UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

KNT4133
OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
ASSIGNMENT 3
NAME: SITI NUUR ANISNADIA BINTI MD. NOR
MATRIC NO.: 28320
LECTURER: MDM. SAKENA ABDUL JABBAR
DATE OF SUBMISSON: 14th OF NOVEMBER 2013

Question 5.1
The two major categories of the fiber-fiber joint and their differences are:
Fiber Splices
Demountable Fiber Connectors/Simple
Connectors
A semi-permanent or permanent joints connector. A removable joints connector. This designed so
for the coupling and the uncoupling becomes
easy, fast, and can be performed manually.
Majority found in optical fiber communication.
Majority found in electrical plugs and sockets.
They are usually soldered joints.
When two fiber ends are joined together and their ends are connected smoothly, perpendicularly to the fiber axes,
and their fiber axes are perfectly aligned, still the light in a small proportion may be reflected back into the fiber
which it is transmitted at the first place and this causing the optical loss in decibels at the joint. This phenomenon
is known as Fresnel reflection and it happen in any type of optical fiber joint.
To reduce the effect of Fresnel reflection, the index matching fluid should be applied in the gap between the
jointed fiber. The fluid must have the refractive index as same as the fiber core because so that the losses will be
eradicated. This is proven theoretically.

Given n1=1.46

(a)

(Refractive index of the optical core)

n=1 (Refractive index of the air)

Calculation for the fiber-air side:

Fresnel reflection :r =((n1n)/(n1 +n))2=((1.461)/(1.46+ 1))2=0.03496

1

Loss Fres =10 log10 ( 1r ) =10 log10

The same magnitude is obtained for the air-fiber side.
Hence, the optical loss is
(b)

0.15 dB+0.15 dB=0.30 dB

n=1.40 (Refractive index of the index-matching epoxy)

Calculation for the fiber-Index-matching epoxy side

2

Fresnel reflection:r =((n1n)/(n1 +n)) =((1.461.40)/(1.46+1.40)) =0.00044

1

Loss Fres =10 log10 ( 1r ) =10 log10

The same magnitude is obtained for the Index-matching epoxy-fiber side.
Hence, the optical loss is

Question 5.2

0.00191 dB+0.00191 dB=3.82 103 dB

The Fresnel reflection at a butt joint with an air gap in a multimode step index fiber is 0.46dB. Determine the
refractive index of the fiber core.
0.46/2 = 0.23 dB
-10log10(1-r) = 0.23
Log10(1-r) = -0.023
1-r = 10^-0.023
r= 0.052
0.052 =( n1-1/n1+1)2
(0.052)^0.5 = n1 -1 /n1+1
0.228 = n1-1/n1+1
0.228 (n1+1) = n1-1
By calculation : n1= 1.59
Question 5.3
Describe the three types of fiber misalignment which may contribute to insertion
loss at an optical fiber joint.
A step index fiber with a 200 m core diameter is butt jointed. The joint which is index matched has a lateral
offset of 10 m but no longitudinal or angular misalignment. Using two methods, estimate the insertion loss at the
joint assuming the uniform illumination of all guided modes.
0.29 dB
Longitudinal misalignment is not discussed in detail as it tends to be the least important effect and may be largely
avoided in fiber connection. However, it is worth noting that the lower losses Also, all groups predict higher
losses for fibers with larger numerical apertures, which is consistent with intuitive considerations (i.e. the larger
the numerical aperture, the greater the spread of the output light and the higher the optical loss at a longitudinally
misaligned joint).
Angular misalignment losses are by no means definitive, although in all cases they claim reasonable agreement
with experimental results. However, experimental results from different sources tend to vary (especially for
angular misalignment losses) due to difficulties of measurement. It is therefore not implied that the expressions
given in the text are necessarily the most accurate, as at present the choice appears somewhat arbitrary.
Lateral misalignment reduces the overlap region between the two fiber cores. Assuming uniform excitation of all
the optical modes in a multimode step index fiber, the overlapped area between both fiber cores approximately
gives the lateral coupling efficiency lat. Hence, the lateral coupling efficiency for two similar step index fibers
may be written as

where n1 is the core refractive index, n is the refractive index of the medium between the fibers, y is the lateral
offset of the fiber core axes, and a is the fiber core radius. The lateral misalignment loss in decibels may be
determined using:
Lateral misalignment loss in multimode graded index fibers assuming a uniform distribution of optical power
throughout all guided modes was calculated by Gloge. He estimated that the lateral misalignment loss was
dependent on the refractive index gradient for small lateral offset and may be obtained from:

L1=0.64

10
( 100
)

L1=0.064
lat=10.064

1 at =0.936
Lossl =10 log 0.936
1at

Lossl =0.29 dB
1at

Question 5.4
(Lateral misalignment loss) LT = 2/ *(y/a)*[(+2)/ (+1)]; for 0 <y< 0.2a
Where y = lateral offset
a= radius
= refractive index profile
= 2/ * [(5m/30m)] *{ [(1.85) + 2]/ [(1.85) + 1]}
= (0.6366)*(0.1667)*(1.351)
= 0.1434
lat = 1- LT
= 1 0.1434
= 0.8566
Loss lat = -10 log lat
= -10 log (0.8566)
= 0.6722 dB
Question 5.5
A graded index fiber with a parabolic refractive index profile ( = 2) has a core diameter of 40 m. Determine the
difference in the estimated insertion losses at an index-matched fiber joint with a lateral offset of 1 m (no
longitudinal or angular misalignment). When performing the calculation assume;
a
b

The uniform illumination of only the guided modes and;

The uniform illumination of both guided and leaky modes.

Given;

Parabolic refractive index profile, = 2;

Core diameter, d = 40 m

Core radius, a =

Lateral offset, y = 1 m
a Assuming uniform illumination of only the guided modes;
Lateral misalignment: MMF
MMGI;

40 m
2

= 20 m

Lt =

2 y
a

( )( +2+1 )

Lt =

2 1 m
20 m

)( 2+2
2+1 )

Lt = 0.042441318
Coupling efficiency;
lat = 1 Lt
lat = 1 0.042441318
lat = 0.957558682
Insertion loss due to lateral misalignment;
Losslat = - 10 log10 lat dB
Losslat = - 10 log10 (0.957558682) dB
Losslat = - (- 0.188346017) dB
Losslat = 0.19 dB
b

When assuming the uniform illumination of both guided and leaky modes Gloges formula becomes;
Lt =

Lt =
Lt =

0.75

( ay )

0.75

( 201 mm )

0.0375

Coupling efficiency;
lat = 1 Lt
lat = 1 0.0375
lat = 0.9625

Insertion loss due to lateral misalignment;

Losslat = - 10 log10 lat dB
Losslat = - 10 log10 (0.9625) dB
Losslat = - (- 0.165992618) dB
Losslat = 0.17 dB
Hence, the difference in the estimated insertion losses at an index-matched fiber joint;
= 0.19 dB 0.17 dB
= 0.02 dB

Question 5.6
Given that ;
d =50 m
a =25 m
=2.25
Loss = 0.62
Solution ;
Loss = - 10 log nlat
0.62 = -10 log nlat
nlat = 0.86696
nlat = 1 - Lt
Lt = 0.13304
Using formula;

Lt =

y
a
+2

)
(
2
+1

()

0.13304 =

y
25
2.25+2

) ( 2.25+1
2

()

y = 3.995 m or approximately 4 m (done)

Question 5.7
A Step index fiber has:

Normalized frequency, V = 2.40

Core refractive index, n1 = 1.47
Core diameter, 2a = 80 m
Relative refractive index difference, = 2% = 0.02
Angular misalignment = 3 = / 60
Lateral offset = 2 m
Estimate the total insertion loss ?
Solution:
= a (0.65 + 1.62V(-3/2) + 2.88V(-6)) / 2(-1/2)
= (40)(0.65 + 1.62(2.4)(-3/2) + 2.88(2.4)(-6)) / 2(-1/2)
= 31.13 m
The loss due to lateral offset :
T1 = 2.17(y/)2 = 2.17(2/31.13)2 = 8.957 x 10-3 dB = 0.008957 dB
The loss due to angular misalignment :
Ta = 2.17((n1V)/(aNA)) ; NA = n1(2)(-1/2) = 1.47(2 x 0.02)(1/2) = 0.294
= 2.17((/60 x 31.13 x 1.47 x 2.4)/(40 x 0.294))2 = 2.17 (5.75/11.76)2 = 0.519 dB
Total Insertion Loss, TT = T1 + Ta = 0.008957 dB + 0.519 dB = 0.5277 dB

Question 5.8
Factors which cause intrinsic losses of fiber-fiber joints
mismatch in the fiber core diameters

mismatch in the fiber numerical apertures

differing fiber refractive index profiles

(a)

Insertion loss due to lateral and longitudinal

misalignment for graded index fiber of 50m core diameter

Insertion loss due to angular misalignment for joints in two

multimode step index fibers with NA of 0.22 and 0.3

(b) 62.5/125 m graded index fiber

NA = 0.28
Profile parameter = 2.1

50/125 m graded index fiber

spliced to
NA = 0.22
Profile parameter = 1.9

Aligned without a gap, radial or angular misalignment, Loss =?

a2=

62.5
=31.25 m
2

NA 2=0.28

2=2.1

a1=

50
=25 m
2

NA 2=0.22

1=1.9

( 31.25 x 0.28 )2 ( 1.9+2 ) (2.1)

=10 log10 ( 25 x 0.22 )2 ( 2.1+2 ) (1.9)
dB
Loss
10 lo g 10

( 76.5625 )( 3.9 ) ( 2.1)

(30.25 )( 4.1 )(1.9)

10 log 10

627.046875
235.6475

dB

dB

10 log 10 2.6609528 dB
4.250371711 dB
4.25 dB

Question 5.9
Fusion splicing is accomplished by applying localized heating (e.g. by a flame or an
electric arc) at the interface between two butted, prealigned fiber ends causing them to
soften and fuse.
Advantages
to optimize the splice performance - reduce the insertion loss at the joint

generally a better performance than that exhibited by demountable connections the insertion losses of
fiber splices are generally much less than the possible Fresnel reflection loss at a butted fiberfiber joint
no large step change in refractive index with thefusion splice as it forms a continuous fiber connection
offers advantages of consistent
easily controlled heat with adaptability for use under field conditions.
Low losses of splices

Drawback
more critical fiber alignment

the heat necessary to fuse the fibers may weaken the fiber in the vicinity of the splice

n1 = 1.52
Insertion loss = 0.8dB
Angular misalignment = 7
Loss ang = -10 log n ang
0.8
= -10 log n ang

NA = 0.42

n ang

= 0.831763771
2

n ang

16(n 1/n)
n
1

4
NA
(1+( n1 /n))

0.831763771 =

16(1.52)2
7 /180
1

4
NA
(1+(1.52))

Question 5.10
Describe, with the aid of suitable diagrams, three common techniques used for the mechanical splicing of optical
fibers.
A mechanical splice in a multimode step index fiber has a lateral offset of 16% of the fiber core radius. The fiber
core has a refractive index of 1.49, and an index-matching fluid with a refractive index of 1.45 is inserted in the
splice between the butt-jointed fiber ends. Assuming no longitudinal or angular misalignment, estimate the
insertion loss of the splice.
Books answer: 0.47dB
Calculations answer: 0.56dB
Solutions
The mechanical splicing techniques of optical fiber are V-Groove, Precisions Drilled Tubes, & Three Rod Splice
techniques.
For V-Groove,
The techniques is made permanent by securing the fibers in the V-Groove with epoxy resin. Using this
techniques, the insertion losses is around 0.1dB. V-Groove spliced formed by sandwiching the butted
fiber ends between a V-Groove glass substrate and a flat glass retainer plate.

For Precision Drilled Tubes

The techniques is 2 fiber ends meet inside some form of tube, filled with an oil matching refractive index.
The splice is secured with curable epoxy glue.

For Three Rod Splice

This techniques consist of 3 steel rods as a supporter. The channel between the rods has the same diameter
as the fibers to be spliced. With index matching oil, an average loss of around 0.2dB can be obtained.

Given
Y
n1
n
a

= 16% @ 0.16
= 1.49
= 1.45
= 84% @ 0.84

Lateral Misalignment

n1
n

y
2a

16
lat

1.49
1.45

0.16
2( 0.84)

16

1
(0.9996)( ){2cos1 0.09520.1896 }

1
(0.9996)( )(2.7613)

(0.9996)(0.8789)

lat 0.8786
Losslat =10 log lat dB
10 log0.8789
0.56 dB

Question 5.11
The principles of operation of the two major categories of demountable optical fiber connector may be
considered in three major areas, which are:

Fiber termination, which protects and locates the fiber ends;

Fiber end alignment to provide optimum optical coupling;
Outer shell, which maintains the connection and the fiber alignment, protects the fiber ends from the
environment and provides adequate strength at the joint.

The use of an index-matching material in the connector between the two jointed fibers can assist the
connector design in two ways. It increases the light transmission through the connection while keeping dust and
dirt from between the fibers. However, this design aspect is not always practical with demountable connectors,
especially where fluids are concerned.
Butt-jointed connectors rely upon alignment of the two prepared fiber ends in close proximity (butted) to
each other so that the fiber core axes coincide. They are the most widely used connector type and a substantial
number have been reported.

ang =

16 ( 1.42 )
1
4
( 1+1.42 )

180

( 1.42 ) ( 2 ( 0.01 ) )

1
2

= 0.706

Lossang = -10log10(0.706)
= 1.51dB
Question 5.12
Type of demountable fiber connectors used with single mode fibers.
Type
Insertion loss (dB)
Features and applications
D4
0.301.00
A slotted screw-on type of multimode and single-mode
fiber connector; used for data communications,
instrumentation connections and telecommunication
ST

0.200.50

applications
A slotted bayonet (push-in, twist-out) type of metallic
multimode or single mode fiber connector with a
ceramic ferrule; widely used in inter/intra building, data
communication

SC

0.200.45

and

also

telecommunication

applications
A push-on, pull-off type of multimode or single-mode

(simplex

connector with a ceramic ferrule and an SFF design in a

and

simplex or a duplex plastic housing; often used for

duplex)
FC

LANs and data communication

A screw-on metallic connector with a ceramic ferrule;

0.251.00

widely used with single mode fiber, for active device

MU

0.100.30

termination and in high-vibration environments

A push-on, pull-off type of multimode or single-mode

fiber connector with plastic housing and ceramic

ferrule; SFF and SFP designs with packaging density
that is greater than the SC connector and can be
simplex or duplex; useful for
board-mounted
LC

0.100.50

applications

and

high

density

interconnections
A push-on, pull-off, multimode or single mode fiber

(simplex

type of connector containing a standard RJ 45

and

telephone plug housing with a ceramic ferrule in a

duplex)

simplex or duplex plastic housing; SFF and SFP

designs are suitable for high density interconnection
and also useful for instrumentation and test equipment

E2000

0.120.30

interconnections
A push-on, pull-off type of connector, mostly preferred
for single-mode fiber operation; SFF and SFP designs
similar to the SC type but also contains an eye
protection safety cover built into the end face

n1 = 1.46, = 8o, V = 2.2, NA = 0.9, 2a = 6m, y = 0.7m

1.5

a(0.65+1.62 v +2.88 v )
20.5
1.5

3 (0.65+1.62(2.2) + 2.88(2.2) )
20.5

= 2.49 m

y
T1 = 2.17( )2
= 2.17 (0.7/2.49)2
= 0.172 dB
Ta = 2.17 ( n1V/aNA)2

0.8
= 2.17 (

( 180 ) ( 2.49 ) (1.46)(2.2)

3(0.9)

)2

= 0.03712 dB
T = T1 + Ta
= 0.172 + 0.03712
= 0.175dB

Question 5.13
A single-mode fiber of 10 m core diameter has a normalized frequency of 2.0. A fusion splice at a point along its
length exhibits an insertion loss of 0.15 dB .Assuming only lateral misalignment contributes to the splice insertion
loss, estimate the magnitude of the lateral misalignment.

loss due
T
lateral offset(1)=0.15 dB
normalized frequency ( V )=2.0
core diameter ( 2 a )=10 m

+2.88 V 6

1
2

3
2

a 0.65+1.62V

T 1 =2.17

a 0.65+1.62 ( 2.0 ) 2 +2.88 ( 2.0 )6

1
2

y=

4.4822 m

=a(

3
2

+2.88 V 6

3
2

0.65+1.62(1.7) +2.88 (1.7)6

=a(
)
2
=2.651979 m

T =2.17(
T =2.17(

y
)
w

0.4
)
2.651979

T =0.04936 dB
Since T = 2Ta

Ta=2.17

w n 1 V

a NA

0.04936/ 2=2.17

w (1.48)(1.7)
( (2.5)(0.14)
)

w =0.014835 rad

w =0.8498

( )

4.4822

0.15
4.4822=1.1784 m
2.17

d = 5m
n1 = 1.48
NA = 0.14
V= 1.7
y = 0.4m

0.65+1.62V

0.15 dB=2.17

5.14

5.15

V = 1.9
n1 = 1.46,
y = 0.5m
T1 = 0.05dB

= 0.3o

Ta = 0.04dB
a) The core diameter for the fiber

T1 = 2.17

[ ]
y

1
0.02304 =
3
2

0.65+1.62 V +2.88 V 6

=
a

Sub. 2 into 1
3

0.65+1.62 ( 1.9 ) 2 +2.88 ( 1.9 )

a 2
0.05 = 2.17
0.5

0.5
0.9403 a

0.02304

0.15179 =

a=

0.5
0.9403 a

0.5
0.9403 a

0.5
0.15179
0.9403

= 3.5m

0.05
2.17

0.65+0.6186+ 0.06122

a 2
0.5
=

Diameter = 2a = 2(3.5)
= 7.0m

b) The numerical aperture for the fiber

= 3.48 m
Ta = 2.17

n1 V
aNA

3
2

Sub. 2 into 1
0.04 = 2.17

0.65+1.62(1.9) + 2.88(1.9) 2

=
3.5

0.3
( 3.48 )( 1.46 )( 1.9 )
180
3.5 NA

0.04
2.17

0.0505
3.5 NA

0.01843 =

0.01843

0.0505
3.5 NA

0.0505
3.5 NA

0.1358 =

[
NA =

0.0505
]
0.1358
3.5

= 0.11

0.0505
3.5 NA

Question 5.16
W1= 11u W2=9
Coupling loss

[( )( ) ]

w1
w2
Loss=10 log10 4
+
w2
w1

[( )( ) ]

11
9
= 10 log10 4 9 + 11

= 0.17dB
Loss increased by 30%
=

10 log 10 ( 0.96 X 0.3 )

= 5.4 dB
Question 5.17
The major categories of multiport optical fiber coupler:

1. Three- and four-port couplers, which are used 2. Star couplers, which are generally used
splitting, distribution
for distributing a single input signal to
and combining.
to multiple output.

for signal

Wavelength Multiplexer
Wavelength Demultiplexer
3. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices, which are a specialized form of coupler designed to permit
a number of different peak wavelength optical signals to be transmitted in parallel on a single fiber.WDM
couplers either combine the different wavelength optical signal onto the fiber (i.e. multiplex) or separate the
different wavelength optical signals output from the fiber (i.e. demultiplex).
Two common methods used in the fabrication of three-and four-port couplers:

Lateral Offset Method

It relies on the overlapping of the fiber end faces. Light from the input fiber is coupled to the output fibers
according to the degree of overlap. Hence the input power can be distributed in a well-defined proportion by
appropriate control of the amount of lateral offset between the fibers. This technique, which can provide a
bidirectional coupling capability, is well suited for use with multimode step index fibers but may incur higher
excess losses than other methods as all the input light cannot be coupled into the output fibers.

Semitransparent Mirror Method

Another coupling technique is to incorporate a beam splitter element between the fibers. The semitransparent
mirror method provides an ingenious way to accomplish such a fiber coupler, as shown in (b). A partially
reflecting surface can be applied directly to the fiber end face cut at an angle of 45 to form a thin-film beam
splitter. The input power may be split in any desired ratio between the reflected and transmitted beams depending
upon the properties of the intervening mirror, and typical excess losses for the device lie in the range 1 to 2 dB.
Using this technology both three- and four-port couplers with both multimode and single-mode fibers have been
fabricated
Question 5.18
Optical power launched into the input fiber propagates in the form of guided core modes. The higher the
order modes, however leave the fiber core because of its reduced size in the tapered-down region and are
therefore guided as cladding modes. These modes transfer back to guided core modes in the tapered-up region of
the output fiber with an approximately even distribution between the two fibers.
Often only a portion of the total power is coupled between the two fibers because only the higher order
modes take part in process, the lower order modes generally remaining within the main fiber. A mode dependent
coupling ratio is obtained. However, when the waist of the taper is made sufficiently narrow, then the entire mode
volume can be encourage to participate in the coupling and the larger portion of input power can be shared
between the output fibers. This strategy gives an improvement in both the power and modal uniformity of the
coupler.
Theoretical considerations for single-mode FTB coupler, minimum wavelength dependence on the
splitting ratio is achieved for small cladding radii and strong fusing. In order to obtain such performance it is

necessary to taper the fiber radius down (15m @ less), and to ensure that the rate of the taper is such that the
major proportion of the coupling occurs in the neck region. The wavelength dependent behavior associated with
single-mode FBT couplers follows an approximately sinusoidal pattern over the wavelength range (0.8 m 1.5
m) as a result of the single mode-mode coupling length between the two fibers.

Question 5.20
Indicate the distinction between fiber star and tree couplers.
Fiber star
Star couplers are different from tree

couplers because they have multiple

inputs and multiple outputs.
The fibers radiate from the central point

likes a star.
They often have same number of inputs

and outputs

Question 5.21
Splitting loss = 10 log N
= 10 log 64
= 18.06 dB
Excess loss = 10 log (pi/pj)
Excess loss = 3.9 dB
3.9 dB = 10 log (1.6m/pj)
Log-1 0.39 = 1.6m/pj
pj = 651.81
Pj = 651.81 / 64
Pj = 10.18 W #
Total loss = splitting loss + excess loss
Total loss = 18.06 dB + 3.9 dB = 21.96 dB #

Exercise 5.22
Answer:
Pi = -8.0dBm
= 1 W x 10^(-8dBm/10) 1000
= 0.158mW
Pj = -22.8dBm
= 1 W x 10^(-22.8dBm /10) 1000
= 5.25W
Splitting Loss = 10 log10 N
= 10 log10 8
= 9.03 dB

Excess Loss = 10 log10 [0.158mW/(8 x 5.25W)]

= 5.75 dB
Total Loss = Splitting Loss + Excess Loss
= 9.03 dB + 5.75 dB

Tree couplers
Tree couplers usually take one input and
split it into multiple (more than two)
outputs.
Tree couplers can also be used backward
(bidirectional) as a combiner.
Multiple output signals (now function as
the input) are combined to a single input
(now as the output)

= 14.78 dB
Question 5.23

N=32 , P1=6 dBm , split ratio=50 , P 3=122 W , splice loss=0.06 dB

split ratio=

P3
P 3+ P4

P3
=0.5
P 3+ P 4

P3=0.5 P3 +0.5 P4
0.5 P4=0.5 P3
P4 =P 3=122 W
P1=6 dBm=251.1886 W
For the four port coupler:

P1
P3 + P4

excess loss=10 log10

excess loss=10 log10

( 251.1886
122+122 )

excess loss=0.8705 dB
The excess loss for four port coupler should be the same as the

excess loss=10 log10

32 32 star coupler.

Pi

( )
N

Pj
1

excess loss=10 log10

P 0=
P 0=

Pi
N P0

10

251.1886
32=6.4239 W
100.8705/10

i
excessloss / 10

To check the results, the total loss should be equal to average insertion loss from the input port to an output port.

total loss=exce ss loss+ splitting loss

total loss=0.8705 dB+10 log 10 N

total loss=0.8705 dB+10 log 10 32
total loss=0.8705 dB+15.0515 dB=15.922dB
P1
P0

insertionloss=10 log 10

( )

insertionloss=10 log 10

=15.922 dB
( 251.1886
6.4239 )

Since the total loss should is equal to average insertion loss from the input port to an output port, it is proven that
the result of optical power emitted from each of the output ports when the 6 dBm power level is launched into
any one of the input ports is correct.
Question 5.24
Three major categories of passive wavelength division multiplexing coupler are angularly dispersive
(usually diffraction grating), filter and directional coupler.

Figure 1 Littrow mounted diffraction grating.

One of the implementation for diffraction grating is the Littrow device, which employs a single lens and a
separate plane grating. In a Littrow mounted grating, the blaze angle of the grating is such that the incident and
reflected light beams follow virtually the same path, as illustrated in Figure 1, thereby maximizing the grating
efficiency and minimizing lens astigmatism. For a given center wavelength , the blaze angle is set such that:

B =sin1
where

( 2 )
is the line spacing on the grating (i.e. grating period). Schematic diagrams of Littrow-type grating

demultiplexers employing a conventional lens and a GRIN-rod lens are shown in Figure 2. The use of a spherical
ball microlens has also been reported. Although all the lens-type devices exhibit similar operating mechanisms
and hence performance, the GRIN-rod lens configuration proves advantageous for its compactness and ease of
alignment. Therefore the operation of a GRIN-rod lens type of demultiplexer is considered in greater detail.
Referring to Figure 2(b), the single input fiber and multiple output fibers are arranged on the focal plane
of the lens, which, for a quarter pitch GRIN-rod lens, is coincident with the fiber end face. The input wavelength
multiplexed optical beam is collimated by the lens and hence transmitted to the diffraction grating, which is offset

at the blaze angle so that the incoming light is incident virtually normal to the groove faces. The required offset
angle can be produced by interposing a prism (glass wedge) between the lens and the grating, as illustrated in
Figure 2(b) or, alternatively, by cutting and polishing the GRIN-rod lens and by mounting the grating on its end
face. The former method gives superior performance since the optical properties of the GRIN-rod lens are not
altered. On reflection from the grating, the diffraction process causes the light to be angularly dispersed according
to the optical wavelength. Finally, the different optical wavelengths pass through the lens and are focused onto the
different collecting output fibers. Devices of this type have demonstrated channel insertion losses of less than 2
dB and channel spacings of 18 nm with low crosstalk.

Figure 2 Littrow-type grating demultiplexers: (a) using a conventional lens. Reprinted with permission from Ref.
100 IEEE 1980; (b) using a GRIN-rod lens

Figure 3 Multilayer interference filter structure.

One of the implementation for optical filter is dielectric thin-film (DTF) interference filters which can be
constructed from alternate layers of high refractive index (e.g. zinc sulfide) and low refractive index (e.g.
magnesium fluoride) materials, each of which is one-quarter wavelength thick. In this structure, shown
schematically in Figure 3, light which is reflected within the high-index layers does not suffer any phase shift on
reflection, while those optical beams reflected within the low-index layers undergo a phase shift of 180. Thus the
successive reflected beams recombine constructively at the filter front face, producing a high reflectance over a
limited wavelength region which is dependent upon the ratio between the high and low refractive indices. Outside
this high-reflectance region, the reflectance changes abruptly to a low value. Consequently, the quarter-wave stack
can be used as a high-pass filter, a low-pass filter or a high-reflectance coating.
Multiple wavelength multiplexer/demultiplexer devices employing DTF interference filters may be
constructed from a suitably aligned series of bandpass filters with different passband wavelength regions,
cascaded in such a way that each filter transmits a particular wavelength, but reflects all others. Such a multiplereflection demultiplexing device is illustrated in Figure 4. This structure has the disadvantage that the insertion
losses increase linearly with the number of multiplexed channels since losses are incurred at each successive
reflection due to filter imperfections and the difficulties of maintaining good alignment.

Figure 4 GRIN-rod lensed bandpass demultiplexer

Figure 5 GRIN-rod lens micro-optic fiber couplers: (a) parallel surface type; (b) slant surface type.
One of the implementation for directional coupler is a fast-growing category of optical fiber coupler is
based on the use of micro-optic components. In particular, a complete range of couplers has been developed
which utilize the beam expansion and collimation properties of the GRIN-rod lens combined with spherical retroreflecting mirrors. These devices, two of which are displayed in Figure 5, are miniature optical assemblies of
compact construction which generally exhibit low insertion loss (typically less than 1 dB) and are insensitive to
modal power distribution.
Figure 5(a) shows the structure of a parallel surface type of GRIN-rod lens threeport coupler which
comprises two quarter pitch lenses with a semitransparent mirror in between. Light rays from the input fiber F 1
collimate in the first lens before they are incident on the mirror. A portion of the incident beam is reflected back
and is coupled to fiber F2, while the transmitted light is focused in the second lens and then coupled to fiber F 3.
The slant surface version of the similar coupler is shown in Figure 3(b). The parallel surface type, however, is the
most attractive due to its ease of fabrication, compactness, simplicity and relatively low insertion loss. Finally, the
substitution of the mirror by an interference filter offers application of these devices to WDM.
Question 5.25

Schematic diagram of an optical fiber core containing four fiber Bragg gratings
Bragg wavelength: B = 2n where n is refractive index and is grating period.
Equation above implies that any variation in refractive index of the material or the grating period produces a
different Bragg wavelength, and therefore it is possible to construct FBGs capable of reflecting back or
transmitting through an optical signal at any desired wavelength. When there is a uniform period between all the

Bragg gratings then the FBG reflects an optical signal at a particular wavelength which then can effectively block
a specific optical signal at a particular wavelength.
Question 5.26
= 0.42m
n = 1.6
Workings:
B = 2n
= 2 (1.6) (0.42)
= 1.34m
Question 5.27
Optical isolators allow light to pass in only one direction. This prevents scattered or reflected light from traveling
in the reverse direction. For example, it can keep backward-traveling light from entering a laser diode and
possibly causing instabilities in the optical output.

Polarization-independent isolator made of three miniature optical components

Optical Circulators
An optical circulator is a nonreciprocal multiport passive device that directs light sequentially
from port to port in only one direction. Optical circulator is a special fiber optic device that is capable of
separating optical power traveling in opposite directions in one optical fiber. It can be used to achieve bidirectional transmission over a single fiber. Because of its high isolation between the input and reflected
optical power and its low insertion loss, optical circulator is widely used in advanced communication
systems and fiber-optical sensor systems.

In the 3port example, an input on port 1 is sent out on port 2, an input on port 2 is sent out on
port 3, and an input on port 3 is sent out on port 1. Four-port optical circulator is a special type of
circulator that has one input (port 1), one output (port 4) and two common ports (port 2&3). The light
goes through port 1 to port 2. At port 2, any incoming light is guided to port 3 as output, while all input
from port 3 is guided to port 4 as output. Compared to three-port circulator, four port device has one
additional bi-directional port.