Lindborg RoomAcou Summary

Barron, Michael (2010).
Auditorium Acoustics
and Architectural Design.
2nd edition. Spon Press.
Summary (& some extensions)

by PerMagnus Lindborg (2011).
Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)
(1) Introduction
(not part of course requirements)
(2) Sound and rooms

Waves
Direct sound
Seat-dip eect
Reection
Diraction
Scattering
Absorption
Background noise
Reverberation time
Sound level distribution
Waves
The propagation of sound energy in an elastic medium, such as air, is
mainly in the form of longitudinal waves
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_wave
rather than as transverse waves, which is more typical of e.g.

string vibration.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transverse_wave
More: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/lw.cfm
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/
Ultrasonics/Physics/modepropagation.htm
Waves
One way to understand what is happening physically is to visualise a

ball or a ballon that is expand, contracting, expanding, contracting
The wall of the ballon pushes the surrounding molecules in the air away.
These molecules travel a distance, before bumping into other molecule
like colliding balls on a pool table, or Newtons cradle.
The energy is propagated in all directions of space (3D).
<<-- Lets look at a snapshot of a portion of space.

In some volume, molecules nd themselves packed together:
this is a compression, with a higher than usual pressure.
At another point, there are fewer molecules:
this is a rarefaction, with a lower than usual pressure.
Illustrations on this page: Rumsey, F & McCormick, T. (2006). What is
sound?. Chapter 1 (pp. 1-24) in Sound and Recording. Focal Press 2006.
Waves
Our hearing apparatus can handle sound intensity in a wide range, approximately
100 W
0.000 000 000 001 W

(1 picoW)
decibel is a ratio, indicating the relationship between two quantities.
The hearing range in terms of intensity is fourteen powers of ten = 14 bel = 140 decibel.
Acoustic pressure is proportional to the square root of the intensity: real mean square, RMS.
In terms of pressure, the hearing range expressed above corresponds rather well to
0.000 020 N/m2
200 N/m2
(20 Pa)
and the lower limit is by convention the reference level in acoustics (ANSI-1969/ISO-1963).
A sound level is indicated i.e. 60 dB re 20 Pa, or more succinctly, 60 dBSPL.
SPL = sound pressure level.
More: http://en.ossmanuals.net/csound/ch008_c-intensities/
Direct sound
Direct sound is the sound that travels from a source to a listener in a straight path (without reections).
It is the part of sound that arrives rst.
Direct sound in an enclosed space (e.g. a concert hall)
behaves much the same way as in a free eld (e.g.
outdoors). For every doubling in distance, the sound level
decreases by 6 decibel. This follows from the inverse
square law of propagation.
I = P/ 4r2
Intensity= Pressure/Area
Borb (2008). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inverse_square_law.svg
In a concert hall, a listener will generally receive good

direct sound if she has an unobstructed sightline.
With increasing distance from the stage, the oor
needs to be (increasingly) raked.
More: http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/propagation.htm
Seat-dip eect
It was discovered in 1962 that audience members receive a harmonically distorted direct sound, i.e. the
propagation does not have a at frequency response. Direct sound travelling at grazing incidence will be
subject to absorption over and above the inverse square law, but the eect is dierent at low and mid
frequencies.
At low frequencies, our hearing is less sensitive to interaural time dierences. Deciency in direct sound can thus
be compensated by late sound, e.g. a long enough
reverberation time at low frequencies.
The diagram also indicates that lateral reections are
unaected by the broad-band seating material absorption,
but the seat-dip eect is equally pronounced as for direct
sound.
The strong attenuation around 125 Hz is assumed to be due to resonance eects happening between rows of
seats. It is sometimes referred to as a seat-dip eect, and would be related to Helmholtz resonators.
Remarkably, The attenuation does not depend on distance but is uniformly distributed.
More: http://www.rexresearch.com/helmholtz/helmholtzresonators.htm
http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Rudolf_Koenig_Apparatus/Helmholtz_Resonator/Helmholtz_Resonator.html
The broad-band attenuation around 800 Hz would be due to absorbent seating materials.
Reection
Geometries for reection for light and sound are identical.
Pure reection (specular) of a sound wave on a nite-size reector happens for frequencies that are higher
(that is, with shorter wavelength) than a certain number. This cuto frequency depends on the apparent size of
the reector from the vantage points of both the source and the listener. (See Barron p. 457 for details).
Reection between a source and a listener can happen
when a reector is placed as a tangential to an ellips with
Fsource and Flistener as foci.
Good concert hall design maximises the density of the
subjectively important early reections. One way of achieving
this is to have shape and dimensions similar to an ellipse.
(Note: 50 ms is has been chosen based on psychoacoustic thresholds. Walls should generally
should not be curved, to avoid slap-back echoes at points near the ellipses two axes.)
Diraction
Diraction occurs whenever a propagating sound
wave encounters an obstacle. The bending or blocking
eects are most pronounced for waves where the
wavelength is roughly similar to the dimensions of the
diracting object.
Diraction of sound waves is normally a lowfrequency phenomenon.
At low frequencies, sound waves recombine behind a
small obstacle, while higher frequencies are reected
away (see page on reection).
Scattering
Scattering takes place when a reecting surface is irregular.
A Quadratic Residue Diuser can be constructed to have specic

scattering properties. The amount of scattering and frequency range are a
function of the depth and shape of the prole. Both plane (1-dimensional)
and 2-dimensional QRDs exist.
More: http://www.subwooferbuilder.com/qrdude.htm
http://www.digitalaudiorock.com/cgibin/qrd.cgi
http://www.pmerecords.com/
Diusor.cfm
Absorption
Absorption is the energy loss from the sound wave travelling in the propagation medium (e.g. the air) into
the reecting medium (e.g. a wall).
In practice, all building materials are scattering and absorptive to some degree.
The absorptivity of a material for construction or interior design is normally measured in a laboratory.
Standard tables are published and much in used in prediction of reverberation time.
More: http://www.sae.edu/reference_material/pages/Coecient%20Chart.htm
Get acquainted with dierent materials with

the AbsorptivityViewer! (Lindborg 2011)
Background noise
Concert halls are often constructed on urban sites, where trac and other noise sources necessitate
substantial expenditure to achieve inaudibility inside the auditorium. (Barron p. 27)
The main contribution to background noise - in concert halls, laboratories and recording studios alike comes from ventilation systems. This is particularly the case in places where air conditioning is used a
lot (such as in Singapore).
As a measure of background noise, the NR (Noise
Rating) criterion is most common in Europe. (Other
measures include NC, PNC and RC).
NR is estimated by measuring SPL of ambient noise at
9 octave-band lters. The resulting curve is compared
with the template (see diagram) and moved upwards
or downwards so that no measured band exceeds the
templates at a corresponding frequency. The rating is
determined by the minimal distance between
measured curve and a NR template curve.
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/nr-noise-rating-d_60.html
Criteria are strictest for large concert halls:

Large concert hall
Opera house
Small auditorium
NR15
NR20
NR25
Reverberation time
The most important acoustic measure for a room is its response. The sound that can be heard when a loud
source is turned o is call terminal reverberation. Subjectively, in situations of speech or music, the
running reverberation, i.e. the early part of the reverberation, has been shown to be more salient.
The RT60 measure is the time in seconds it takes for a
terminal reverberation to recede to a millionth of its energy,
i.e. by 60 decibel. In practice, it is calculated from the slope
between -5 and -35 dB below steady-state maximum. This
assumes a linear decay, which is not always the case. The
presence of coupled acoustic spaces with dierent
reverberation characteristics can give rise to non-linear
decay. In auditorium acoustics, such coupled spaces can be
found between the main hall and a reverberant ytower, or
an orchestra pit, or under large balconies.
Recommended RT60 values (in seconds) for auditoria depend on programme:
Drama theatre
Chamber music and opera
Classicist music
Romantic music
Organ
0.85 +- 0.15
1.55 +- 0.2
1.7 +- 0.1
2.0 +- 0.2
>2.5
Early decay time approaches RT60 for rooms that are highly diuse.
Reverberation time
Wallace Clement Sabine is the founder of modern acoustics. He discovered around 1900 that a rooms
reverberation time depends on two things only:
- room volume (V)
- total absorption (A)
The total absorption is the sum over all elements of the product of each elements size and absorptivity:
A = S*a
The equation for reverberation time (in metric units):
T = 0.161*V
A
Sabines formula for predicting total absorbtion was not correct, mainly because he was calculating seat
absorption on a per-seat basis rather than on per-square-meter basis. This caused him to grossly overestimate
the reverberation time in Boston Symphony Hall (Barron p. 89).
In auditoria, the major absorbing surface is people. Beranekt (1969) proposed a model where reverberation
time is estimated from volume and ST, the total oor area of audience, orchestra, and chorus (Kinsler & Frey p.
345):
1/T = 0.1 + 5.4*ST/V
The discussion of how to nd optimal measurement method and expression for a prediction is on-going. The
economic gains with a more exact prediction are obvious. For example, prediction methods currently in use
depend on precise values for the absorptivity of seating upholstery.
At higher frequencies, reverberation time also depends on air absorption, which in its turn depends on
temperature and humidity.
Sound level distribution

The subjective sense of loudness is determined by the objective sound level.
We have seen before that the total sound level a listener experiences can be split in two parts: direct sound
and reected sound. The distance at which these components are of equal intensity is called the
reverberation radius.
The theoretical behaviour for total sound level takes in the distance between source and listener, but not the
room characteristics apart from reverberation time. Theory assumes uniformity of propagation paths, which is
rarely the case in actual auditoria. For example, sound pressure decreases substantially below balcony overhangs.
Based on measurements in a number of 15 British halls, Barron proposed an expression for reected sound level
as a function of source power (SWL, in decibels), A, T and r (source-listener distance):
4
0.174*r
reected level = SWL + 10*log
A
T
The formula leads to a revised theory of reected sound.
Reverberation time
Check predicted RT60, frequencies for standing waves, Schroeder
frequency etc with the RoomAcousticsCalculator! (Lindborg 2011)
Reverberation time
Calculate reverberation time from a soundle using the RT60 estimator!
(Lindborg 2011)
(3) Acoustics for the symphony concert hall

Subjective dimensions
Initial Time Delay Gap
Three Questionnaires for subjective ratings
Objective descriptors
ISO 3382
Design recommendations
Design for performers
Subjective dimensions
Good acoustic design for good speech is easy speech must be intelligible!
With music, no direct assessment exists.
(quantitative assessment with e.g. BKB-SIN, HINT, QuickSIN, or WIN)
The appreciation of music acoustics is multi-dimensional.

A starting point is to consider the following dimensions:
clarity
reverberant response
impression of space
intimacy
loudness
These ve dimensions have been derived from questionnaires (we
assume, principal component analysis from multiple descriptors).
5D Cube

Beranek (1962) initiated a survey of 54 international concert halls
(conductors, performers, music critics) to estimate a subjective rating
of each hall. The highest explanatory power (for preference) was
found for a component associated with initial time delay gap, that
is, the delay of the rst reection.
For the best-liked halls (incl. classical rectangular): gap 21 ms.
Marshall (1967) proposed that reections from the

sides are preferred to those from above.
Lateral reections gives the listener a sensation of the
source broadening, of being involved in a threedimensional experience.
Morimoto and Maekawa (1989) provided empirical
evidence about the temporal aspect of laterality:
Early lateral reections are associated
with a sense of source broadening;
apparent source width (ASW)
Tone colouration is strong (according to Barron, in particular for
strings) with a reection delay of around 20 ms.
Hearing is believing: try the TimeDelayGapTester (Lindborg 2011)
Late lateral reverberation is associated

with a sense of listener envelopment.
listener envelopment (LE)
source broadening also depends on loudness

Hearing is believing: try the TimeDelayGapTester
Barrons questionnaire for subjective rating of concert hall acoustics

= ability to hear musical detail
= degree of perceived
reverberation in a temporal sense
= degree of perceived
reverberation in a spatial sense
apparent source width

listener envelopment
= degree of identication with the performance

(feeling acoustically involved or not)
~ assessed relative to orchestral forces involved
Questionnaire for concert hall rating (paper based)

1. DESIGNATION of this room _____________________
2. For each dimension, place a mark to indicate YOUR SUBJECTIVE IMPRESSION of the acoustics.
Muddy |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Clear
CLARITY
(how well can you hear details of the source sound?)
Dead |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Live
REVERBERANCE
(how would you describe the reverberation in a temporal sense?)
Large |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Small
SOURCE WIDTH
(how would you describe the source broadening?)
ENVELOPMENT
Expansive |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Constricted
(to what degree do you feel surrounded by sound?)
INTIMACY
Remote |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Intimate
(do you feel acoustically involved and able to identify with the source?)
LOUDNESS
Loud |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Quiet
(relatively speaking, how loud does the room seem to be?)
3. Indicate how you perceive the BALANCE between MID-range, and BASS and HIGH ranges:
TREBLE to MID
Weak -------------|-----------------|------------------|------------------|----------------|------------Treble louder
BASS to MID
Weak -------------|-----------------|------------------|------------------|----------------|------------ Bass louder

(balanced)
4. BACKGROUND
NOISE
|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
(inaudible)
(Acceptable)
5. OVERALL IMPRESSION: indicate by circling one of the words:
5.
Add a SHORT COMMENT about this room:
(Tolerable)
(Intolerable)
A questionnaire developed for a pilot study

(N=20) of subjective and objective
measurement of 3 rooms (Lindborg 2011)
with Barrons template as a starting point.
Questionnaire for soundscape rating (software based)

in parenthesis, questionnaire for a study in a
related topic (not concert hall acoustics!)
An interface for subjective rating of soundscapes

(Lindborg 2011) using the Swedish Soundscape
Quality Questionnaire (Axelsson, Nilsson et al 2010).
3.3 Objective descriptors

Barron suggests four objective descriptors. All can be calculated
from impulse-response recordings.
Using impulse response has advantages to steady-state noise, in that
random error at turn-o is eliminated. The time domain IR can be
converted into a frequency response curve with a Fourier transform.
Reverberation (RT or T) and early decay time (EDT)
T is RT60 is calculated from the reverberation tail from -5 dB to -35 dB
http://pcfarina.eng.unipr.it/Aurora/SAW/RoomSim.html
EDT is RT60 is calculated from the reverberation tail from 0 dB to -10 dB

EDT is calculated from the reverse-time integrated impulse response. It
correlates better with the subjective judgement of reverberance than T.
Auditorium, 3 reverberation tails (white noise)
54.58
54.34
54.57
54
Objective clarity (early-to-late index C80)

48
C80 = energy 00.08 s

energy 0.08+ s
For music, the breakpoint 80 milliseconds is standard.
For speech, 50 ms is used, which corresponds to normal speech
rates (measured by e.g. r- and n-PVI). Average inter-vocalic
durations for several languages are in the range 40--75 ms.
http://wwwhomes.uni-bielefeld.de/~gibbon/AK-Phon/Rhythmus/Grabe/Grabe_Low-reformatted.pdf
An alternative measure is centre time, i.e. the energy

equilibrium point in time (0)
centre time = t p2(t)

p2(t)
Intensity (dB)
42
36
30
24.01
24.12
24.92
0.806991
0.134193
0.12237
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.755128
0.763125
1.57667
Time (s)
http://students.uta.edu/MS/msb3676/THE%20CONTINUUM
%20OF%20SPEECH%20RHYTHM%20posterFinal.pdf
http://wwwu.uni-klu.ac.at/gfenk/posterLondon2.pdf
3.3 Objective descriptors

Objective source broadening (early lateral energy fraction, LF)
LF80 = lateral energy 00.08 s =

total energy 00.08 s
0.0050.08 p2(t) cos2 theta

00.08 p2(t)
[theta axis of ears of a listener. The

measurement can be made with a
Blumlein + omni conguration]
The perceived degree of source broadening also depends on direct sound level, and Barron writes:
source broadening = LF80 + early level

60
Using Sabines equation for the relationship between total absorption and reverberation time,
the dB relationship between the total sound level, L, and the direct level at 10 meters, is:
L - L0 = 10*log (100/r2 + 31200 T / V)
[with 10 m as standard, L - L0
is in a range around 0 dB]
where r is the distance between source and receiver.

Barrons research showed that total sound level cannot be
considered as uniform in an enclosed space, but is reduces
with increased distance. as revised theory gives for the revised
total sound level:
L - L0 = 10*log(d+er+l)
exponential function
of distance (r)
d = 100/r2
er = (31200 / V) e-0.04r/T * (1 - e-1.11/T)
l = (31200 T / V) e-0.04r/T * e-1.11/T)
Design recommendations
Barron discusses recommended values for the objective
characteristics that acoustic designers should aim for.
In Barrons study of British halls:
(varies with position in hall)
Objective Source Broadening
1.82.2 seconds
-22 dB
0.10.35
Total sound level

(symphonic orchestra)
0 dB
(re direct sound @ 10 m)
Early Decay Time (EDT)

Objective Clarity
Example of graphic presentation of objective

measurements (Royal Concert Hall, Nottingham, UK)
Reverberation time
EDT / RT mean = 0.96,

range = 0.791.06.
(early-to-late energy ratio)

(lateral-to-omni energy ratio)
mean = 0.18, range = 0.050.50
ISO 3382-1:2009
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=40979
3.8 Design for performers

The acoustic needs of musicians on stage have only been systematically investigated since the mid-1970s.
Main concerns for performing instrumentalists:
- ease of hearing each other (chamber music!)
- acoustic support for own instrument
- avoiding tone colouration (often introduced with overhead reectors)
Designers will want to carefully consider:
- size and shape of the stage
With 8 meter distance, the delay (around 20 ms) causes
problem for synchronisation (again, see the TimeDelayGap tester)
- high SPL close to e.g. timpani and brasses
Use of plexi-glas screens is common, especially in opera pits.
Wall absorption reduces early reection, important for support!
- adequate oor space
Chorist 0.5 m2, small instrument 1.25 m2, larger instrument 1.5 m2,
percussion up to 20 m2, 100-piece orchestra 150 m2.
- oor materials
A thin wooden oor with air-lled cavity can act 1) as a resonator (Askenfelt 1986) for instruments in direct
contact, but also 2) as an (Helmholtz) absorber for low-frequency sounds reaching it through the air.
http://www.speech.kth.se/music/publications/kma/papers/kma52-ocr.pdf
- early reections
An orchestral shell is often advantageous. EDT onstage should be 70% of RT in the main hall.
- hearing damage is unfortunately common amongst orchestra musicians (around 25%, as quoted in the PDF above)
(4) The development of the concert hall

Historic overview
Design factors
Study of a failure
Study of a success
A lateral directed reection sequence hall
Historic overview
The width of a hall might be related to the maximum acceptable width for a stage, the length to visual
distance, and the height to reverberation time considerations (p. 75). While it seems that the overall
dimensions of an auditorium are set, (luckily enough for eager designers) the shape isnt.
Until around 1900, auditorium design was based on (serendipitous) precedence. With Sabine, enter science.
The four traditional forms, in
order of historical appearance:
Fan shape
Arena
Baroque theatre
Classical rectangular plan
Historic overview
In small halls, the room form matters relatively little for the acoustics.
The four most renowned classical concert halls (Beranek 1962), are
Grosser Musikvereinssall (Vienna)
Neues Gewandhaus (Leipzig)
Concertgebow (Amsterdam)
Symphony Hall (Boston)
The dimensions of these 4 halls are
similar (see p. 80 for details).
Averages are:
Construction around 1900
Volume
17000 m3
Seats
2000 pax
Length
48 m
Width
22 m
Height
17 m
1.85 s
H:W:L
1 : 1.22 : 2.70
Design factors
It is much easier to determine the reason for failure than for success (Barron p. 90)
The subjective acoustic experience is not due to any single factor. Risking absurd reductionism, which are the
design factors to keep in mind for good concert hall acoustics?
all seats are close to
a reecting surface
higher lateral energy fraction
more envelopment
parallel side walls produce

high density of (early) reection
higher early-to-late index
higher clarity
height under ceiling
sucient reverberation time
more warmth, envelopment
choice of material
sucient low-frequency response
more warmth
reecting surfaces close

to seats, choice of materials
more late lateral reverberation
more envelopment
Which are the design factors that may cause bad concert hall acoustics?
too much reliance on
overhead reectors
colouration of higher
frequencies
instruments (e.g. strings)

sound sharp
bad sightlines
low direct sound level
lack of intimacy
further away seats

not raked
lacking direct sound level at

low frequencies
lack of power
Study of a failure
New York Philharmonic (1959) - the most publicized acoustic disaster of the twentieth century.
critics described sound as clear, a little dry, with not much
reverberation and a decided lack of bass steely hardness, the
ddles sounded harsh, and the orchestras sections failed to blend, as
if invisible walls stood between strings, woodwind and brasses
main oor rake is remarkably shallow
(bad sightlines + obstructed direct sound)
rear wall is concave
(slap echoes)
many seats have receive no lateral reection
stage too large = orchestra too widely spaced
(lack of intimacy and self-sound support for musicians)
double layer of small and regular suspended reectors
(some 30,000 small dowels, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery_Fisher_Hall)
(did not reect low frequencies)

good thing: discovery of seat-dip eect on low frequencies
(direct sound passing over seat rows at grazing incidence)
level of bass to mid-frequency sound approaching -20 dB
(criterion is -2 dB)
a poor frequency response aecting audibility of cellos and
double basses, a lack of subjectively felt reverberation, echoes
from the rear, inadequate sound diusion and poor hearing
conditions for musicians on stage (Schroeder 1966)
Study of a success
Berlin Philharmonie (1963) - people always gather around in circles when listening to music informally.
"product of the Expressionist movement and of organic
architecture, this concert hall in which the audience is seated around
the orchestra was worked out in accordance with the laws of
acoustics." (Stierlin http://www.GreatBuildings.com/buildings/Berlin_Philharmonic_Hall.html)
with the arena form there are two major acoustic concerns:
- the voice, and many instruments, are directional
- surfaces are needed to provide early lateral reections
solutions:
- not fully central stage, directionally biased
- vineyard terraced concert hall
tent-like prole of convex surfaces assist diusion
pyramidal diusers with slits acting as Helmholtz resonators
(limiting low-frequency reverberation: 1.9 s at mid, 2.1 s at low)
critic to balance: acoustic uniformity somewhat uneven
space acts as a positive force upon the life it contains
Music as the focal point no segregation between producers
and consumers, but rather a community of listeners the
construction follows the pattern of a landscape. with the
auditorium as a valley the ceiling, resembling a tent,
encounters this landscape like a skyscape (Scharoun ca. 1963)
A lateral directed reection sequence hall

In the 1970s, Harold Marshall developed a theory that
lateral reections were the most important single
component of the early reection series
http://marshallday.com/project/christchurch-town-hall-christchurch-new-zealand
http://www.vbase.co.nz/town_hall_for_performing_arts/facilities
Both scale (using ultrasound) and computer models

were employed to optimise the design
Early decay time is only 82% of RT60 reverberation, explaining
the subjective impression of rich reverberation but not
excessive, despite T=2.3 s when occupied!
All seats receive a reection within 20 ms.
Marshall Day Acoustics have recently completed a major
work for Guangzhou opera House (architect: Zaha Hadid)
http://marshallday.com/project/guangzhou-opera-house-china
Christchurch Town Hall (New Zealand)
receiving raving reviews from a.o. The Guardian.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2011/feb/28/guangzhou-opera-house-zaha-hadid
The designers have accorded primordial attention to

early lateral reections (click image for PDF design article)
large suspended reectors
absorbent
inclined balcony sots
(5) British concert halls and conclusions for concert hall acoustics
Royal Albert Hall
Royal Festival Hall
Acoustical design of concert halls in
subjective and objective terms
Royal Albert Hall

The infamous slap-back of the Royal Albert Hall was noticed already at the opening ceremony in 1871,
an echo which seemed to be suddenly awoke from the organ or picture gallery.
It was found that the oval shape of the plan and concave ceiling (the
largest unsupported span roof at the time) in iron and glass, and generally
hard wall surfaces, created perfect conditions for a focussed echo.
The distance from stage to back wall being almost 60 meters, a person on
stage or in rst row would have received a 300 ms delayed echo!
In 1941, an enormous velarium was suspended 10m below the ceiling,
which almost cured the echo. However, the solution was deemed too risky.
In 1968-70, a set of 134 diusers - known as the mushrooms or ying
saucers were suspended.
Subjective ratings of the hall are generally poor:
- quiet sound (due to added absorbent material)
- lack of clarity (least intimate of all Halls in Barrons study)
- low sense of envelopment (most early reections from above)
At RT60 = 2.4 s, despite the eorts for acoustic
retrotting, the reverberation time is the largest of
all Halls in Barrons study.
More: http://peutz.fr/lacoustique/articles/salles/PaperIOA02.pdf
Royal Festival Hall

The Royal Festival Hall (London) was constructed in only 2.5 years and completed 1951. Acoustic
consultant was Hope Bagenal. Inspired by the rise of cinema, a fan-shaped layout was chosen.
To achieve the goal of 2900 seats, and with no seat further away than 40
meters, the hall had to be 32 m wide, and splayed from the stage outwards.
A cavity wall was built to insulate against street noise.
There is a single, very deep balcony.
The design aim was RT60 = 2.2 s
but turned out to be 1.45 s.
What had happened?
Haunted by the echo of Royal Albert Hall, the designers had
chosen highly absorbent materials at the back wall. Even more
important (2/3 of the prediction error), they had seriously
underestimated audience absorption. (see earlier slides).
In 1965, the worlds rst electronic assisted resonance system
was invented by Parkin for the Hall, improving subjective
However, a solution without electronics was sought. 2005-7,
Pearman et al. modied the layout, removed absorbing
surfaces, replaced the suspended ceiling with a thicker one,
and replaced the overstage reector with one having special
reective, adjustable material.
Resulting in an occupied mid frequency RT = 1.65 s, and a
longed-for signicant bass rise.
Despite the shortcomings, the Hall is very well liked.
More: http://www.hughpearman.com/2007/08.html
Acoustical design in subjective and objective terms

Barron (1988) found that listeners subdivided into two groups: those that preferred intimacy and those that
preferred reverberation. He refers to Cremer and Mller (1981) who reported a subdivision between clarity and
loudness.
Listeners divide in three main groups following their preference for either clarity, reverberance or intimacy.
High clarity seemed to be preferred by those with a musical background.
To some extent, clarity and reverberation are inversely related.
However, when it comes to concert halls, they are independent measures.
We have earlier seen the ve dimensions for perception of concert hall acoustic quality. Warmth is added to this list.
The strongest correlations between subjective quality and objective measure:
clarity
reverberance
source broadening
mid-frequency early-to-late index

early decay time
early lateral energy fraction + mean frequency total sound level
intimacy
total sound level
loudness
mean frequency total sound level + source-receiver distance
warmth
bass level balance
Acoustical design in subjective and objective terms

Aiming for good clarity, reverberance, envelopment and intimacy, our design needs to:
provide sucient early reection
have adequate early decay time
occupied EDT 1.8 s
ensure signicant early lateral reections

have adequate sound levels
level 0 dB
early lateral energy + sound level + reverberation time --> envelopment

Barron identies the large concert hall problem: the diculty of achieving good acoustics in a
concert hall rises sharply when seating numbers > 1500. Very good halls with > 2000 seats are rare.
Problematic spots include:
- lacking sound level at seats under balconies
- lacking direct sound at side seats with awkward sight lines
and proposes three solutions:
directed reection approach = modulating reecting surfaces, avoiding large
unbroken plane surfaces
vineyard terrace design = acoustically reective bounding walls and balcony fronts
parallel-sided plan with side walls not too far apart, has less audience capacity
Note: orchestra musicians will be helped by an on-stage surrounding shell.
(6) Chamber music and recital halls (not part of course requirements)
Dierences between symphony halls and chamber music halls
(7) Acoustics for speech
Speech in open spaces and rooms

Early reection ratio
Theatre acoustics
(8) Theatre acoustics

Classical amphitheatre
Elisabethan theatre
Proscenium
Thrust-stage
Open stage
In the round
(9) Acoustics for opera

Opera
The singers voice
The orchestra pit
Breaking the horseshoe
Acoustic criteria
Architectural design
Objective assessment of opera houses
Opera
Opera is an extravagant art form (Barron p. 333) and was at rst limited to wealthy courts. When brought to public
consumption the demands resulted in a theatre-building boom. In the 20th century, opera (as well as its various spinos: varit, cabaret, musical, rock show etc) came to fully exploit the stage, auditorium, electronics, screens, and all
the other media to extend its palette of expression.
Today, opera is a curious mixture of conservatism and renewal. Of the 1000+
composers programmed over the last ve seasons, over 500 are alive not bad for an
art-form that is sometimes thoughtlessly described as ready for the museum.
http://operabase.com/top.cgi?lang=en&
#opera productions globally, last 5 seasons
Opera house is highly constrained in terms of design.

- sightlines between singers and conductor, & musicians
and conductor
- sightlines from audience positions to (proscenium) stage
- maximum distance 30 m
-
Of all auditorium types, the architectural form of opera houses has changed the
least during its existence as a public space for entertainment. (Barron p. 380)
The baroque theatre (horseshoe) layout has historically been dominant.
1638
SS Giovanni e Paolo
1993
Glyndebourne
#opera performances per million citizens.
The singers voice

The acoustic behaviour of the human voice is very rich. The sound output depends on subglottal pressure (produced
by muscles around the lungs), detailed characteristics of the vocal folds, the size and shape of the laryngial tract, the
nasal cavity, the position and shape of the tongue, and nally that of the lips.
On stage, the voice projection is further enhanced by early
reections from the stage, and in the opera auditorium.
The human voice is highly directional, radiating forwards (180)
and slightly downwards (20).
Noticeable dierences in timbre occurs when a singer turns
more than 40, and becomes detrimental beyond 80.
http://rs2007.limsi.fr/index.php/Measurement_of_3D_PhonemeSpecic_Radiation_Patterns_in_Speech_and_Singing
Formants - more correctly referred to as vocal tract resonant

peaks - are broad, band-pass-like, spectral regions that can be
controlled by the muscles of the throat and mouth cavities; this
is how the human voice produces dierent vowels.
In normal speech, the 1st and 2nd formants determine the
vowel, and higher formants indicate (in mostly subconscious
ways) more subtle aspects such as mood, and personality.
Sundberg (1977, 1995) has shown that the singers formant refers
to a mode of voice production where singers train to tune their
3rd and 4th formants to coincide, and create a region of strong
resonance in a range where the orchestra is relatively weak. This
allows the singer to be heard on top of an orchestral forte.
The orchestra pit

In comparison to symhonic orchestras, opera orchestras show a characteristic lack of brilliance. This is
obvious during overtures, but when accompanying singers presents an advantage.
The lack is due to the diraction (bending) of sound that has to escape the orchestra pit and travel into
the stalls. The attenuation is frequency dependent; at 125 Hz it is -6 dB, at 4 kHz it is near -20 dB.
High-frequency reectors can be placed directly above the pit
but for early reections to arrive 35 ms (see the
TimeDelayGapTester!) reector height 6 m.
Overhead early reections tend to distort
the sound more than lateral reections.
A large survey (Mackenzie 1985) showed that opera-goers
invariably consider the orchestra too loud.
Balance can be improved by partly covering the pit, but this
becomes expensive as it eats into seating area.
With a covered pits there are serious ergonomic
problems which is why they are disliked by musicians:
- musical communication with singers become dicult
- often lack of space
- SPL rises to dangerous levels
Recommendations:
- degree of overhang 40% of total pit depth
- height is 2.5 m
Note the pit design at Wagners Beyreuth, using a
hood making the orchestra invisible to the audience.
Breaking the horseshoe

Richard Wagner was deeply involved in the design of
the Festspeilhaus Bayreuth (architect was Otto
Brckwald) and opened in 1876
Contrary to most preceding and contemporary opera
layouts, it has an amphitheatrical setting.
Der Ring des Nibelungen was conceived in terms of
the theatre which was built to house it. Not by chance is
the orchestra in Bayreuth covered and the distance from
stage to auditorium - over what Wagner called the
mystischer Abgrund (mystical depths) - greater than in
the normal opera house. (Borno 1968)
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000645/064581eo.pdf
For Wagner, no distraction should interrupt the

view of the stage (Barron p. 352)
The Wagner pit is controversial, and not used
anywhere else.
Reverberation time = 1.55 s (longer than most
pre-1900 opera houses), with a bass rise to 1.75 s.
See the video guides at http://www.bayreuther-festspiele.de/
english/english_156.html, in particular for the orchestra pit.
Acoustic criteria
Opera house design has to resolve with many contending requirements, including:
- reverberation time (optimal speech intelligibility 1.0 s, optimal music 2.0 s)
- loudness balance between singers and orchestra
- source broadening (more important for orchestra than singers)
Barron argues that the performer-audience relationship is dierent in symphonic music and opera:
concert hall
opera house
auditorium
auditorium
stage
Primary aim in opera house design is to enhance the singers

sound relative to the orchestra, without distorting the latter.
Traditional use of horseshoe layout
is not good for lateral reections.
Length of opera houses 30 m
implies larger & deeper balconies.
stage
Architectural design
Plan design in an opera has to originate from the proscenium opening.
To create early lateral reections (for both singers and orchestra), proscenium splays are helpful.
For visual reasons, the proscenium is typically more narrow than
the width of the hall, leading to at angle of the side splays. This
produces few early reections.
A solution is to place a retreated splay with a
more parallel angle behind a visually opaque but
acoustically transparent curtain. This will produce
a more dense set of early reections
By contrast, an overhead ceiling splay does not add reections

where they are needed!
Curved surfaces, in particular

at the back of the hall, bring
a risk for echo focusing.
Balcony boxes are there for
social reasons, not acoustical!
More: http://peutz.fr/lacoustique/articles/salles/PaperIOA02.pdf
La Scala (Milano) was renovated 2001-4.

See: http://www.gingerfoot.de/
La_Scala_en.htm
Objective assessment of opera houses

A key dierence between opera and orchestral music (as well as to other forms) is that two dierent
sound sources have to be considered:
- singers onstage
- orchestra in a pit
Measures:
- reverberation time (RT)
- early decay time (EDT)
Recommendations:
RT = 1.31.8 seconds (+ slight bass rise; shorter for Mozart, longer for Verdi)
EDT RT (watch out for seats under balconies, with low EDT/RT ratio)
- objective voice clarity, intelligibility

- voice total sound level
D50 > 0.5 (early to late energy, time cuto = 50 ms)

totalvoice 0 dB (re directvoice @ 10 m)
- objective orchestral clarity

- orchestral source broadening (ASW, LE)
- orchestra total sound level
C80 = -13 dB (slightly higher than for orchestral halls)

as for orchestral halls (though expected to be generally higher)
L - L0 -2 dB (less stringent than for orchestral halls)
- singer / orchestra balance
Lsinger - Lorchestra = 14 dB (no agreed-upon psychoacoustic measure exists)

Voice and orchestra have dierent acoustic power. Spectral
dierences make up for some of the dierence. More
complex is the inuence of multimodal (i.e. visual) sensation,
expectations etc aect the audience experience.
(10) Acoustics for multi-purpose use

Variable acoustic elements
Espace de projection, IRCAM
Electronics
Derngate Centre
(11) Multi-purpose halls in Britain
(12) The art and science of acoustics

Speech
Concert
Opera
Multi-purpose halls

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Barron, Michael (2010).

Summary (& some extensions)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

(not part of course requirements)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

(2) Sound and rooms

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

rather than as transverse waves, which is more typical of e.g.

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

One way to understand what is happening physically is to visualise a

<<-- Lets look at a snapshot of a portion of space.

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

0.000 000 000 001 W

0.000 020 N/m2

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

In a concert hall, a listener will generally receive good

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

A Quadratic Residue Diuser can be constructed to have specic

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Get acquainted with dierent materials with

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Criteria are strictest for large concert halls:

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

1/T = 0.1 + 5.4*ST/V

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Sound level distribution

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

(3) Acoustics for the symphony concert hall

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

(quantitative assessment with e.g. BKB-SIN, HINT, QuickSIN, or WIN)

The appreciation of music acoustics is multi-dimensional.

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Initial Time Delay Gap

Marshall (1967) proposed that reections from the

Late lateral reverberation is associated

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Initial Time Delay Gap

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Barrons questionnaire for subjective rating of concert hall acoustics

apparent source width

= degree of identication with the performance

Barron: Auditorium Acoustics and Arcitectural Design. (Lindborg)

Questionnaire for concert hall rating (paper based)

(how well can you hear details of the source sound?)

Dead |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Live

(how would you describe the reverberation in a temporal sense?)

Large |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Small

(how would you describe the source broadening?)

Expansive |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Constricted

(to what degree do you feel surrounded by sound?)

Remote |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Intimate

Loud |---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| Quiet

(relatively speaking, how loud does the room seem to be?)

Weak -------------|-----------------|------------------|------------------|----------------|------------Treble louder

Weak -------------|-----------------|------------------|------------------|----------------|------------ Bass louder

5. OVERALL IMPRESSION: indicate by circling one of the words:

Add a SHORT COMMENT about this room:

A questionnaire developed for a pilot study