THERMOFLUIDS, Level5

Lecture 9 Fluids (Internal & External Flows)

-Turbulence origins
-Boundary layer
-External flows; Viscous & Turbulent, Drag & Lift coefficient, Stokes Law
-Internal flows; Viscous & Turbulent, Velocity profile, Velocity pressure, Blasius equation,
Friction factors (f), Mean & max velocity, Darcy-Weisbach equation, Moody Chart

Turbulence origins
Turbulent flow occurs when inertial forces dominate fluid flow, as opposed to viscous forces which dominate laminar
flow.
Turbulent flow unsteady, disordered. Can be characterised by turbulent length scales.
Laminar flow highly ordered smooth layers.

Bulk velocity may be same for

laminar & turbulent flow, but
individual particle velocity
unsteady. Greater energy transfer
within fluid, and between fluid and
boundary.

Boundary layer
Boundary layer flow, shear stress and viscosity determine
skin friction.
In both laminar and turbulent flows, the velocity is not uniform
but varies from zero at the surface to a maximum some
distance away.
Velocity distribution is dependent upon the Reynolds number
which defines type of flow.

External flows Viscous flow

Two distinct geometrical cases exist for fluids flows, in addition, fluids may flow in 2 regimes; laminar flow (or
viscous flow) and turbulent flow.
External flow where a body (eg automotive vehicle, ship, aircraft) moves relative to a body of fluid.
Boundaries are infinite.
Internal flow where fluid moves relative to external geometry (eg pipe or duct).

Stokes Law
(creeping flow)
V (m/s)

D=2r

Fluid dynamic viscosity

(kg/ms)

Using dimensional analysis

(density omitted as for creeping flow, inertial forces negligible),
Force F=const.rabvc
The constant of proportionality has been shown to be equal to 6, hence:
Fsphere= 6rv
Stokes Law (valid for very low Re, creeping flow)
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External flows Viscous flow Cont

A sphere has projected area r2 and the fluid has relative velocity pressure of (v2/2). If the drag force is
divided by the projected area to become pressure, and then divided by the relative velocity pressure, a new
dimensionless group is formed:

Fsphere
(r 2 )( v 2 / 2)

CD

6v
12
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rv 2 / 2 vr Re DIA

(valid for
sphere only,
creeping flow)

Where CD is the drag coefficient

Holds for ReDIA <0.1-2.0 (limit for external viscous flow)

Application particles falling under gravity, at terminal

velocity where force due to gravity = drag. Terminal
velocity given by:

vter min al

D 2 ( solid fluid ) g
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External flows Turbulent flow

As flow velocity increases, separation occurs and turbulence commenses in whole or in part (diagrams below
relate to simplified case of 2D cylinder infinitely long).

Re<0.5

103<Re<2x105

When separation takes place,

streamlines do not recover fully
downstream, nor does the static
pressure. The resulting P gives
another component of drag form or
profile drag, in addition to surface or
skin drag.
Form drag is dominates at high Re.
At Re>100,000 the boundary layer itself
becomes turbulent, which has the effect
of delaying stagnation and separation,
paradoxically reducing drag.

Re>2x105

External flows Turbulent flow Cont

Strong differences in boundary layer
separation on a 8.5inch ball entering water at
25ft/sec. (a) smooth ball, laminar boundary
layer, (b) turbulent boundary flow induced by
patch of nose roughness.

Boundary
layer transition

CD

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Re DIA

External flows Drag & Lift

Drag Coefficient:
Although CFD used increasingly for computation of forces acting on complicated geometries,
traditionally this has been achieved through experimental determination of drag coefficients.
In general, drag coefficient defined as:

CD

FD
1
U 2 A
2

CD=drag coefficient
FD=Force
=density
U=free-stream velocity
A=projected area

2D shapes the cylinder (A) and the airfoil (B) have the same frontal area, but the drag on the
cylinder is much greater.
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External flows Drag & Lift Cont

Lift Coefficient:
Defined in a similar way to drag coefficient, but reference area is normally plan area (eg aircraft
wing chord x span):

CL

FL
1
U 2 A
2

CL=lift coefficient
FL=Lift force
=density
U=free-stream velocity
A=projected area

Effect of ground proximity on the

aerodynamic lift and drag of an
ellipsoid
(width/height=1.25,length/height=
3.6,max thickness is at 1/3length)

External flows Drag & Lift Cont

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Internal flows Viscous flows

Examples airflow in ducts, water flow in pipes

r=D/2 (m)

Length, L (m)
Pressure drop, P (Pa)

Q (m3/s)
Vmean (m/s)

Fluid dynamic viscosity

(kg/ms)

Variables in system:
Volume flow-rate, Q
Radius of duct, r
Dynamic viscosity,
Length, L
Pressure drop, P
Mean velocity, v, and diameter D are not independent
variables as they are calculable from Q,r.

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Internal flows Viscous flows Cont

The pressure-drop P, is related to the shearstress at the wall wall. The force balance is:

Dimensions:
[Q]=L3T-1
[]=ML-1T-1
[r]=L
[P/L]=ML-2T-2

P x Area = ShearStress x Area

PD 2
wallDL,
4

Using dimensional analysis:

Q=k arb (P/L)c
L3T-1= (ML-1T-1) a(L)b (ML-2T-2)c
a=-1, b=4, c=1.
The constant of proportionality has been
shown =/8.

wall 4 L
D

32Lv
D2

Dividing both sides by velocity pressure, the

reference for moving fluid:

wall 4 L
32Lv

2
( v / 2) D ( v 2 / 2) D 2

r 4 P
8L

Poiseuilles equation (valid for low speed

viscous/Laminar flow only, where viscosity not
turbulence is the mechanism for resistance to
flow)
It may also be expressed:

32Lv
P
D2

thus

as, Q r v
2

D 2v
4

The term

wall
v 2 / 2

16 16

vD Re

is known as the fanning friction factor f

(Valid for viscous,

laminar flow)
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Internal flows Viscous flows - Velocity profile

For laminar flow, the velocity profile inside a tube of diameter
2r, distance y from centre-line is:

uy
u y 0

1 (

y2
)
r2

and
2
P r

u y 0

L 4
u y 0 2u mean

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Internal flows Turbulent flows Velocity profile

Poiseuilles analysis breaks down as laminar flow ceases to apply. Dimensional analysis is more complex but
states friction factor(f) is a function of Reynolds number(Re) and wall roughness ratio(k/D).

For turbulent flow, the velocity profile inside a duct, diameter D, distance y from the
centre-line is:

uy
u y 0

y 7

1 ( )
r

and
u mean
0.817
Q

u y 0
u mean

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Internal flows Turbulent flows Dimensional analysis

Pressure loss in a pipe (generated by equating
force due to shear-stress to force due to
pressure-drop) given by Darcy-Weisbach
equation:

4 fL u
P

D
2

P=Pressure drop
f=friction factor
L=length of pipe
=density
u=mean velocity
D=diameter of pipe

Determining friction factor(f)

Variables in system:
Density,
Velocity, u
Diameter, D
Dynamic viscosity,
Roughness, k
Wall shear stress,

The relationship between these groups is complex.

Various engineers have presented solutions applicable to
different ranges of fluid flow (Re).
Colebrook and White give, for Re>2100
f-0.5=-4log10(0.27k/d+1.255(Re)-1f-0.5)
This equation is not explicit and has to be solved
iteratively.

Moody gives, approximately for 4000<Re<10,000,000,

k/d<0.01
f=0.001375(1+(20,000(k/d)+1,000,000/Re)0.33)

Blasius gives, for k/d=0 (smooth pipes) and

4,000<Re<100,000
f=0.079Re-0.25

Dimensions: [L], [M], [T]

According to Buckingham,s law, must be 6-3=3
dimensionless groups. These groups are:
Relative roughness = k/D
f/2 = /(u2)
Reynolds number, Re= uD/

Poiseuille gives, for Re<2100

f=16/Re

The results for these

empirical equations are
presented in the Moody chart.
This allows friction factor(f) to
be determined once Re and
k/d are known.

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Internal flows Moody chart

Turbulent flow
Blasius, f=0.079/Re0.25

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Internal flows Pipe and Duct pressure losses and flows

(three methods of
investigating or
sizing pipes)

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References

Fluid Mechanics Douglas, Gasiorek, Swaffield (Published Longman Scientific & Technical)

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Shaughnessey, Katz, Schaffer (Published Oxford University Press)

Race Car Aerodynamics, Designing for Speed Joseph Katz (Published Robert Bently)

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