el
formaldehdo se suele encontrar en solucin (formol), utilizado para preservar muestras
biolgicas, la mayora de los cuatro millones de toneladas de formaldehdo que se producen
cada ao se utilizan para la obtencin de Bakelita, resinas de fenol-formaldehdo,
pegamentos de urea-formaldehdo y otros productos polimricos.1
Los plsticos y resinas de fenol-formaldehdo (tambin denominados jlmlicos) tienen muchas
uniones cruzadas ya que cada anillo fenlico tiene tres posiciones (dos orto y una para) que
se pueden unir con el formaldehdo por condensacin.
La Bakelita puede moldearse a medida que se forma y endurece al solidificarse. No conduce
la electricidad, es resistente al agua y los solventes, pero fcilmente mecanizable. Su
permitividad dielctrica relativa es de 0,65. El alto grado de entrecruzamiento de la estructura
molecular de la baquelita le confiere la propiedad de ser un plstico termoestable: una vez
que se enfra no puede volver a ablandarse. Esto lo diferencia de los polmeros termoplsticos,
que pueden fundirse y moldearse varias veces, debido a que las cadenas pueden ser lineales
o ramificadas pero no presentan entrecruzamiento.
El brillo de la baquelita y el buen envejecimiento dan un aspecto inigualable a estas piezas
que cada da se revalorizan por su escasez y singularidad, con bonitas ptinas en sus ms
diversos colores y tonalidades.
Otro aspecto, nico, de la Baquelita es su olor caracterstico, debido al formaldehdo,
apreciable cuando la baquelita toma una cierta temperatura.

HISTORIA Y ANTECEDENTES
La Bakelita o baquelita fue uno de los primeros plsticos comerciales (una resina de
termofraguado) que se obtuvieron, llamada as en honor de su inventor, esta reaccin fue
descubierta en 1872 por L. Baekeland; un qumico americano nacido en Blgica.
Baekeland ha sido un claro ejemplo de lo que se podra denominar un cientfico- empresario,
pues utiliz los conocimientos cientficos a su alcance para inventar un producto de gran
utilidad social que le reporto grandes beneficios econmicos. La baquelita es solamente un
2

ejemplo de la capacidad de Baekeland como empresario pues, antes de trabajar en el campo

de los plsticos, ya haba desarrollado un papel fotogrfico denominado Velox que, por falta
de la infraestructura necesaria para su comercializacin, lo vendi a George Eastman de
Kodak por un milln de dlares, dinero que le sirvi para financiar su trabajo sobre la
baquelita.
Fue producida por primera vez en 1907 y los mtodos prcticos de moldeo de la baquelita se
desarrollaron alrededor de 1909. Ha estado en uso comercial por ms tiempo que cualquier
otro polmero sinttico.
De la publicacin realizada por Antonio Miravete: Los nuevos materiales en la construccin,
es esencial entrecomillar el siguiente prrafo:
La bakelita fue el primer polmero completamente sinttico, fabricado por primera vez en
1909. Recibi su nombre del de su inventor, el qumico estadounidense Leo Baekeland. La
baquelita es una resina de fenolformaldehdo obtenido de la combinacin del fenol (cido
fnico) y el gas formaldehdo en presencia de un catalizador; si se permite a la reaccin llegar
a su trmino, se obtiene una sustancia bituminosa marrn oscura de escaso valor aparente.
Pero Baekeland descubri, al controlar la reaccin y detenerla antes de su trmino, un
material fluido y susceptible de ser vertido en moldes

IMPORTANCIA Y USOS
Consecuentemente con sus propiedades la baquelita se convirti en un material alternativo al
vidrio, los metales y las maderas, pasando a constituir el principal material en elementos
decorativos y funcionales. Se introdujo con rapidez en su aplicacin a utensilios tradicionales
de la cocina y el menaje, pasando en muy poco tiempo a elementos habituales del hogar.

Las primeras aplicaciones de la baquelita fueron como aislante elctrico y ms tarde empez
a utilizarse en la construccin de accesorios plsticos para las industrias del automvil y de
la radio. Fue el precursor de gran cantidad de plsticos de tipo fenol- formaldehido. El propio
Baekeland registr ms de 400 patentes durante la investigacin y desarrollo de la baquelita.
Por sus propiedades como resina de termofraguado, se utiliza ampliamente en partes
moldeadas, adhesivos, recubrimientos e incluso en otras aplicaciones resistentes a alta
temperatura, como los conos de la nariz de los misiles.
Se usa en la fabricacin en grandes series de enchufes, tomas de corriente piezas de
aparatos, zcalos, etc. La adicin de colorantes apropiados permiten obtener efectos
artsticos.

Figura 1. Carcasa de telfono realizada en Bakelita negra.

PRODUCCIN
La baquelita, que fue el primer polmero completamente sinttico, se obtuvo por condensacin
escalonada de fenol y formaldehido.
Su sntesis se realiza a partir de molculas de fenol y formaldehdo (Proceso de Baekeland),
en proporcin 2 a 3. La baquelita presenta tres aspectos distintos que corresponden a tres
etapas de su fabricacin:
1.- El producto A es slido y tiene el aspecto de una resina amarillenta, se disuelve en el
alcohol. Funde bajo la accin del calor.
2.- El producto B procede de la accin del calor sobre el A cuando ste se lleva ms
all de la temperatura de fusin. Menos quebradizo que A, el producto B es slido a todas
las temperaturas e insoluble en todos los disolventes corrientes. El calor lo reblandece
dndole la consistencia del caucho, pero no produce nunca la fusin.
3.- El producto C resulta de la accin prolongada del calor o de polimerizacin del
producto B. Es el producto definitivo y el que posee las cualidades correctas. El cambio del
estado B al C puede coincidir con un moldeado, permitiendo obtener formas muy diversas
y realizar economas substanciales de mecanizado.
Reaccin General
Se sintetizo a partir de dos monmeros abundantes y baratos, el fenol y el formaldehido, que
pueden condensarse fcilmente en presencia de una base. La reaccin entre el ion fenxido
y el formaldehido es semejante a la reaccin de Kolbe de carboxilacin del fenol para dar
cido saliclico.

Pasos:
La reaccin se lleva a cabo por etapas: el formaldehido se adiciona en primer trmino a las
posiciones 2 y 4 de la molcula de fenol.

Las molculas sustituidas reaccionan a continuacin con expulsin de agua.

El enlazamiento de molculas contina hasta formar una red extensa.

Condiciones de reaccin.

Obtenida mediante la reaccin del fenol con algo ms de un equivalente de formaldehdo.1

En condiciones cidas o bsicas.1

La condensacin del fenol con formaldehdo es semejante a la condensacin del fenol con
acetona.1

La polimerizacin se lleva a cabo en varias etapas, siendo uno de los intermedios una
resina termoplstica que se reblandece al calentarla. Este material puede moldearse de
la manera adecuada y se somete posteriormente a temperaturas y presiones elevadas
hasta que se convierte en una resina termoestable- material rgido insensible a los cambios
de temperatura debido a su estructura entrecruzada.

Mecanismo de reaccin.
El formaldehdo sirve de puente entre molculas de fenol, perdiendo su oxgeno por sufrir dos
condensaciones sucesivas, mientras que las molculas de fenol pierden dos o tres de sus
tomos de hidrgeno, en orto y para, de forma que cada formaldehdo conecta con dos
fenoles, y cada fenol con dos o tres formaldehdos, dando lugar a entrecruzamientos. En
exceso de fenol, la misma reaccin de condensacin da lugar a polmeros lineales en los que
cada fenol slo conecta con dos formaldehdos.

Produccin industrial
En ELECTROPARTES DE INDUCCION S. DE R.L. tienen el siguiente proceso de fabricacin
de baquelita en placa y en tubos.
El proceso de fabricacin del Celoron y de la Baquelita es muy semejante, y tiene dos grandes
divisiones, el proceso de fabricacin de placas y el proceso de fabricacin de tubos. Ambos
procesos se realizan en ambientes controlados y con materia prima especial para
aplicaciones elctricas.

continuacin

se

describe

cada

uno

de

los

procesos:

PROCESO DE FABRICACION DE PLACAS

1.

El papel o algodn es desenrollado de manera continua en la tina de impregnacin de resina

fenlica

2.

El material entra a travs de varios rodillos tensores en la tina de impregnacin, donde el

material es sumergido en la resina especial para su grado de material.

3.

Una vez impregnado para el estrato a travs de un horno de precurado para que la resina
empiece su proceso de curado, dejando el material en un estado semipegajoso conocido
como etapa B.

4.

El material es dimensionado en hojas de un tamao estndar, de acuerdo al tamao de placa

a fabricar.

5.

Las hojas son alimentadas en la prensa de compresin final, donde se apilaran un nmero de
hojas relacionado a cada espesor a fabricar.

6.

Una vez comprimido y termoestabilizado el material sale de prensa y entra al proceso de

desorille.

7.

Terminado este paso, el material est listo para ser embarcado.

PROCESO

DE

FABRICACION

1.

DE

TUBOS

El papel

algodn

es

desenrollado de
manera

continua en la tina

de impregnacin de resina fenlica

2.

El material entra a travs de varios rodillos tensores en la tina de impregnacin, donde el

material es sumergido en la resina especial para su grado de material.

3.

Una vez impregnado para el estrato a travs de un horno de precurado para que la resina
empiece su proceso de curado, dejando el material en un estado semipegajoso conocido
como etapa B.

4.

El material es reembobinado con una intercapa para evitar que se pegue.

5.

El rollo terminado es cargado en un desenrollador que alimenta la roladora de tubos.

6.

El material entra en una serie de rodillos tensores y posteriormente es rolado sobre un mandril
de dimetro exterior igual al dimetro interior del tubo a fabricar.

7.

El dimetro exterior es determinado el nmero de vueltas sobre el mandril de rolado.

8.

Al alcanzar el dimetro exterior, se sacar el tubo y se manda al horno de curado final.

9.

En caso de ser requerido, los tubos se rectifican en su dimetro exterior para alcanzar las
especificaciones de cada cliente.

PROPIEDADES DE LA BAQUELITA

Este polmero presenta una estructura del tipo reticular a base de uniones covalentes, con
entrelazamiento transversal de cadenas producido por el calor o por una combinacin de calor
y presin durante la reaccin de polimerizacin.
A menudo, los polmeros termoestables se obtienen en forma de dos resinas. Una contiene
los agentes de curado, endurecedores y plastificantes, la otra materiales de relleno y/o
reforzantes, estos agentes reforzantes pueden ser orgnicos o inorgnicos.
En general, las ventajas de los plsticos termoestables como la baquelita puede tener algunas
aplicaciones dentro del campo de la ingeniera los cuales son:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Tiene una alta estabilidad trmica

Alta rigidez
Alta estabilidad dimensional
Resistencia a la termofluencia y deformacin bajo carga
Tiene un peso ligero
Altas propiedades de aislamiento elctrico y trmico.

Los usos ms extendidos de la baquelita son: compuestos de uso general con cargas que
aumentan su resistencia al impacto desde harinas de madera a celulosa con fibra de vidrio;
compuestos de aislamiento de electricidad, con crgas del tipo mica para aumentar
resistencias elctrica y compuestos resistentes al calor de 150 a 180C.
Tambin se usa en dispositivos de instalacin e interruptores elctricos, conectores, rels
telefnicos, en el sector de automocin como adhesivos y en las arenas de moldeo de
metales.
Propiedades fsicas y toxicolgicas de las materias primas y productos Fenol:
Propiedades fsicas y qumicas bsicas
Aspecto
Forma: slido
pH
6.0
Punto de fusin/ punto de
Punto/intervalo de fusin: 40 - 43 C (104 - 109
congelacin
F) - lit.
Punto inicial de ebullicin e 182 C (360 F) - lit.
intervalo de ebullicin
Punto de inflamacin
79.0 C (174.2 F) - copa cerrada
Inflamabilidad superior/inferior Lmites superior de explosividad: 8.6 %(V) Lmites
o lmites explosivos
inferior de explosividad: 1.7 %(V)
Presin de vapor
6.3 hPa (4.7 mmHg) a 55.0 C (131.0 F) 0.5
hPa (0.4 mmHg) a 20.0 C (68.0 F)
Solubilidad en agua
84 g/L a 20 C (68 F)
Coeficiente de
reparto
log Pow: 1.46
noctanol/agua
Temperatura
de 715.0 C (1,319.0 F)
autoinflamacin
Tensin superficial
38.2 mN/m a 50.0 C (122.0 F)
Informacin toxicolgica:

Toxicidad aguda: Convulsiones o efectos en el umbral de colapso

Corrosin o irritacin cutneas: Grave irritacin de la piel - 24 h
Lesiones o irritacin ocular graves: corrosivo
Mutagenicidad en clulas germinales: Las pruebas in vitro demostraron efectos
mutgenos
Carcinogenicidad: Este producto es o contiene un componente no clasificable con
respecto a su carcinogenia en humanos, basado en su clasificacin por IARC
(International Agency for Research on Cancer; Agencia Internacional de Investigacin
sobre el Cncer), ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists;
Conferencia de Higienistas Industriales Gubernamentales de los Estados Unidos), NTP
(National Toxicology Program; Programa Nacional de Toxicologa) de los Estados
Unidos o EPA (Environmental Protection Agency; Agencia para la Proteccin del Medio
Ambiente) de los Estados Unidos.
Formaldehido:
Propiedades fsicas y qumicas bsicas
Aspecto
Forma: lquido, claro Color:
incoloro
Olor
acre
Punto
inicial de ebullicin e 100 C (212 F)
intervalo de ebullicin
Punto de inflamacin
64 C (147 F) - copa cerrada
Tasa de evaporacin
1
Inflamabilidad superior/inferior o Lmites
superior
de
lmites explosivos
explosividad: 70 %(V)
Lmites
inferior
de
explosividad: 7 %(V)
Presin de vapor
53 hPa (40 mmHg) a 39 C
(102 F)
Densidad de vapor
1.04 - (Aire = 1.0)
Densidad relativa

1.09 g/cm3 a 25 C (77 F)

Solubilidad en agua

totalmente soluble

Coeficiente de
reparto
octanol/agua
Densidad relativa del vapor

n- log Pow: 0.35

1.04 - (Aire = 1.0)

Informacin toxicolgica:
Sensibilizacin respiratoria o cutnea: Posibilidad de sensibilizacin en contacto con la
piel.
Carcinogenicidad: Carcingeno regulado especficamente por OSHA
Contiene metanol. Puede ser mortal o causa de ceguera en caso de ingestin. No
puede neutralizarse
Baquelita:
Propiedades fsicas y qumicas bsicas

10

Estado fsico
Apariencia y olor
Concentracin
Peligros de fuego o explosin
Densidad a 20 C
Solubilidad en agua y otros disolventes
Resistencia a la flexin
Resistencia a la traccin
Resistencia a la compresin

Solido en forma de polvo granular

Polvo blanco sin olor
100%
No existen
0.65-0.68
Insoluble
150 M Pa
120 M Pa
150 M Pa

Informacin toxicolgica:
Toxicidad a corto plazo: no hay
Toxicidad a largo plazo: no existe
Efectos locales o sistmicos: irritacin local leve
Sensibilizacin alrgica: no debera producirse
Propiedades del producto: pticas, magnticas, tribolgicas, biodegradables Baquelita:
La baquelita es una resina sinttica a base de fenol y de formol. Rene un conjunto de
ventajas difciles de encontrar en otras materias:
Resistividad de 6 millones de M/cm/cm2, gran rigidez dielctrica, resistencia al ataque de
los cidos, del oxgeno y del ozono, resistencia mecnica elevada, opacidad a los rayos X,
excelentes propiedades elctricas de los laminados fenlicos, ayuda a las aplicaciones tanto
la industria elctrica como la industria qumica
No conduce la electricidad, es resistente al agua y los solventes. El alto grado de
entrecruzamiento de la estructura molecular de la baquelita le confiere la propiedad de ser un
plstico termoestable: una vez que se enfra no puede volver a ablandarse.
La baquelita en realidad es un copolmero. A diferencia de los homopolmeros, que estn
formados por unidades monomricas idnticas (por ejemplo, el polietileno), los copolmeros
estn constituidos, al menos, por dos monmeros diferentes.

11

Debido al alto grado de entrecruzamiento de la estructura molecular de la baquelita le confiere

la propiedad de ser un plstico termoestable, es decir que puede moldearse apenas concluida
su preparacin. En otras palabras, una vez que se enfra la baquelita no puede volver a
ablandarse.
Demanda regional, estatal, nacional y/o internacional
Desde el invento de la baquelita, en 1907, se inici una sustitucin de materiales (metales,
madera, papel, cartn, vidrio y algunas fibras naturales) que permiti que muchos productos
alcanzaran un consumo masivo. Se calcula que del total de la demanda de envase y
embalaje, 40% se satisface con materiales de plstico; 25%, en el caso de los materiales
usados en la construccin de casas y edificios; 10% del peso de los automviles nuevos y de
los muebles es de plstico, as como 5% en los componentes elctricos. Con el tiempo la
sustitucin ha disminuido, dependiendo del desarrollo de los pases. En los desarrollados se
ha aprovechado al mximo el potencial del plstico y los polmeros.
En los de menor desarrollo se siguen usando muchos materiales tradicionales, lo cual implica
que todava hay espacio para la sustitucin.
Desde que se cre la baquelita, se utiliz para fabricar una gran gama de artculos como
tostadoras, cmaras fotogrficas, radios, relojes, hasta atades (que no tuvieron xito en el
mercado) y tanques de guerra. Sin embargo en las ltimas dcadas se ha mantenido un
mercado que demanda joyera fabricada con baquelita, esto debido a la nueva tendencia
fashionista Retro, ello ha impulsado el surgimiento de nuevos artistas que trabajan con este
bello material, como por ejemplo: Baquelita Pantti.
Baquelita MOE
Baquelita Judy Clarke
Baquelita Shultz
Conclusiones personales
1.- Respecto a lo que se ha venido investigando a lo largo de este proyecto, sabemos que la
baquelita tiene propiedades variadas que pueden ayudarnos en muchos mbitos de la vida
cotidiana y as mismo, no representa un alto grado de toxicidad, pero como sabemos, el
trabajo de un ingeniero qumico debe ser la optimizacin de los procesos que ya conocemos.
Creo que sera adecuado poner atencin en lo que nosotros como estudiantes podramos
hacer para seguir desarrollando lo que actualmente se conoce de la baquelita y de esta forma
tambin poder ayudar al medio ambiente que es trabajo de todos.
De esta forma ayudaramos en el desarrollo potencial de nuestro pas, y al cuidado de
nuestros recursos no renovables que se ven estrechamente enlazados con la fabricacin de
polmeros y de los plsticos ms comerciales.
2.- Con el paso del tiempo los polmeros que se inventaron primero han sido dejados atrs
por los nuevos polmeros sintetizados, ya que estos presentan mayores e inclusive mejores
propiedades que los ms antiguos, como la baquelita, sin embargo hay ciertas aplicaciones
de las cuales no se le ha podido reemplazar debido a propiedades y caractersticas que solo
presenta dichos polmeros, es por eso que es importante conocer ampliamente acerca de
ellos, su forma de sintetizarlos, sus aplicaciones y las propiedades tanto fsicas como
qumicas que presentan , ya que como ingenieros qumicos es importante saber la amplia
variedad de materiales que tenemos a nuestra disposicin y saber cules de ellos se acoplan

12

mejor a nuestras necesidades aplicando los conocimientos que hemos adquirido y de esa
forma hacer nuestro trabajo eficiente y de manera apropiada.
3.- Los polmeros constituyen la mayor parte de las cosas que nos rodean, estamos en
contacto con ellos todos los das e incluso nosotros mismos estamos compuestos casi en
nuestra totalidad de estas, tan variadas macromolculas.
Nuestro pas tiene una importante oportunidad de convertirse en proveedor, con ganancias
superiores a las que deja la exportacin de petrleo, ya que podran alcanzarse mayores
ingresos por barril, una vez transformado el crudo en productos plsticos, la industria del
plstico en nuestro pas se ubica principalmente en el rea metropolitana y en los estados de
Mxico, Jalisco, Nuevo Len y Guanajuato, pero se puede ampliar a otras zonas.
4.- Hoy en da los polmeros constituyen gran parte de nuestras vidas ya que absolutamente
todo es polmero desde la ropa que nos ponemos hasta los envases para los alimentos,
lamentablemente estos polmeros no se degradan tan rpido como quisiramos y tambin
gracias a nuestras irresponsabilidades hemos contaminado el medio ambiente ms de lo que
creamos y ahora debemos de tener una mayor conciencia para seguir aprovechando estos
materiales para el bien del hombre y no como material contaminante y saber reciclar cada
polmero nos hara menos contaminantes.

Anexos
Artculos cientficos

Electron beam induced microstructural changes and electrical

conductivity in Bakelite polymer RPC detector material: A positron
lifetime study
K V Aneesh Kumar1, S Ningaraju1, L M Munirathnamma1, H B Ravikumar1 and
Ranganathaiah1,2

Department of Studies in Physics, University of Mysore, Mysore-570006, India.

Govt. Research Centre, Sahyadri College of Engineering & Management, Adyar, Mangalore
575 007, India

E-mail: cr@physics.uni-mysore.ac.in:crang1@rediffmail.com
Abstract. In order to explore the structural modification induced electrical conductivity, samples of Bakelite
RPC polymer detector materials were exposed to 8 MeV of electron beam with the irradiation dose from 20
kGy to100 kGy in steps of 20 kGy. The microstructural changes upon electron beam irradiation have been
studied using Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS) and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
Spectroscopy. Positron lifetime parameters viz., o-Ps lifetime and its intensity show chain scission at lower
doses (20 kGy, 40 kGy) followed by cross-linking beyond 40 kGy due to the radical reactions. The reduction in
electrical conductivity of Bakelite material beyond 60 kGy is correlated to the conducting pathways and crosslinks in the polymer matrix. The appropriate doses of electron beam irradiation of Bakelite material may reduce
the leakage current and hence improves the performance of the detector.

13

1. Introduction
Resistive plate chambers (RPCs) [1] have found extensive applications in high energy and astrophysics
experiments as the active detectors for muon detection. The RPCs made up of high resistive materials like
Bakelite and glass are being used as the detectors for iron calorimeter (ICAL) to study atmospheric neutrinos in
the proposed India based neutrino observatory (INO) project in India [2]. As the RPC detectors are continuously
exposed to charged particles like cosmic ray muons, there will be some modification in the microstructure of
RPC material in the long run. The vital problem faced in such experiments is that Bakelite RPCs exhibit
undesirable high leakage current compared to the glass RPCs [3]. However, Bakelite has several advantages
over glass detector material like low cost, easy to handle in the fabrication of RPCs and as such it is very
important to understand the origin of this leakage current. This problem has not been rectified in the past and
it is interesting to find whether the high leakage current owes its origin to the microstructural changes of the
Bakelite material upon exposure to charged radiation. In recent years, irradiation is treated as an effective tool
for structural modification of polymers and plays a significant role in the material modifications. In the present
study, authors carried out experimental investigations on the effects of electron beam irradiation on the
microstructure of the polymer based Bakelite RPC detector material by one of the well established techniques
viz., Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS) [4] and an attempt has been made to correlate the free
volume change due to the electron beam irradiation on the electrical conductivity.

2. Experimental

2.1. Sample Preparation and Electron Beam Irradiation

Content from this work may be used under the terms of theCreativeCommonsAttribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain
attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd
1

Bakelite samples (P-120, Matt finished NEMA LI-1989, Grade XXX) of density 1.22 g/cm3, manufactured by
Bakelite Hylam, India were procured from VECC Kolkata (INO-Lab), India. The chemical structure of Bakelite is
shown in figure 1. The pairs of rectangular samples having dimensions 1 cm x 1 cm x 0.175 cm were exposed
to the electron beam of energy 8 MeV in air at Microtron Centre, Mangalore University, India, for different
doses up to 100 kGy in the interval of 20 kGy. These samples were used for PALS, electrical conductivity and
FTIR measurements.

Figure 1.Chemical structure of Bakelite.

2.2. Positron Annihilation Lifetime Measurements
Positron annihilation lifetime spectra were recorded for the as received and electron beam irradiated Bakelite
samples using positron lifetime spectrometer. The detailed description of PALS technique was given in our
earlier paper [5]. The o-Ps lifetime (W3) is related to the free volume hole size by a simple relation given by
Nakanishi et al. [6], which was developed on the basis of theoretical models originally proposed by Tao [7] for
molecular liquids and later by Eldrup et al. [8].

14

2.3. FTIR Characterization

The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectra for the as received and the electron beam irradiated Bakelite
samples at different doses were recorded using KBr pellet method in the range of 4000-400 cm-1 with JASCO460
Plus, Japan FTIR Spectrometer with a resolution of 4 cm-1.
2.4. Electrical Conductivity Measurements
The electrical conductivity of the as received and electron beam irradiated Bakelite samples at different doses
were measured using a standard set up with Keithley 2636A model with Source meter and computer program
Lab Tracer 2.0.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy
PALS results reveal that the free volume size increases from 64.90 3 to 69.46 3 on electron beam irradiation
up to 40 kGy and then decreases continuously to 58.93 3 at 100 kGy (figure 2). This can be explained as follows;
Positronium (Ps) formation takes place preferentially at the free volume cavities, which are the regions of low
electron density exist mainly in the amorphous domains of Polymers. Upon irradiation, the scission of polymer
chains will increase the size of the free volume cavities and hence the o-Ps lifetime (3) [7]. Above 40 kGy, there
is a remarkable decrease of o-Ps lifetime (3) about 71 ps and free volume size (Vf) by about 6 3 starting from
40 to 100 kGy irradiation dose in comparison to as received sample. This is attributed to the cross-linking of
Bakelite polymer chains due to the radicals formed by the scission of polymeric chains in the initial stages of
irradiation; this will hinder the polymer chain mobility [9]. On the other hand, the o-Ps intensity (I3) decreases
up to 60 kGy and a small increase at 80 kGy (only about 0.5%) followed by a decline up to 100 kGy dose as seen
from figure 3.The decrease in I3 may be due to inhibition of positronium (Ps) formation. The cleavage of bonds
in Bakelite yield phenyl radicals, these radicals undergo reactions with the electrons of the spur created during
slowing down of positrons, thereby inhibits the formation of positronium (Ps) [10]. Also, there is a possibility of
the interaction of free radicals with o-Ps, this may cause ionization or oxidation. All such interactions may
contribute to the inhibition of o-Ps formation. The variations of o-Ps intensity from 60 to 100 kGy is due to the
structural modification of Bakelite polymer induced by the chain scission followed by the cross linking of the
polymer chains. These arguments are adequately supported by FTIR results.

Figure 2. Variation of o-Ps lifetime (3) and

volume size (Vf ) as a function of electron dose.

Figure 3. Variation of o-Ps intensity (I3)

as a function of electron dose.

free

3.2. FTIR Studies

The chemical modifications caused by electron beam irradiation on Bakelite are understood using FTIR scans
shown in figure 4. The absorbance bands at wave numbers 1457, 1647, and 2923 cm -1 correspond to the
functional groups viz., C-H aliphatic bridge, C=C aromatic ring and stretching vibrations of CH2 alkane
respectively [5, 11]. Since no changes in these wave numbers observed upon electron beam irradiation suggest
that they do not influence structural modification of Bakelite. On the other hand, the absorption band at 3394
cm-1 corresponds to Phenol/OH in the as received sample gets shifted to
3420 cm-1 at 20 kGy and remains
at this value for higher electron doses. As the radiation dose increases, the % of transmittance also increases
which can be attributed to the chain scission resulting to the formation of more number of phenolic radicals.

15

This may further leads to the formation of OH- and H+ ions [12, 13]. The decrease in % of transmittance of O-H
group at higher electron doses suggests the cross linking of polymeric chains of Bakelite. This is possibly due to
the formation of hydrogen bonds by the radicals released during the scission of phenolic groups [11, 14]. The
absorbance band at 1053 cm-1 corresponding to single bond C-O stretching vibrations of -CH2OH- group shifted
to 1036 cm-1 at 20 kGy and then increases to 1055 cm-1 and remains at 1055 cm-1 for higher dosages. These
results indicate that the chemical changes due to the rearrangement of free radicals after the chain cleavage
seems to contribute to the microstructural modifications in the Bakelite sample. These results agree well with
the PALS results.

Figure 4. FTIR Spectrum. [(a) to (f) represents FTIR

Figure 5. Variation of free volume size spectra of as
received to 100 kGy electron beam
(Vf) and electrical conductivity () as a irradiated Bakelite samples
in the interval of 20 kGy.]
function of electron dose.
3.3. Electrical Conductivity Results
Figure 5 shows the variation of free volume size and electrical conductivity as a function of electron dose and
they exhibit behaviour upon electron beam irradiation that as the free volume increases, conductivity increases
and vice-versa. The electrical conductivity (V) of the as received sample was 1.23x10-8 (m)-1. It was observed
that the electrical conductivity increases on irradiation of electron beam dosage up to
40 kGy and then
-8
-1
decreases to 1.08 x 10 (m) at 100 kGy. The increase in conductivity for the low electron doses may be due
to the scission of hydrogen bonded phenolic groups lead to the formation of OH- and H+ radicals [5, 15]. At
higher doses (above 60 kGy) cross linking is the predominant process and the formation of cross-links of the
network hinders the movement of chains inside the polymer. This indicate the formation of cross-links of
Bakelite polymeric chains and reduces the formation of free radicals and reduce their mobility and hence
reduction in electrical conductivity [16, 17]. This is also evident from the reduced free volume size (Vf) obtained
from the PALS study.
4. Conclusions
PALS results revealed that chain scission and cross linking are the predominant processes under electron beam
irradiation on polymer based Bakelite RPC detector material. FTIR spectroscopy indicates the scission of
hydrogen bonded phenolic groups leading to the formation of OH- and H+ radicals in the low dosage region. The
electrical conductivity for 40 kGy electron irradiated sample is more compared to the as received sample
indicative of increased mobility of a large number of OH- and H+ ions produced from the cleavage of hydrogen
bonded phenolic groups. The increased cross-links at higher electron dose may possibly reduce the leakage
current although it depends on the surface properties of the materials as well. We propose that improvement
in the performance of Bakelite RPC detector is possible with electron beam irradiation resulting in reduced
leakage current.

Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to DST, Govt of India for sanctioning the INO-DST Project to UOM, Mysore.

16

References
[1] Santonico R and Cardarelli R 1981 Nucl. Instr. Meth. 187 377-380
[2] Biswas S, Bhattacharya S , Bose S, Chattopadhyay S, Saha S, Sharan M K and Viyogi Y P 2009
Instr. Meth. Phys. Res. Sect. A 602 749-753

Nucl.

[3] Carlson P, Crotty et al. 2001 Study and optimization of RPCs for high rate applications IEEE
Nuclear Sci. Symp. Medical imaging Conf. (USA, 4-10 November 2001) pp 1-17
[4] Shaojin J, Zhicheng Z, Yangmeib F, Huimingb W, Xianfengb Z, Rongdiana H 2002 Eur. Polym.
J. 38 2433
[5] Aneeshkumar K V, Ravikumar H B and Ranganathaiah C 2013 J. Appl. Polym. Sci.130 793-800 [6] Nakanishi
H, Wang S J and Jean Y C 1988 Microscopic surface tension studied by positron
annihilation, in: Sharma
S C (Ed.) Positron annihilation in fluids Singapore, World Scientific
pp 292- 93
[7] Tao S J 1972 J.Chem. Phys. 56 5499-5510
[8] Eldrup M, Lightbody D and Sherwood 1981 Chem. Phys. 63 51-58
[9] Ismayil, Ravindrachary V, Bhajantri R F, Praveena S D, Poojary B, Dutta D and Pujari P K 2010
Degrad.Stab. 95 1083-91
[10] Shariff G, Sathyanarayana P M, Thimmegowda M C and Ranganathaiah C 2002 Polymer.43 2819
[11] Lee Y, Kim D, Kim H J, Hwang T S and Rafailovich M 2003 J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 89 2589-96
[12] Loo J S C, Ooi C P and Boey F Y 2005 Biomaterials.26 1359-67
[13] Chen Y, Chen Z, Xiao S and Liu H 2008 Thermochim. Acta. 476 39-43
[14] Roczniak K, Biernacka T and Skarzynski M 1983 J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 28 531-542
[15] Va'vra J 2003 Nuclear Symp. Conf. Record 2003 IEEE. 5 3704-08

Polym.

[16] Siti A, Mohd N, Azizan A, Mohd Y A R and Ibrahim A T T 2010 J. Nat. Sci. 2 190
[17] Liu H, Hu X B, Wang J Y and Boughton R I 2002 Macromolecules.35 9414-19

Resumen del artculo cientfico Electron beam induced microstructiral changes and
electrical conductivity in bakelite polymer RPC detector material: A positron lifetime
study.
La baquelita es un material RPC que sirve como detector y que tiene grandes aplicaciones en
astrofsica ya que ayuda a detectar muones en el espacio y para estudiar los neutrinos
atmosfricos como este detector esta hecho de baquelita y se encuentra en constante
contacto con rayos csmicos necesitan una modificacin en su estructura, el principal
problema que enfrentan en estos experimentos es que baquelita RPC exhibe alta corriente
de fuga no deseable en comparacin con los RPC de vidrio.
Sin embargo, la baquelita tiene varias ventajas sobre el material detector de vidrio como de
bajo costo, fcil de manejar en la fabricacin de RPC y, como tal, es muy importante para
entender el origen de esta corriente de fuga. Este problema no se ha corregido en el pasado
y es interesante saber si la alta corriente de fuga debe su origen a los cambios
microestructurales del material de baquelita con la exposicin a la radiacin cargada. La
irradiacin se trata como una herramienta eficaz para la modificacin estructural de los
polmeros y juega un papel significativo en las modificaciones materiales.
Al momento de experimentar con la baquelita se puso en presencia de una una irradiacin de
electrones de hasta 40 kGy y el volumen neutro del polmero aumenta de 64.90 a 69.46m,
Esto se atribuye a la reticulacin de cadenas de polmero de baquelita debido a los radicales
formados por la escisin de las cadenas polimricas en las etapas iniciales de la irradiacin;
esto va a dificultar la movilidad de la cadena de polmero.
Las variaciones de intensidad o-Ps de 60 a 100 kGy se debe a la modificacin estructural de
la baquelita inducida por la escisin de la cadena seguido de la reticulacin de las cadenas
17

polimricas. Estos argumentos se encuentran adecuadamente soportados por los resultados

de FTIR.
Los resultados revelaron que la escisin de cadena y reticulacin son los procesos
predominantes bajo irradiacin de haz de electrones sobre polmero a base de baquelita RPC
como material de detector. La espectroscopia de FTIR indica la escisin de los grupos de
hidrgeno de uniones fenlicas que conducen a la formacin de OH- y H + que son radicales
en la regin de dosis baja.
El aumento de enlaces cruzados en dosis de electrones ms alta puede reducir la corriente
de fuga aunque depende de las propiedades superficiales de los materiales, al trmino de la
experimentacin se propone la mejora en el rendimiento del detector de baquelita RPC es
posible con irradiacin de haz de electrones que resulta en la corriente de fuga reducida.

DOI: 10.1002/srin.201100104

steel research int. 82 (2011) No. 10

Use of Waste Bakelite as a Raw Material Resource for Recarburization in Steelmaking Processes
Somyote Kongkarat1)*, Rita Khanna1), Pramod Koshy1), Paul OKane2), and Veena Sahajwalla1)
1)

Centre for Sustainable Materials Research and Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of
New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
2)

Onesteel, Rooty Hill, Sydney, Australia

* Corresponding author; e-mail: s.kongkarat@unsw.edu.au
Bakelite is a thermoset plastic commonly found in electronic and automobile components. CaCO 3 is generally found in the polymer as a filler material.
Since it cannot be remelted, the disposal of this material has become an environmental issue. The present study investigates a new route to utilize waste
bakelite as a source of carbon in EAF steelmaking process. This paper reports the carbon dissolution behaviour of bakelite/ coke blends into liquid steel
at 1550 8C. The carbon pick up in the liquid steel after reaction with varying blends of bakelite/coke for 30 minutes ranged between 0.13 wt% to 0.17

18

wt%; these were generally higher than that observed from coke alone (0.1 wt%). The dissolution rate (K) was also found to improve and the observed
trend was BK2 (0.045 103 s1) > BK3 (0.023 103 s1) > BK1 (0.005 103 s1) > coke (0.003 103 s1). The reaction products formed at the interface after 30 minutes
of contact between liquid steel and bakelite/coke blends were observed to be a CaS-Al2O3 complex. The presence of CaS in the interfacial layer due to
the CaO in the ash, lowered melting temperature of the layer, thereby allowing for increased removal of the ash layer and greater carbon pick-up. The
CaO is formed from the decomposition of CaCO3, and its presence was found to have a positive effect on modifying the
properties of the coke, and thereby enhancing the carbon
onthedissolutionof carbon from both graphitic and
dissolution behaviour.
Keywords: Bakelite, Carbon dissolution, Steelmaking, Recycling

Submitted on 30 March 2011, accepted on 8 April 2011

Introduction
The global demand for plastics has grown significantly
over the past few decades, with the worldwide
consumption
approaching100milliontonnesperyear,withthenumbe
rs rising further each year. In Australia, more than 1.5
million tonnes of plastics were consumed in 2009 [1].
Among these, a small fraction of waste plastics
(18.5%) were recycled; the majority of these recycled
plastics were thermoplastics such as polyethylene
(PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Thermosets make up for only 0.4% of plastics that are
recycled1), and limited published research exists on
the recycling of thermosets. These polymers cannot
be remelted to form a new product, and are generally
landfilled or incinerated, both of which lead to
environmental problems. Bakelite is a thermosetting
amorphous polymer with a
3dimensional cross-linked network structure [2],
which gives it high hardness, rigidity and strength
along with good thermal and electrical insulating
properties. It is used for parts of automobiles,
electronic components and kitchenware, and is
formed from the thermosetting phenol formaldehyde
resin. Its chemical composition varies with the molar

ratio between phenol and

formaldehyde as well as the additives present in it.
CaCO3 is mostly added to commercially grade bakelite
as a filler to improve its properties and to reduce the
costs of production [3]. The present work aims to
investigate a novel route to utilize bakelite as a carbon
and lime resource in steelmaking processes,
particularly for recarburization. This would decrease
the volumes of waste polymers ending up in landfills
and incinerators.
Previous Studies
Dissolution of carbon into molten iron is a significant
part of the carburizing process in ironmaking and
steelmaking processes.Severalstudieshave focused

19

non graphitic materials into Fe and Fe-C alloys [4 15].

These studies were conducted primarily by immersing
graphite in the form of a rod or disc into the molten
metal, or by injecting carbonaceous materials
(graphite, coal and coke) directly into the melt or onto
the top surface to cover the molten metal.
Carbon
dissolutionfromgraphitegenerallyinvolvesthedissocia
tion of carbon atoms from its crystal lattice site into
the
iron/
carboninterfaceandthetransferofcarbonatomsthroug
hthe interfacial boundary layer into the bulk liquid
iron [48]. Mass transfer in the melt was generally
identified as a rate controlling mechanism [4, 5].
Through atomistic computer simulations, Sahajwalla
and Khanna [13] have reported that the rate of mass
transfer of carbon atoms from graphite into molten
iron was slower than the corresponding carbon
dissociationrateatthesolid/liquidinterface.Thepresen
ceof sulphur is also known to retard carbon
dissolution rates of graphite by decreasing the
diffusivity of carbon into liquid iron [911].
Dissolution of carbon from coals and cokes is generally
much slower than that from graphite and is
significantly affected by the presence of sulphur [9,
11]. Carbon dissolution from coke has also been found
to vary with the composition and contents of mineral
oxides in the ash [7]. Ash oxides tend to form an
interfacial layer between the molten iron and the
carbonaceous materials; they also react with solute
carbon in liquid metal leading to its subsequent
depletion [6, 7],[1619]. CaO present in coke ash is
also known to desulphurize the liquid metal by
reacting with carbon and sulphur, as shown by Eq.1
[22]. This reaction produces CO and transfers CaS to
the metal/carbon interface.
CaOs S Csat ! CaSs COg

(1)

Silica is a major component of coke ash and reduced

silicon can transfer into liquid metal [18]. The
depletion of solute carbon present in liquid metal can
occur due to direct and indirect reduction of SiO2, as
shown by Eqs.2 and 3 respectively. The overall
reduction of silica is shown by Eq.4.

SiO2 C ! SiOg COg

(2)

SiOg C ! Si COg

(3)

Chemical elements (wt%)

SiO2 2C ! Sis 2COg

(4)
The sessile drop technique has been used in the past
to study the dissolution of carbon from graphitic and
non graphitic materials into pure iron at 15508C [18
21]. The carbon dissolution from graphite occurs at a
very
fast
rate
andtheextentofcarbontransferfromgraphiteintotheli
quid metal at 15508C wasobserved to achieve
saturationwithin a few minutes of reaction [20]. On
the other hand, the carbon dissolution from coke
occurs at a slow rate with the carbon content reaching
approximately 0.1wt% after 30minutes [18].
Significantly low carbon pick up from the coke was
explained in terms of the consumption of solute
carbon by silica reduction and the formation of ash
oxide layer at the
interface[7,16,18].Ashoxidesformedattheinterfaceac
tas a physical barrier layer hindering the dissolution of
carbon into the molteniron[18]. Cham et al [15].
studied the carbon dissolution from different types of
metallurgical cokes at 15508C using the carburizer
cover method and reported that the carbon content
in the liquid iron ranged from approximately 2wt% to
over 5wt%. These authors [15] concluded that the ash
composition was a dominant factor that influenced
the rate of carbon dissolution from cokes. The wide
variation in the carbon picked up from coke by the
two methods can be attributed to the type of coke,
variation
intheexperimentaltechniqueandconditionsandtheco
ntact area between carbon/iron in the case of the
carburizer cover method.

Ash (wt%)

53.4

4.0

11.6

0.017

CaCO3
30.03

SiO2

SO3

0.91

0.06

Figure 1. Relative proportions of bakelite and coke present in the

carbonaceous blends.

of the blend composition on carbon and sulphur pick

up by the metal as well as the formation of reaction
products at the metal/carbon interface.
Experimental Details

Sample Preparation. The metallurgical coke sample

was provided by Onesteel, Sydney, Australia while the
bakelite was obtained from STHAUST Plastic, Melrose
Park, South Australia. The chemical analysis of the raw
bakelite was conducted by Amdel
Industrial Services Division, Cardiff NSW, Australia,
and is given in Table 1. Bakelite and coke were
crushed in a jaw crusher and sieved to a size of less
than 1mm. The plastic and coke were then blended in
three different ratios (BK1, BK2 and BK3), using a
rolling mill. The proportions of bakelite and coke in
the blends are shown in Fig. 1. The blends were
combusted in a drop tube furnace (DTF) to partly
remove volatile matter at 12008C in an atmosphere of
20% O2 and 80% N2. The material was fed at a rate of
0.52g/min; the schematic of the DTF is shown
elsewhere [24].

The present study investigates the carbon dissolution

behaviour from bakelite/coke blends at 15508C using
the sessile drop technique.
Experimental
results
will
be
discussedintermsoftherateofcarbondissolution,theef
fect

The proximate and ash analyses of the carbonaceous

samples
after combustion
in
the
DTF
were conducted by Amdel Laboratory, and
are given in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively. The

Table 1. Chemical composition of raw bakelite.

20

XRD analysis of the coke and its blends with bakelite

were conducted using a Philip X-pert Multipurpose Xray Diffraction (MPD), and the results are shown
inFig. 2.
The
crystallite
height(Lc)
ofthe carbonpeak
(002)oftheblendswasnotfoundtochangeascomparedt
oits parent coke; while the CaCO3 peak was noted to
increase in intensity with increasing bakelite content.
Carbon Dissolution. Carbon dissolution experiments
were carried out using the sessile drop technique in a
horizontal tube furnace as shown in Fig. 3. This
technique has been previously used to study carbon
transfer into liquid

Coke

BK1

BK2

BK3

SiO2

61.4

56.9

52.8

47.3

Al2O3

31.5

28.9

26.2

22.8

Fe2O3

2.0

2.3

2.3

2.2

CaO

0.55

5.40

10.80

18.30

P2O5

0.9

0.59

0.55

0.52

TiO2

1.0

1.00

0.90

0.77

MgO

0.16

0.61

1.00

1.70

K2O

0.29

0.36

0.33

0.35

Na2O

0.20

0.22

0.20

0.18

SO3

0.16

1.9

2.8

3.5

Mn3O4

0.04

0.07

0.08

0.13

Table 2. Proximate analysis of the carbonaceous samples.

Carbonaceous
samples

Composition (wt%)
Fixed Carbon

Volatile

Coke

79.8

3.0

BK1

76.3

3.2

BK2

73.4

3.1

BK3

68.4

3.3

Ash

17.2

20.5

23.5

28.3

Sulphur

0.29

0.27

0.25

0.27

iron, as well as the wettability of molten iron with

graphite, coals, chars, cokes and refractory materials
[1821].

Table 3. Chemical composition of the ash in the carbonaceous samples.

Carbonaceous

The carbonaceous blends were ground in a ring mill to

obtain a fine powder which was sieved to a particle
size<40mm. Approximately 1.6g of the

samples

Ash composition (wt%)

21

powder was put in a die and then compacted under a

load of 7.5 KN using a hydraulic press. The compacted
substrate had a top surface area of 3.14cm2. The
substrate was placed on a graphite tray and then 0.5g of
electrolytic pure iron (99.98% Fe) was put
ontopofit.Theexperimentswerecarriedoutunderanar gon
atmosphere (Ar99.99%) flowing at a rate of 1 L/min. The
sample holder wasfirstputin thecold zoneofthe furnace for
approximately 5minutes to protect the system from
thermal shock, and then slowly pushed into the hot zone
where the temperature was 15508C. Once the assembly
was pushed into the hot zone, a CCD camera was used to
monitor the metal droplet [18, 20]; the melting of metal
marked the beginning of the reaction time. The images of
liquid metal droplet and carbonaceous substrate inside
the furnace obtained via a CCD camera are shown in Fig.
4.
The samples were quenched after 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 20 and
30minutes of the experiment time. The bottom side of the
metal droplet which was in contact with the carbon
substrate was analyzed to investigate the reaction
products formed at

Figure 2. XRD patterns of the different carbonaceous blends compared to

coke and raw bakelite.

the interface, and this analysis was carried out using a

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM Hitachi S3400X)
coupled with Energy dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
(EDS). Carbon and sulphur picked up by the metal
droplets were measured using a carbon-sulphur
analyser (LECO CS 230). A number of researchers [4
15] have used a first order kinetic equation to
describe the dissolution of carbon into liquid iron,
based on the carbon-concentration gradients. This
equation and its integrated form are shown in Eqs.5
and 6, respectively.

ln

sCt

dCt Ak
CsCt dt V

K t (6) C

22

(5)

CsC0

Carbon Dissolution from Coke and Bakelite/Coke

Blends. The variation in the carbon picked up by liquid
steelas
afunctionoftimeforbakelite/cokeblendscompared to
that of coke are shown in Fig. 5. The ln((CsCt)/(Cs
C0))vs-time plot for coke and bakelite/coke blends are
shown in Fig. 6, and the measured overall dissolution
rate constants are given in Table 4. For metallurgical
coke, the carbon concentration in liquid steel picked
up quite slowly and reached a maximum of 0.1wt%
after 30minutes of contact. The carbon pick-up results
for coke are in agreement with previous carbon pickup studies carried out using the same technique [18].
The ln((CsCt)/(Cs C0))-vs-time plot showed a slow
rate of carbon dissolution (K0.003103 s1). However,
an improvement in carbon dissolution behaviour was
observed when bakelite/ coke blends were used. For
blend BK1, the carbon concentration in the melt
picked up slowly and reached a maximum of 0.13wt%
after 30minutes of contact. The ln((Cs Ct)/(CsC0))-vstime plot showed a trend similar to coke with a slightly
faster overall carbon dissolution rate (K0.005103 s1)
can be observed. In the case of BK2, faster carbon
dissolution behaviour was observed with the carbon
concentration in the melt reached a maximum of
0.16wt% after 4minutes of contact. The ln((CsCt)/(Cs
C0))-vs-time plot showed a trend different from BK1
and coke. Two distinct regions marked I and II, could
be indentified. The carbon dissolution from BK2 in
region I (from 0.5 to 4minutes) was significantly faster
than that of BK1 and coke with the dissolution rate of
0.045103 s1. In region II (from 4 to 30minutes), there
was no evidence whatsoever of any change in the rate
of carbon dissolution could be observed. In the case
of BK3, the carbon concentration in the liquid steel
reached a maximum of 0.17wt% after 30minutes of
reaction. There was little subsequent carbon transfer.
The ln((CsCt)/(CsC0))-vstime plot also showed two
distinct regions. The carbon dissolution from blend
BK3 in region I (from 0.5 to 4minutes) was also faster
than that of BK1 and coke with the dissolution rate of
0.023103 s1. The carbon dissolution behaviour of BK3
in region II (from 4 to

In these equations, Cs and Ct represent the saturation

solubility and carbon concentration (wt%) in the liquid
iron

Figure 3. Schematic of the horizontal tube furnace.

at time t, and k is the first-order dissolution rate

constant (m.s1).AandVrepresentthe interfacial area
ofcontact and the liquid iron bath volume,
respectively. C0 is the initial
carbonconcentrationintheliquidmetal(wt%).Inthisstu
dy, an electrolytic pure iron (99.98%) was used and
thus, the initial carbon value (C0) was set to be zero.
The carbon saturation level (Cs) can be calculated
from the empirical correlation (Eq. (7)) proposed by
Chipman et al.[26]: where T is in 8C. K is considered as
the overall carbon dissolution rate constant (s1). Due
to the experimental technique used in the present
study, the first-order dissolution rate constant (k)
could not be determined. However, the overall carbon
dissolution rate constant, KAk/V, can be measured
from the negative slope of a ln((Cs Ct)/(CsC0))-vstime plot.
Cs 1:34 2:54 103 T

(7)

Results and Discussion

Experimental results are presented in the following
sections along with a discussion of the factors
influencing the carbon dissolution due to the blending
of bakelite with coke. Carbon and sulphur picked up
by the liquid steel from bakelite/coke blends were
measured and compared to that of metallurgical coke.

23

30minutes) was observed to keep on increasing bakelite was significantly below the saturation level slowly with
the dissolution rate of 0.005103 s1. The of 5.28wt% at level of carbon pick-up from coke and its blends with

Figure 4. Images of liquid metal droplets while reacting with carbonaceous substrate at 1550 8C.

Figure 5. Variationinthecarbonpickupfrombakelite/cokeblendsbyliquidsteelat1550 8Ccomparedtocoke:(a)Datafromthefirst4minutesand

24

(b) Data from entire reaction time.

15508C; the longer reaction times may be required for the system to reach a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium.
The overall rate of carbon dissolution into liquid metal depends on types and properties of
carbonaceous materials. Khanna et al. [14] reported the overall carbon dissolution rate from a range
of chars into Fe-C melt at 15508C to be 0.08-0.64103 s1. Recently, the rate of carbon dissolution from
metallurgical cokes into Fe-C melt at 15508C determined using the sessile drop technique was
reported by Chametal.[28]tobe1.1103 s1 and14.7103 s1.In the present study, the coke used is a poor
carburizing material; high ash oxide content in the coke is expected to significantly affect the
carburization [7], especially the presence ofAl2O3,whichcomprised32wt%oftheashinthe coke
sample. The carbon dissolution from the coke occurred at a very slow rate. However, rate of carbon
dissolution was enhanced when bakelite/coke blends were used.
Sulphur Transfer from Coke and Bakelite/Coke Blends. Sulphur can transfer to the melt concurrently
with the dissolution of carbon. The variation in the amount of sulphur transferred to liquid steel
from coke and bakelite/

Figure 6. Plots of ln((CsCt)/(CsC0))-vs-time for bakelite/coke blends compared to coke.

Table 4. Overall carbon dissolution rate constants of coke and bakelite/coke blends.
Dissolution Rate Constants (K103s1)
Carbonaceous
Materials

Region I

Region II

Coke

0.003

BK1

0.005

BK2

0.045

BK3

0.023

0.005

25

coke blends is shown in Fig. 7. Sulphur transfer from the coke into liquid steel stabilized to 0.05wt%
within a few minutes.ForblendsBK1 andBK2,asimilar trendofsulphur transfer was observed, with the
levelof sulphur picked up by the melt increasing from approximately 0.08wt% (after 2minutes of
contact) to 0.1wt% after 30minutes of contact. With further increase in the bakelite content (for
blend BK3) the overall sulphur pick-up was lower. Sulphur picked up stabilized to 0.06wt% after
30minutes of reaction. The decreased sulphur pick-up in the case of blend BK3 compared to the
other blends could be attributed to the greater desulphurization of the melt which could have
occurredduetotheCaOcontentbeingthehighestamongthe blends.
Formation of Interfacial Reaction Products. The volatile matter content in the bakelite/coke blends
was observed to be quite similar (3wt%) to that of coke (see Table 2). Thus, the effect of volatiles on
carbon dissolution was not considered in the present study. The blending of bakelite with coke
mainly resulted in a change in the chemical composition of the materials, and this influenced the
relative proportions of the ash oxide layer formed at the metal/carbon interface. SEM images of the
steel/carbon interface as well as the EDS analysis ofthe interfacial region in the case of coke are
shown in Fig. 8. It was found that the interface was predominantly covered by Al2O3 even after
4minutes of contact, as the coke used had high alumina content in the ash. Moreover, this ash layer
was observed to grow with time. The reduction of silica is one factor that can decrease the level of
solute carbon in the liquid metal by converting silica into silicon in the melt [18, 19]. This
correspondswiththeEDSspectrawhereaverysmallpeakof silica was detected even though it is the
major component of the coke ash. After 30minutes of reaction, the interface was also observed to
be covered by Al2O3.
The relative strength of the interfacial layer formed between the solid carbon and molten steel
depends on its fusion temperature which in turn depends on the chemistry of the layer [7, 17]. If the
melting point of the ash layer is lower than the liquid metal temperature, it could be easily removed
from the interface. This increases the contact area between the liquid metal and the solid carbon,
and thus enhances carbon dissolution. Orsten and Oeters [17] studied the influence of additives like
CaO on the carbon dissolution and found that the addition of CaO can reduce the ash melting
temperature. These authors concluded that the dissolution of coke was limited by the fusion
temperature of ash. Gudenau et al. [7] reported that the influence of ash on the interactions

26

Figure 7. Variation in the sulphur transfer from bakelite/coke blends into liquid steel at 1550 8C compared to coke.

of industrial and special cokes with liquid iron was an important factor in controlling the coke
dissolution. They suggested that phases that have lower fusion temperature than coke ash would
aid the carburizing of iron by allowing the ash to be removed from the interface. These authors [7]
also investigated the effect of additives and found that the addition of CaO, Al2O3, MgO and SiO2
decreased the dissolution of carbon, while Fe2O3 increased the dissolution. The differences in the
results of the two authors [7, 17] may be attributed to the experimental conditions and materials.
In the present study, a major component of the coke ash is SiO2 and Al2O3, while CaCO3 is the key ash
constituent in the case of bakelite. Therefore, the blending of bakelite with coke results in the
material having significant difference in ash chemistry compared to its parent coke. The thermal

27

Figure 8. SEM images of the metal/carbon interface for coke and the EDS spectra of the interfacial region.

decomposition of CaCO3 is shown by Eq.8, which can occur during the combustion of the blend in
the furnace, thereby increasing the CaO content in the blend. This will result in the Al2O3 content
decreasing proportionally (see Table 3). CaO would act as a fluxing agent and will reduce the ash
melting temperature [17], which in turn would increase the relative fluidity oftheash
layer.Thechange inthe properties of the ash layer would produce differences in carbon and sulphur
pick-up observed from bakelite/coke blends.
CaCO3s ! CaOs CO2g

(8)

From Table 3, only the relative contents of SiO2, Al2O3, CaO and MgO varied significantly across the
different blends compared to its parent coke. All the other ash components were low in content and
did not show any significant variations in the different blends. The high CaO in the bakelite/coke
blend can decrease the melting temperature of the reaction products formed at the metal/carbon
interface during reactions.
Toestimatetheproportionofthesolid/liquidcomponents of the interfacial products in the case of coke
and bakelite/ coke blends at 15508C, FactSage 6.0 [27], athermodynamic software, was used.23) The
percentage of the different reaction products formed and the proportions of the solid / liquid
components in these interfacial products were calculated using this software. The following
assumptions were made for the thermodynamic calculations:
1. OnlySiO2,Al2O3,CaOandMgOwereincludedastheash oxides in the calculation.
2. Fe2O3 was not included because it is assumed to be reduced under the experimental condition.

28

3. Sulphur was included in the calculations to assess itsinfluence on the reactions at the metal/carbon

interface.
4. Allthecomponentsoftheashareassumedtobedistributedhomogeneously throughout the sample.
Cham et al.[23] used FactSage to estimate the solid/liquid ratio of the reaction products formed at
the interface at temperatures of 15008C and 15508C in order to investigate
theinfluenceofthecontentandcompositionofashoxideson the carbon dissolution behaviour from
cokes. In their study, it was found that over 80% of reaction products formed at the interface was
liquid. These authors explained that the differences in the melting temperature and viscosity of the
interfacial product resulted in the differences in the carbon dissolution behaviour of the different
cokes. They also showed that the composition of ash oxides in the coke influences the viscosity of
the interfacial products and hence the kinetics of reaction between coke and iron.
In the present study, the estimated proportions of the solid and liquid components of the interfacial
products formed in the case of coke and bakelite/coke blends at 15508C as obtained from FactSage
6.0 are listed in Table 5. The estimated major constituents of the liquid and solid components are
shown in Tables 6 and 7.
The constituents of the liquid component were found to be SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, CaS and Mg2SiO4, while
the major
Table 5. Relative percentages of solid / liquid components of the interfacial products for bakelite/coke blends and coke at 1550 8C
(calculated using FactSage 6.0).
Carbonaceous
samples

Solid %

Liquid %

Coke

40

60

BK1

23

77

BK2

93

BK3

97

Table 6. Relative constituents in the liquid component of the interfacial products for bakelite/coke blends and coke at 1550 8C (calculated
using FactSage 6.0).
Liquid Constituents (%)

Carbonaceous
samples

SiO2

Coke

90.6

8.13

0.77

BK1

71.7

20.9

5.79

0.04

1.54

BK2

59.9

27.4

10.5

0.14

2.07

BK3

52.3

25.9

18.1

0.45

3.34

Al2O3

29

CaO

CaS

0.0007

Mg2SiO4

0.51

Table 7. Relative constituents in the solid component of the interfacial products for bakelite/coke blends and coke at 1550 8C (calculated
using FactSage 6.0).
Solid Constituents (%)
Carbonaceous
samples

3Al2O3.Si2O13 (Mullite)

CaS

Coke

99.6

0.4

BK1

92.2

7.8

BK2

63.7

36.3

BK3

100

constituent of the solid component was 3Al2O3.Si2O13 (mullite) and CaS. With increasing bakelite
content in the blend, the contents of SiO2 and Al2O3 in both the liquid and solid components of the
interfacial layer were found to decrease, while the contents of CaO and CaS increased expectedly.
The estimated results show that the presence of CaO and CaS atthe interfacecan lower themelting
temperature ofthe interfacial layer. As shown in Table 5, the interfacial reaction products in the case
of bakelite/coke blends were moreliquidcomparedtothecaseofcoke,andthepercentage of liquid
component increased with increasing bakelite content in the blend. The liquid oxide layer which is
readily removed from the interface can increase the metal/carbon contact area. These could explain
the greater carbon pick-up values in the case of bakelite/coke blends compared to coke alone. This
provides the evidence that the CaO generated from bakelite has a beneficial effect in decreasing the
ash fusion temperature of the materials, and this is in agreement with the results

30

Figure 9. SEM images of the metal/carbon interface for BK1 and the EDS spectra of points in the region.

from

literature [17].
The differences in the percentages of the solid/liquid components estimated using the FactSage 6.0
could explain the differences in carbon dissolution behaviour between the bakelite/coke blends and
coke alone. However, the formationofinterfacial products isinfluencedbythekineticsof the reaction
as the dissolution reactions continue, the interfaciallayerwillchange duetothedepositionofreaction
products. Once solid carbon is in contact with liquid iron, carbon and sulphur atoms will dissociate
from its host lattice into the interface and then dissolve into liquid iron. Ash oxides in the solid
carbon will also form a layer at the interface. In the case of bakelite/coke blends, the ash layer
formed is assumed to be composed of SiO2 - Al2O3 - CaO MgO. Once the carbon and sulphur atoms
transfer across the interface into the liquid metal, they will react with the mineral oxides in the
interfacial layer, and thus transfer reaction productsintothe interface.Theinterfacial reactions that
take place include desulphurization of liquid iron and reduction of silica. The CaO generated from
the bakelite can react with the dissolved carbon and sulphur atoms, and form CaS at the interface
as a reaction product. SiO2 can also be reduced by the dissolved carbon through both direct and
indirect reduction. The reduced Si is transferred into liquid iron. The final composition and
morphology of the interfacial layer is the result of the reactions which occur at the metal/carbon
interface.
The reaction products formed at the metal/carbon interface in the case of bakelite containing blends
were observed tobeacombination ofCaSandAl2O3.ForblendBK1, white regions representing mineral
oxides were observed at the interface after 4minutes of contact and these were predominantly
composed of CaS-Al2O3 mixture (Fig. 9). With ongoing dissolution, the composition of the ash layer
was found to change and become calcium enriched due to the formation of CaS complex. A
corresponding decrease in Al2O3 contents was seen from the interfacial images after 30minutes of
reaction. In the case of blend BK2 and BK3, the interfacial layer formed after 4 and 30minutes of
reaction was also found to be composed of CaS-Al2O3 mixture as shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11,
respectively.
By increasing the bakelite content in the blends, the presence of CaS at the interface was observed
to increase proportionally with the decrease in Al2O3 (see Figs. 9 to 11). The highest amount of CaS
formed at the interface was seen in the case of blend BK3. These results correspond to the
thermodynamic results obtained using FactSage 6.0 (Tables 6 and 7). This provides evidence that
the
greater desulphurization
of
the
melt hadoccurred in
the
case
of
BK3 comparedtothecaseofBK2andBK1andthuscouldexplain the lower sulphur pick-up in the
case of blend BK3 compared to BK2 and BK1.
The formation of CaS and Al2O3 phases at the iron/carbon interface have been reported previously
[19, 21]. Using the sessile drop technique, Wu et al. [19] investigated the iron/ natural graphite

31

Figure 10. SEM images of the metal/carbon interface for BK2 and the EDS spectra of the points in the region.

interface and found that although natural graphite contained 8.8wt% ash, with the majority being
SiO2 (72wt%), no SiO2 was observed at the interface. These authors also reported that Al2O3 was
observed at the interface initially, and as the reaction proceeded, the proportion of CaO increased
and Al2O3 decreased. Therefore, the interface was found to be replaced by Fe/ Ca/S complex
thereafter. They described the formation of the sulphide based complex as the effect of the
desulphurization of the iron droplet. However, the mechanisms related to the decrease in Al2O3 and
the increase in CaO was not provided. McCarthy et al.[21] studied the iron/coke interface and also
reported the formation of CaS complex at the interface. In the iron/coke system used in their study,
the dissolution of carbon from coke was limited with the carbon pick-up after 30minutes of contact
being approximately 0.1wt%. The low carbon dissolution was attributed to a combination of both
poor dissolution rate and carbon consumption by reducible oxides in the coke ash. These
authorsconcludedthattheproductionofsemifusedashatthe interface will reduce the interfacial area.
This occurred due to the selective removal of silica at the interface initially and the later removal of
CaO and its conversion into CaS [21].
The presence of Al2O3 (which is a non wetting compound with high melting point >20008C) would
hinder the liquid metalreactionwiththecokeinterface.Ontheotherhand,the presence of CaS and
Al2O3 mixture at the interface in the case of bakelite/coke blends would aid the dissolution of
carbonbyreducingthemeltingtemperatureoftheinterfacial
products.Themetal
droplets
whichreactedwithblendsBK2 and BK3 were found to show faster dissolution rate compared to coke,
and a similar trend of sulphur transfer compared to coke was seen in blend BK3. This suggests that
there is a potential for using bakelite/coke blends as a replacement of coke as a recarburizing
material.

32

Conclusions
An in-depth investigation has been conducted on the dissolution of carbon from bakelite/coke
blends into liquid steel at 15508C to examine the potential ofrecycling bakelite
asasourceofcarbonandlimeforrecarburizationprocessesin steelmaking. The major findings from this
study are:
1. Bakelite was partially blended with coke in a range ofproportions for carbon dissolution

experiments. The measured carbon pick up value after 30minutes of reaction for metallurgical
coke was approximately 0.10wt%, whereas it was 0.13, 0.16 and 0.17wt% for blends BK1, BK2 and
BK3 respectively. The overall carbon dissolution rate for coke was 0.003103 s1. A slightly faster
carbon dissolution rate was observed in the case of BK1 with the dissolution rate determined as
0.005103 s1. The fastest carbon dissolution was observed in the case of BK2 for a first few minutes
of reaction with the overall carbon dissolution rate constant (K) was 0.045103 s1. A similar trend
was seen in the case of BK3 with the overall carbon dissolution rate constant was 0.023103 s1. The
addition of bakelite generally enhanced the carbon dissolution kinetics;

Figure 11. SEM images of the metal/carbon interface for BK3 and the EDS spectra of points in the region.

the

carbon pick up was also seen to increase with increasing bakelite levels.
2. The presence of CaCO3 (present as a filler in the waste bakelite) was found to have a beneficial

effect on modifying the chemical properties of the carbonaceous substrate which in turn affected
the composition of the interfacial ash layer. The CaO arising from CaCO3 decomposition
participates in desulphurization reactions to form CaSat the interface.Moreover, itacts as afluxing
agenttolowertheashfusiontemperatureoftheinterfacial

33

layer.Theinterfaciallayercompositionhadbeenfoundto have a major influence on the dissolution

of carbon.
3. ThermodynamiccalculationsusingFactSageshowedthatat 15508C the interfacial products were
predominantly liquidwhenthebakelite/cokeblendswereusedcompared to coke. Liquid phases at
the interface would easily be removed,andthiswouldleadtotheincreasedexposureof carbon to the
liquid metal, thereby improving the carbon dissolution behaviour.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the financial support received from the Australian Research Council for this project.
References
[1] PACIA: 2009 National plastics Recycling Survey, Australia. http:// www.pacia.org.au/Content/media-21.12.2009-1.aspx. Accessed 24
Jan 2011.
[2] W. F. Smith: Principle of Materials Science and Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 2nd Ed., 1990, pp. 353.
[3] S. L. Rosen: Fundamental Principles of PolymericMaterials, Wiley & Son, 1937, pp. 305.
[4] R. G. Olsson, V. Koump and T. F. Perzak: Trans. Met. Soc. AIME, 236 (1966), pp. 426.
[5] M. Kosaka and S. Minowa: Trans. Iron Steel Inst., Japan, 8 (1968), pp. 392.
[6] M. B. Mourao, G. G. K. Murthy and J. F. Elliott: Metall. Trans. B, 24B (1993), pp. 629.
[7] H. W. Gudenau, J. P. Mulanza and D. G. R. Sharma: Steel Res., 61 (1990), pp. 97.
[8] N. W. Jones: Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 25 (1998), pp. 460.
[9] Y. Shigeno, M. Tokuda and M. Ohtani: Trans. JOM, 26 (1985), pp. 33. [10] C. Wu and V. Sahajwalla: Metall. Trans B, 31B (2000),
pp. 243.
[11] J. K. Wright and B. R. Baldock: Metall. Trans. B, 19B (1988), pp. 375.
[12] S. O. Ericsson and P. O. Mellberg: Scand. J. Metall., 10 (1981), pp. 15.
[13] V. Sahajwalla and R. Khanna: Metall. Trans. B, 31B (2000), pp. 1517.
[14] R. Khanna, F. McCarthy, H. Sun, N. Simento and V. Sahajwalla: Metal. Trans. B, 36B (2005), pp. 719.
[15] S. T. Cham, V. Sahajwalla, R. Sakurovs, H. Sun and M. Dubikova: ISIJ Int., 44 (2004), pp. 1835.
[16] M. W. Chapman, B. J. Monaghan, S. A. Nightingale, J. G. Masthieson and R. J. Nightingale: ISIJ Int., 47 (2007), pp. 973.
[17] S. Orsten and F. Oeters: Dissolution of carbon in liquid iron, Process Technology Proc., Inst. for scientific information, PA, USA,
1986, Vol.6, Book 3, pp. 143.
[18] F. McCarthy, V. Sahajwalla, J. Hart and N. Saha-Chaudhury: Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 34B (2003), pp. 573.
[19] C. Wu, R. Wiblen and V. Sahajwalla: Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 31B (2000), pp. 1099.
[20] L. Zhao and V. Sahajwalla: ISIJ Int., 43 (2003), pp. 1.
[21] F. McCarthy, R. Khanna, V. Sahajwalla and N. Simento: ISIJ Int., 45 (2005), pp. 1261.
[22] A. K. Biswas: Principles of Blast Furnace Ironmaking: Theory and Practice, Cootha Publishing House, 1 st Ed., 1981, pp. 64. [23] S. T.
Cham, V. Sahajwalla, R. Sakurovs, H. Sun and M. Dubikova: ISIJ Int., 46 (2006), pp. 652. [24] V. Sahajwalla, M. Rahman, R.
Khanna, N. Saha-Chaudhury, P. OKane, C. Skidmore and D. Knights: Steel Res. Int., 80 (2009), pp.
531.
[25] C. Wu and V. Sahajwalla: Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 29B (1998), pp. 471.
[26] J. Chipman, R. J. Alfred, L. W. Gott, R. B. Small, D. M. Wilson, C. N. Thomson, D. L. Guernsky, J. C. Fulton: Trans. ASM, 44
(1952), pp. 1215.
[27] C. W. Bale, A. D. Pelton, W. T. Thompson, G. Eriksson, K. Hack, P. Chartrand, S. Decterov, J. Melancon, S. Petreson: FactSage,
6.0 GTT Technology, Aachen, Germany, 2009.
[28] S. T. Cham, R. Khanna, V. Sahajwalla, R. Sakurovs, D. French: ISIJ Int., 49 (2009), pp. 1860.

El uso de residuos de baquelita como recurso de Materias Primas para

recarburacin en procesos siderrgicos

RESUMEN
En el mundo la demanda de plsticos ha ido creciendo enormemente siendo el
consumo cerca de 100 millones de toneladas por ao, aumentando cada vez ms.
Un estudio en Australia mostro que cerca de 1,5 millones de toneladas de plsticos
se consumieron en el ao 2009 y solo un 18,5% fueron reciclados; la mayora de

34

estos plsticos reciclados eran termoplsticos tales como polietileno (PE) y el

tereftalato de polietileno (PET). Estos polmeros no pueden fundirse para formar un
nuevo producto, y generalmente se depositan en vertederos o se eliminan por
incineracin, ambos de los cuales conducen a los problemas ambientales.
Baquelita es un polmero de alta dureza, rigidez y resistencia con propiedades
aislantes trmicas y elctricas. Se utiliza para piezas de automviles, componentes
electrnicos y utensilios de cocina. Para su produccin comercial se aade CaCO3
a la baquelita como material de relleno para mejorar sus propiedades y para reducir
los costes de produccin.
En este artculo se investig una nueva forma para utilizar baquelita como ejemplo;
para recarburacin. Esto disminuira la cantidad de residuos de polmeros
provocando menos contaminacin.
Se realiz la investigacin sobre la disolucin de carbono de baquelita / coque
fundido con acero lquido a 1550 C para examinar el potencial de reciclaje de
baquelita como fuente de carbono y cal para procesos de recarburacin en la
fabricacin de acero.
Se realizaron varias mezclas en diferentes proporciones de los componentes
slidos y lquidos de los productos interfaciales formados. Despus de 30 minutos
de reaccin de coque metalrgico fue de aproximadamente 0,10% en peso,
mientras que fue de 0,13% de BK1, 0,16% de BK2 y 0,17% para BK3 en peso para
estas mezclas.
La velocidad de disolucin de carbono global de coque fue 0.003x10-3 s-1. Se
obtuvo una velocidad de disolucin de carbono ligeramente ms rpido en el caso
de BK1 con la velocidad de disolucin determinado como 0,005x10-3 s-1. La
disolucin ms rpida de carbono se observ en el caso de BK2 por unos primeros
minutos de la reaccin la constante de velocidad de disolucin de carbono general
(K) era 0,045x10-3 s-1.
Una tendencia similar se observ en el caso de BK3 con la constante de velocidad
total de la reaccin de carbono era 0.023x10-3 S-1. La adicin de baquelita mejora,
en general la cintica de disolucin de carbono; la captacin de carbono tambin se
observ a aumentar con el aumento de los niveles de baquelita.
Se encontr que la presencia de CaCO3 tiene un efecto beneficioso sobre la
modificacin de las propiedades qumicas del sustrato carbonoso y a su vez
afectaba a la composicin de la capa de interfacial. El CaO resultante de la
descomposicin de CaCO3 participa en las reacciones de desulfuracin para formar
CaS en la interfase. Se encontr que la composicin de la capa interfacial tiene una
gran influencia en la disolucin de carbono.
Los clculos termodinmicos utilizando FactSage showedthat a 1550 C nos mostr
que los productos interfaciales eran predominantemente lquidos cuando se usaron
las mezclas de baquelita / coque en comparacin con coque. Las fases lquidas en
la interfase se eliminaban fcilmente, y esto dara lugar a la mayor exposicin de

35

carbono para el metal lquido, mejorando as el comportamiento de disolucin de

carbono.
Esto nos indica que es posible que exista un potencial para el uso de mezclas de
baquelita / coque como un reemplazo de coque como un material de recarburacin.

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19. http://www.metal-service.net/pdf/BAQUELITA.pdf
20. http://www.asiquim.com/nwebq/download/HDS/Polvo_de_moldeo_fenolico.
pdf
21. http://www.ecured.cu/Baquelita
22. http://revistas.bancomext.gob.mx/rce/magazines/116/6/RCE6.pdf
23. Iraheta, S. y Hua, K. (2012) CARACTERIZACION DE LOS POLIMEROS
UTILIZADOS PARA ENVASAR AGUA EN PRESENTACION DE BOLSA QUE
SE COMERCIALIZAN EN EL INTERIOR Y LOS ALREDEDORES DE LA
UNIVERSIDAD DE EL SALVADOR POR ESPECTROFOTOMETRIA
INFRARROJA.
http://ri.ues.edu.sv/2228/1/CARACTERIZACION_DE_LOS_POLIMEROS_U
TILIZADOS_PARA_ENVASAR_AGUA_EN_PRESENTACION_DE_BOLSA
_QUE_SE_COM.pdf
24. Alvarez,
P.
(2015)
Baquelita: nostalgia
por
lo
retro https://bigbenantiguedades.wordpress.com/tag/baquelita/
25. Tecnoquim (2015)
http://www.tecnoquim.com.mx/productos/baquelita_Micarta/Baquelita.pdf
26. Mimeur, Robert (1955) ELECTROMECANICA DE PRECISION- pp26.

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