How is Natural Gas Formed?

Natural gas is made up of just two elements - carbon and hydrogen. It is part of a family of chemicals
known as hydrocarbons, which also includes oil and gasoline. As its name suggests, natural gas comes
out of the ground as a gas; oil, gasoline and other hydrocarbons are recovered mixed together in a liquid
called crude oil.
Stage 1 All of the natural gas we use today began as microscopic plants and animals living in the ocean millions
of years ago. As these microscopic plants and animals lived, they absorbed energy from the sun, which
was stored as carbon molecules in their bodies. When they died, they sank to the bottom of the sea. Over
millions of years, layer after layer of sediment and other plants and bacteria were formed.
Stage 2 As they became buried ever deeper, heat and pressure began to rise. The amount of pressure and the
degree of heat, along with the type of biomass, determined if the material became oil or natural gas. Very
high heat or biomass made predominantly of plant material produced natural gas.
Stage 3 After oil and natural gas were formed, they tended to migrate through tiny pores in the surrounding rock.
Some oil and natural gas migrated all the way to the surface and escaped. Other oil and natural gas
deposits migrated until they were caught under impermeable layers of rock or clay,
where they were trapped. These trapped deposits are where we find oil and natural gas
today.
Source: NGSA
There are many different theories as to the origins of fossil fuels. The most widely accepted theory says
that fossil fuels are formed when organic matter (such as the remains of a plant or animal) is compressed
under the earth, at very high pressure for a very long time. This is referred to as thermogenic methane.
Similar to the formation of oil, thermogenic methane is formed from organic particles that are covered in
mud and other sediment. Over time, more and more sediment and mud and other debris are piled on top
of the organic matter. This sediment and debris puts a great deal of pressure on the organic matter, which
compresses it. This compression, combined with high temperatures found deep underneath the earth,
breaks down the carbon bonds in the organic matter. As one gets deeper and deeper under the earths
crust, the temperature gets higher and higher. At low temperatures (shallower deposits), more oil is
produced relative to natural gas. At higher temperatures, however, more natural gas is created, as
opposed to oil. That is why natural gas is usually associated with oil in deposits that are 1 to 2 miles
below the earth's crust. Deeper deposits, very far underground, usually contain primarily natural gas, and
in many cases, pure methane.
Natural gas can also be formed through the transformation of organic matter by tiny microorganisms. This
type of methane is referred to as biogenic methane. Methanogens, tiny methane-producing
microorganisms, chemically break down organic matter to produce methane. These microorganisms are
commonly found in areas near the surface of the earth that are void of oxygen. These microorganisms
also live in the intestines of most animals, including humans. Formation of methane in this manner usually
takes place close to the surface of the earth, and the methane produced is usually lost into the
atmosphere. In certain circumstances, however, this methane can be trapped underground, recoverable

as natural gas. An example of biogenic methane is landfill gas. Waste-containing landfills produce a

Source: U.S. Energy Information

Administration
relatively large amount of natural gas from the decomposition of the waste materials that they contain.
New technologies are allowing this gas to be harvested and used to add to the supply of natural gas.

Natural Gas Under the Earth

Although there are several ways that methane, and thus natural gas, may be formed, it is usually found
underneath the surface of the earth. As natural gas has a low density, once formed it will rise toward the
surface of the earth through loose, shale type rock and other material. Some of this methane will simply
rise to the surface and dissipate into the air. However, a great deal of this methane will rise up into
geological formations that 'trap' the gas under the ground. These formations are made up of layers of
porous, sedimentary rock (kind of like a sponge that soaks up and contains the gas), with a denser,
impermeable layer of rock on top.
This impermeable rock traps the natural gas under the ground. If these formations are large enough, they
can trap a great deal of natural gas underground, in what is known as a reservoir. There are a number of
different types of these formations, but the most common is created when the impermeable sedimentary
rock forms a 'dome' shape, like an umbrella that catches all of the natural gas that is floating to the
surface.
There are a number of ways that this sort of 'dome' may be formed. For instance, faults are a common
location for oil and natural gas deposits to exist. A fault occurs when the normal sedimentary layers 'split'
vertically, so that impermeable rock shifts down to trap natural gas in the more permeable limestone or
sandstone layers. Essentially, the geological formation, which layers impermeable rock over more porous,
oil and gas rich sediment, has the potential to form a reservoir. The picture alongside shows how natural
gas and oil can be trapped under impermeable sedimentary rock, in what is known as an anticlinal

Source: Energy Tomorrow

formation. To successfully bring these fossil fuels to the surface, a hole must be drilled through the
impermeable rock to release the fossil fuels under pressure. Note that in reservoirs that contain oil and
gas, the gas, being the least dense, is found closest to the surface, with the oil beneath it, typically
followed by a certain amount of water. With natural gas trapped under the earth in this fashion, it can be
recovered by drilling a hole through the impermeable rock. Gas in these reservoirs is typically under
pressure, allowing it to escape from the reservoir on its own.
In addition to being found in a traditional reservoir such as the one shown above, natural gas may also be
found in other 'unconventional' formations.

Exploration

The practice of locating natural gas and petroleum deposits has been transformed dramatically in the last

20 years with the advent of extremely advanced, ingenious technology. In the early days of the industry,

the only way of locating underground petroleum and natural gas deposits was to search for surface
evidence of these underground formations. Those searching for natural gas deposits were forced to scour
the earth, looking for seepages of oil or gas emitted from underground before they had any clue that there
were deposits underneath. However, because such a low proportion of petroleum and natural gas
deposits actually seep to the surface, this made for a very inefficient and difficult exploration process. As
the demand for fossil fuel energy has increased dramatically over the past years, so has the necessity for
more accurate methods of locating these deposits.
Sources of Data
Technology has allowed for a remarkable increase in the success rate of locating natural gas reservoirs.
In this section, it will be outlined how geologists and geophysicists use technology and knowledge of the
properties of underground natural gas deposits to gather data that can later be interpreted and used to
make educated guesses as to where natural gas deposits exist. However, it must be remembered that the
process of exploring for natural gas and petroleum deposits is characteristically an uncertain one, due to
the complexity of searching for something that is often thousands of feet below ground.
Geological Surveys
Exploration for natural gas typically begins with geologists examining the surface structure of the earth,
and determining areas where it is geologically likely that petroleum or gas deposits might exist. It was
discovered in the mid 1800s that anticlinal slopes had a particularly increased chance of containing
petroleum or gas deposits. These anticlinal slopes are areas where the earth has folded up on itself,
forming the dome shape that is characteristic of a great number of reservoirs. By surveying and mapping
the surface and sub-surface characteristics of a certain area, the geologist can extrapolate which areas
are most likely to contain a petroleum or natural gas reservoir. The geologist has many tools at his
disposal to do so, from the outcroppings of rocks on the surface or in valleys and gorges, to the geologic
information attained from the rock cuttings and samples obtained from the digging of irrigation ditches,
water wells, and other oil and gas wells. This information is all combined to allow the geologist to make
inferences as to the fluid content, porosity, permeability, age, and formation sequence of the rocks
underneath the surface of a particular area. For example, in the picture shown, a geologist may study the
outcroppings of rock to gain insight into the geology of the subsurface areas.

Surface Geology
Source: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation

A Seismograph
Source: U.S. Geological Survey
Once the geologist has determined an area where it is geologically possible for a natural gas or petroleum
formation to exist, further tests can be performed to gain more detailed data about the potential reservoir
area. These tests allow for the more accurate mapping of underground formations, most notably those
formations that are commonly associated with natural gas and petroleum reservoirs. These tests are
commonly performed by a geophysicist, one who uses technology to find and map underground rock
formations.
Seismic Exploration
Arguably the biggest breakthrough in petroleum and natural gas exploration came through the use of
basic seismology. Seismology refers to the study of how energy, in the form of seismic waves, moves
through the Earth's crust and interacts differently with various types of underground formations. In 1855,
L. Palmiere developed the first 'seismograph', an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes. This
device was able to pick up and record the vibrations of the earth that occur during an earthquake.
However, it wasn't until 1921 that this technology was applied to the petroleum industry and used to help
locate underground fossil fuel formations.

The basic concept of seismology is quite simple. As the Earth's crust is composed of different layers, each
with its own properties, energy (in the form of seismic waves) traveling underground interacts differently

with each of these layers. These seismic waves, emitted from a source, will travel through the earth, but
also be reflected back toward the source by the different underground layers. Through seismology,

Seismology in Practice
Source: API
geophysicists are able to artificially create vibrations on the surface and record how these vibrations are
reflected back to the surface, revealing the properties of the geology beneath.
An analogy that makes intuitive sense is that of bouncing a rubber ball. A rubber ball that is dropped on
concrete will bounce in a much different way than a rubber ball dropped on sand. In the same manner,
seismic waves sent underground will reflect off dense layers of rock much differently than extremely
porous layers of rock, allowing the geologist to infer from seismic data exactly what layers exist
underground and at what depth. While the actual use of seismology in practice is quite a bit more
complicated and technical, this basic concept still holds.
Onshore Seismology
In practice, using seismology for exploring onshore areas involves artificially creating seismic waves, the
reflection of which are then picked up by sensitive pieces of equipment called 'geophones' that are
embedded in the ground. The data picked up by these geophones is then transmitted to a seismic
recording truck, which records the data for further interpretation by geophysicists and petroleum reservoir
engineers. The drawing shows the basic components of a seismic crew. The source of seismic waves (in
this case an underground explosion) creates that reflect off the different layers of the Earth, to be picked
up by geophones on the surface and relayed to a seismic recording truck to be interpreted and logged.
Although the seismograph was originally developed to measure earthquakes, it was discovered that much
the same sort of vibrations and seismic waves could be produced artificially and used to map
underground geologic formations. In the early days of seismic exploration, seismic waves were

created using dynamite. These carefully planned, small explosions created the requisite seismic waves,
which were then picked up by the geophones, generating data to be interpreted by geophysicists,
geologists, and petroleum engineers.
Recently, due to environmental concerns and improved technology, it is often no longer necessary to use
explosive charges to generate the needed seismic waves. Instead, most seismic crews use non-explosive
seismic technology to generate the required data. This non-explosive technology usually consists of a
large heavy-wheeled or tracked-vehicle carrying special equipment designed to create a large impact or
series of vibrations. These impacts or vibrations create seismic waves similar to those created by
dynamite
Offshore Seismology
The same sort of process is used in
offshore seismic exploration. When
exploring for natural gas that may exist
thousands of feet below the seabed floor,
which may itself be thousands of feet
below sea level, a slightly different method
of seismic exploration is used. Instead of
trucks and geophones, a ship is used to
pick up the seismic data and hydrophones
are used to pick up seismic waves
underwater. These hydrophones are towed
behind the ship in various configurations
depending on the needs of the
geophysicist. Instead of using dynamite or
impacts on the seabed floor, the seismic
ship uses a large air gun, which releases
bursts of compressed air under the water,
creating seismic waves that can travel
through the Earth's crust and generate the
seismic reflections that are necessary.

Offshore Seismic Exploration

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Magnetometers
In addition to using seismology to gather data concerning the composition of the Earth's crust, the
magnetic properties of underground formations can be measured to generate geological and geophysical
data. This is accomplished through the use of magnetometers, which are devices that can measure the
small differences in the Earth's magnetic field. In the early days of magnetometers, the devices were large
and bulky, and only able to survey a small area at a time.
Gravimeters

In addition to using variances in the Earth's magnetic field, geophysicists can also measure and record
the difference in the Earth's gravitational field to gain a better understanding of what is underground.
Different underground formations and rock types all have a slightly different effect on the gravitational field
that surrounds the Earth. By measuring these minute differences with very sensitive equipment,
geophysicists are able to analyze underground formations and develop clearer insight into the types of
formations that may lie below ground, and whether or not the formations have the potential for containing
hydrocarbons like natural gas.
Exploratory Wells
The best way to gain a full understanding of subsurface geology and the potential for natural gas deposits
to exist in a given area is to drill an exploratory well. This consists of digging into the Earth's crust to allow
geologists to study the composition of the underground rock layers in detail. In addition to looking for
natural gas and petroleum deposits by drilling an exploratory well, geologists also examine the drill
cuttings and fluids to gain a better understanding of the geologic features of the area. Logging, explained
below, is another tool used in developed as well as exploratory wells. Drilling an exploratory well is an
expensive, time consuming effort. Therefore, exploratory wells are only drilled in areas where other data
has indicated a high probability of petroleum formations.
Logging
Logging refers to performing tests during or after the drilling process to allow geologists and drill operators
to monitor the progress of the well drilling and to gain a clearer picture of subsurface formations. There
are many different types of logging, in fact; over 100 different logging tests can be performed, but
essentially they consist of a variety of tests that illuminate the true composition and characteristics of the
different layers of rock that the well passes through. Logging is also essential during the drilling process.
Monitoring logs can ensure that the correct drilling equipment is used and that drilling is not continued if
unfavorable conditions develop.
Various types of tests include standard, electric, acoustic, radioactivity, density, induction, caliper,
directional and nuclear logging, to name but a few. Two of the most prolific and often performed tests
include standard logging and electric logging.
Standard logging consists of examining and recording the physical aspects of a well. For example, the
drill cuttings (pieces of rock displaced by the drilling of the well) are all examined and recorded, allowing
geologists to physically examine the subsurface rock. Also, core samples are taken by lifting a sample of
underground rock intact to the surface, allowing the various layers of rock and their thickness to be
examined. These cuttings and cores are often examined using powerful microscopes that can magnify the
rock up to 2,000 times. This allows the geologist to examine the porosity and fluid content of the
subsurface rock, and to gain a better understanding of the earth in which the well is being drilled.
Electric logging consists of lowering a device used to measure the electric resistance of the rock layers in
the 'down hole' portion of the well. This is done by running an electric current through the rock formation
and measuring the resistance that it encounters along its way. This gives geologists an idea of the fluid
content and characteristics. A newer version of electric logging, called induction electric logging, provides
much the same types of readings, but is more easily performed and provides data that is more easily
interpreted.

The drilling of an exploratory or developing well is the first contact that a geologist or petroleum engineer
has with the actual contents of the subsurface geology. Logging, in its many forms, uses this opportunity
to gain a fuller understanding of what actually lies beneath the surface. In addition to providing information
specific to that particular well, vast archives of historical logs exist for geologists interested in the geologic
features of a given or similar area.
Data Interpretation
There are many sources of data and information for the geologist and geophysicist to use in the
exploration for hydrocarbons. However, this raw data alone would be useless without careful and
methodical interpretation. Much like putting together a puzzle, the geophysicist uses all of the sources of
data available to create a model, or educated guess, as to the structure of the layers of rock under the
ground. Some techniques, including seismic exploration, lend themselves well to the construction of a
hand- or computer-generated visual interpretation of an underground formation. Other sources of data,
such as that obtained from core samples or logging, are taken into account by the geologist when
determining the subsurface geological structures. Despite the amazing evolution of technology and
exploration techniques, the only way of being sure that a petroleum or natural gas reservoir exists is to
drill an exploratory well. Geologists and geophysicists can make their best guesses as to the location of
reservoirs, but these are not infallible.
2-D Seismic Interpretation
Two-dimensional seismic imaging refers to geophysicists using the data collected from seismic
exploration activities to develop a cross-sectional picture of the underground rock formations. The
geophysicist interprets the seismic data obtained from the field, taking the vibration recordings of the
seismograph and using them to develop a conceptual model of the composition and thickness of the
various layers of rock underground. This process is normally used to map underground formations, and to
make estimates based on the geologic structures to determine where it is likely that deposits may exist.
Another technique using basic seismic data is known as 'direct detection.' In the mid-1970s, it was
discovered that white bands, called 'bright spots', often appeared on seismic recording strips. These white
bands could indicate deposits of hydrocarbons. The nature of porous rock that contains natural gas could
often result in reflecting stronger seismic reflections than normal, water-filled rock. Therefore, in these
circumstances, the actual natural gas reservoir could be detected directly from the seismic data. However,
this does not hold universally. Many of these 'bright spots' do not contain hydrocarbons, and many
deposits of hydrocarbons are not indicated by white strips on the seismic data. Therefore, although
adding a new technique of locating petroleum and natural gas reservoirs, direct detection is not a
completely reliable method.
Computer Assisted Exploration

One of the greatest innovations in the history of petroleum exploration is the use of computers to compile
and assemble geologic data into a coherent 'map' of the underground. Use of this computer technology is

Geologist Using Interactive 3-D Seismic

Source: BP
referred to as 'CAEX', which is short for 'computer assisted exploration'.
With the development of the microprocessor, it has become relatively easy to use computers to assemble
seismic data that is collected from the field. This allows for the processing of very large amounts of data,
increasing the reliability and informational content of the seismic model. There are three main types of
computer-assisted exploration models: two-dimensional (2-D), three-dimensional (3-D), and most
recently, four-dimensional (4-D). These imaging techniques, while relying mainly on seismic data acquired
in the field, are becoming more and more sophisticated. Computer technology has advanced so far that it
is now possible to incorporate the data obtained from different types of tests, such as logging, production
information, and gravimetric testing, which can all be combined to create a 'visualization' of the
underground formation. Thus geologists and geophysicists are able to combine all of their sources of data
to compile one clear, complete image of subsurface geology. An example of this is shown where a
geologist uses an interactive computer generated visualization of 3-D seismic data to explore the
subsurface layers.
3-D Seismic Imaging
One of the biggest breakthroughs in computer-aided exploration was the development of threedimensional (3-D) seismic imaging. Three-D imaging utilizes seismic field data to generate a three
dimensional 'picture' of underground formations and geologic features. This, in essence, allows the
geophysicist and geologist to see a clear picture of the composition of the Earth's crust in a particular
area. This is tremendously useful in allowing for the exploration of petroleum and natural gas, as an
actual image could be used to estimate the probability of formations existing in a particular area, and the
characteristics of that potential formation. This technology has been extremely successful in raising the
success rate of exploration efforts. In fact, using 3-D seismic has been estimated to increase the
likelihood of successful reservoir location by 50 percent.

Although this technology is very useful, it is also very costly. Three-D seismic imaging can cost hundreds
of thousands of dollars per square mile. The generation of 3-D images requires data to be collected from
several thousand locations, as opposed to 2-D imaging, which only requires several hundred data points.
As such, 3-D imaging is a much more involved and prolonged process. Therefore, it is usually used in
conjunction with other exploration techniques. For example, a geophysicist may use traditional 2-D
modeling and examination of geologic features to determine if there is a probability of the presence of
natural gas. Once these basic techniques are used, 3-D seismic imaging may be used only in those areas
that have a high probability of containing reservoirs.

In addition to broadly locating petroleum reservoirs, 3-D seismic imaging allows for the more accurate
placement of wells to be drilled. This increases the productivity of successful wells, allowing for more
petroleum and natural gas to be extracted from the ground. In fact, 3-D seismic can increase the recovery
rates of productive wells to 40-50 percent, as opposed to 25-30 percent with traditional 2-D exploration
techniques.
In addition to broadly locating petroleum reservoirs, 3-D seismic imaging allows for the more accurate
placement of wells to be drilled. This increases the productivity of successful wells, allowing for more
petroleum and natural gas to be extracted from the ground. In fact, 3-D seismic can increase the recovery
rates of productive wells to 40 to 50 percent or greater, as opposed to 25 to 30 percent with traditional 2-D
exploration techniques.
Three-D seismic imaging has become an extremely important tool in the search natural gas. By 1980,
only 100 3-D seismic imaging tests had been performed. However, by the mid 1990s, 200 to 300 3-D
seismic surveys were being performed each year. In 1996, in the Gulf of Mexico, one of the largest
natural gas-producing areas in the U.S., nearly 80 percent of wells drilled in the Gulf were based on 3-D
seismic data. In 1993, 75 percent of all onshore exploratory surveys conducted used 3-D seismic
imaging.
2-D Seismic Imaging
Two-dimensional (2-D) computer-assisted exploration includes generating an image of subsurface
geology much in the same manner as in normal 2-D data interpretation. However, with the aid of
computer technology, it is possible to generate more detailed maps more quickly than by the traditional
method. In addition, with 2-D CAEX it is possible to use color graphic displays generated by a computer
to highlight geologic features that may not be apparent using traditional 2-D seismic imaging methods.
While 2-D seismic imaging is less complicated and less detailed than 3-D imaging, it must be noted that
3-D imaging techniques were developed prior to 2-D techniques. Thus, although it does not appear to be
the logical progression of techniques, the simpler 2-D imaging techniques were actually an extension of 3D techniques, not the other way around. Because it is simpler, 2-D imaging is much cheaper, and more
easily and quickly performed, than 3-D imaging. Because of this, 2-D CAEX imaging may be used in
areas that are somewhat likely to contain natural gas deposits, but not likely enough to justify the full cost
and time commitment required by 3-D imaging.

4-D Seismic Imaging

One of the latest breakthroughs in seismic exploration and the modeling of underground rock formations
has been the introduction of four-dimensional (4-D) seismic imaging. This type of imaging is an extension
of 3-D imaging technology. However, instead of achieving a simple, static image of the underground, in 4D imaging the changes in structures and properties of underground formations are observed over time.
Since the fourth dimension in 4-D imaging is time, it is also referred to as 4-D 'time lapse' imaging.
Various seismic readings of a particular area are taken at different times, and this sequence of data is fed
into a powerful computer. The different images are amalgamated to create a 'movie' of what is going on

under the ground. By studying how seismic images change over time, geologists can gain a better
understanding of many properties of the rock, including underground fluid flow, viscosity, temperature and
saturation. Although very important in the exploration process, 4-D seismic images can also be used by
petroleum geologists to evaluate the properties of a reservoir, including how it is expected to deplete once
petroleum extraction has begun. Using 4-D imaging on a reservoir can increase recovery rates above
what can be achieved using 2-D or 3-D imaging. Where the recovery rates using these two types of
images are 25 to 30 percent and 40 to 50 percent respectively, the use of 4-D imaging can result in
recovery rates of 65 to 70 percent.
Now that we have taken a look at how natural gas deposits are found, the next step in the natural gas line
is the process of extraction.

Extraction
Once a potential natural gas deposit has been located by a team of exploration geologists and
geophysicists, it is up to a team of drilling experts to dig down to where the natural gas is thought to exist.
This section will describe the process of drilling for natural gas, both onshore and offshore. Although the
process of digging deep into the Earth's crust to find deposits of natural gas that may or may not actually
exist seems daunting, the industry has developed a number of innovations and techniques that both
decrease the cost and increase the efficiency of drilling for natural gas. Advancements in technology have
contributed greatly to the increased efficiency and success rate for drilling natural gas wells.
Determining whether to drill a well depends on a
variety of factors, including the economic potential of
the hoped-for natural gas reservoir. It costs a great
deal of money for exploration and production
companies to search and drill for natural gas, and there is always the inherent risk that no natural gas will
be found.
The exact placement of the drill site depends on many factors, including the nature of the potential
formation to be drilled, the characteristics of the subsurface geology, and the depth and size of the target
deposit. After the geophysical team identifies the optimal location for a well, it is necessary for the drilling

company to ensure that it completes all the necessary steps so that it can legally drill in that area. This
usually involves securing permits for the drilling operations, establishment of a legal arrangement to allow
the natural gas company to extract and sell the resources under a given area of land, and a design for
gathering lines that will connect the well to the pipeline.
If the new well, once drilled, does in fact come in contact with natural gas deposits, it is developed to
allow for the extraction of this natural gas, and is termed a 'development' or 'productive' well. At this point,
with the well drilled and hydrocarbons present, the well may be completed to facilitate its production of
natural gas. However, if the exploration team was incorrect in its estimation of the existence of a
marketable quantity of natural gas at a wellsite, the well is termed a 'dry well', and production does not
proceed.
Onshore and offshore drilling present unique drilling environments, requiring special techniques and
equipment.

Production
Once a well has been drilled and the presence of commercially viable quantities of fossil fuel has been
verified, the next step is actually lifting the natural gas out of the ground and processing it for
transportation.
Natural gas, as it exists underground, is not exactly the same as the natural gas that comes through the
pipelines to our homes and businesses. Natural gas, as we use it, is almost entirely methane. However,
when we find natural gas underground, it comes associated with a variety of other trace compounds and
gases, as well as oil and water, which must be removed. Natural gas transported through pipelines must
meet purity specifications to be allowed in, so most natural gas processing occurs near the well.
Well Completion
Once a natural gas or oil well is drilled, and it has been verified that commercially viable quantities of
natural gas are present for extraction, the well must be 'completed' to allow for the flow of petroleum or
natural gas out of the formation and up to the surface. This process includes strengthening the well hole
with casing, evaluating the pressure and temperature of the formation, and then installing the proper
equipment to ensure an efficient flow of natural gas out of the well.
There are two main types of conventional natural gas wells: natural gas wells and natural gas condensate
wells. In addition, there are oil wells that contain associated natural gas. In an oil well with associated
gas, the natural gas is often used to add pressure to the well and enhance the extraction of the well.
Sometimes associated natural gas exists in large enough quantities to allow its extraction along with the
oil. Natural gas specific wells are wells drilled exclusively for natural gas, and contain little or no oil. Shalegas drilling is an example of wells being drilled for their natural gas resources.
Condensate wells are wells that contain natural gas, as well as a liquid condensate. This condensate is
a liquid hydrocarbon mixture that is often separated from the natural gas either at the wellhead, or during
the processing of the natural gas. It is important to remember that natural gas, being lighter than air, will
naturally rise to the surface of a well. Because of this, in many natural gas and condensate wells, lifting
equipment and well treatment are not necessary.

Completing a well consists of a number of steps: installing the well casing, completing the well, installing
the wellhead, and installing lifting equipment or treating the formation should that be required.
Well Casing
Installing well casing is an important part of the drilling and completion process. Well casing consists of a
series of metal tubes installed in the freshly drilled hole. Casing strengthens the sides of the well hole,
ensures that no oil or natural gas seeps out of the well hole as it is brought to the surface, and keeps
other fluids or gases from seeping into the formation through the well. A good deal of planning is
necessary to ensure that the proper casing for each well is installed. The type of casing used depends on
the subsurface characteristics of the well, including the diameter of the well and the pressures and
temperatures experienced throughout the well. The diameter of the well hole depends on the size of the
drill bit used. In most wells, the diameter of the well hole decreases the deeper it is drilled, leading to a
type of conical shape that must be taken into account when installing casing. There are five different
types of well casing. They include:

Conductor Casing

Surface Casing

Intermediate Casing

Liner String

Production Casing

Conductor Casing
Conductor casing is installed first, usually prior to the arrival of the drilling rig. The hole for conductor
casing is often drilled with a small auger drill, mounted on the back of a truck. Conductor casing is usually
no more than 20 to 50 feet long. It is installed to prevent the top of the well from caving in and to help in
the process of circulating the drilling fluid up from the bottom of the well. Onshore, this casing is usually
16 to 20 inches in diameter, while offshore casing usually measures 30 to 42 inches. The conductor
casing is cemented into place before drilling begins.
Surface Casing
Surface casing is the next type of casing to be installed. It can be anywhere from a few hundred to 2,000
feet long, and is smaller in diameter than the conductor casing. When installed, the surface casing fits
inside the top of the conductor casing. The primary purpose of surface casing is to protect fresh water
deposits near the surface of the well from being contaminated by leaking hydrocarbons or salt water from
deeper underground. It also serves as a conduit for drilling mud returning to the surface, and helps protect
the drill hole from being damaged during drilling. Surface casing, like conductor casing, is cemented into
place. Regulations often dictate the thickness of the cement to be used to ensure that there is little
possibility of freshwater contamination.
Intermediate Casing

Intermediate casing is usually the longest section of casing found in a well. The primary purpose of
intermediate casing is to minimize the hazards that come along with subsurface formations that may
affect the well. These include abnormal underground pressure zones, underground shale, and formations
that might otherwise contaminate the well, such as underground salt-water deposits. In many instances,
even though there may be no evidence of an unusual underground formation, intermediate casing is run
as insurance against the possibility of such a formation affecting the well. These intermediate casing
areas may also be cemented into place for added protection.
Liner Strings
Liner strings are sometimes used instead of intermediate casing. Liner strings are commonly run from the
bottom of another type of casing to the open well area. However, liner strings are usually attached to the
previous casing with 'hangers', instead of being cemented into place. This type of casing is thus less
permanent than intermediate casing.
Production Casing
Production casing, alternatively called the 'oil string' or 'long string, is installed last and is the deepest
section of casing in a well. This is the casing that provides a conduit from the surface of the well to the
petroleum-producing formation. The size of the production casing depends on a number of
considerations, including the lifting equipment to be used, the number of completions required, and the
possibility of deepening the well at a later time. For example, if it is expected that the well will be
deepened at a later date, then the production casing must be wide enough to allow the passage of a drill
bit later on. Well casing is a very important part of the completed well. In addition to strengthening the well
hole, it provides a conduit to allow hydrocarbons to be extracted without intermingling with other fluids and
formations found underground. It is also instrumental in preventing blowouts, allowing the formation to be
'sealed' from the top should dangerous pressure levels be reached. For more technical information on
blowouts and their prevention, click here. Once the casing has been set, and in most cases cemented into
place, proper lifting equipment is installed to bring the hydrocarbons from the formation to the surface.
After the casing is installed, tubing is inserted inside the casing, running from the opening well at the top
to the formation at the bottom. The hydrocarbons that are extracted go up this tubing to the surface. This
tubing may also be attached to pumping systems for more efficient extraction, should that be necessary.
Completion
Well completion commonly refers to the process of finishing a well so that it is ready to produce oil or
natural gas. In essence, completion consists of deciding on the characteristics of the intake portion of the
well in the targeted hydrocarbon formation. There are a number of types of completions, including:

Open Hole Completion

Conventional Perforated Completion

Sand Exclusion Completion

Permanent Completion

Multiple Zone Completion

Drainhole Completion

The use of any type of completion depends on the characteristics and location of the hydrocarbon
formation to be mined.
Open Hole Completion
Open hole completions are the most basic type and are used in formations that are unlikely to cave in. An
open hole completion consists of simply running the casing directly down into the formation, leaving the
end of the piping open without any other protective filter. Very often, this type of completion is used on
formations that have been acidized or fractured.
Conventional Perforated Completion
Conventional perforated completions consist of production casing being run through the formation. The
sides of this casing are perforated, with tiny holes along the sides facing the formation, which allows for
the flow of hydrocarbons into the well hole, but still provides a suitable amount of support and protection
for the well hole. The process of perforating the casing involves the use of specialized equipment
designed to make tiny holes through the casing, cementing, and any other barrier between the formation
and the open well. In the past, 'bullet perforators' were used, which were essentially small guns lowered
into the well. The guns, when fired from the surface, sent off small bullets that penetrated the casing and
cement. Today, 'jet perforating' is preferred. This consists of small, electrically-ignited charges, lowered
into the well. When ignited, these charges poke tiny holes through to the formation, in the same manner
as bullet perforating.
Sand Exclusion Completion
Sand exclusion completions are designed for production in an area that contains a large amount of loose
sand. These completions are designed to allow for the flow of natural gas and oil into the well, but at the
same time prevent sand from entering the well. Sand inside the well hole can cause many complications,
including erosion of casing and other equipment. The most common methods of keeping sand out of the
well hole are screening or filtering systems. These include analyzing the sand experienced in the
formation and installing a screen or filter to keep sand particles out. The filter may be either a type of
screen hung inside the casing, or a layer of specially-sized gravel outside the casing to filter out the sand.
Both types of sand barriers can be used in open holes and perforated completions.
Permanent Completion
Permanent completions are those in which the components are assembled and installed only once.
Installing the casing, cementing, perforating, and other completion work is done with small diameter tools
to ensure the permanent nature of the completion. Completing a well in this manner can lead to significant
cost savings compared to other types.
Multiple Zone Completion
Multiple zone completion is the practice of completing a well so that hydrocarbons from two or more
formations may be produced simultaneously, yet separately. For example, a well may be drilled that
passes through a number of formations as it descends; alternately, it may be more effective in a

horizontal well to add multiple completions to drain the formation efficiently. Although it is common to
separate multiple completions so that the fluids from the different formations do not intermingle, the
complexity of achieving complete separation can present a barrier. In some instances, the different
formations being drilled are close enough to allow fluids to intermingle in the well hole. When it is
necessary to prevent this intermingling, hard rubber 'packing' instruments are used to maintain separation
among different completions.
Drainhole Completion
Drainhole completions are a form of horizontal or slant drilling. This type of completion consists of drilling
out horizontally into the formation from a vertical well, providing a 'drain' for the hydrocarbons to empty
into the well. In certain formations, drilling a drainhole completion may allow for more efficient and
balanced extraction of the targeted hydrocarbons. Drainhole completions are more commonly associated
with oil wells than with natural gas wells.

A Wellhead
Source: NETL - DOE
The Wellhead
The wellhead consists of the pieces of equipment mounted at the opening of the well to manage the
extraction of hydrocarbons from the underground formation. It prevents leaking of oil or natural gas out of
the well, and also prevents blowouts caused by high pressure. Formations that are under high pressure
typically require wellheads that can withstand a great deal of upward pressure from the escaping gases
and liquids. These wellheads must be able to withstand pressures of up to 20,000 pounds per square inch
(psi). The wellhead consists of three components: the casing head, the tubing head, and the 'christmas
tree.
The casing head consists of heavy fittings that provide a seal between the casing and the surface. The
casing head also serves to support the entire length of casing that is run all the way down the well. This
piece of equipment typically contains a gripping mechanism that ensures a tight seal between the head
and the casing itself.
The tubing head is much like the casing head. It provides a seal between the tubing, which is run inside
the casing, and the surface. Like the casing head, the tubing head is designed to support the entire length
of the casing, as well as provide connections at the surface, which allow the flow of fluids out of the well to
be controlled.

The 'christmas tree' is the piece of equipment that fits on top of the casing and tubing heads, and contains
tubes and valves that control the flow of hydrocarbons and other fluids out of the well. It commonly
contains many branches and is shaped somewhat like a tree, thus its name, christmas tree. The
christmas tree is the most visible part of a producing well, and allows for the surface monitoring and
regulation of the production of hydrocarbons from a producing well. A typical Christmas tree is about six
feet tall.
Lifting and Well Treatment
Once the well is completed, it may begin to produce natural gas. In some instances, the hydrocarbons
that exist in pressurized formations will naturally rise up through the well to the surface. This is most
commonly the case with natural gas. Since natural gas is lighter than air, once a path to the surface is
opened, the pressurized gas will rise to the surface with little or no interference. This is most common for
formations containing natural gas alone, or with only a light condensate. In these scenarios, once the
christmas tree is installed, the natural gas will flow to the surface without assistance.
In order to more fully understand the nature of the well, a potential test is typically run in the early days of
production. This test allows well engineers to determine the maximum amount of natural gas that the well
can produce in a 24-hour period. From this and other knowledge of the formation, the engineer may make
an estimation on what the 'most efficient recovery rate', or MER will be. The MER is the rate at which the
greatest amount of natural gas may be extracted without harming the formation itself.

A Horse Head Pump

Source: ChevronTexaco Corporation
Another important aspect of producing wells is the 'decline rate'. When a well is first drilled, the formation
is under pressure and produces natural gas at a very high rate. However, as more and more natural gas
is extracted from the formation, the production rate of the well decreases. This is known as the decline
rate. Certain techniques, including lifting and well stimulation, can increase the production rate of a well.
In some natural gas wells, and oil wells that have associated natural gas, it is more difficult to ensure an
efficient flow of hydrocarbons up the well. The underground formation may be very 'tight', making the
movement of petroleum through the formation and up the well a very slow and inefficient process. In
these cases, lifting equipment or well treatment is required.
Lifting equipment consists of a variety of specialized equipment used to help 'lift' petroleum out of a
formation. This is most commonly used to extract oil from a formation. Because oil is found as a viscous

liquid, it takes some coaxing to extract it from underground. Various types of lifting equipment are
available, but the most common lifting method is known as 'rod pumping'. Rod pumping is powered by a
surface pump that moves a cable and rod up and down in the well, providing the lifting pressure required
to bring the oil to the surface. The most common type of cable rod lifting equipment is the 'horse head' or
conventional beam pump. These pumps are recognizable by the distinctive shape of the cable feeding
fixture, which resembles a horse's head.
Well Treatment
Well treatment is another method of ensuring the efficient flow of hydrocarbons out of a formation.
Essentially, this type of well stimulation consists of injecting acid, water, or gases into the well to open up
the formation and allow the petroleum to flow through the formation more easily. Acidizing a well consists
of injecting acid (usually hydrochloric acid) into the well. In limestone or carbonate formations, the acid
dissolves portions of the rock in the formation, opening up existing spaces to allow for the flow of
petroleum. Fracturing consists of injecting a fluid into the well, the pressure of which 'cracks' or opens up
fractures already present in the formation. In addition to the fluid being injected, 'propping agents' are also
used. These propping agents can consist of sand, glass beads, epoxy, or silica sand, and serve to prop
open the newly widened fissures in the formation. Hydraulic fracturing involves the injection of water into
the formation, while CO2 fracturing uses gaseous carbon dioxide. Fracturing, acidizing, and lifting
equipment may all be used on the same well to increase permeability, widening the pores of the
formation.
These techniques have been more common to oil wells, but are increasingly being applied to increase the
extraction rate for gas wells, particularly hydraulic fracturing. As deeper and less conventional natural gas
wells are drilled, it is becoming more common to use stimulation techniques on gas wells.
The next step in the process of producing natural gas is processing. This involves taking the 'raw' natural
gas obtained from underground, removing impurities, and ensuring that the gas is ready for use prior to
being transported to its destination.

The "Where" and "What" of Shale Gas Formations

Geologically, gas shales are fine grained, organic-rich, sedimentary rock formations that trap
natural gas. Gas shale rock has characteristically small pores that are relatively impermeable to
natural gas flow unless they are naturally or artificially fractured to create channels connecting the
pores. Shale rock is considered so impermeable that geologists sometimes say it makes marble
feel spongy in comparison.
Shale gas is present across much of North America in basins of both extreme and moderate size.
As of 2010, there are at least 22 major shale plays in the U.S., spread diversely over more than 20
states.

Source: EIA-2011
Geologists have known of the presence of natural gas in shale rock for years, but until recently,
could not cost-effectively extract it. Two factors came together in recent years to make shale gas
production economically viable: (1) advances in horizontal drilling; and (2) advances in hydraulic
fracturing. Together, these factors have transformed shale formations from marginal sources of
natural gas to substantial contributors to the natural gas supply portfolio, ushering in a robust
resurgence in domestic natural gas production.
With the onset of shale gas development, production has been diversified across the country,
bringing supply closer to areas where it is consumed. New reserves are discovered so frequently
that industry and government authorities have trouble keeping maps up to date. Some of the
major shale reserves include:
Marcellus (Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky)
Bakken (North Dakota, Wyoming)
Haynesville (Texas, Loiusiana)
Barnett (Texas)
Eagleford (Texas)
Fayettevile (Arkansas)
Antrim (Michigan, Illinois, Ohio)
Woodford (Oklahoma)
As a result, supply is less susceptible to weather disruptions in the Gulf of Mexico. The geographic
diversity of U.S. shale gas resources and advances in technology help ensure a stable and
deliverable natural gas supply.

Shale's Growing Share of US Natural Gas Resource Base

Prior to the arrival of shale gas, estimates of the amount of natural gas in the United States grew
steadily, but in relatively small increments. Because of developments in horizontal drilling and
hydraulic fracturing, improvements in the ability to economically recover natural gas from shale rock
changed that pattern, bringing about an unprecedented 39 percent increase in the amount of
recoverable natural gas in the United States between 2006 and 2008.
In 2011, the U.S. Potential Gas Committee,
a nonprofit organization of highly
experienced industry experts, reported that
the U.S. possesses a total natural gas
resource base of 2,170 trillion cubic feet
(Tcf), the highest resource evaluation in the
committees 46- year history. The study
estimated that the U.S. has a 100-year
supply of natural gas and announced that
shale, an unconventional gas resource
that was barely a blip in previous
assessments, now accounted for
approximately one-third of the total resource
base.
Other estimates also attest to the
remarkable growth of the resource base. In
2011, the Energy Information Administration
(EIA) estimated that U.S. shale plays
contain 827 Tcf of recoverable natural gas. By 2035, the EIA estimates that shale gas production
(12.2 Tcf) will represent 47% of U.S. production.
Estimates of the size of the natural gas resource base are dynamic and reflect ongoing progress in
science and technology, explaining why the estimated size of the U.S. natural gas resource base has
continued to grow over the years even as natural gas is produced and consumed. For example,
since 1998, the EIAs Annual Energy Outlook forecasts of unconventional gas production have been
significantly outstripped by actual production levels.
In the seven most active shale plays producer estimates acknowledge that the potential production
level could reach as high as 30 billion cubic feet (Bcf) per day by 2020. In the Barnett Shale, for
example, production has grown from 94 MMcf/day in 1998 to 3,014 MMcf/day in 2007, an increase
of more than 3,000 percent in the span of nine years. Nearly 10 percent of all US shale production
originates from the Barnett Shale.

Before Shale: The Supply-Demand Tightrope

Shales significance arises from the

dilemma the United States faced only
a decade ago as it became evident
that natural gas was increasingly the
fuel of choice for power generators,
manufacturers, businesses and
homeowners. Natural gas had strong
appeal because of its low emissions,
efficiency, versatility and comfort. Yet
even as demand for natural gas was
increasing and 90 percent of planned
new power plants were proposed to
be natural gas-fired, producers were
facing significant regulatory barriers
to accessing new areas, both
offshore and onshore, that contained
natural gas in conventional
formations. Existing natural gas wells
were maturing, requiring more time,
dollars and technology to produce
smaller volumes of gas.
By late 2000, demand had caught up
to supply and achieved a tight
balance. Weather, the economy and
other factors could impact demand
fairly quickly, but natural gas supply
by its nature took longer to respond,
resulting in price fluctuations.
Customers adapted by using physical
hedging tools, such as storage, as
well as financial tools to manage
volatility. In 2005, the shutting-in of
nearly a quarter of U.S. production
because of Hurricane Katrina
provided a stark demonstration of the
drawbacks of locating so much of the
nations natural gas production in one
geographic area. Supplies rebounded
within a few months, but the
underlying problem of access to
natural gas supply was not
addressed.

And then came the impact of shale

sometimes referred to as the shale
gale.
Beyond shales contribution to
greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction, the
production of shale also has an impact
on land use.
The process of setting up the rig,
drilling, fracturing, stimulating, and
installing operational equipment for a
single shale well takes approximately
two to eight weeks.
First, developers begin construction of a
drill site for one well or pad site if there
are multiple wells. Once the drilling rig
and other necessary equipment are in
Source: DOE
place, the drilling process begins. Steel
casings are then inserted into the well at
depths ranging between 1,000 and 3,000 feet. Once the casings are in place, the space between the
casing and the drilling hole is filled with cement to stabilize the well and prevent any leakage. Once
the cement sets, smaller casings are lowered to a depth of 10,000 feet and secured by cement.
These multiple layers of steel casing and cement serve to provide a strong foundation, stability and
integrity, as well as prevent contamination or fluid loss.

As a well reaches the completion phase, the original drilling rig is removed and a smaller completion
rig is moved in to perforate and treat the potentially productive zones through hydraulic fracturing.
Drill sites are designed to utilize as small an area as possible that can still safely accommodate a
drilling rig and associated equipment. Once drilling is completed, the drill site is further reduced to a
minimum area for the surface production equipment.
Finally, a wellhead or Christmas tree is placed on top of the existing well site to control and regulate
the flow of gas into a pipeline in order for the gas to be transported to market through a regional
pipeline system. A typical natural gas Christmas tree structure is about the same height as a 6-foot
tall man.
At the conclusion of this process, well developers
begin the land reclamation process, and seek to
leave behind a small footprint for each well pad
site. The land restoration process involves
landscaping and contouring the property as close
as possible to pre-drilling conditions, according to
Marcellus Shale Coalition.
After the initial two to eight weeks of construction
and fracturing, natural gas production from shale
requires considerably less land than other energy

Source: DOE, Department of Fossil Energy

sources. For example, both solar power and wind power require approximately six acres each to
produce the electricity necessary to serve 1,000 households for one year. Natural gas production
requires the least amount of surface land among all the current energy sources, requiring only .03
acres to serve 1,000 households for one year.
Role of Shale Gas
Because natural gas produces less than half the carbon emissions of other fossil fuels and little or
none of harmful pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and soot, increasing its use for
power generation could immediately reduce the nations carbon footprint. In addition, natural gas
loses comparatively little energy throughout its wellhead-to-burnertip life cycle, making it a highly
efficient form of electricity generation.
In the 1990s, as regional and national concerns about air quality gained traction in the U.S., the
cleanliness and efficiency of natural gas enabled power generators to build more natural gas-fired
combined cycle plants. The Environmental Protection Agency credited natural gas with helping meet
the nations first goal for air quality improvement standards. While satisfying air concerns, this buildout of gas-fired capacity began to create another concern in late-2000, when rising demand for
natural gas started to impact prices.
In the latter part of the decade, the arrival of abundant, domestic shale gas resulted in a changed
supply-demand balance from that of the early 2000s, positioning natural gas as a sustainable and
responsible choice for meeting climate objectives. In a recent report, the Congressional Research
Service said about one-third of existing coal-fired generation could be displaced by existing gas
combined-cycle plants. The report showed gas to be currently underutilized: despite the fact that
natural gas-fired electric capacity accounts for the largest share of the national generating fleet at 39
percent, the report said it trails behind coal-fired generation as a source of actual generation, with
gas at 21 percent and coal at 49 percent. Natural gas, particularly from shale, has room to grow.
CONCERNS: WATER, WATER, EVERYWHERE
As always with breakthroughs in technology, there are associated concerns. In the case of shale
gas, questions have been raised about the environmental safety of the hydraulic fracturing process
and the management of the volumes of water used to fracture shale.
Shale Shock: Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is the method used to make hard shale rock more porous, thus
allowing natural gas to flow through the shale to the wellbore. First, producers drill into the earth
several thousand feet until they reach the natural gas reservoir. Next, steel casings are inserted to a
depth of 1,000 to 3,000 feet, and the space between the casing and the drilled hole is filled with
cement to stabilize the well and prevent any leakage. After the cement has set, this process is
repeated, using a series of successively smaller casings until the reservoir is reached, usually a
distance of 6,000 to 10,000 feet. There are numerous
state and federal regulations that govern the casing
and cementing process.
Once the drilling and casing is complete, typically 3 to
5 million gallons of water, mixed with sand and
fractional amounts of chemical additives, are pumped
into the wellhead at high pressure, creating cracks in
the rock beds. Several videos provide a detailed
explanation of the fracking process The hydraulic
fracturing mixture is 95 percent water, 4.5 percent
sand and 0.5 percent chemical additives formulated to
promote gelling and cleaning according to the Ground
Water Protection Council and U.S Department of
Energy. Fracturing fluid formulas vary slightly among
production sites in accordance with the unique
requirements of each sites geology. Many of the
additives used in fracturing fluids are ingredients in
common household goods, such as candy, soaps,
and ice-cream.
The initial fracturing stage may use hydrochloric acid
to clean up the wellbore damage done during drilling
and cementing. Gelling agents, based on watersoluble polymers such as vegetable- derived guar
gum, adjust fracturing fluid viscosity.

Concerns have been raised by environmental groups and citizens regarding the chemicals used
during the fracking process and claims persist that fracking fluids contaminate local drinking water
reservoirs. For this reason, interest groups are actively lobbying for fracturing fluids to be federally
regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), requiring disclosure of fracturing fluid formulas
to the public.
State & Federal Oversight
Hydraulic fracturing fluids are exempted from federal SDWA oversight. However there are numerous
state regulations that govern their use. Of the 27 states that support 99.9 percent of all natural gas
exploration activities nationwide, all 27 have permitting requirements in place that govern the siting,
drilling, completion and operation of wells, including hydraulic fracturing.
Shale producers point out that at no point do fracturing fluids come into contact with drinking water
reservoirs. In fact, hydraulic fracturing takes place thousands of feet below the water table and thus
are isolated from drinking water by thousands of feet and millions of tons of impermeable rock. The
gas industry also notes that more than one million wells have been fractured without drinking water
contamination. Should a surface spill or incident occur, state regulators have testified that they have
sufficient authority to prosecute the offending parties so that incidents do not occur in the future.
Industry contests that the composition of fracturing fluids is proprietary information and that
fracturing fluids are physically separated from the water table by cement and steel casings,
thousands of feet, and tons of impermeable rock. They say the practice is strictly regulated by the
states and it has been reviewed and declared safe by the Environmental Protection Agency as well
as other environmental oversight groups.
Industry says shale producers already comply with federal and state disclosure requirements that
require regulators, first responders and medical personnel to have access to information concerning
the chemical composition of fracturing fluids at all well sites, so that they can appropriately protect
and safeguard human health and the environment. New York, Pennsylvania, Wyoming and Texas
publicly publish fracturing ingredients online. Colorado is contemplating implementing its own
regulations governing the disclosure of fracking fluids. For further information on fracking fluids,
please visit FracFocus.
Federal laws provide oversight for the process of drilling, completion and waste water management.
Operators comply with a range of federal chemical record keeping and reporting requirements,
including the Occupation Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Hazard Communication
Standard. They also must provide local emergency personnel with chemical information.
Producers, regulators, citizens and environmentalists all are in agreement that any irresponsible
actors should be prosecuted. Enforcement of the existing state laws not only protects the
groundwater, it provides reassurance to the community and shale producers that shale wells are
being properly managed and are sustainable. Hydraulic fracturing is vital to shale gas production
and regulatory uncertainty regarding the process could prevent the full-scale development of the
U.S. shale gas resource base. And without hydraulic fracturing, it is neither economical nor
technically feasible to extract natural gas from shale at this time.
The drilling and hydraulic fracturing of a horizontal shale gas well on average requires 3.5 million
gallons of water. This volume of water is equivalent to 5 and Olympic size swimming pools. Water
for drilling and fracturing shale gas frequently comes from surface water bodies, but can also come
from ground water, private water sources, municipal water, and re-used produced water. Most of the
producing shale gas basins are located in areas with moderate to high levels of annual precipitation,
however with other regional water demands and seasonal variation in precipitation, the needs of

shale gas development must be met in careful balance with regional needs for water.
Nevertheless, when compared with other major forms of energy production, production of shale
requires only a fraction of the water required to produce energy from coal and nuclear sources.
Producing natural gas from shale requires about 0.6 to 1.8 gallons of water for every million Btu
(MMBtu), less than 15 percent of the water needed to produce the equivalent amount of energy from
coal. (Chesapeake Energy, Media Resources: Hydraulic Fracturing Fact Sheet, 2009.) For
comparison, the consumption of fresh water for hydro-electrical generation in the Susquehanna
River Basin alone is nearly 150 million gallons per day, while the projected total demand for peak
Marcellus Shale activity in the same area is relatively small at 8.4 million gallons per day.
A related aspect of water use for shale production is that natural gas operators need water as drilling
activity occurs, requiring that the water be procured over a relatively short period of time, which
environmental groups point out could impact aquatic life during periods of low stream flow. Water
used in the drilling and fracturing process must be properly permitted and paid for, which natural gas
operators say helps to ensure that water used to produce shale gas does not interfere with the
available supply for other users.
Developing shale gas is consistent with a sustainable U.S. energy/water strategy by making a
positive energy and economic contribution at a relatively low cost to water supply.
Water Disposal Problem
Disposal of produced water is another concern the industry is addressing with shale gas
development. After a hydraulic fracture treatment, the fracturing fluid, mixed with water naturally
present in the formation, begins to flow back through the well casing to the wellhead, creating
flowback or produced water. The make-up of the produced water differs among different regions.
Flowback of produced water can continue for several months after gas production. The produced
water may contain naturally-occurring compounds, such as Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Materials (NORM) and benzene, and can account for less than 30 percent to more than 70 percent
of the original fracturing fluid volume. In some states, produced water is injected into underground
wells and stored. Control of the injection is regulated by the Underground Injection Control Program
(UIC) of the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act. The program is designed to confine the produced
water within the injection zone in a manner that prevents contact with fresh water-bearing
formations.
In Pennsylvania, produced water is recycled. Recycling waste water from fracking reduces the
environmental footprint of drilling, lowers transportation costs and lessens reliance on groundwater
or municipal sources of water. State-wide test results have shown that recycled water meets all
federal radium standards. Testing on the state and local level is conducted on a regular basis and is
supported by natural gas companies.
Operators are exploring ways to use and recycle the water produced from hydraulic fracturing.
Significant volumes of recycled water would reduce the demand for surface water withdrawal and
conventional waste discharge capacity. Water usage and proper water management are important
considerations when producing shale gas. The industry, in partnership with its investors, is working
to streamline and further improve efficiencies and technology to better manage water usage.
Next steps
The benefits of shale gas are measurable and significant. Shale production has enabled a more
stable and secure supply of natural gas, providing protection against supply interruptions and price
volatility. The vast number of shale wells that are located closer to demand load also enables natural

gas supply to be more finely attuned to demand, thus further promoting price stability. And shale
production has little impact on land use, but can lead to greatly improved air quality and improved
energy efficiency, since little energy is wasted in the production, transportation and combustion of
natural gas to make electricity. Finally, shale production has proven its ability to create tens of
thousands of new jobs and to generate revenue for the states.
To date, concerns about the hydraulic fracturing process and its impact on water have proven largely
unfounded, however it is clear that these concerns must be addressed to allay public concerns.
The American Petroleum Institute (API), an industry group with nearly 90 years of experience in
promulgating industry standards and best practices, has undertaken a four-part plan to provide
guidance on current industry best practices.

A Guidance document on environmental and reclamation practices (August 2009)

API HF1, Hydraulic Fracturing Operations Well Construction and Integrity Guideline is
designed to ensure that shallow ground aquifers and the environment are protected
throughout the drilling, completion and production phases of a wells life. (October 2009)

API HF2, Water Management Associated With Hydraulic Fracturing, a resource for cradle to
grave water handling practices for hydraulic fracturing operations. (June 2010)

API HF3, Practices for Mitigating Surface Impacts Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing
highlights practices used to lessen hydraulic fracturings impact on surface ecosystems.
(January 2011)

The evolution of hydraulic fracturing and the story of shale are a showcase for human
resourcefulness.

Shale gas in India

So far Indias relentless efforts during the last 25 years to build pipelines to bring gas from
Turkmenistan, Iran, Qatar, Bangladesh and Myanmar have remained pipe dreams.
Renewable energy sources like ethanol and bio diesel, wind and solar are high on the
national agenda. Thanks to Indo-US nuclear pact, India may succeed in increasing the
contribution of nuclear energy. But a recent phenomenon of shale gas which has
brought about seismic changes in the natural gas scene has not been given the
importance it deserves. Energy economists all over the world have started to admire with
awe the great achievement of oil companies in the US in developing shale gas resources
on a large scale during the last decade.
As recently as three years back conventional wisdom was that US will have a huge gas
deficit and it has to import increasing quantity of LNG. In less than two years, the US supply
has changed from one of deficit to surplus. The sudden and unexpected development of
shale gas has been a game changer. World renowned energy economist Daniel Yergin,
chairman of Cambridge Consulting Group has referred to shale gas development as the
biggest energy innovation of the decade. It is not that we in India are not familiar with this
development. In an article few months back, columnist Anklesaria Aiyar had urged the
government to bring about policy changes to promote shale gas. In India, shale deposits
are found across the Gangetic plain, Assam, Rajasthan and many coastal areas, but
neither the government nor the corporate sector has carried out any exploration or

estimation. Recently, ONGC announced plans to start a pilot project in 2011 when most oil
companies in Europe and the US are racing to master the technology of shale gas from
those companies who have already succeeded in the US.
Shale gas is natural gas produced from shale formations. Gas shales are organic-rich shale
formations. In terms of its chemical makeup, shale gas is typically a dry gas primarily
composed of methane. Three factors have contributed to its rapid development of US gas
shales: advances in horizontal drilling, advances in hydraulic fracturing, and, perhaps most
importantly, rapid increases in natural gas prices in the last several years as a result of
significant supply and demand pressures. The primary differences between modern shale
gas development and conventional natural gas development are the extensive uses of
horizontal drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing. According to a recent DOE report,
the use of horizontal drilling has not introduced any new environmental problems.
While unconventional gas sources like gas shales reserves are plentiful, cost to produce is
more than the conventional gas production of yesteryears. The shale gas cost has been
estimated to be between $6 per mmbtu (Million British Thermal Units) to $9 to 10.
Dependence on Russia
The potential shale gas production in Europe will have huge geopolitical importance. Since
gas prices are often higher in Europe than in the US, oil companies are keen on drilling for
shale gas prospects even though profits at this stage are only speculative. Europe is today
dependent on Russia for its gas supplies to the extent of about 31 per cent. Future shale
gas production may reduce this dependence on Russian gas supplies for Europe and
improve their energy security. In reality Indias gas demand is limited by its access to gas
supplies based on domestic production and imports availability. If India can produce more
gas then it can reduce its coal imports which is environmentally more unfriendly, its
gasoline consumption through the use of compressed natural gas, and its demand for LPG
through piped natural gas to meet residential cooking and heating requirements, etc.
Natural gas is a versatile fuel and more environment friendly. Unfortunately, Indian
government has not been able to implement the right kind of gas policies even after the
recommendations given by several high powered commissions. The current gas sector
gives plenty of opportunity for rent seeking because of extensive government control.
Today we have three kinds of gas prices in India: 1. Gas prices based on Administered
Pricing Mechanism (APM) for those gas reserves before new exploration and licensing
policy. This is around $2.50/mmbtu. 2. Import prices paid to LNG imports which depend on
international prices which were as high as $16/mmbtu last year and 3. The so called arms
length price based on market for those gas reserves discovered after NELP. For Krishna
Godavari basin the government has fixed gas price at a level of $4.20/mmbtu on an
arbitrary basis when the market based price would be above $6.50/mmbtu.
The basic requirement for proper gas sector development in india is that the government
should allow the market to set the prices as recommended by many gas committees.
The government should encourage Indian companies public sector and private sector
to import gas shale production technology by giving incentives. It may even facilitate such
transfer of technology through signing of cooperation pact with the US government as
China has done during the recent visit of President Obama. The government should
consider setting a shale gas mission to make efforts to develop Indias shale gas reserves
on a war footing. In short, we should actively endeavour to develop shale gas reserves in
India in the shortest time with all the human, geologic and financial resources we can

assemble.
The Petroleum Ministry sources informed that the policy was expected any day now as the
Government is quite enthusiastic about putting shale gas blocks on auction by December 2013
as compared to the known forms of oil and gas, shale gas has been a key focus area in the US,
which has the largest of the hydrocarbon in the world. They further added that the bidding of
shale gas blocks would be markedly different from the auction of other oil and gas blocks.
This was the reason that a separate policy for shale gas blocks was initiated. In fact, the
Government was keen on unveiling the policy in December 2012, however, due to some
technicalities sources said, there was a minor delay and it is now almost final.
In India shale gas reserves have been found in Cambay (in Gujarat), Assam-Arakan (in the
North-East), Gondawana (in Central India), KG onshore (in Andhra Pradesh), Cauvery onshore
and Indo Gangetic basins.
As per the draft policy prepared by the Petroleum Ministrys technical arm Directorate General
of Hydrocarbons (DGH), and which is currently being fine tuned, exploration of shale gas has
been proposed on royalty and production-linked payments basis to the Government.
Also the draft policy suggests that cost recovery by companies has not been suggested, as this
would be lead to profit sharing. This aspect significantly separates it from the present format of
production sharing contracts (PSCs) which the Petroleum Ministry had signed with companies
for exploration of oil and gas blocks which had led to the Government facing losses as the
private contractors recovered their investment costs in advance and refused to share profits
with it.
A chastened Government , therefore, had in June 2012 formed a committee under C Rangarajan
Chairman of Prime Ministers Economic Advisory Council to introduce greater reforms in
the PSCs.
The draft policy on shale gas further says that bidders would have to quote a share of total
output they want to share with the Government. This would ensure transparency in profit
sharing from natural resources.

Definition of CBM
Coal Bed Methane, is often referred to as CBM. It is the natural gas contained within coal. The gas
storage mechanism is unlike what is found in a conventional reservoir.

In a typical gas reservoir, gas is compressed by the pressure in the formation. Expansion of
the gas provides the means for the gas to be produced.

In a coal reservoir, the gas is stored within the coal matrix by a process known as
adsorption*. In adsorption, the gas molecules adhere to the surface of the coal. As the
reservoir pressure is reduced, gas is released from the coal surface, diffuses through the
coal matrix, flows through the fracture system of the coal, and then on to be produced. Gas
stored by adsorption can, under certain conditions exceed gas stored by compression. The
release of gas is commonly described by a pressure relationship called the Langmuir
Isotherm.

*Note that this process is adsorption, and not absorption

Coal Structure
For the purposes of CBM production a coal reservoir is considered to be a system that consists of
fractures and matrix. This concept is similar to the model proposed by Warren and Root and is
shown below.

Fractures
Coal is naturally fractured, with closely spaced, regular, planar fractures that are collectively known
as cleats. There are two main cleat types: face cleats and butt cleats. Face cleats act as the main
channels for flow in coal. Butt cleats typically terminate perpendicular to a face cleat.

Anisotropy, Horizontal
Flow through the reservoir proceeds much faster through face cleats than through butt cleats and

this can result in permeability anisotropy.

Anisotropy, Vertical
For the most part, the gas flow is in the horizontal direction, therefore vertical permeabilities are
negligible.
Typically the fracture system has a low porosity (usually less than 2%) and often contains water.
However, it can also contain gas, but the volume of gas contained in the fractures is a relatively
small amount (because of the low porosity and high water saturation).

Coal Matrix
The coal matrix is composed of a network of pores of varying sizes. The smallest pores are located
within the matrix, with the pores becoming larger towards the surface of the coal. The smallest pores
(micropores) measure only about 20 (2 nm). By comparison, the width of methane and water
molecules is only about 5-10 (0.5-1 nm). The larger pores are considered to be important for the
transmission (diffusion) of desorbed gas to the cleat system, whereas the micropores are the primary
sites for gas adsorption.
Gas is stored on the surface of the coal within the micropores of the matrix. It exists as a single layer
of molecules in a condensed, near liquid state. This internal surface area of the coal is so large that
even a single adsorbed layer of molecules constitutes a significant quantity of gas. The quantity of
gas adsorbed within the coal matrix usually exceeds, by far, any gas contained in the cleat porosity.
The adsorbed gas is recovered by desorption from the matrix as the pressure is reduced during
production. The desorption of gas from the matrix is typically described by the Langmuir isotherm.
In order for the gas to be produced, it has to diffuse from the matrix of the coal to the cleat system.
Diffusion is often assumed to occur rapidly, and so is often neglected in calculations.

Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm

Coal is able to store a significant amount of gas. The mechanism by which this occurs is called
adsorption. In adsorption molecules of one substance become attached to the surface of another.
Adsorption can be visualized by imagining a magnet attached to a metal surface, or lint attached to a
sweater. This is different from absorption where one substance becomes trapped inside another,
such as a sponge soaking up water. Adsorption is a reversible process, because that involves weak
attraction forces.
The Langmuir adsorption isotherm assumes that the gas attaches to the surface of the coal and
covers the surface as a single layer of gas (a monolayer). Nearly all of the gas stored by adsorption
coal exists in a condensed, near liquid state. At low pressures, this dense state allows greater
volumes to be stored by sorption than is possible by compression.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Coalbed methane (CBM or Coal Bed Methane), coalbed gas, or coal mine methane (CMM) is a
form of natural gas extracted from coal beds. In recent decades it has become an important source
of energy in United States, Canada, and other countries. Australia has rich deposits where it is

known as coal seam gas (abbreviated "CSG").

The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal. It is called 'sweet gas'
because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide. The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in
underground coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk. Coalbed methane is distinct from a
typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir, as the methane is stored within the coal by a
process called adsorption. The methane is in a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores within the
coal (called the matrix). The open fractures in the coal (called the cleats) can also contain free gas or
can be saturated with water.
Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs, coalbed methane contains very little heavier
hydrocarbons such as propane or butane, and no natural gas condensate. It often contains up to a
few percent carbon dioxide. Some coal seams, such as those in certain areas of the Illawarra Coal
Measures in NSW, Australia, contain little methane, with the predominant coal seam gas being
carbon dioxide.
Intrinsic properties affecting gas production
Gas contained in coal bed methane is mainly methane and trace quantities of ethane, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and few other gases. Intrinsic properties of coal as found in nature determine the
amount of gas that can be recovered.
Porosity
The porosity of coal bed reservoirs is usually very small, ranging from 0.1 to 10%.
Adsorption capacity
Adsorption capacity of coal is defined as the volume of gas adsorbed per unit mass of coal usually
expressed in SCF (standard cubic feet, the volume at standard pressure and temperature
conditions) gas/ton of coal. The capacity to adsorb depends on the rank and quality of coal. The
range is usually between 100 to 800 SCF/ton for most coal seams found in the US. Most of the gas
in coal beds is in the adsorbed form. When the reservoir is put into production, water in the fracture
spaces is pumped off first. This leads to a reduction of pressure enhancing desorption of gas from
the matrix.
Fracture permeability
As discussed before, the fracture permeability acts as the major channel for the gas to flow. The
higher the permeability, higher is the gas production. For most coal seams found in the US, the
permeability lies in the range of 0.1 to 50 milliDarcies. The permeability of fractured reservoirs
changes with the stress applied to them. Coal displays a stress-sensitive permeability and this
process plays an important role during stimulation and production operations.
Thickness of formation and initial reservoir pressure
The thickness of the formation may not be directly proportional to the volume of gas produced in
some areas.
For Example: It has been observed in the Cherokee Basin in Southeast Kansas that a well with a
single zone of 12 ft of pay can produce excellent gas rates, whereas an alternative formation with
twice the thickness can produce next to nothing. Some coal (and shale) formations may have high

gas concentrations regardless of the formation's thickness, probably due to other factors of the
area's geology.
The pressure difference between the well block and the sand face should be as high as possible as
is the case with any producing reservoir in general.
Other properties
Other affecting parameters include coal density, initial gas phase concentration, critical gas
saturation, irreducible water saturation, relative permeability to water and gas at conditions of Sw =
1.0 and Sg = 1-Swirreducible respectively.
Extraction
To extract the gas, a steel-encased hole is drilled into the coal seam (1001500 meters below
ground). As the pressure within the coal seam declines due to natural production or the pumping of
water from the coalbed, both gas and 'produced water' come to the surface through tubing. Then the
gas is sent to a compressor station and into natural gas pipelines. The 'produced water' is either
reinjected into isolated formations, released into streams, used for irrigation, or sent to evaporation
ponds. The water typically contains dissolved solids such as sodium bicarbonate and chloride.
Coalbed methane wells often produce at lower gas rates than conventional reservoirs, typically
peaking at near 300,000 cubic feet (8,500 m3) per day (about 0.100 m/s), and can have large initial
costs. The production profiles of CBM wells are typically characterized by a "negative decline" in
which the gas production rate initially increases as the water is pumped off and gas begins to desorb
and flow. A dry CBM well is similar to a standard gas well.
The methane desorption process follows a curve (of gas content vs. reservoir pressure) called a
Langmuir isotherm. The isotherm can be analytically described by a maximum gas content (at infinite
pressure), and the pressure at which half that gas exists within the coal. These parameters (called
the Langmuir volume and Langmuir pressure, respectively) are properties of the coal, and vary
widely. A coal in Alabama and a coal in Colorado may have radically different Langmuir parameters,
despite otherwise similar coal properties.
As production occurs from a coal reservoir, the changes in pressure are believed to cause changes
in the porosity and permeability of the coal. This is commonly known as matrix shrinkage/swelling.
As the gas is desorbed, the pressure exerted by the gas inside the pores decreases, causing them
to shrink in size and restricting gas flow through the coal. As the pores shrink, the overall matrix
shrinks as well, which may eventually increase the space the gas can travel through (the cleats),
increasing gas flow.
The potential of a particular coalbed as a CBM source depends on the following criteria. Cleat
density/intensity: cleats are joints confined within coal sheets. They impart permeability to the coal
seam. A high cleat density is required for profitable exploitation of CBM. Also important is the
maceral composition: maceral is a microscopic, homogeneous, petrographic entity of a
corresponding sedimentary rock. A high vitrinite composition is ideal for CBM extraction, while
inertinite hampers the same.
The rank of coal has also been linked to CBM content: a vitrinite reflectance of 0.8-1.5% has been
found to imply higher productivity of the coalbed.
The gas composition must be considered, because natural gas appliances are designed for gas with

a heating value of about 1000 BTU (British thermal units) per cubic foot, or nearly pure methane. If
the gas contains more than a few percent non-flammable gases such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide
either these will have to be removed or it will have to be blended with higher-BTU gas to achieve
pipeline quality. If the methane composition of the coalbed gas is less than 92%, it may not be
commercially marketable.
Environmental impacts
CBM wells are connected by a network of roads, pipelines, and compressor stations. Over time,
wells may be spaced more closely in order to extract the remaining methane. Additionally, the
produced water may contain undesirable concentrations of dissolved substances. Water withdrawal
may depress aquifers over a large area and affect groundwater flows.
The environmental impacts of CBM development are considered by various governmental bodies
during the permitting process and operation, which provide opportunities for public comment and
intervention. Operators are required to obtain building permits for roads, pipelines and structures,
obtain wastewater (produced water) discharge permits, and prepare Environmental Impact
Statements. As with other natural resource utilization activities, the application and effectiveness of
environmental laws, regulation, and enforcement vary with location. Violations of applicable laws and
regulations are addressed through regulatory bodies and criminal and civil judicial proceedings.
Reserves
Coalbed methane reserve estimates vary; however a 1997 estimate from the U.S. Geological Survey
predicts more than 700 trillion cubic feet (20 trillion cubic metres) of methane within the US. At a
natural gas price of US$6.05 per million Btu (US$5.73/GJ), that volume is worth US$4.37trillion. At
least 100 trillion cubic feet (2.8 trillion cubic metres) of it is economically viable to produce.
In Canada, British Columbia is estimated to have approximately 90 trillion cubic feet (2.5 trillion cubic
metres) of coalbed gas. Alberta, to date the only province with commercial coalbed methane wells, is
estimated to have approximately 170 trillion cubic feet (4.8 trillion cubic metres) of economically
recoverable coalbed methane.
Recent depressed natural gas prices have made CBM less economically viable compared to the
past few years.
Currently it is considered a non-renewable resource, there is evidence by the Alberta Research
Council, Alberta Geological Survey and others showing coalbed methane is a renewable resource,
because the bacterial action that formed the methane is ongoing. The assertion of being renewable,
however, has itself become one of debate since it has also been shown that the dewatering that
accompanies CBM production destroys the conditions needed for the bacteria to produce methane.
In addition, the rate of formation of additional methane is undetermined. This debate is currently
causing a right of ownership issue in the Canadian province of Alberta, as only non-renewable
resources can legally be owned by the province.
Production forecasting of CBM wells and fields can be performed using specialised Material Balance
tools or Numerical simulators, as it requires an explicit coupling of the matrix gas diffusion process
with the flow within fractures (Darcy law applies).

India scenario
Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is a non conventional fuel with properties similar to that found in natural

gas, and is considered as India's next big natural resource development push. Most of the CBM gas
is in an adsorbed state on the micropores of the coal surface. Thus, coal is both the source and
reservoir rock for CBM. Since India is endowed with rich deposits of coal and lignite, there is a huge
untapped potential of CBM gas, which could be used for bridging the ever increasing demand-supply
gap of natural gas in India. Commercial production of CBM is a proven technology and USA is the
leader in CBM production in the world. Having the 4th largest proven coal reserves and being the
third largest coal producer in the world, India holds significant prospects for commercial recovery of
CBM. With this prospect in view, the Government of India finalised a comprehensive CBM Policy in
1997. Also, after making due allowance for the coal mining programmes and by close interaction
with the Ministry of Coal (MoC), the DGH has drafted the terms and conditions of CBM exploitation.
Following it, thirty three CBM blocks have been awarded under 4 rounds of international competitive
bidding and on nomination basis.
Presently, GEECL is the only CBM producing and marketing company in India operating in Raniganj
belt of West Bengal. GEECL has been producing and marketing CBM in Ranigunj, DurgapurAsansol and neighbouring region since 2007. Their current production level is 0.3 MMSCMD from
nearly 100 wells.
CBM is being supplied to Industrial, Commercial and transport customers (as CNG) in the belt.
RIL in Chattisgarh and Essar have also plans for commencing commercial production of CBM.
Status of CBM Blocks
CBM-I
BK-CBM-2001/1
Jharia
NK-CBM-2001/I
Raniganj
Raniganj
RG
SP
SP (West)-CBM-2001/I
CBM-II
BS(1)-CBM-2003-II
BS(2)-CBM-2003-II
BS(3)-CBM-2003-II
NK-CBM-2003-II
SH(North)-CBM-2003-II
SK-CBM-2003-II
ST-CBM-2003-II
WD-CBM-2003-II
CBM-III
BB-CBM-2005-III
BS(4)-CBM-2005-III
BS(5)-CBM-2005-III
GV(N)-CBM-2005-III
KG(E)-CBM-2005-III
MR-CBM-2005-III
RM-CBM-2005-III
SP(N)-CBM-2005-III
SR-CBM-2005-III

North
South
(East)-CBM-2001/1
(East)-CBM-2001/1

TR-CBM-2005-III
CBM-IV
AS-CBM-2008/IV
IB-CBM-2008/IV
MG-CBM-2008/IV
RM(E)-CBM-2008/IV
SP(NE)-CBM-2008/IV
SR(W)-CBM-2008/IV
ST-CBM-2008/IV
TL-CBM-2008/IV
Gas Hydrates
Methane clathrate (CH45.75H2O), also called methane hydrate, hydromethane, methane ice,
fire ice, natural gas hydrate, or gas hydrate is a solid clathrate compound (more specifically, a
clathrate hydrate) in which a large amount of methane is trapped within a crystal structure of water,
forming a solid similar to ice. Originally thought to occur only in the outer regions of the Solar System
where temperatures are low and water ice is common, significant deposits of methane clathrate
have been found under sediments on the ocean floors of Earth. The worldwide amount of carbon
bound in gas hydrates is conservatively estimated to total twice the amount of carbon to be found in
all known fossil fuels on Earth.
Methane clathrates are common constituents of the shallow marine geosphere, and they occur both
in deep sedimentary structures, and as outcrops on the ocean floor. Methane hydrates are believed
to form by migration of gas from depth along geological faults, followed by precipitation, or
crystallization, on contact of the rising gas stream with cold sea water. Methane clathrates are also
present in deep Antarctic ice cores, and record a history of atmospheric methane concentrations,
dating to 800,000 years ago. The ice-core methane clathrate record is a primary source of data for
global warming research, along with oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Structure and composition
The average methane clathrate hydrate composition is 1 mole of methane for every 5.75 moles of
water, though this is dependent on how many methane molecules "fit" into the various cage
structures of the water lattice. The observed density is around 0.9 g/cm 3. One litre of methane
clathrate solid would therefore contain, on average, 168 litres of methane gas (at STP)

Methane hydrate phase diagram. The horizontal axis shows temperature from -15 to 33 Celsius, the
vertical axis shows pressure from 0 to 120,000 kilopascals (0 to 1,184 atmospheres). For example,
at 4 Celsius hydrate forms above a pressure of about 50 atmospheres.
Natural deposits

Worldwide distribution of confirmed or inferred offshore gas hydrate-bearing sediments, 1996.

Source: USGS

Gas hydrate-bearing sediment,

Specific structure of a gas hydrate piece, from the

from the subduction zone off Oregon

subduction zone off Oregon

Methane clathrates are restricted to the shallow lithosphere (i.e. < 2,000 m depth). Furthermore,
necessary conditions are found only either in polar continental sedimentary rocks where surface
temperatures are less than 0 C; or in oceanic sediment at water depths greater than 300 m where
the bottom water temperature is around 2 C. In addition, deep fresh water lakes may host gas
hydrates as well, e.g. the fresh water Lake Baikal, Siberia. Continental deposits have been located in
Siberia and Alaska in sandstone and siltstone beds at less than 800 m depth. Oceanic deposits
seem to be widespread in the continental shelf and can occur within the sediments at depth or close
to the sediment-water interface. They may cap even larger deposits of gaseous methane.
Oceanic
There are two distinct types of oceanic deposit. The most common is dominated (> 99%) by
methane contained in a structure I clathrate and generally found at depth in the sediment. Here, the

methane is isotopically light which indicates that it is derived from the microbial reduction of CO2.
The clathrates in these deep deposits are thought to have formed in situ from the microbially
produced methane. However, it is also thought that fresh water used in the pressurization of oil and
gas wells in permafrost and along the continental shelves world wide, combine with natural methane
to form clathrate at depth and pressure, since methane hydrates cannot form, initially, in salt water.
Local variations may be very common, as the act of forming hydrate, which extracts pure water from
saline formation waters, can often lead to local, and potentially-significant increases in formation
water salinity.
These deposits are located within a mid-depth zone around 300500 m thick in the sediments (the
gas hydrate stability zone, or GHSZ) where they coexist with methane dissolved in the fresh, not
salt, pore-waters. Above this zone methane is only present in its dissolved form at concentrations
that decrease towards the sediment surface. Below it, methane is gaseous. At Blake Ridge on the
Atlantic continental rise, the GHSZ started at 190 m depth and continued to 450 m, where it reached
equilibrium with the gaseous phase. Measurements indicated that methane occupied 0-9% by
volume in the GHSZ, and ~12% in the gaseous zone.
In the less common second type found near the sediment surface some samples have a higher
proportion of longer-chain hydrocarbons (< 99% methane) contained in a structure II clathrate.
Carbon from this type of clathrate is isotopically heavier and is thought to have migrated upwards
from deep sediments, where methane was formed by thermal decomposition of organic matter.
Examples of this type of deposit have been found in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caspian Sea.
Some deposits have characteristics intermediate between the microbially and thermally sourced
types and are considered to be formed from a mixture of the two.
The methane in gas hydrates is dominantly generated by microbial consortia degrading organic
matter in low oxygen environments, with the methane itself produced by methanogenic archaea.
Organic matter in the uppermost few centimetres of sediments is first attacked by aerobic bacteria,
generating CO2, which escapes from the sediments into the water column. Below this region of
aerobic activity, anaerobic processes take over, including, successively with depth, the microbial
reduction of nitrite/nitrate, metal oxides, and then sulfates are reduced to sulfides. Finally, once
sulfate is used up, methanogenesis becomes a dominant pathway for organic carbon
remineralization.
In some regions (e.g., Gulf of Mexico) methane in clathrates may be at least partially derived from
thermal degradation of organic matter, dominantly in petroleum. Below the zone of solid clathrates,
large volumes of methane may occur as bubbles of free gas in the sediments.
The presence of clathrates at a given site can often be determined by observation of a "bottom
simulating reflector" (BSR), which is a seismic reflection at the sediment to clathrate stability zone
interface caused by the unequal densities of normal sediments and those laced with clathrates.
Reservoir size
The size of the oceanic methane clathrate reservoir is poorly known, and estimates of its size
decreased by roughly an order of magnitude per decade since it was first recognized that clathrates
could exist in the oceans during the 1960s and '70s. The highest estimates (e.g. 310 18 m) were
based on the assumption that fully dense clathrates could litter the entire floor of the deep ocean.

Improvements in our understanding of clathrate chemistry and sedimentology have revealed that
hydrates form in only a narrow range of depths (continental shelves), at only some locations in the
range of depths where they could occur (10-30% of the GHSZ), and typically are found at low
concentrations (0.9-1.5% by volume) at sites where they do occur. Recent estimates constrained by
direct sampling suggest the global inventory occupies between one and five million cubic kilometres
(0.24 to 1.2 million cubic miles). This estimate, corresponding to 500-2500 gigatonnes carbon (Gt C),
is smaller than the 5000 Gt C estimated for all other fossil fuel reserves but substantially larger than
the ~230 Gt C estimated for other natural gas sources. The permafrost reservoir has been estimated
at about 400 Gt C in the Arctic, but no estimates have been made of possible Antarctic reservoirs.
These are large amounts, for comparison the total carbon in the atmosphere is around 700 gigatons.
These modern estimates are notably smaller than the 10,000 to 11,000 Gt C (210 16 m) proposed
by previous workers as a motivation considering clathrates as a fossil fuel resource (MacDonald
1990, Kvenvolden 1998). Lower abundances of clathrates do not rule out their economic potential,
but a lower total volume and apparently low concentration at most sites does suggest that only a
limited percentage of clathrates deposits may provide an economically viable resource.
Continental
Methane clathrates in continental rocks are trapped in beds of sandstone or siltstone at depths of
less than 800 m. Sampling indicates they are formed from a mix of thermally and microbially derived
gas from which the heavier hydrocarbons were later selectively removed. These occur in Alaska,
Siberia as well as Northern Canada.
In 2008, Canadian and Japanese researchers extracted a constant stream of natural gas from a test
project at the Mallik gas hydrate field in the Mackenzie River delta. This was the second such drilling
at Mallik: the first took place in 2002 and used heat to release methane. In the 2008 experiment,
researchers were able to extract gas by lowering the pressure, without heating, requiring significantly
less energy. The Mallik gas hydrate field was first discovered by Imperial Oil in 1971-1972
Commercial use
The sedimentary methane hydrate reservoir probably contains 210 times the currently known
reserves of conventional natural gas. This represents a potentially important future source of
hydrocarbon fuel. However, in the majority of sites deposits are likely to be too dispersed for
economic extraction. Other problems facing commercial exploitation are detection of viable reserves;
and development of the technology for extracting methane gas from the hydrate deposits. To date,
there has only been one field commercially produced where some of the gas is thought to have been
from methane clathrates, Messoyakha Gas Field, supplying the nearby Russian city of Norilsk.
A research and development project in Japan is aiming for commercial-scale extraction near Aichi
Prefecture by 2016. In August 2006, China announced plans to spend 800 million yuan (US$100
million) over the next 10 years to study natural gas hydrates. A potentially economic reserve in the
Gulf of Mexico may contain ~1010 m3 of gas. Bjrn Kvamme and Arne Graue at the Institute for
Physics and technology at the University of Bergen have developed a method for injecting CO2 into
hydrates and reversing the process; thereby extracting CH 4 by direct exchange. The University of
Bergen's method is being field tested by ConocoPhillips and JOGMEC, and partially funded by the
U.S. Department of Energy. The project has already reached injection phase and is currently
analyzing resulting data as of March 12, 2012.

Hydrates in natural gas processing

Routine operations
Methane clathrates (hydrates) are also commonly formed during natural gas production operations,
when liquid water is condensed in the presence of methane at high pressure. It is known that larger
hydrocarbon molecules such as ethane and propane can also form hydrates, although as the
molecule length increases (butanes, pentanes), they cannot fit into the water cage structure and
tend to destabilise the formation of hydrates.
Once formed, hydrates can block pipeline and processing equipment. They are generally then
removed by reducing the pressure, heating them, or dissolving them by chemical means (methanol
is commonly used). Care must be taken to ensure that the removal of the hydrates is carefully
controlled, because of the potential for the hydrate to undergo a phase transition from the solid
hydrate to release water and gaseous methane at a high rate as the pressure is reduced. The rapid
release of methane gas in a closed system can result in a rapid increase in pressure.
It is generally preferable to prevent hydrates from forming or blocking equipment. This is commonly
achieved by removing water, or by the addition of ethylene glycol (MEG) or methanol, which act to
depress the temperature at which hydrates will form (i.e. common antifreeze). In recent years,
development of other forms of hydrate inhibitors have been developed, such as Kinetic Hydrate
Inhibitors (which dramatically slow the rate of hydrate formation) and anti-agglomerates, which do
not prevent hydrates forming, but do prevent them sticking together to block equipment.
Effect of hydrate phase transition during deep water drilling
When drilling in oil- and gas-bearing formations submerged in deep water, the reservoir gas may
flow into the well bore and form gas hydrates owing to the low temperatures and high pressures
found during deep water drilling. The gas hydrates may then flow upward with drilling mud or other
discharged fluids. As they rise, the pressure in the annulus decreases and the hydrates dissociate
into gas and water. The rapid gas expansion ejects fluid from the well, reducing the pressure further,
which leads to more hydrate dissociation and further fluid ejection. The resulting violent expulsion of
fluid from the annulus is one potential cause or contributor to what is referred to as a "kick". (Kicks,
which can cause blowouts, typically do not involve hydrates).
Measures which reduce the risk of hydrate formation include:

High flow-rates, which limit the time for hydrate formation in a volume of fluid, thereby
reducing the kick potential.

Careful measuring of line flow to detect incipient hydrate plugging.

Additional care in measuring when gas production rates are low and the possibility of
hydrate formation is higher than at relatively high gas flow rates.

Monitoring of well casing after it is "shut in" (isolated) may indicate hydrate formation.
Following "shut in", the pressure rises as gas diffuses through the reservoir to the bore hole
the rate of pressure rise will exhibit a reduced rate of increase when hydrates are forming.

Additions of energy (e.g., the energy released by setting cement used in well completion)
can raise the temperature and convert hydrates to gas, producing a "kick".

Blowout recovery
At sufficient depths, methane complexes directly with water to form methane hydrates, as was
observed during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010. BP engineers developed and deployed a
subsea oil recovery system over oil spilling from a deepwater oil well 5,000 feet (1,500 m) below sea
level to capture escaping oil. This involved placing a 125-tonne (280,000 lb) dome over the largest of
the well leaks and piping it to a storage vessel on the surface. This option had the potential to collect
as much as 85% of the leaking oil but is previously untested at such depths. BP deployed the system
on May 78, when it failed due to buildup of methane clathrate inside the dome; with its low density
of approximately 0.9 g/cm3 the methane hydrates accumulated in the dome, adding buoyancy and
obstructing flow.
Methane clathrates and climate change
Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. Despite its short atmospheric half life of 7 years, methane
has a global warming potential of 62 over 20 years and 21 over 100 years (IPCC, 1996; Berner and
Berner, 1996; vanLoon and Duffy, 2000). The sudden release of large amounts of natural gas from
methane clathrate deposits has been hypothesized as a cause of past and possibly future climate
changes. Events possibly linked in this way are the Permian-Triassic extinction event and the
Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum.
Climate scientists such as James E. Hansen hypothesize that methane clathrates in the permafrost
regions will be released as a result of global warming, unleashing powerful feedback forces which
may cause runaway climate change that cannot be controlled.
Recent research carried out in 2008 in the Siberian Arctic has shown millions of tonnes of methane
being released with concentrations in some regions reaching up to 100 times above normal.
Natural gas hydrates (NGH) vs. liquified natural gas (LNG) in transportation
Since methane clathrates are stable at a higher temperature than liquefied natural gas (LNG) (20
vs 162 C), there is some interest in converting natural gas into clathrates rather than liquifying it
when transporting it by seagoing vessels. A significant advantage would be that the production of
natural gas hydrate (NGH) from natural gas at the terminal would require a smaller refrigeration plant
and less energy than LNG would. Offsetting this, for 100 tonnes of methane transported, 750 tonnes
of methane hydrate would have to be transported; since this would require a ship of 7.5 times
greater displacement, or require more ships, it is unlikely to prove economic.
Gas hydrates in India
Introduction
As an unconventional hydrocarbon resource, methane hydrates have been the focus of our quest for
meeting our energy demands and it was this objective that Indias National Gas Hydrate
Program(NGHP) was launched. Steered by the ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas and technically

coordinated by Directorate General Of Hydrocarbons(DGH), NGHP is a consortium of National E&P

companies (Oil and Natural Gas Ltd. ,Gas Authority of India Ltd.) and National Research
Institutions(National Institute of Oceanography, National Geophysical Research Institute and
National Institute of Ocean Technology).
Commercialization
As per the Road Map linked below the commercial production of methane from gas hydrates is still a
far fetched thought although NGHP has set itself a deadline of mid 2015 as the time to commence
commercial production, the commercial production of methane from Indian Gas Hydrate resources
has its own set of challenges, a few would perhaps be :

Absence of representative deepwater gas hydrates field anywhere in the world

Gas production rate ( Gas in the production testing of Mallik well in Canadas permafrost
area have yielded very low production rate and could not sustain more than 7 days of
production using thermal and depressurization methods )

Managing Water production rate ( High amount of water is expected to be produced along
with the dissociation of hydrates )

Sand control since the hydrate reservoirs exist at very shallow depth below sea bed ( 200400 mbsf) the sands here would not be consolidated due to absence of overburden
pressure.

Reservoir subsidence and other environmental hazards

These challenges can only be overcome by sustained commitment of our scientists and
establishment of a proper gas hydrate R&D center in India. The global gas hydrate
communities of scientists and researchers have to work in tandem with each other. DGH on
behalf of the NGHP has signed Memoranda of Understanding in the field of Gas Hydrates
with Japan Oil, Gas, Metal Corporation JOGMEC, Gas Hydrate R&D Organisation ( GHDO )
of the Korea Institute of Geology, Mining and Materials ( KIGAM ) and the US Department of
Energy (USDOE) another MOU with the US Geological Survey (USGS) is in the pipeline.
DGH has been closely associated with the USGS , USDOE and JOGMEC scientists which
has helped the NGHP scientists to gain a lot in terms of knowledge, understanding and
experience.
Road Map

R&D Advances in India

DGH has done pioneering work for initiating gas hydrate exploration in the country. Reconnaissance
surveys carried out by DGH in the East Coast and Andaman Deepwater areas in 1997 deciphered
the most promising areas for Gas Hydrates. The surveys have indicated the presence of several Gas
Hydrate leads/ prospects. The total prognosticated gas resource from the gas hydrates in the
country is placed at 1894 TCM.

Government of India formulated a National Gas Hydrate Programme (NGHP) in 1997 for exploration
and development of gas hydrates resources of the country. The DGH is actively involved in the
programme. In fact, the Director General is the coordinator of the Technical Committee of NGHP.
Following reconstitution of the NGHP in the year 2000 by MOP&NG, a new sense of urgency was
imparted to the programme and it was put on a fast track implementation.
Introduction
The National Gas Hydrate Program (NGHP) is a consortium of National E&P companies (Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation Ltd ONGC, GAIL India Ltd & Oil India Ltd OIL) and National Research
Institutions (National Institute of Oceanography, National Geophysical Research Institute and
National Institute of Ocean Technology). Steered by the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas and
technically coordinated by Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH) NGHP is given the
responsibility to explore the Gas Hydrates in India.
NGHP during its 1st expedition through a Consortium consisting of Overseas Drilling Ltd (ODL),
Fugro McClelland Marine Geosciences, Geotek Ltd, Lamont-Doherthy Earth Observatory (LDEO)
and scientists from numerous universities and national laboratories, has struck rich deposits of
Massive Gas Hydrates present within the fractured shales in the KG offshore area. United States
Geological Survey (USGS) was the main technical collaborator in this expedition.
The Technical Committee of NGHP reviewed the seismic data of the entire continental shelf of India
for identifying the best areas for conducting further gas hydrate studies. Two Model Field Laboratory
Areas one each along the east and west coasts were identified based on the data review carried out
by the Technical Committee. More geoscientific data were acquired by National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO) in these areas on behalf of NGHP, to look for more proxies for gas hydrates in
addition to the seismic signatures. These geoscientific data included i.e., Side Scan Sonar, Swath
bathymetry, Chirp Sonar data, water samples and gravity cores for geochemical analysis.
The microbiological studies were also carried out on the gravity cores. All these data and studies
revealed several proxies of gas hydrates.
Based on the detailed seismic data interpretation and special processing by DGH through Western
Geophysical and Reliance Industries Limited, the Andaman offshore and Mahanadi areas were also
added to the other two identified areas for ground truthing through coring/ drilling.
The study enabled NGHP scientists in firming up of locations for drilling and coring of gas hydrate
bearing sediments in four areas, i.e. K.G. and Mahanadi Basins in East Coast, Kerala-Konkan basin
in the west coast and Andaman offshore.
Expedition Overview
Initial planning called for ten sites to be occupied and twenty seven holes were scheduled for drilling.
Of these, eight sites were scheduled for LWD/MWD drilling and two sites were scheduled for coring
and wireline logging only.
Expedition NGHP-01 began at 0600 hr 28 April 2006 with the arrival of the drill ship in Mumbai,
India, and ended 113.5 days later in Chennai, India with the last line away North Quay at 1912 hr 19
August 2006. Ultimately twenty one sites were occupied with five sites re-occupied at least once.
Thirty nine holes were drilled. Of these, twelve holes were LWD/MWD drilled, twenty two holes were

cored, and four holes were drilled as dedicated wireline logging holes. Thirteen holes were wireline
logged and temperature gradients were established in eleven holes.
During Expedition NGHP-01 there were 494 cores cut with 2847.01 meters of core recovered
reflecting 78.7% of the interval cored. A total of 76 in situ temperature measurements were also
attempted using three different wireline temperature tools.
For organizational purposes, Expedition NGHP-01 was divided into five operational segments. The
first segment, or leg, consisted of a single hole cored and wireline logged in the Konkan-Kerala (KK)
Basin off the West coast of India. The second comprised solely of LWD/MWD holes. During leg 2,
twelve holes at ten sites were drilled in the Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin off the west coast of India.
Leg 3A consisted of six cored holes and two dedicated wireline logging holes at four sites located in
the KG Basin. Two sites were re-occupied sites that were previously LWD/MWD drilled on Leg 2 and
two sites were new. Leg 3B consisted of seven cored holes plus one hole that was abandoned due
to hole conditions before any coring or logging could be initiated. Five sites were occupied including
two that were re-occupied LWD/MWD sites and three that were new additions. All sites were located
in the KG Basin. The expedition was completed on Leg 4 with the drilling of two holes (one dedicated
to wireline logging) at one site located in the Andaman Sea, three holes at two sites located in the
Mahanadi (MN) Basin off North Eastern India, and two holes back in the Krishna-Godavari Basin off
the South Eastern coast of India.
Finally more than 2800 m of cores were cut from 21 sites and 39 holes
Results
The NGHP efforts in Indian offshore for gas hydrate exploration led to the following:
Conducted comprehensive analyses of gas-hydrate-bearing marine sediments in both passive
continental margin and marine accretionary wedge settings;
Discovered gas hydrate in numerous complex geologic settings and collected an unprecedented
number of gas hydrate cores (more than 2800 m from 21 sites and 39 holes);
Delineated and sampled one of the richest marine gas hydrate accumulations yet discovered in the
world (Krishna-Godovari basin)
Discovered one of the thickest and deepest gas hydrate occurrences yet known (Andaman Islands)
which revealed gas-hydrate-bearing volcanic ash layers as deep as 600 meters below the seafloor;
Established the existence of a fully developed gas hydrate system in the Mahanadi basin of the
Bay of Bengal;
All the ongoing geoscientific studies of NGHP Expedition 01, 2006 will be completed by January,
2008. NGHP is currently focusing on gas hydrate reservoir delineation and resource estimation in
the K. G. area. The identification of the promising sites for NGHP Expedition 02 for riser drilling and
pilot production testing will be taken up after completion of the ongoing studies on samples and data
from NGHP Expedition 01, 2006. This could even mean acquiring seismic data focusing on shallow
depths.
Challenges
There is still no proven technology world over to exploit methane from Gas hydrate on a commercial
scale. Moreover since much of the gas hydrate reserves worldwide are found disseminated in
sandstone whatever research being done on the extraction of gas from hydrates focus on
disseminated deposits in sands. This is in contrast to our discovery of gas hydrates in KG offshore,
which are massive in nature and found in fractured shales.

Gas hydrates are unconventional hydrocarbon deposits and much of the work being done world over
is in research stage. Therefore an extremely close coordination and work association is requires with
leading scientists globally to be updated with the recent developments and device methodologies to
incorporate the research to best suit our requirements.
Strategy
Work association of Indian Scientists with that of US & Japan, the two other countries besides India
who have contributed largely in this field, jointly undertaking R&D studies for knowledge sharing and
information exchange. This can also include holding of joint seminars and conferences in the area of
Gas Hydrate research & development.
Form a tripartite consortium of Hydrate R&D taking US as a consortium partner and take up joint
exploration & Exploitation programme in offshore US, Japan & India on cost sharing basis. This
would enable worldwide hydrate experts to work jointly on projects and gain expertise & experience
which would be useful to all the 3 countries.
Establishing a national Gas hydrate R&D Center / Directorate in India, to look into the exploration &
exploitation aspects of Gas Hydrates. This would help extract the best from the intellectual resources
present in our country. This is important because even though we carry out activities related to Gas
hydrate exploration most of the research work on the samples/ cores/ data obtained from our shores
at our cost are sent abroad for further studies and Indian scientists never have the opportunity to
have working experience on such studies, even if work association with foreign scientists is carried
out, knowledge transfer does not take place on a continuous basis. This may be acceptable on a
short term basis but in the long run it is essential that we develop our own intellectual resources and
expertise. An exclusive R&D Centre in India is the need of the hour and a step in the right direction.
The R&D Directorate may be kept under the aegis of the DGH, with intellectual resources drawn
from E&P companies, Research and Academic Institutions within the country who may be
permanently posted to this Directorate on non transferable basis. This would further bring all
intellectual l resources in a specialized field like gas hydrates, which currently are scattered all over
the country under one common roof for yielding efficient results.
Biomethane
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of
oxygen. It is a renewable energy source, like solar and wind energy. Furthermore, biogas can be
produced from regionally available raw materials and recycled waste and is environmentally
friendly and CO2 neutral.
Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials such as
manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste, plant material, and crops. Biogas comprises
primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen
sulphide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes.
The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with
oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a fuel in
any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic digesters
where it is typically used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.
Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and used to power motor vehicles. In the UK,
for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel.
Biogas is a renewable fuel so it qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the
world. Biogas can also be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards when it becomes bio

methane.
Production
Bio gas is practically produced as landfill gas (LFG) or digested gas. A bio gas plant is the name
often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy crops. Bio gas can be
produced using anaerobic digesters. These plants can be fed with energy crops such as maize
silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge and food waste. During the process, as
an air-tight tank transforms biomass waste into methane producing renewable energy that can be
used for heating, electricity, and many other operations that use any variation of an internal
combustion engine, such as GE Jenbacher gas engines. There are two key processes: Mesophilic
and Thermophilic digestion. In experimental work at University of Alaska Fairbanks, a 1000-litre
digester using psychrophiles harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced
200300 liters of methane per day, about 2030% of the output from digesters in warmer climates.
Landfill gas is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a
landfill. The waste is covered and mechanically compressed by the weight of the material that is
deposited from above. This material prevents oxygen exposure thus allowing anaerobic microbes
to thrive. This gas builds up and is slowly released into the atmosphere if the landfill site has not
been engineered to capture the gas. Landfill gas is hazardous for three key reasons. Landfill gas
becomes explosive when it escapes from the landfill and mixes with oxygen. The lower explosive
limit is 5% methane and the upper explosive limit is 15% methane. The methane contained within
biogas is 20 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than is carbon dioxide. Therefore,
uncontained landfill gas, which escapes into the atmosphere may significantly contribute to the
effects of global warming. In addition, landfill gas impact in global warming, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) contained within landfill gas contribute to the formation of photochemical
smog.
Composition
Typical composition of biogas
Compound

Chem

Methane

CH4

5075

Carbon dioxide

CO2

2550

Nitrogen

N2

010

Hydrogen

H2

01

Hydrogen sulphide

H2S

03

Oxygen

O2

00

The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic digestion process.
Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste treatment
technologies can produce biogas with 5575% methane, which for reactors with free liquids can
be increased to 80-90% methane using in-situ gas purification techniques As-produced, biogas
also contains water vapor. The fractional volume of water vapor is a function of biogas
temperature; correction of measured gas volume for both water vapor content and thermal

expansion is easily done via a simple mathematic algorithm which yields the standardized volume
of dry biogas.
In some cases, biogas contains siloxanes. These siloxanes are formed from the anaerobic
decomposition of materials commonly found in soaps and detergents. During combustion of
biogas containing siloxanes, silicon is released and can combine with free oxygen or various other
elements in the combustion gas. Deposits are formed containing mostly silica (SiO2) or silicates
(SixOy) and can also contain calcium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorus. Such white mineral deposits
accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimeters and must be removed by chemical or
mechanical means.
Practical and cost-effective technologies to remove siloxanes and other biogas contaminants are
currently available.

Benefits
When biogas is used, many advantages arise. In North America, utilization of biogas would
generate enough electricity to meet up to three percent of the continent's electricity expenditure. In
addition, biogas could potentially help reduce global climate change. Normally, manure that is left
to decompose releases two main gases that cause global climate change: nitrogen dioxide and
methane. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) warms the atmosphere 310 times more than carbon dioxide and
methane 21 times more than carbon dioxide. By converting cow manure into methane biogas via
anaerobic digestion, the millions of cows in the United States would be able to produce one
hundred billion kilowatt hours of electricity, enough to power millions of homes across the United
States. In fact, one cow can produce enough manure in one day to generate three kilowatt hours
of electricity; only 2.4 kilowatt hours of electricity are needed to power a single one hundred watt
light bulb for one day. Furthermore, by converting cow manure into methane biogas instead of
Biogas can be utilized for electricity production on sewage works, in a CHP gas engine, where the
waste heat from the engine is conveniently used for heating the digester; cooking; space heating;
water heating; and process heating. If compressed, it can replace compressed natural gas for use
in vehicles, where it can fuel an internal combustion engine or fuel cells and is a much more
effective displacer of carbon dioxide than the normal use in on-site CHP plants.
Methane within biogas can be concentrated via a biogas upgrader to the same standards as fossil
natural gas, which itself has had to go through a cleaning process, and becomes biomethane. If
the local gas network allows for this, the producer of the biogas may utilize the local gas
distribution networks. Gas must be very clean to reach pipeline quality, and must be of the correct
composition for the local distribution network to accept. Carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulfide,
and particulates must be removed if present.
Biogas upgrading
Raw biogas produced from digestion is roughly 60% methane and 29% CO2 with trace elements
of H2S, and is not high quality enough to be used as fuel gas for machinery. The corrosive nature
of H2S alone is enough to destroy the internals of a plant. The solution is the use of biogas
upgrading or purification processes whereby contaminants in the raw biogas stream are absorbed
or scrubbed, leaving more methane per unit volume of gas. There are four main methods of

biogas upgrading, these include water washing, pressure swing absorption, selexol absorption,
and amine gas treating. The most prevalent method is water washing where high pressure gas
flows into a column where the carbon dioxide and other trace elements are scrubbed by
cascading water running counter-flow to the gas. This arrangement could deliver 98% methane
with manufacturers guaranteeing maximum 2% methane loss in the system. It takes roughly
between 3-6% of the total energy output in gas to run a biogas upgrading system....
Biogas gas-grid injection
Gas-grid injection is the injection of biogas into the methane grid (natural gas grid). Injections
includes biogas: until the breakthrough of micro combined heat and power two-thirds of all the
energy produced by biogas power plants was lost (the heat), using the grid to transport the gas to
customers, the electricity and the heat can be used for on-site generation resulting in a reduction
of losses in the transportation of energy. Typical energy losses in natural gas transmission
systems range from 12%. The current energy losses on a large electrical system range from 5
8%.
Biogas in transport
If concentrated and compressed, it can also be used in vehicle transportation. Compressed biogas
is becoming widely used in Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany. A biogas-powered train has been
in service in Sweden since 2005. Biogas also powers automobiles and in 1974, a British
documentary film entitled Sweet as a Nut detailed the biogas production process from pig manure,
and how the biogas fueled a custom-adapted combustion engine. In 2007, an estimated 12,000
vehicles were being fueled with upgraded biogas worldwide, mostly in Europe.
Legislation
The European Union presently has some of the strictest legislation regarding waste management
and landfill sites called the Landfill Directive. The United States legislates against landfill gas as it
contains VOCs. The United States Clean Air Act and Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) requires landfill owners to estimate the quantity of non-methane organic compounds
(NMOCs) emitted. If the estimated NMOC emissions exceeds 50 tonnes per year, the landfill
owner is required to collect the landfill gas and treat it to remove the entrained NMOCs. Treatment
of the landfill gas is usually by combustion. Because of the remoteness of landfill sites, it is
sometimes not economically feasible to produce electricity from the gas. However, countries such
as the United Kingdom and Germany now have legislation in force that provides farmers with
long-term revenue and energy security.
Development around the world
United States
With the many benefits of biogas, it is starting to become a popular source of energy and is
starting to be utilized in the United States more. In 2003, the United States consumed 147 trillion
BTU of energy from "landfill gas", about 0.6% of the total U.S. natural gas consumption. Methane
biogas derived from cow manure is also being tested in the U.S. According to a 2008 study,
collected by the Science and Children magazine, methane biogas from cow manure would be
sufficient to produce 100 billion kilowatt hours enough to power millions of homes across America.
Furthermore, methane biogas has been tested to prove that it can reduce 99 million metric tons of

greenhouse gas emissions or about 4% of the greenhouse gases produced by the United States.
In Vermont, for example, biogas generated on dairy farms around the state is included in the
CVPS Cow Power program. The Cow Power program is offered by Central Vermont Public
Service Corporation as a voluntary tariff. Customers can elect to pay a premium on their electric
bill, and that premium is passed directly to the farms in the program. In Sheldon, Vermont, Green
Mountain Dairy has provided renewable energy as part of the Cow Power program. It all started
when the brothers who own the farm, Bill and Brian Rowell, wanted to address some of the
manure management challenges faced by dairy farms, including manure odor, and nutrient
availability for the crops they need to grow to feed the animals. They installed an anaerobic
digester to process the cow and milking center waste from their nine hundred and fifty cows to
produce renewable energy, a bedding to replace sawdust, and a plant friendly fertilizer. The
energy and environmental attributes are sold. On average, the system run by the Rowell brothers
produces enough electricity to power three hundred to three hundred fifty other homes. The
generator capacity is about three hundred kiloWatts.
In Hereford, Texas, cow manure is being used to power an ethanol power plant. By switching to
methane biogas, the ethanol power plant has saved one thousand barrels of oil a day. Overall, the
power plant has reduced transportation costs and will be opening many more jobs for future power
plants that will be relying on biogas.
UK
There are currently around 60 non-sewage biogas plants in the UK, most are on-farm, but some
larger facilities exist off-farm, which are taking food and consumer wastes.
On 5 October 2010, biogas was injected into the UK gas grid for the first time. Sewage from over
30,000 Oxfordshire homes is sent to Didcot sewage treatment works, where it is treated in an
anaerobic digestor to produce biogas, which is then cleaned to provide gas for approximately 200
homes.
Germany
Germany is Europe's biggest biogas producer as it is the market leader in biogas technology. In
2010 there were 5,905 biogas plants operating throughout the whole country, in which Lower
Saxony, Bavaria and the eastern federal states are the main regions. Most of these plants are
employed as power plants. Usually the biogas plants are directly connected with a CHP which
produces electric power by burning the bio methane. The electrical power is then fed into the
public power grid. In 2010, the total installed electrical capacity of these power plants was 2,291
MW. The electricity supply was approximately 12.8 TWh, which is 12.6 per cent of the total
generated renewable electricity. Biogas in Germany is primarily extracted by the co-fermentation
of energy crops (called NawaRo, an abbreviation of nachwachsende Rohstoffe, which is
German for renewable resources) mixed with manure, the main crop utilized is corn. Organic
waste and industrial and agricultural residues such as waste from the food industry are also used
for biogas generation. In this respect, Biogas production in Germany differs significantly from the
UK, where biogas generated from landfill sites is most common.
Biogas production in Germany has developed rapidly over the last 20 years. The main reason for
this development is the legally created frameworks. Governmental support of renewable energies

started at the beginning of the 1990s with the Law on Electricity Feed (StrEG). This law
guaranteed the producers of energy from renewable sources the feed into the public power grid,
thus the power companies were forced to take all produced energy from independent private
producers of green energy. In 2002 the Law on Electricity Feed was replaced by the Renewable
Energy Source Act (EEG). This law even guaranteed a fixed compensation for the produced
electric power over 20 years. The amount of ca. 0.08 Euro gave particular farmers the opportunity
to become an energy supplier and gaining a further source of income in the same place. The
German agricultural biogas production was given a further push in 2004 by implementing the socalled NawaRo-Bonus. This is a special bonus payment given for the usage of renewable
resources i.e. energy crops. In 2007 the German government stressed its intention to invest
further effort and support in improving the renewable energy supply to provide an answer on
growing climate challenges and increasing oil prices by the Integrated Climate and Energy
Programme.
This continual trend of renewable energy promotion induces a number of challenges facing the
management and organisation of renewable energy supply that has also several impacts on the
biogas production. The first challenge to be noticed is the high area-consuming of the biogas
electric power supply. In 2011 energy crops for biogas production consumed an area of circa
800,000 ha in Germany. This high demand of agricultural areas generates new competitions with
the food industries that did not exist yet. Moreover new industries and markets were created in
predominately rural regions entailing different new players with an economic, political and civil
background. Their influence and acting has to be governed to gain all advantages this new source
of energy is offering. Finally biogas will furthermore play an important role in the German
renewable energy supply if good governance is focused.
Indian subcontinent
In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh biogas produced from the anaerobic digestion of
manure in small-scale digestion facilities is called gobar gas; it is estimated that such facilities
exist in over two million households in India and in thousands in Pakistan, particularly North
Punjab, due to the thriving population of livestock. The digester is an airtight circular pit made of
concrete with a pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually directly from the cattle
shed. The pit is then filled with a required quantity of wastewater. The gas pipe is connected to the
kitchen fireplace through control valves. The combustion of this biogas has very little odour or
smoke. Owing to simplicity in implementation and use of cheap raw materials in villages, it is one
of the most environmentally sound energy sources for rural needs. One type of these system is
the Sintex Digester. Some designs use vermiculture to further enhance the slurry produced by the
biogas plant for use as compost. In order to create awareness and associate the people interested
in biogas, an association "Indian Biogas Association" (www.biogas-India.com) is formed. The
Indian Biogas Association aspires to be a unique blend of; nationwide operators, manufacturers
and planners of biogas plants, and representatives from science and research. The association
was founded in 2010 and is now ready to start mushrooming. The sole motto of the association is
propagating Biogas in a sustainable way.
The Deenabandhu Model is a new biogas-production model popular in India. (Deenabandhu
means "friend of the helpless.") The unit usually has a capacity of 2 to 3 cubic metres. It is
constructed using bricks or by a ferrocement mixture. In India, the brick model costs slightly more
than the ferrocement model; however, India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy offers some

subsidy per model constructed.

In Pakistan, the Rural Support Programmes Network is running the Pakistan Domestic Biogas
Programme which has installed over 1500 biogas plants and has trained in excess of 200 masons
on the technology and aims to develop the Biogas Sector in Pakistan.
Also PAK-Energy Solution has taken the most innovative and responsible initiatives in biogas
technology. In this regard, the company is also awarded by 1st prize in "Young Entrepreneur
Business Plan Challenge" jointly organized by Punjab Govt. & LCCI. They have designed and
developed Uetians Hybrid Model, in which they have combined fixed dome and floating drums and
Uetians Triplex Model. Moreover, Pakistan Dairy Development Company has also taken an
initiative to develop this kind of alternative source of energy for Pakistani farmers. Biogas is now
running diesel engines, gas generators, kitchen ovens, geysers, and other utilities in Pakistan. In
Nepal, the government provides subsidies to build biogas plant.
Jain irrigation, Jalgaon is successfully operating a 1.7 MW Biogas based power generation plant
with CHP module. It is designed for 100 to 150 MT/day solid waste. Generate 1.7 MW power, 450
TR refrigeration and 10 MT/day compost.
China
The Chinese had experimented the applications of biogas since 1958. Around 1970, China had
installed 6,000,000 digesters in an effort to make agriculture more efficient. During the last years
the technology has met high growth rates. This seems to be the earliest developments in
generating biogas from agricultural waste.
In developing nations
Domestic biogas plants convert livestock manure and night soil into biogas and slurry, the
fermented manure. This technology is feasible for small holders with livestock producing 50 kg
manure per day, an equivalent of about 6 pigs or 3 cows. This manure has to be collectable to mix
it with water and feed it into the plant. Toilets can be connected. Another precondition is the
temperature that affects the fermentation process. With an optimum at 36 C the technology
especially applies for those living in a (sub) tropical climate. This makes the technology for small
holders in developing countries often suitable.

Simple sketch of household biogas plant

Depending on size and location, a typical brick made fixed dome biogas plant can be installed at
the yard of a rural household with the investment between 300 to 500 US $ in Asian countries and

up to 1400 US $ in the African context. A high quality biogas plant needs minimum maintenance
costs and can produce gas for at least 1520 years without major problems and re-investments.
For the user, biogas provides clean cooking energy, reduces indoor air pollution, and reduces the
time needed for traditional biomass collection, especially for women and children. The slurry is a
clean organic fertilizer that potentially increases agricultural productivity.
Domestic biogas technology is a proven and established technology in many parts of the world,
especially Asia. Several countries in this region have embarked on large-scale programmes on
domestic biogas, such as China and India. The Netherlands Development Organisation, SNV,
supports national programmes on domestic biogas that aim to establish commercial-viable
domestic biogas sectors in which local companies market, install and service biogas plants for
households. In Asia, SNV is working in Nepal, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Lao
PDR,akistan and Indonesia, and in Africa; Rwanda,Senegal, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Tanzania,
Uganda, Kenya, Benin and Cameroon.