A Study Guide To Energy

A Student Guide to Energy
A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 1: Oil, Natural Gas,

Coal, and Nuclear
John F. Mongillo
Copyright 2011 by John F. Mongillo

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations
in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mongillo, John F.
A student guide to energy / John F. Mongillo.
v. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents: v. 1. Energy : oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear v. 2. Solar
energy and hydrogen fuel cells v. 3. Wind energy, oceanic energy, and
hydropower v. 4. Geothermal and biomass energy v. 5. Energy eciency,
conservation, and sustainability.
ISBN 978-0-313-37720-4 (set hard copy : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-0-313-37721-1 (set ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37722-8
(v. 1 hard copy: alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-313-37723-5 (v. 1 ebook)
ISBN 978-0-313-37724-2 (v. 2 hard copy : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
(v. 3 hard copy : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-313-37727-3 (v. 3 ebook)
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
(v. 5 hard copy : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-313-37731-0
(v. 5 ebook) 1. Power resources Encyclopedias. I. Title.
TJ163.16.M66
2011
621.042dc22
2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11
1 2 3 4 5
This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.
Visit www.abc-clio.com for details.
Greenwood
An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC
ABC-CLIO, LLC
130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911
This book is printed on acid-free paper
Manufactured in the United States of America
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter 1
ix
xiii
Energy and Energy Sources

Energys Role in Our World
Energy Policies Need to Be Addressed
History of Energy in the United States
What Is Energy?
Energy Can Be Converted from One Form to Another
Todays Sources of Energy
Electricity, a Secondary Source of Energy
How Is Energy Measured?
Worldwide Consumption of Energy
Worldwide Uses of Energy
Future World Energy Consumption
1
1
2
3
5
6
8
16
18
18
19
21
Interview
Linda Currie
Chapter 2
28
Petroleum
39
How Do We Use Petroleum Today?

Petroleum, a Dominant Energy Source
39
40
vi a Contents
History of Petroleum
What Is Petroleum?
How Did Petroleum Form?
Searching for Oil
Drilling for Oil
Crude Oil Reneries
The Main Products of Petroleum
U.S. Production of Crude Oil
Crude Oil Imports to the United States
OPEC
Oil Shales and Oil Sands
U.S. Imports Other Than Rened Crude Oil
The Strategic Petroleum Reserve
Environmental Issues
How Much Oil Is Left?
The Future of Petroleum
40
41
41
42
43
46
47
54
54
56
57
59
60
60
62
63
Interviews
Jason Diodati
Keats Moeller
Chapter 3
49
64
Natural Gas
71
World Consumption of Natural Gas

History of Natural Gas
How Is Natural Gas Formed?
The Contents of Natural Gas
Locating Natural Gas Deposits
Drilling for Natural Gas
Delivery of Natural Gas
How Is Natural Gas Measured?
Global Natural Gas Reserves
World Gas Production Countries
The Worlds Largest Consumers of Natural Gas
Liqueed Petroleum GasPropane
Natural Gas Vehicles
Natural Gas Benets
Natural Gas Emissions
Future of Natural Gas
72
73
74
74
76
76
77
78
79
81
82
85
85
93
93
94
Interview
Bob Walters
86
Contents a vii
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Coal
103
Coal: A Major Source of the Worlds Energy

History of Coal
Major Uses of Coal
What Is Coal and How Is It Formed?
Where Is Coal Found?
How Is Coal Mined?
How Is Coal Transported?
How Does a Coal-Fired Power Station Produce Electricity?
Major Coal-Producing States
Major Global Coal-Producing Countries
Exporters of Coal
Coal Importers
Coal Consumption
Clean Coal Technology
The Future of Coal
103
104
104
106
106
106
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
121
128
Nuclear Energy
131
Why the Interest in Nuclear Energy?

What Is Nuclear Energy?
History of Using Nuclear Energy
Concerns about Nuclear Weapons
International Atomic Energy Agency
World Use of Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Fuel
The Kinds of Nuclear Reactors
Some Major Nuclear Reactor Manufacturers
Nuclear Power Plants Generate Waste
Cutting-Edge Nuclear Technologies
132
133
134
135
135
136
138
142
145
145
151
Interview
Dr. Charles Ferguson
154
Books and Other Reading Materials
159
Government and Nongovernmental Organization Web Sites
165
Energy Data
169
Energy Time Line: 3000 B.C. To A.D. 2009
197
Proles
203
viii a Contents
Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Careers
209
Energy Product Developers and Manufacturers
213
National Science Education Standards, Content Standards
217
Index
219
About the Author
263
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
First and foremost I would like to thank David Paige, formerly Acquisitions Editor, Health and Science, of ABC-CLIO/Greenwood for his support and eort in molding the energy series into its current form. Thanks
to the sta at Apex CoVantage for the project management, copyediting,
and proong services, and Ellen Rasmussen, Senior Media Editor, for her
photo research contributions.
Much of this series would not be possible without the eorts of the
Green Advocates who provided interviews describing their go-green activities and their enthusiasm for this series. The Green Advocates included
Ross McCurdy, High School Science Teacher, Ponaganset, Rhode Island;
Linda Currie, Energy Outreach Coordinator, Bay Localize, Oakland,
California; Jason Diodati, Chemistry Teacher, Marc and Eva Stern Math
and Science School, East Los Angeles, California; Bob Walters, Technology Education Teacher, DeWitt Middle School, Ithaca, New York; Mark
Westlake, High School Physics Teacher, Saint Thomas Academy, Mendota Heights, Minnesota; Bhavna Rawal, High School Science Teacher,
Northbrook High School, Houston, Texas; Rande Gray, Design Project
Manager, Hannaford Supermarkets, Maine; Rick Peck, Science Teacher,
Seneca Ridge Middle School, Sterling, Virginia; Stephanie Harman, Science Teacher, Maumee Valley Country Day School, Toledo, Ohio; Tom
Traeger, Science Teacher, La Caada High School, La Caada, California;
x a Acknowledgments
Mary E. Spruill, Executive Director of the National Energy Education

Development (NEED); Michael Arquin, Director, KidWind Project, St.
Paul, Minnesota; John W. Lund, Director of the Geo-Heat Center at
Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon; Phillip Cantor,
North-Grand High School, Illinois; Sister Susan Frazer, RSM, MSW, St.
John Bosco Boys Home, Jamaica, West Indies; Don Carmichael, Science
Teacher, Adlai E. Stevenson High School, Illinois; Mr. and Mrs. Gerald
McGrath, Massachusetts; and Marie Norman, Principal, Westwood Elementary School, Zimmerman, Minnesota (The Westwood Elementary
School was the rst LEED-certied school in Minnesota).
The publisher and the author are pleased to have received permission to
reprint interviews with members of the Spirit Lake Wind Project and the
National Energy Education Development (NEED). The NEED Careers in
Energy interviews included David Chen, Program Manager for the TXU
Energy Solar Academy for TXU Energy, Dallas, Texas; Dr. Charles Ferguson, Philip D. Reed Senior Fellow for Science and Technology, Council on
Foreign Relations, Washington D.C.; and Keats Moeller, Senior Advisor
of Recruiting and Stang, ConocoPhillips Company, Houston, Texas.
The author wishes to acknowledge and express the contribution of
the many government and nongovernmental organizations and corporations who provided assistance to the author in the research for this energy
series.
A special thanks to the following organizations that contributed technical expertise and resources, photos, maps, and data: Government organizations and their representatives included the Department of Energy, Oce
of Energy Information Administration, Oce of Fossil Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, Bureau of Reclamation, National Renewable
Laboratory Agency (NREL), the NRELs National Wind Technology
Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and
the National Aeronautic Space Administration (NASA). Thanks to other
organizations, including the Alliance to Save Energy, Sandia National
Laboratories, American Wind Energy Association (AWEA), Geothermal
Energy Association, National Gas Association, Nuclear Energy Agency,
American Coal Council, and the National Association for Stock Car Auto
Racing (NASCAR).
In addition, the author wishes to thank Amy Mongillo, George F.
McBride, and Paula Jutkiewicz for their proofreading and typing support and Edward and Rachel Patrick and Sister Mara Elena Cervantes,
Acknowledgments a xi
RSM, for their friendship and support, too. Special accolades to Carolyn
Koeniger, Peter Mongillo, and Jane and Gareth Phillips, who provided
invaluable resources such as video Web sites, bibliographies, government
and nongovernment Web sites, science activities, energy timelines, and
much more.
In conclusion, please note the responsibility of the accuracy of the terms
is solely that of the author. If errors are noticed, please address them to the
author so corrections can be made in future revisions.
INTRODUCTION
a
We cannot simply think of our survival; each new generation is responsible to ensure the survival of the seventh generation. The prophecy given to us, tells us that what we do today will aect the seventh
generation and because of this we must bear in mind our responsibility to them today and always.
Great Law of Peace of the Haudenosaunee
(Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy)
Presently, energy drives the global economy by producing much of the
goods and services manufactured and sold in the marketplace. The global
supply and demand for energy inuences the major stock markets in all
of the capitals of the world. Energy impacts all of our lives by supplying
the means for transportation, electricity, manufactured goods, and agricultural production. Therefore, any disruption in the energy supply system or
shortages of energy resources will have a major impact on the economies
of all the countries in the world.
The present energy system provides us with many benets, but it also
impacts and degrades our environment. Fossil fuel supplies will also be
running out before the end of the 21st century. Therefore, a global sustainable energy program that includes renewable energy sources, energy conservation policies, and energy eciency programs is needed.
xiv a Introduction
World governments, nongovernmental organizations, international

companies, universities and colleges, entrepreneurs, and citizens are debating present and future energy policies. A few of the questions they are
addressing include the following:
How will fossil fuel shortages, the depletion of nonrenewable energy
sources, and the rising costs of fuels, such as petroleum, impact the
worlds population of energy consumers, particularly those living in
developing countries?
Will all proposed energy policies and programs be sustainable in
format to balance the future energy needs and demands of people
without damaging the environment?
How reliable, ecient, and aordable are the renewable energy
sources, such as wind, solar, and hydrogen, that are to power the
future and replace traditional energy sources?
What implementation plans are best to conserve energy in homes,
businesses, transportation systems, and agricultural production?
The consumption of fossil fuels continues to increase the world greenhouse gas emissions and global temperatures. One estimate is that 76 percent of global warming is caused by carbon dioxide alone. As atmospheric
temperatures rise, global temperatures also rise, causing global warming.
These atmospheric conditions cause the potential for major climate change
that may not be reversible.
There is no question that topics concerning energy resources and technology will continue to be in the news and play a major role in economics,
public policy, science, ethics, and political and environmental issues in the
21st century.
THE STUDENT GUIDE TO ENERGY SET
A Student Guide to Energy is a multivolume reference set and an excellent
research tool for developing a working knowledge of basic energy concepts
and topics. The set provides an interdisciplinary perspective on the study
of energy. Coverage of traditional nonrenewable energy and conventional
sources includes petroleum, natural gas, coal, and nuclear ssion. The renewable, or alternative, energy sources covered include solar energy, wind
power, geothermal power, hydropower, tidal power, biomass and biofuels,
and hydrogen fuel cells.
Introduction a xv
No one book can keep track of all the changing events and developments in the energy eld or even hope to present the most current information about each issue. There is too much going on in the energy research
eld to document all events or issues in one set. However, A Student Guide
to Energy provides an excellent tool for developing a working knowledge of
energy-related topics that are important to understanding our present and
future needs for energy resources and energy eciency.
Organization
A Student Guide to Energy is divided into ve volumes.
Volume 1: Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, and Nuclear. Volume 1 highlights
our present dependence on the nonrenewable energy sources such
as petroleum, natural gas, and coal that provide the majority of the
worlds energy needs. The last chapter reports on nuclear energy.
Interviews, suggested video sites, science activities, and a bibliography complement each chapter in the volume.
Volume 2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Cells. In volume 2, solar
energy and hydrogen fuel cells are presented as alternative, renewable
energy sources. There are many U.S. schools using solar energy. The
hydrogen economy is discussed in chapters 4 and 5. Interviews, suggested video sites, science activities, and a bibliography complement
each chapter.
Volume 3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and Hydropower. Wind
energy, hydropower, and tidal energy are presented in volume 3.
Interviews, suggested video sites, science activities, and a bibliography complement each chapter.
Volume 4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy. Volume 4 reports on
geothermal energy and geothermal heat pumps. Chapters 4 and 5
report on biofuels and biomass as energy resources. Interviews, suggested video sites, science activities, and a bibliography complement
each chapter.
Volume 5: Energy Eciency, Conservation, and Sustainability. The
last volume in the set, volume 5 focuses on the importance of living in sustainable society where generation after generation does not
deplete the natural resources or produce excessive pollutants. Energy
conservation, energy eciency, and energy sustainability are covered.
xvi a Introduction
Additional topics, including carbon and ecological footprints and

global warming issues, are also covered. Interviews, suggested video
sites, science activities, and a bibliography complement each chapter.
Special Features of the Five-Volume Set
Biographies. Men and women who have made contributions in the
energy eld and in energy technologies.
Interviews. Firsthand reporting of teachers, professors, and business
owners who play a prominent role in the go-green energy eld.
Career information. Suggested careers to assist young people to
explore the possibilities of a go-green career in energy-related elds.
Energy companies and organizations. A listing of web sites of the
major corporations that are involved in cutting-edge research and in
the development of energy technology for the future.
University and college resources. Energy resource links and web
sites from schools and colleges.
Government and nongovernmental resources. Web sites for all of
the major government agencies and nongovernmental agencies that
are conducting energy research and funding.
Science activities. Suggested student research activities at the end of
each chapter in the volume.
Video sources. More than 100 approved video web sites intermeshed
within the text for the introduction and enrichment of the chapter
content that is covered.
Energy time line of events. Important energy and energy technology milestones.
Bibliography. Book titles and articles relating to the subject area
of each chapter, presented at the end of each chapter for additional
research opportunities.
School energy news. Several go-green U.S. schools have installed
and use renewable energy resources. These resources include photovoltaics, geothermal energy and geothermal heat pumps, and wind
power. The teacher interviews discuss how energy projects are part
of their science and math studies. These projects include building
biodiesel autos and pickup trucks and even a 100 percent electricpowered car.
Introduction a xvii
National Science Education Standards. The content in A Student

Guide to Energy is closely aligned with the National Science Education Standards. A Student Guide to Energy does not fall into a single
traditional discipline but rather supports learning in a range of disciplines, including physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, engineering, and technology.
Hundreds of illustrations. Diagrams, photos, charts, and tables that
enhance the text and provide additional information for the reader.
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PRESENT
AND FUTURE ENERGY RESOURCES
Nonrenewable Energy Sources
Petroleum
Presently, 90 percent of the worlds energy is derived from the consumption of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. According to government reports,
fossil fuels will continue to be the major source of energy for the transportation, industrial, and residential sectors. For example, the worlds demand
for petroleum will have increased to 91 million barrels per day by 2015,
from 85 million barrels per day in 2006. By 2030, consumption will have
reached 107 million barrels per day. Overall, global energy consumption is
projected to grow by 44 percent over the 2006 to 2030 period.
Ten countries produced 60 percent of total world production of oil. Following are the top ve, which produced 42 percent of the world total, and
their share of total world production:
Russia, 13 percent
Saudi Arabia, 12 percent
United States, 7 percent
Iran, 5.4 percent
China, 5.1 percent
Following are the top ve exporting countries, accounting for 59 percent

of U.S. crude oil imports in 2009:
Canada, 1.854 million barrels per day
Mexico, 1.177 million barrels per day
Saudi Arabia, 1.021 million barrels per day
xviii a Introduction
Venezuela, 0.803 million barrels per day

Nigeria, 0.673 million barrels per day
Natural Gas
According to government studies, worldwide natural gas consumption will
increase to 158 cubic feet in 2030, from about 100 trillion cubic feet in
2005. Natural gas will probably replace petroleum and coal wherever possible. The reason is that natural gas combustion produces less carbon dioxide than coal or petroleum production and products. Therefore, natural gas
is expected to remain a key energy source for the industrial sector. Today,
natural gas is used extensively in residential homes, commercial buildings,
and industrial plants in the United States. In fact, it is the dominant energy
used for home heating. Natural gas supplies nearly one-fourth (23%) of all
of the energy used in the United States, with more than 66 million homes
in the United States using it. The use of natural gas is also rapidly increasing in electric power generation and cooling.
Worldwide, natural gas remains a key energy source for the industrial
sector and for electricity generation. The biggest consumers of natural gas
in 2005 were the United States, Russia, Germany, and the United Kingdom. However, since 2000, the demand for natural gas in Spain had grown
by 92 percent, putting Spain in sixth place in Europe, behind the United
Kingdom, Germany, Italy, France, and the Netherlands.
Coal
Coal accounts for approximately 49 percent of electricity output in the
United States. It is the worlds most abundant and widely distributed fossil
fuel. Although coal deposits are widely dispersed, more than 59 percent
of the worlds recoverable reserves are located in ve countries: Australia,
China, India, United States, and Canada. The worlds largest producers and
consumers of coal are China, Poland, Russia, India, and the United States.
Major hard-coal producers include China, the United States, India, Australia, South Africa, Russia, Indonesia, Poland, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan.
According to a study by International Energy Outlook, coals share of
world energy consumption is projected to increase by 29 percent by 2030.
Coals share of the electric power sector will reach 46 percent in 2030.
China is the worlds largest coal producer, accounting for nearly 28 percent
of the worlds annual production and about 70 percent of Chinas total
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy
In 2010, President Barack Obama announced an $8.3 billion federal loan
to build two new reactors in Georgia. Well have to build a new generation of safe, clean nuclear power plants in America, said President Obama.
The United States is still the largest single producer of nuclear energy in
the world, with 104 units supplying more than 750 billion kilowatt-hours.
This is a 25 percent increase in total power over the course of 15 years, as a
result of improving equipment, procedures, and general eciency, without
a new reactor order. (As of 2010, Watts Bar Unit 1, nished in 1996, was
the latest completed U.S. reactor.)
According to the Nuclear Energy Agency, as of 2009, France had the
second-largest number of commercial reactors with 59, and it was building one new reactor at Flamanville, with plans for another new reactor at
Penly. France is a major global producer of nuclear power for electricity.
Frances rst nuclear reactor began operating in 1974, and the most recent
reactor prior to Flamanville came into use in 2000. About 78 percent of
Frances electricity is produced by nuclear energy. France is a major exporter of electricity to other countries in Europe.
Renewable Energy Resources
Solar Energy
Presently, several solar technologies have been developed to use the suns
energy as renewable energy resource for heat and electricity. The major
technologies include photovoltaic cells, concentrating solar power systems,
and special solar collectors for space heating and hot water.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, made of semiconductors such as crystalline
silicon or various thin-lm materials, convert sunlight directly into electricity. According to Vicki Mastaitis of the Interstate Renewable Energy
Coalition, more than 400 schools in the US now have PV systems on their
buildings. The typical grid-tied PV system installed in a school is one or
two kilowatts.
In fall 2009, President Barack Obama visited the DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center in DeSoto County, Florida. The solar plant, located in the southwest area of Florida, has more than 90,500 photovoltaic
cells that can generate 40,000 megawatts of electricity. Other states are
also exploring solar power, including Michigan, California, Texas, Utah,
New York, and Colorado
xx a Introduction
In all, more than 80 countries are making plans to use solar energy as
part of their renewable energy portfolio, which also includes wind power,
biofuels, geothermal energy, tidal power, and wave power. As of 2010,
China is the worlds leading manufacturer of solar cells; it claims to have
more than 400 PV companies and manufactures approximately 18 percent
of the photovoltaic products worldwide. Additionally, there are now more
than 300,000 buildings with PV systems in Germany. Spain is a major
country investing and installing solar energy as well, and Brazil, Italy, Korea,
India, Taiwan, and Saudi Arabia are developing solar energy projects.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use special-shaped mirrors to reect and concentrate sunlight onto receivers. The solar energy is
converted to heat in the receiver. This heat energy then is used to produce
steam that powers a steam turbine or heat engine to generate electricity.
The Department of Energy states that CSP could be a major contributor
to solving our nations energy problems now and in the future.
According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Acciona Energys Nevada Solar One is the third-largest CSP plant in the world and
the rst plant built in the United States since 1999.
Overseas, in 2009, Spain installed the largest solar tower in the world.
The 500-foot-high solar tower, located near Seville, Spain, has the capacity
to supply electricity to 10,000 homes.
Solar water heaters are another innovation. The state government of
California has approved a $350 million program to subsidize the installation of solar water heaters to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Today,
many countries use solar hot-water systems for a wide variety of purposes,
including for household needs and for heating swimming pools.
Solar hot-water heating systems are very popular in countries with
plenty of daylight solar radiation. Some of these countries include Cyprus,
Israel, Greece, Japan, Austria, and China, the latter of which is the number
one user of solar water heaters. At least 30 million Chinese households
now have solar hot-water heaters. In 2009, the country accounted for approximately 80 percent of the worlds market for solar hot-water heaters.
According to the Department of Energy, solar water heaters, also called
solar domestic hot-water systems, can be a cost-eective way to generate
hot water for your home. They can be used in any climate, and the fuel they
usesunshineis free.
Today, many experts believe that a major switch to solar energy is the
best answer to reducing fossil fuel use and emissions. Many solar energy
Introduction a xxi
companies in the United States and around the world are researching,
planning, and using technologies to harness the suns energy to generate
electricity for businesses, homes, schools, and large communities.
Fuel Cells
The United States and other countries are continuing to explore fuel cell
technology and applications because of its benets. The fuel cell industry
in 2007 reported that there had been substantial job growth and gains in
sales and research, according to the Worldwide Industry Survey. Fuel cells
are clean, ecient, and economical.
A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and
oxygen or other fuel to create electricity through an electrochemical process. According to the Department of Energy, there are several types of
fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications. They include polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, direct methanol fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, and
phosphoric acid fuel cells.
Presently, hydrogen fuel cells are used in a variety of ways. Fuel cells
are now powering bicycles, boats, trains, planes, scooters, forklifts, and
even buses. Police stations, hospitals, banks, wastewater treatment plants,
and telecommunication companies use fuel cells for cellular phones and
radios.
The worlds leading automakers are working on alternative technologies
using fuel cells for cars, buses, and trucks. According to Allied Business
Intelligence, The current $40 million stationary fuel cell market will grow
to more than $10 billion by 2010. Fuel cells are currently being developed
in sizes appropriate for use in homes and other residential applications.
Wind Power
In 2008, the United States became one of the fastest-growing wind-power
marketplaces in the world. That year, wind power accounted for approximately 40 percent of all new U.S. electricity-generating capacity. The Department of Energy reported that wind power could generate 20 percent
of all U.S. electricity needs by 2030.
The global picture for countries using more wind power looks very
promising. The Worldwatch Institute estimates that wind energy
could easily provide 20 to 30 percent of the electricity needed by many
xxii a Introduction
countries, and the development of wind power technology is not unique

to the United States. Many countries are developing this renewable energy resource. As an example, according to the American Wind Energy
Association (AWEA), Denmark leads the world, producing more than
20 percent of its electricity needs at home from wind energy.
Most economists predict that the largest growth markets for wind turbines are in Germany, India, Spain, Great Britain, and China. In 2010,
China became the number one manufacturer of wind turbines. But lets
look at Europe: Europe is high on wind power. In fact, wind turbines
generate more electricity in Europe as an alternative source of energy than
in the United States. In the early twenty-rst century 40 percent of the
worlds wind farms will be in Europe. In addition to wind farms, Europeans are encouraged to invest in wind-power installations for their homes
and businesses in an eort to conserve energy resources.
Hydropower
In Norway, hydroelectric power meets more than 90 percent of the countrys electricity needs. Presently, hydroelectric power plants produce about
24 percent of the worlds electricity. This is enough electricity to supply more than 1 billion people with electrical power for their household
needs. The worlds hydroelectric power plants, output a combined total
of 675,000 megawatts, the energy equivalent of 3.6 billion barrels of oil,
according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Much of the electricity used in Brazil, Canada, Norway, Switzerland,
and Venezuela is generated from hydroelectric power plants. These countries generate more than 170,000 megawatts of electricity. That is an enormous amount of energyenough power to support the electrical needs of
more than 110 million households in the United States.
Some of the major hydroelectric power dams in the world, include the
Three Gorges Dam in China, the Itaipu Dam on the border of Paraguay
and Brazil, and the Guri Dam in Venezuela.
Tidal Power Energy
Many countries are examining the potential to harness tidal energy to
drive turbines for electricity. However, only a few sites in the world have
been identied as possible tidal power stations. Presently, tidal power stations are operating in France, Canada, Russia, and China. The largest is the
one in France.
Introduction a xxiii
Although much of the electricity produced in France is from nuclear

power plants, the country has a tidal power plant as well. The Rance tidal
power plant is in operation on the estuary of the Rance River, in the northwest corner of France. The power plant went online in 1966 and became
the worlds rst electrical generating station powered by tidal energy. The
plant produces 240 megawatts of power. Canada, China, and Northern
Ireland are developing tidal energy plants as well. Presently, Nova Scotias
tidal power plant uses the Bay of Fundy tides to produce enough electricity
for 6,000 nearby homes.
Geothermal
Presently, geothermal energy is the fourth-largest source of renewable energy in the United States, where about 3,000 megawatts of geothermal
electricity are connected to the grid. According to the Department of Energy, energy generated from geothermal sources accounted for 4 percent of
renewable energybased electricity consumption in the United States. The
United States continues to produce more geothermal electricity than any
other country, making up approximately 30 percent of the worlds total.
And two countries alone, the United States and the Philippines, together
account for 50 percent of the worlds use of geothermal energy. As of August 2008, geothermal capacity in the United States totaled nearly 3,000
megawatts, produced in several states such as Alaska, California, Hawaii,
Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. California alone produces more
megawatts of geothermal energy than any country in the world.
Biomass and Biofuels
In 2009, as part of the ongoing eort to increase the use of domestic renewable fuels, U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu announced plans to provide $786.5 million from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act to
accelerate advanced biofuels research and development and to provide additional funding for commercial-scale biorenery demonstration projects.
Global biofuel production tripled between 2000 and 2007 but still
accounts for less than 3 percent of the global transportation fuel supply.
However, global demands for biofuels are expected to more than double
between 2009 and 2015, according to a new global analysis released.
Major new contributors to the growth of global biofuels between 2009
and 2015 will include Indonesia, France, China, India, Thailand, Colombia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Argentina.
xxiv a Introduction
Energys Future
Most energy experts believe that at least midway through the twenty-rst
century we will continue to depend heavily on fossil fuels for transportation and electricity needs. Therefore, it is necessary to be more ecient in
using these energy sources.
However, energy conservation and energy eciency are not enough to
cut the growth of emissions. To get deeper reductions, more clean and
renewable energy sources must be used.
As we look into the future, we need to inspire our young people, who
hopefully will be more involved in being energy-ecient, exploring
hands-on green energy projects, and investigating and shadowing careers
in go-green vocations.
Global governments, research laboratories, and other groups will continue their eorts to provide a renewable energy sustainable future. However, it will be the young people of today who are needed to champion the
cause in order to reach the goal. Motivating them to reach the goal is the
responsibility of their teachers, communities, mentors, peers, and parents.
Energy Data
Please note that energy data and statistics are constantly being revised
by worldwide government agencies and nongovernmental organizations.
However, the author has made a constant eort to include the most current
data and statistics that were available to him at the time of publishing.
Chapter 1
Energy and
Energy Sources
The Northeast Blackout of 1965 was a signicant disruption in the supply

of electricity on November 9, 1965, that left people without electricity for
up to 13 hours in Ontario, Canada, and the U.S. states of New Hampshire,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and New
Jersey.
Paralyzing New York City in the middle of rush hour, the 13-hour
blackout left 800,000 trapped in subways. People were isolated in elevators
without lights or power. Airport lights on runways were out. The re department and police ocers had to set up temporary lights and barricades
and stand at the intersections waving and directing cars and buses on their
way. The blackout aected around 25 million people and stretched 80,000
square miles. This was the rst time an enormous blackout occurred in the
United States, and the events of the blackout help dramatize how much we
depend on energy resources.
ENERGYS ROLE IN OUR WORLD
Energy inuences all aspects of our lives, and energy resources inuence
our current standard of living. Energy issues aect consumers, environmentalists, government leaders, investors, energy producers, and large
and small businesses. Major energy news stories are reported each day in
2 a A Student Guide to Energy
In New York City, 42nd Street is lit by floodlights and automobile headlights
during the massive power failure of November 9, 1965. The blackout affected
New York State, most of New England, parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania,
and Ontario, Canada. (AP Photo)
magazines, newspapers, periodicals, newsletters, radio, and television and

on the Internet.
Energy drives the global economy by producing much of the goods and
services that are manufactured and sold in the marketplace. The global supply and demand for energy inuences the major stock markets in all of the
capitals of the world. Energy is at least a $7 trillion-per-year business, and it
is expanding. Energy impacts all of our lives through its importance to transportation, electricity, manufactured goods, and agricultural production. As
the historical blackout of 1965 proved, any disruption in an energy supply
system or shortages of energy resources would have an impact on transportation, communications, national security, and economies in many countries.
ENERGY POLICIES NEED TO BE ADDRESSED
Presently, world governments, nongovernmental organizations, international companies, universities and colleges, entrepreneurs, and citizens are
Energy and Energy Sources a 3
debating present and future energy policies. Following are a few of the
questions they are addressing:
By 2030 the worlds population will have increased to more than
8 billion people. How will fossil fuel shortages, the depletion of nonrenewable energy sources, and the rising costs of fuels, such as petroleum, impact the worlds population of energy consumers?
Will all proposed energy policies and programs be sustainable in format to meet the future energy needs and demands of people without
damaging the environment?
sources such as wind, solar, and hydrogen?
What implementation plans are best to conserve energy usage in
homes, businesses, transportation systems, and agricultural production?
There is no question that energy resources and technology will play a
major role in global economics, public policy, science, ethics, and environmental issues as the 21st century continues.
HISTORY OF ENERGY IN THE
UNITED STATES
In the United States, wood played a key role as an energy source in the
early colonies until the mid-1880s. After this time period, coal replaced
fuel wood in many states. Hydropower became another energy source in
the 1930s, and by the 1950s petroleum had surpassed coal as the dominant
energy source in the nation. The 1950s also saw the appearance of nuclear
energy power plants. The most recent developments in energy resources
include wind and wave energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, and biomass technologies.
VIDEO
U.S. Energy: To view U.S. energy use, go to www.teachersdomain.org/resource/
tdc02.sci.life.eco.energyuse/.
Much of the energy demand in 2030 will still come from nonrenewable fossil fuels. These fuels will include the petroleum fuels, natural gas, and coal.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 2008)
Nonrenewable energy sources like petroleum will continue to play a major

role in energy consumption at least until 2020. (Source: U.S. Department of
Energy/Energy Information Administration)
WHAT IS ENERGY?
Energy is the capacity for doing work or a force that produces an activity. Energy exists in many forms and can be converted from one form to
another.
Forms of Energy
Energy can be discussed as either potential energy or kinetic energy. Simply
stated, potential energy is the result of position and kinetic energy is energy of motion. Potential energy and kinetic energy are all around us and
each has various forms.
Potential energy. There are several forms of potential energy, including:
Chemical energy. Chemical energy is stored in the bonds of atoms
and molecules. Natural gas, petroleum, and coal are good examples
of stored chemical energy.
Stored mechanical energy. Stored mechanical energy is the kind of
energy that you would nd in compressed springs in a grandfather
clock or in a mechanical wristwatch.
Nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is stored in the nuclear structure of
atoms. Energy can be released when the nuclei in atoms are split
apart or combined or fused together.
Kinetic energy. The energy a substance or object possesses as a result
of its motion is called kinetic energy. A moving train possesses
kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is expressed as MV2/2, a function of
velocity (V) and mass (M). There are several forms of kinetic energy,
including:
Radiant energy. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy. Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse
waves through empty space. Radio waves, visible light, and X-rays
are examples of radiant energy.
DID YOU KNOW?

The sun has produced energy for billions of years. In fact, all energy on Earth
can be traced back to the sun except geothermal energy, which is derived from
Earths core.
Electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy consists of waves

of electric and magnetic energy radiating through space and traveling at the speed of light.
Thermal energy or heat. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal
energy. The more atoms and molecules move in a gas, liquid, or solid,
the more thermal energy there is in the material or substance.
Sound. Sound is a form of kinetic energy in which molecules of air
vibrate in a repeated pattern, causing the molecules to move in
longitudinal wave patterns. Sound is produced from a force strong
enough to make an object vibrate.
Motion. Everything in the universe exhibits some form of motion.
Wind is a good example of energy in motion. Motion is when
objects move from one point to another.
And, of course, gravity is another source of energy, depending on position or the place of an object. Hydropower energy is a good example of
gravity energy.
ENERGY CAN BE CONVERTED
FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
When energy is used, it does not disappearit changes from one form of
energy to another. For example, when natural gas is burned, it is converted
to heat and light. This transfer of energy is based on the law of conservation of energy.
The Law of Conservation of Energy
The total quantity of energy available in the universe is a xed amount, and
there is never any more of it or less of it. Therefore, the law of conservation of
energy (the rst law of thermodynamics) states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed, but energy can be transformed from one form to anotherheat
energy is transformed to light energy. As another example, when someone
DID YOU KNOW?

People confuse the meanings of temperature and heat. Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy in a substance. Heat, on the other hand, is the
total kinetic energy in a substance and can be measured with a thermometer.
strikes a match to ignite wood in a stove, the burning wood releases chemical energy that generates heat and light. A toaster uses electrical energy and
converts it to thermal energy to toast food. Heat, light, and electricity are the
most common byproducts of these conversions and the transfer of energy.
Multiple Conversions of Energy
Energy can also go through multiple transformations or conversions. Lets
look at one example of a multiple conversionwind energy. The motion of
wind causes the mechanical energy of a wind turbine to spin a generator to
produce electrical energy for consumers. The electricity can then be used
in homes for thermal energy, light energy, and even mechanical energy to
run a power tool.
Energy Loss in Conversions
Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of
usable energy that results in some of the energy changing into heat. This is
the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. In most cases, heat from
an energy conversion simply warms the surrounding air or solid material.
The heat, which is not used to do work, is referred to as waste heat. Because
of waste heat, some energy is lost in conversions; therefore, no machine is
100 percent ecient.
Cars and trucks jam a crowded freeway during the morning commute in
Dallas, Texas. (iStockPhoto)
For example, todays gasoline internal combustion engines are not very
ecient. The purpose of using the gasoline in the engine is to get the car
moving. However, only about 15 percent of the chemical energy in the
gasoline tank is used to power the motion of the car. What happens to the
other 85 percent? It is wasted heat that escapes into the environment as
the car moves along.
TODAYS SOURCES OF ENERGY
According to the Department of Energy there are two major sources of
energy that we use today. They include nonrenewable energy and renewable
energy. Nonrenewable energy sources include oil and petroleum products,
natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy. Renewable energy sources used most
often are wind, solar, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass. The following
is a short description of each of these sources of energy.
As you can see, the use of fossil fuels for energy will continue to grow into
2030. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration,
International Energy Annual 2006 [JuneDecember 2008]. Projections: EIA,
World Energy Projections Plus [2009])

The United States and many of the other industrialized nations consume
a large share of the worlds total energy resources. The most common or
conventional energy resources are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are used to produce electricity and to operate automobiles, buses, trains, airplanes, and
other machines. Approximately 8590 percent of the energy consumed in
the United States and the world comes from fossil fuels such as petroleum,
natural gas, and coal.
Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5 present more in-depth coverage of fossil fuels
and nuclear energy. The following is a short description of each of these
resources.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are naturally occurring nonrenewable energy sources, such as
petroleum, natural gas, and coal. They are formed in Earths crust over
millions of years through the chemical and physical changes that occur
in plant and animal remains. Large demands for fossil fuels began in the
18th century during the Industrial Revolution, and fossil fuels are a dominant energy source in the world today.
Petroleum resources. According to the International Energy Outlook
2009 Report, petroleum is expected to remain the worlds dominant energy
source through 2030. Presently, petroleum dominates the worlds energy
scene. Petroleum provides 40 percent of all of the energy in industrial countries and is the worlds number one source of energy. The United States consumes approximately 26 percent of the worlds production of petroleum.
Although gasoline is a major product of petroleum, other oil products
manufactured include bottle gas (liqueed petroleum gas), kerosene, diesel
fuel, asphalt, and plastic materials. Oil is especially critical for farmers, the
transportation sector, and the chemical industry.
Natural gas. In the United States, natural gas ranks number three in
energy use, right after petroleum and coal. Natural gas consists mainly of
methane, the simplest hydrocarbon. About 22 percent of the energy we use
in the United States comes from natural gas.
Today, residential and commercial uses account for the largest portion
of natural gas consumed in North America and western Europe. In these
areas, natural gas is commonly used for home heating and cooking. Gaseous fuels are convenient to use because they can be readily turned on and
o, produce no smoke, and leave no ash behind.
After residential use, industry is the next-largest consumer, and electricpower generation is third. Major industries are the big consumers of natural gas, using it mainly as a heat source to manufacture goods and products,
including fertilizers, paints, plastics, laundry detergent, and insect repellents. Many synthetic bers such as those used in tires could not be made
without the chemicals derived from natural gas. Natural gas can power
vehicles, too. Some energy experts believe that the supplies of natural gas
will be depleted by 2040.
Coal resources. According to a study by the U.S. Energy Information
Agency (EIA), world consumption of coal is projected to increase from
123 quadrillion Btu in 2005 to 202 quadrillion Btu in 2030. The EIA also
reports that by 2030 China will account for 71 percent of the worlds consumption of coal. Worldwide, coal provides 40 percent of total electricity
generation. The United States relies heavily on coal for electricity. Approximately 49 percent of U.S. electricity is from coal-powered generators. The
top producers of coal in the world include China, the United States, India,
Australia, and South Africa.
Today, coals primary use is for the generation of electricity. However,
coal is also used in the manufacturing of steel and cement.
Nuclear Energy
As of 2009 nuclear energy provided almost 20 percent of all electricity
used in the United States and constituted about 15 percent of the worlds
electrical energy output according to the World Nuclear Industry Report.
The current conventional sources of electric power, such as coal, natural
gas, and hydropower, may not be able to supply all of the worlds electrical needs by 2030. The renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and
geothermal may still lag behind as major sources of electricity in the next
20 years. In fact, presently, the renewable non-hydropower fuels are used
to meet less than 3 percent of electrical energy needs in the United States,
according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
DID YOU KNOW?

Coal mining in Pennsylvania fueled the Industrial Revolution in the United States in
the mid-1700s.
On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries included nuclear power as

part of their energy portfolio. These countries include the United States,
Brazil, Egypt, China, Finland, India, Japan, Pakistan, Russia, Iran, South
Korea, and Vietnam. According to the World Nuclear Association, as of
2007 there are 442 nuclear power reactors worldwide. These reactors supply approximately 15 percent of the worlds electrical needs for more than
1 billion people without emitting any carbon dioxide or other greenhouse
gases during their operation.
One of the major benets of nuclear energy is that nuclear power plants
can operate without contributing to climate change. Although the complete nuclear fuel cycle emits small amounts of greenhouse gases because
of the fossil fuels used to mine uranium, transport nuclear fuel, and provide some of the electrical energy to run uranium enrichment plants, the
amount of greenhouse gases emitted for the measure of electricity generated is lower for nuclear energy than for virtually all other electricity
generation sources.
According to the World Nuclear Association, mainland China has 12 nuclear

power reactors in operation and 24 under construction as of 2010. However,
80 percent of mainland Chinas electricity is produced from fossil fuels, mostly
coal. (Shutterstock)

Wind Energy
The fastest-growing renewable power source is wind energy. Wind energy, or wind power, is an alternative energy resource that uses the renewable energy in moving air to generate electricity. Although wind
power currently produces less than 2 percent of the worlds electricity, the
Worldwatch Institute estimates that wind energy could easily provide
2030 percent of the electricity needed by many countries. In the United
States, the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) estimates that
by the year 2025, wind power will produce more than 10 percent of the
electricity in the United States. Wind energy is discussed in more detail
in volume 3.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is conversion of radiant energy from the sun into other forms
of energy to provide solar heating and electricity. Presently, several technologies have been developed to use the suns energy as a renewable energy
resource for heat and electricity. The three key technologies include photovoltaic cells, concentrating solar power systems, and special solar collectors
for space heating and hot water.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. The
cells are made of semiconductors such as crystalline silicon or various thinlm materials.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use reective materials
to concentrate the suns heat energy. The heat eventually is used to drive a
generator to produce electricity.
Low-temperature solar collectors, such as active and passive solar energy
systems, absorb the suns heat energy. The thermal energy is used directly
for space heating or for hot water for homes and businesses.
Refer to volume 2 in this series for more solar energy information.
Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power uses the kinetic energy of owing water to drive
wheels or turbines to generate electricity. The amount of electric energy
produced by the generator depends on potential energy, which is dependent on the pressure and the volume of the water that ows into the turbine. Hydroelectric power accounts for about 22 percent of the worlds
electricity. Some of the largest hydroelectric power producers are Canada,

the United States, Brazil, Norway, Russia, and China. Between 10 and
15 percent of all U.S. electricity is produced by hydropower.
Building small, rather than large, hydroelectric power systems may be
the trend for the future. Today, small-scale hydroelectric power systems,
called mini-hydro or micro-hydro systems, are being used on rivers and
tributaries and in remote areas where construction is dicult. Such smallscale systems do not require the damming of rivers. These mini-hydro
systems are used in China and the United States and in several smaller
countries, including Indonesia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Zaire.
Refer to volume 3 in this series for more information about water
power.
Geothermal Energy and Heat Pumps
Geothermal energy refers to the use of natural heat energy that is extracted
from the interior of Earth in the form of steam, hot water, and hot dry
rocks. Geothermal energy is an alternative energy resource that can be used
for the direct heating of buildings or for generating electricity. Geothermal
energy is not always listed as a renewable energy source because in some
locations the depletion rate of sources such as hot water can be higher
than the rate at which the sources replenish or recharge. Italy, Iceland,
New Zealand, Russia, Japan, and France, along with the United States, are
countries using geothermal energy. Other countries using geothermal energy include the Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, countries in Central and
South America, and countries in eastern Africa and in eastern Europe.
Refer to volume 4 in this series for more geothermal energy information.
Biomass
The energy from biomass is the oldest fuel used by humans, and fuelwood
is the most widely used biomass fuel. However, there are other sources for
biomass energy, including herbaceous plants and excess food crops that
can be burned as a direct source of energy. Unused parts of sugar cane,
cornstalks, peat, and even cattle dung have been used as biomass fuels.
Even municipal solid wastes, a form of biomass, can be burned directly as
fuel. In Europe processing plants use up to 50 percent of municipal trash
for energy production. Trash-to-energy plants are also located in several
American cities in Maryland, California, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, and
Washington.
As of 2007, less than 10 percent of the United States supply of energy was
derived from renewable energy sources. Petroleum was by far the major
source of energy for the country. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy
Information Administration, Renewable Energy Consumption and Electricity
Preliminary 2007 Statistics. Note: The sum of the components may not equal
100 percent due to independent rounding.)
Fuelwood. As noted previously, fuelwood is the most widely used biomass fuel. For thousands of years, human populations have harvested wood
as the most common source of energy. Today, fuelwood is used as a common source of energy for cooking and heating by as many as 3 billion
people throughout the world. In fact, only in the last few hundred years,
since the Industrial Revolution, have people started using other sources of
energy, such as fossil fuels.
Biofuels. Biofuels are solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels derived from biomass
sources, which contain stored energy. Biofuels are used as an alternative to
fossil fuels and include biogas, biodiesel, and methane. About 5 percent of
the energy consumed in the United States is provided by biofuels. Most
of the biofuels are produced from wood waste from logging operations,
but they can also be produced from corn and sugar crops. In France, Italy,
and Germany, biodiesel fuels are produced from domestic oilseeds and
cottonseeds. Biofuels are cleaner than fossil fuels because they release few
greenhouse gases, sulfur, and particulate matter into the atmosphere.
Refer to volume 4 in this series for more information about biomass and
biofuel energy.
DID YOU KNOW?

The International Energy Agency reports that less than a third of the households in
many oil- and gas-rich nations have access to electricity or clean fuels for cooking.
It is estimated that approximately 150,000 people, mainly women and children, die
prematurely each year because of indoor air pollution from burning traditional fuels
such as fuelwood and charcoal in inefficient stoves or open fires. The number of
deaths will rise as population grows.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is an alternative energy resource that uses the natural temperature dierences between various layers
of ocean water to produce electricity. The idea of using OTEC to produce
electricity is not new. A small OTEC plant was built o the coast of Cuba
in the 1930s. The plant produced electricity for the island country until it
was destroyed by a hurricane. Another plant was built in 1956 o the coast
of Africa. Later, a dam that generates electricity via hydroelectric power at
a lower cost replaced this plant.
OTEC systems work best in the tropical waters of the central Pacic
Ocean and the Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Mexico region of the
Atlantic Ocean.
Refer to volume 4 in this series for more information on hydropower,
ocean tidal power, ocean wave power, and ocean thermal energy.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Some energy consultants state that someday a hydrogen fuel cell will be
used to produce electricity to power automobiles, machines, and even
homes. Hydrogen is the lightest and most common element in the world.
Today, hydrogen is used primarily in ammonia manufacturing and petroleum rening.
Hydrogen fuel cells are also used by NASA, which has installed fuel
cells aboard the space shuttles. The fuel cells provided heat, electricity, and
drinking water for the astronauts. The good news is that when hydrogen is
used as an energy source, it generates no emissions other than water, which
can be recycled to make more hydrogen.
Refer to volume 2 in this series for more information about hydrogen
fuel cells.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) uses hydrogen

fuel cells in its space shuttle program. Someday, fuel cells the size of a
refrigerator may be used to provide electricity and heat for homes and other
buildings. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
ELECTRICITY, A SECONDARY
SOURCE OF ENERGY
Electricity is named as a secondary source of energy because it is generated by other energy sources such as petroleum, wind, solar power, coal, or
natural gas.
What Sources of Energy Are Used
to Produce Electricity?
In the United States, the three kinds of power plants that produce most of
the electricity are those using fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and hydropower.
Coal power plants produce almost 50 percent of all electricity used in the
United States. Solar power plants, wind farms, geothermal plants, and the
burning of biomass such as trash for electrical power generate only about
2 percent of all electricity.
The thermal power plants use coal, petroleum, and natural gas to convert
water into steam. The steam is pumped through a pipe at high pressures to
spin a generator, which makes the electricity. The nuclear power plant uses
View of the massive Hoover Dam

from a helicopter. Originally known
as Boulder Dam, Hoover Dam is
located on the NevadaArizona border in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River. (iStockPhoto)
ssion to produce the heat. The hydropower plants use fast-moving water
to spin the blades of a generator to produce electricity.
How Is Electricity Transmitted
to Homes and Businesses?
The electric utility company uses generators to produce much of the electricity we use today in homes, businesses, schools, and farms. For electricity
to reach all of these places, the electrical energy needs to be transmitted over long distances at very high voltages, between 11,000 volts and
700,000 volts. Special step-up transformers are used to transmit the highvoltage electrical energy along transmission lines from the power plants.
Special step-down transformers are used to decrease the voltage, so that
the electricity can be used safely in our homes and schools. The high voltage
is eventually reduced to 220 volts for appliances such as stoves and clothes
dryers and to about 120 volts for lights and other smaller appliances.
DID YOU KNOW?

Step-up transformers are installed in television sets because they require higher
voltages than the current in your home.
HOW IS ENERGY MEASURED?

Energy can be measured using a variety of units. The amount of heat consumed or generated from various types of energy can be measured by both
the calorie unit and the British thermal unit (Btu).
Calorie. A calorie is a measure of heat energy. Using the International
System of Units (SI) for measurement, a calorie is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree
Celsius.
British thermal unit (Btu). The Btu is also commonly used to measure
the amount of heat consumed or generated from various types of energy.
The English unit of measurement denes the Btu as the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit at a normal atmospheric pressure. One Btu is the energy equivalent
of one burning match tip; or, 1 Btu equals 252 calories or 1,055 joules.
Each gallon of petroleum produces about 12,500 Btu. One cubic foot
of natural gas produces between 900 and 1,200 Btu of energy. One pound
of bituminous coal is equal to 12,000 Btu. Propane has a heating value of
2,500 Btu per cubic foot. About 100 cubic feet of natural gas would contain 100,000 Btu and is referred to as a therm.
Kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is a common unit in which electricity is measured. It is equal to 1,000 watts or 1,000 joules per second. A kilowatthour (kWh) is a unit of electrical energy equal to 1,000 watt-hours. One
kWh is equal to 3,413 Btu. Utility companies bill their customers in cents
per kilowatt-hour. The average home in the United States uses about
9,400 kWh of electricity a year.
Quad. A quad is a unit of measurement equal to 1 quadrillion Btu, or
1,000,000,000,000,000 Btu (or 1015 Btu). Scientists measure large quantities of energy using quad measurements. The United States averages one
quad of energy about every 3.7 days.
Cubic foot. A cubic foot is a measure of volume. One cubic foot of natural gas contains about 1,020 Btu. One thousand cubic feet of natural gas
for residential consumers costs between $10 and $15.
WORLDWIDE CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY
The world population is expected to grow to 10 billion people by the
middle of the 21st century. At the same pace, it is expected that worldwide consumption of energy will have increased by 50 percent in 2030,
U.S. energy consumption by quad. A quadrillion is equal to 1 trillion megawatts

(MW). (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration/
Renewable Energy Consumption and Electricity Preliminary Statistics 2009)
in comparison with 2005 consumption. Through 2030, fossil fuels such as

petroleum and coal are expected to continue to supply much of the energy
used worldwide, according to the International Energy Outlook report,
published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2008. World energy consumption is projected to increase 4050 percent from 2005 to 2030. The
following resources will produce this energy:
Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum (78%)
Renewables such as hydropower and wind (18%)
Nuclear (4%)
WORLDWIDE USES OF ENERGY
The growing world population will continue using energy for many reasons, including for transportation, electricity, heating needs, and industry.
According to the EIA, as of 2007 the industrial sector uses more energy globally than the transportation and building sectors. The industrial
Members of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

(OECD) include the United States, Japan, Australia, Turkey, Chile, and many
of the European countries. Two non-OECD countries are Brazil and China.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2006 [JuneDecember 2008]. Projections: EIA, World
Projections Plus [2009])
sector consumes 50 percent of the worlds total energy. This sector includes manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and construction. Some of the
major energy-intensive industries according to their statistics, include the
following:
Petroleum. Oil reneries use a lot of energy to convert crude oil into a
variety of products, including gasoline, diesel fuel, heating fuel, and
chemicals. In fact, 50 percent of a renerys operating costs are for
energy.
Steel manufacturing. The steel industry uses energy to produce steel for
hundreds of products. Steel is made from iron ore and other materials at very high temperatures. Steel products include home appliances and automobile parts. Producing these high temperatures with
coal-red furnaces is very costly; however, 66 percent of new steel is
made from recycled scraps, making steel the leading recycled product
in the United States.
Aluminum manufacturing. The manufacture of aluminum, like steel
production, requires large amounts of energy to produce a variety of
products, including beverage containers, food trays, and automobile
parts.
Paper manufacturing. The manufacture of paper products includes a
number of steps such as chopping, grinding, and cooking the wood or
recycled materials into pulp. All of these steps require energy.
Other large industrial energy users include the chemical manufacturing
industries and cement manufacturing companies. These industries use coal,
oil, and natural gas to produce the energy needed for high-temperature
manufacturing processes.
The transportation sector uses energy that is consumed for moving people, goods, and fuels, using a variety of transportation systems that include
trucks, cars, buses, subways, railroads, ships and barges, airplanes, and pipelines. Almost 30 percent of the worlds total energy is used for transportation, and most of that energy is used in the form of liquid fuels.
The building sector, which consists of homes and commercial buildings,
accounts for about 20 percent of the worlds total energy consumption.
This energy is used for heating, lighting, air conditioning, and for powering
appliances used for cooking, refrigeration, and entertainment systems. As
of 2007, 4050 percent of all global electricity production is generated at
coal-red power plants. Natural gas is also used for heating and hot water
needs for homes and businesses.
FUTURE WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION
As of 2009, according to government reports and energy studies, petroleum, natural gas, and coal are expected to remain the worlds dominant
energy source throughout the next 20 years. The reason is that these fossil
DID YOU KNOW?

As of 2007 there are, worldwide, more than 700 million cars and other vehicles on
the road.
fuels will still be the major sources of energy for transportation and for
industrial production of goods and products.
According to a report by Europes Energy Portal Organization, global
energy consumption is projected to grow by 44 percent from 2006 to
2030. Total world energy use rises from 472 quadrillion British thermal
units (Btu) in 2006 to 552 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and then to 678 quadrillion Btu in 2030. In 1980 the world consumption was approximately
283 quadrillion Btu. If this is true, the worlds energy use will increase by
150 percent in less than 50 years.
Environmental Concerns and Implications
for Climate Change
The rising consumption of fossil fuels will increase the world greenhouse
gas emissions and global temperatures. These conditions will cause the potential for major climate change that may not be reversible.
Carbon dioxide is the major pollutant in fossil fuel emissions. (Source: U.S.
Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas 1998:
Issues and Trends)
DID YOU KNOW?

Among industrialized and developing countries, Canada consumes per capita the
most energy in the world; the United Sates ranks second, and Italy consumes the
least among industrialized countries.
Carbon Dioxide and Greenhouse Gases

Many gases exhibit so-called greenhouse properties. Such gases absorb
infrared radiation, trapping it within Earths atmosphere. Some greenhouse gases occur naturally, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, water
vapor, and nitrous oxides. Others are produced exclusively by manufacturing activities. They include chlorouorocarbons, hydrouorocarbons, and
peruorocarbons.
However, the major greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
a colorless odorless gas that plays a key role in controlling temperatures at
Earths surface. Carbon dioxide contributes to the greenhouse eect much
as the glass walls of a greenhouse trap heat, and that is good because it
keeps Earth warm so that humans and other organisms can survive. But
too much CO2 building up in the atmosphere can be a problem.
As global energy consumption increases, so will CO2 emissions. According to some environmental reports, CO2 emissions are projected to
rise from 30 billion tons in 2006 to 36.1 billion tons in 2015 and 44 billion
metric tons in 2030an increase of 39 percent over this projection period,
if the data is correct.
The International Energy Outlook 2006 foresees a rise of global energy consumption by 71% between 2003 and 2030, resulting in an increase
of world-wide carbon dioxide emissions by 75% over the same period.
Approximately 75 percent of the projected increase in emissions will be in
China, India, and the Middle East. Only in Europe and in Japan will the
emissions be lower in 2030 than they were in 2003.
In the future, more and more carbon dioxide will be released into the
atmosphere than ever before and thus could contribute to a much warmer
Earth in the future. Some studies of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere support this view. As atmospheric temperatures rise, global temperatures also rise, causing global warming.
Global Warming
Global warming is a recent, ongoing elevation in global surface air temperature primarily resulting from human-caused increases in the concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide in the lower
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is produced when fossil fuels are used to
generate energy and when forests are cut down and burned. It is estimated that 76 percent of global warming is caused by carbon dioxide
alone. The average concentration of carbon dioxide increased from about

275 parts per million (ppm) before the Industrial Revolution to 315 ppm
when precise monitoring stations were set up in 1958 to 361 ppm
in 1996. If increased concentrations of carbon dioxide get to approximately 1,000 parts per million of carbon dioxide, an eventual global
temperature increase of up to 12 degrees Fahrenheit would result.
Global average temperatures have remained relatively stable over the
last 10,000 years. But since 1880, when reliable temperature records started
to be kept worldwide, the global average temperature has risen by nearly
15 degrees Fahrenheit. Snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere and oating ice in the Arctic Ocean have decreased, and cold-season precipitation
has increased in the high latitudes. According to some reports, globally, sea
level has risen 410 inches over the past century. Earths northern latitudes
have become much greener during the growing seasons since 1980, and
the spurt in plant growth may be associated with warmer temperatures
and higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which plants take in.
These satellite images were used

to compare Arctic ice mass in 1979
and 2007. Notice the differences in
the ice mass in the western section of the Arctic over this 28-year
period. (National Aeronautics and
Space Administration)
VIDEO
Energy versus Fossil Fuels: This 02:09 minute video lays the foundation for fossil
fuels and their impact on global warming. For more, go to http://videos.howstuff
works.com/hsw/6189-energy-fossil-fuels-video.htm.
What Are Some of the Plans to Reduce

Climate Change and Global Warming?
Tracking the climate change and global warming issue and at the same
time providing energy resources for a growing global population will require some innovative solutions. Some of these plans include curbing carbon emissions, investing more research in renewable energy technologies,
and promoting energy eciency and energy conservation programs.
Saving Resources and Saving Energy
There are many ways to save energy and conserve our natural resources via
energy conservation and energy eciency. Many people think these terms
mean the same thing, but they are dierent. The Department of Energy
describes the distinction in these terms:
The terms energy conservation and energy eciency have two distinct denitions. There are many things we can do to use less energy
(conservation) and use it more wisely (eciency).
Energy Conservation is any behavior that results in the use of
less energy. Turning the lights o when you leave the room and
recycling aluminum cans are both ways of conserving energy.
Energy Eciency is the use of technology that requires less energy to perform the same function. A compact uorescent light
bulb that uses less energy than an incandescent bulb to produce
the same amount of light is an example of energy eciency.
However, the decision to replace an incandescent light bulb
with a compact uorescent is an act of energy conservation.
The Department of Energy report goes on to show how recycling functions as a type of energy conservation:
Recycling means to use something again. Newspapers can be used to
make new newspapers. Aluminum cans be used to make new aluminum cans. Glass jars can be used to make new glass jars. Recycling
often saves energy and natural resources.
Natural resources are things of value provided by the Earth. Natural resources include land, plants, minerals, and water. By using materials more than once, we conserve natural resources. . . .
It almost always takes less energy to make a product from recycled

materials than it does to make it from new materials. Using recycled
aluminum scrap to make new aluminum cans, for example, uses 95%
less energy than making aluminum cans from bauxite ore, the raw
material used to make aluminum.
In the case of paper, recycling saves trees and water. Making a ton of
paper from recycled paper saves up to 17 trees and uses 50% less water.
Schools Becoming Energy Smart
Schools can play a leadership role in energy conservation and eciency.
In addition to the benets school conservation programs provide to the
environment, some schools have reported savings as high as 25 percent on
their utility bills.
Among the strategies schools have employed in meeting emissionsreductions targets are introducing passive heating and cooling techniques,
converting to renewable energy sources, and retrotting buildings for energy eciency. Other programs address such practices as composting and
recycling. The most successful programs involve all members of the school
In Chicago, a living, green roof was planted atop the gymnasium at the Tarkington Elementary School. The insulation provided by the soil and vegetation
will help keep the building warm in winter and cool in summer. (AP Photo/
Nam Y. Huh)
community, including students, sta, teachers, and administrators, all of

whom play an important role.
One school in Maine, as an example, uses technology to provide
computer-controlled bank lighting in classrooms. When the sunlight is
bright, the lights are dimmed automatically. Occupancy (motion) sensors
in classrooms also turn lights o automatically when the classrooms are
not in use. These lighting strategies help to reduce electricity consumption
and save money.
Another school in Maine reported saving over 9,000 gallons of heating fuel between September and December 2007 after installing a new
burner control system. The new system has auto ame control with variable frequency drive, which uses the most ecient mix of air and fuel for
the amount of ventilation needed at the time. The school has saved over
$20,000 and prevented over 200,000 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions.
The Maine schools were assisted by the Department of Environmental
Protection workshops and programs.
The Alliance to Save Energy. There are several government agencies and
nongovernmental organizations that assist schools in becoming more
green by saving energy and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. One organization called Alliance to Save Energy has a special program called
Alliances Green Schools Program. The associates are businesses and nonprot organizations committed to greater investment in energy eciency
as a primary means of achieving the nations environmental, economic,
national security, and aordable housing goals.
According to the organizations Web site: Founded in 1977, the Alliance to Save Energy is a non-prot coalition of business, government,
environmental and consumer leaders. The Alliance to Save Energy supports energy eciency as a cost-eective energy resource. It also advocates
energy-eciency policies that minimize costs to society and individual
consumers, and that lessen greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on
the global climate.
The Alliances Green Schools Program engages students in creating energy-saving activities in their schools. The students participate in
hands-on, real-world projects, and Green Schools has achieved reductions
in energy use of 515 percent among participating schools. Past student
participants in the Green Schools Program have made presentations to
school boards on energy-eciency retrot recommendations, authored
pieces for the local newspaper, and conducted energy audits for local small
businesses, among other activities. Several school districts participate in

the program.
In the 20082009 school year, the Alliances Student Energy Audit
Training (SEAT) program taught students in the District of Columbia.
The training sessions included students using auditing tools such as light
meters, watt meters, and infrared thermometers to detect areas of energy
waste in their schools. The students calculate savings from conservation
activities such as turning o lights, removing bulbs from xtures, and
switching to more ecient bulbs.
To learn more about the Alliance to Save Energys Green Schools Program, visit http://ase.org/programs/green-schools-program.
Refer to volume 5 in this set for more information on energy eciency,
energy conservation, and energy sustainability.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Linda Currie (Linda@baylocalize.org), Energy Outreach Coordinator, Bay Localize, www.baylocalize.org, Oakland, California
Go-Green Project: Energy-Efficiency Methods in Homes
Describe your current position and your responsibilities in your particular program.
I work for Bay Localize (www.baylocalize.org), a nonprofit whose goal is to reduce
reliance on fossil fuels while increasing community resilience and livability in the
nine County San Francisco Bay Areas.
As energy outreach coordinator for the Green Faith in Action Project, I am
working with church congregations on home energy-efficiency upgrades performed by graduates of several green jobs training programs.
Where did you grow up, and what schools did you attend?
I grew up in the Midwest, mostly in Indiana and Ohio. My dad was an industrial
engineer and always rigging up systems around the house to save energy, one
of which was a device that would prevent the heating thermostat from being set
above 60 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter. My mom was a dietitian, and from an
early age, I learned the downfalls of fast food.
In seventh grade, my Girl Scout troop took a long bus trip throughout the Southwest. We hiked to the bottom of the Grand Canyon and stayed at the Phantom
Ranch by the Colorado River. I will never forget the experiences we had with nature
and the surreal beauty of places like Bryce and Zion Canyons. In scouting we had a
rule about leaving places we stayed in better shape than we found them, a pledge
I try to adhere to in my life and work today. My family camped in many places
around the country including Florida, Maine, and California. The more nature I saw,
the more I loved it and wanted to help preserve it.
What were some of your favorite activities and subjects when you attended high
school?
I loved many subjects in school, especially art and science, and had several great
science teachers in high school. One of my favorite classes was anatomy, where
we got to dissect cats.
What college(s) did you attend, and what was your major field?
I went on to attend Bowling Green State University, where I took a variety of
courses including biology classes and was particularly fascinated by marine biology and the color and diversity of sea life. I studied art as well and graduated with
a bachelor of fine arts degree, with a specialty in graphic design.
What interested you in seeking a career in your discipline?
I have a lot of varied interests and started my career in the graphic design field,
where I spent many years working as an art director for the University of California
at Berkeley, in the public affairs department. Some of my projects involved highlighting the groundbreaking research projects in the sciences and other disciplines.
In more recent years, as someone who deeply appreciates our interconnectedness with nature, I decided to take an active role in helping preserve our planet.
I felt I needed to do whatever I could to help mitigate climate change, so my children and future generations could enjoy a safe and healthy environment. I had
always been community-minded, serving on many school committees, so community organizing seemed the natural direction for me. I started learning as much as
I could about climate change by going to meetings hosted by the city of Berkeley
when they began to develop their climate action plan in 2007. I also joined an organization called Green Sangha (www.greensangha.org), where I met others seeking
a positive way to take action on environmental issues.
One action some members of our group took was to go through the Low Carbon Diet (www.empowermentinstitute.net), a four-session program developed by
David Gershon to analyze your carbon footprint and then take simple steps to reduce it. The program was so successful for members of our group and for my family
that I began to form and facilitate other groups within my community. I found that
places such as schools and churches, with natural community affiliations, were
great places to help people make changes in living more sustainably.
Describe the Green Faith in Action Project.
The work Im doing with the Green Faith in Action Project involves partnering with
Rising Sun Energy Center and its CYES (California Youth Energy Services) program.
CYES trains young people (1522 years of age) to conduct free green house calls
to install energy-efficiency measures during the summer months. At each green
house call the youth energy specialist educates the resident about sustainability,
installs free equipment that saves energy and water, and provides personalized
recommendations for further energy savings.
We are also working with Richmond BUILDs GETS (Green Jobs Training) program, using recent graduates to perform home energy-performance tests and more
advanced home energy-efficiency upgrades. Richmond BUILD (Pre-apprenticeship
California Youth Energy Services (CYES) youth energy specialists Alexandria Parr
and Jordan Flores install a compact fluorescent lightbulb during a green house
call. (Courtesy Rising Sun Energy Center [www.risingsunenergy.org])
Construction Skills & Green Jobs Training Academy was first developed to create
employment and career opportunities for Richmond residents and also to implement a strategy for reducing violence. Richmond BUILD was established in April
2007 and has quickly become a model of effective and broad publicprivate partnership that is focused on developing talent and skills in the high-wage construction and renewable-energy fields.
Our Green Faith in Action Project will connect the green jobs trainees with faith
communities in Marin and Richmond, California, to have their homes made more
energy-efficient. In order to measure the impact of the program, we will be closely
monitoring and analyzing participant energy use.
Following are outcomes we hope to achieve:
Make participants homes more comfortable in both hot and cold weather
Help participants save money on energy bills
Allow participants to take action on climate change and clean up our air
Give youth and new trainees hands-on experience to launch their green
careers
Measure the impact of how much money and energy participants have
saved collectively
Even in its initial stages, this program is already being replicated by
the City of Berkeley, and was implemented in 2010. Thanks go to the Frank
Levinson Fund at the Silicon Valley Community Foundation for sponsoring this
program.
How or why did you get interested in selecting this project?
I had done some work with church congregants in helping them learn to live more
sustainably and saw this project as another avenue of continuing that work with
the potential of creating a model for other faith-based groups to follow.
Explain the importance of the project as it relates to real-world issues.
Residential energy-efficiency audits and upgrades are a cost-effective strategy to
reduce energy use, save money for households, help municipalities reach climate
action goals, and promote community development by providing local jobs.
What materials and references (web sites, advisors, periodicals, etc.) did you use
as resources for the project?
Rising Sun Energy Services: www.risingsunenergy.org/cyes.htm
Richmond Build: www.ci.richmond.ca.us/index.aspx?nid=1243
Interfaith Power and Light: www.theregenerationproject.org/
Energy Star for Congregations: www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=small_busi
ness.sb_congregations
PG&E (Pacific Gas and Electric) Energy Savings Tips: www.pge.com/myhome/
saveenergymoney/savingstips/index.shtml
PG&E Rebates: www.pge.com/myhome/saveenergymoney/rebates/
LIHEAP (Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program): www.acf.hhs.gov/
programs/ocs/liheap/
U.S. Department of Energy: www.energy.gov/energyefficiency/index.htm
What advice would you give other teachers who would like to know more about
your program or activity?
Feel free to contact me by e-mail: Linda@baylocalize.org.
Discuss some of the students contributions to this project, and describe some of
their reactions or comments.
Students in both the CYES and GETS programs are getting valuable training and
skills that are necessary in California for meeting its climate change goals of making homes more energy-efficient. The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC)
has established a goal of making every California home up to 40 percent more efficient by the year 2020. Accomplishing this task will require a massive, coordinated
effort of outreach and marketing to homeowners, offering financing options, and
training and certifying a workforce to carry out the contracts.
How long did it take to complete the project?
This project is in the beginning stages.
Do you have any current plans to improve on or to extend this program? If not, what
are you planning next in the field of energy, conservation, or the environment?
Well wait to see the results before planning the next steps.
Global Plans to Reduce Emissions

1997 Kyoto Protocol
For many years, nations have been working on plans to establish global
regulations to reduce overall emissions. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which
authorizes the curbing of emissions, was signed by 182 nations to meet the
goals for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide.
Although the United States did not sign the Kyoto Protocol, many cities
and towns throughout the United States are already moving forward with
carbon-cutting plans on their own. In fact, several states are requiring electricity producers to reduce carbon emissions by 10 percent by 2018. Other
state governments are requiring that a certain percentage of their electricity be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind and solar.
Countries such as Germany and China are replacing some of their fossil
fuel plants with hydropower and other renewables. Germany is planning to
Kyoto governor Teiichi Aramaki makes a speech during the opening session of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on December 1,
1997, in Kyoto, Japan. The worlds nations convened for an extraordinary 10 days
of negotiations about the Earths future. (AP Photo/Katsumi Kasahara)
remove all of its coal-producing plants in the near future. Many countries
in Europe and Asia are installing solar-powered, wind-powered, and geothermal energy systems to reduce their need for fossil fuels.
The United States is also working on plans to use more renewable energy sources.
U.S. Economic Stimulus Bill, 2009
In 2009 the U.S. government passed a stimulus package, the American
Recovery and Reinvestment Act, to jump-start the economy through job
creation and with a heavy focus on energy. According to the Department
of Energy, following are several provisions in the stimulus package:
Tax credits for the production of renewable energy are extended until
at least 2012.
Research expenses associated with renewables, conservation, and carbon capture and sequestration could result in higher credits in both
2009 and 2010.
The Department of Energy is authorized to provide grants up to
30 percent of the cost of installation of items such as fuel cells,
solar and small wind power, geothermal heat pumps, and combined
heat and power systems.
The Department of Energys Oce of Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy was to receive $21.4 billion for research, weatherization
assistance, grants, and other programs.
The Department of Labor was to receive $750 million for job training, with signicant focus on emerging industry sectors, including
energy eciency and renewable energy.
Federal agencies were to receive considerable funds for retrotting
and upgrading existing facilities to meet federal energy and wateruse requirements and alleviate any maintenance backlogs.
In 2009, the White House announced that the U.S. Department of
Energy Oce of Science will invest $777 million in Energy Frontier Research Centers [EFRC] over the next ve years. The EFRCs will bring
together groups of leading scientists to address fundamental issues in elds
ranging from solar energy and electricity storage to materials sciences, biofuels, advanced nuclear systems, and carbon capture.
FEATURE
U.S. Department of Energy
A department of the federal government established in 1977 to regulate and manage the energy policy of the United States, the Department of Energy (DOE) consolidated many of the federal governments responsibilities for energy and national
defense materials into one agency by replacing earlier energy-related agencies of
the federal government.
The main responsibilities of the DOE include providing technologies and developing policies that achieve efficiency in energy use while maintaining environmental quality and a secure national defense. The department is a world leader
in the research and development of programs and technologies that generate
energy from fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, and alternative energy resources such as
solar energy, wind power, and biofuels. In addition, the DOE administers comprehensive environmental management programs involving the cleanup of sites
contaminated with high-level radioactive wastes (HLRW) and other contaminants
resulting from energy generation. The DOE also manages the nations hydroelectric power plants, such as the Bonneville Power Administration of the northwestern United States.
BOOKS AND OTHER READING MATERIALS

Berinstein, Paula. Alternative Energy: Facts, Statistics, and Issues. Phoenix:
Oryx Press, 2001.
Boyle, Godfrey, ed. Renewable Energy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2004.
Chandler, Gary, and Kevin Graham. Alternative Energy Sources (Making a
Better World). New York: Twenty First Century Books, 1996.
Graham, Ian. Fossil Fuels: A Resource Our World Depends Upon. Chicago:
Heinemann Library, 2005.
Richard, Julie. Fossil Fuels. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media,
2003.
SOMETHING TO DO
Energy has been dened as the ability to do work or change. We cannot see energy, but we can tell if it is there. Observe a particular environ-
ment and complete a data sheet that answers the following questions about
nonrenewable energy sources in that area.
What nonrenewable energy sources do you observe being used? How
are they being used? Who uses them? How are they produced and distributed? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? How might
they be used more eciently?
WEB SITES
The following Web sites, though not inclusive, include government and
nongovernmental organizations.
www.americancoalcouncil.org
The American Coal Council (ACC) is dedicated to advancing the
development and utilization of American coal as an economic, abundant/secure, and environmentally sound energy fuel source.
www.aga.org
The American Gas Association, founded in 1918, represents 195
local energy companies that deliver clean natural gas throughout the
United States.
www.ans.org
The American Nuclear Societys core purpose is to promote awareness and understanding of the application of nuclear science and
technology.
www.ases.org
The American Solar Energy Society is a leading association of solar
professionals and advocates.
www.awea.org
The American Wind Association promotes wind energy as a clean
source of electricity for consumers around the world.
www.api.org
The American Petroleum Institute is a national trade association that
represents all aspects of Americas oil and natural gas industry.
www.geo-energy.org
The Geothermal Energy Association is a U.S. trade organization
composed of U.S. companies who support the expanded use of geothermal energy for electrical power generation and direct-heat uses.
www.greenpeace.org
Greenpeace is an international organization that campaigns for
climate solutions that will foster prosperity without damaging the
planet.
www.hydro.org
Founded in 1983, the National Hydropower Association is the only
trade association in the United States dedicated exclusively to advancing the interests of hydropower energy in North America.
www.eere.energy.gov
The Oce of Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy (EERE)
invests in clean-energy technologies that strengthen the economy,
protect the environment, and reduce dependence on foreign oil.
VIDEOS
The following video and audio selections are suggested to enhance your
understanding of energy topics and issues. The author has made a consistent eort to include up-to-date Web sites. However, over time, some Web
sites may move or no longer be available.
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plugins. Therefore, you may need to download that software to view the videos.
You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Explanation of E mc2: A brief explanation about the relationship
between matter and energy. To learn more, go to www.youtube.com/
watch?v=ejlpfOvLtI4 (02:40 minutes).
U.S. Energy: To view this excellent snapshot video discussing U.S.
energy use, go to www.teachersdomain.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.
eco.energyuse/ (05:00 minutes).
The Political DebateNuclear Energy versus Alternative and Carbon: Review the Democratic debate on energy in general. For more,
go to www.youtube.com/watch?v=XdMHHIO5tQM&feature=fvw
(03:02 minutes).
Energy versus Fossil Fuels: This video lays the foundation for fossil fuels and their impact on global warming. Go to http://videos.
howstuworks.com/hsw/6189-energy-fossil-fuels-video.htm (02:09
minutes).
Energy and Fossil Fuel Use: Are fossil fuels relics of the past? An
informative video that challenges the reliance on burning fossil fuels
and their place in the future of energy production. Tough questions

are raised about carbon tax, the electric grid, better storage systems
and battery technologies, and key enablers: www.engineering.com/
Videos/VideoPlayer/tabid/4627/VideoId/1021/Energy-And-FossilFuel-Use.aspx (08:24 minutes).
Chapter 2
Petroleum
Petroleum has been used for thousands of years for various purposes and
by various cultures. For example, early civilizations used petroleum as a
medicine and as a sealant to waterproof their boats, the Chinese discovered a way to use crude oil for fuel in their lamps, and the Egyptians
and Native Americans used oil to treat wounds and for other medicinal
purposes.
HOW DO WE USE PETROLEUM TODAY?
Presently, petroleum dominates the worlds energy scene. Oil provides
40 percent of all of the energy in industrial countries. No question, petroleum is the worlds number one source of energy.
Crude oil is measured in barrels. The standard barrel of petroleum contains 42 U.S. gallons of crude oil. What products are made from a barrel
of oil? According to the Department of Energy, a 42U.S. gallon barrel of
crude oil, after it is rened, produces about 19 gallons of nished motor
gasoline and 10 gallons of diesel. The rest of the oil left in the barrel is used
to make a variety of dierent products such as vitamin capsules, shampoo,
bicycle tires, tennis rackets, combs, clothes, football cleats, fertilizers, pesticides, detergents, dishes, paints, food preservatives, and heart valves. The
list of petroleum products is endless.
Nonrenewable energy sources such

as petroleum will continue to play a
major role in energy consumption
at least until 2020. (Source: U.S.
Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration)
PETROLEUM, A DOMINANT ENERGY SOURCE

According to the International Energy Outlook 2009 Report, petroleum is
expected to remain the worlds dominant energy source throughout 2010
to 2030. Petroleum will continue to be the primary energy source in the
worlds transportation sector. Approximately 68 percent of the petroleum
will be used for vehicles, such as automobiles, buses, and trucks. About
25 percent of petroleum will be used by industry for the production of
steel, chemicals, cement, and other products. Homes and commercial businesses also use petroleum for energy.
HISTORY OF PETROLEUM
Although the use of petroleum and natural gas is very old, the modern era
of petroleum started more recently. It began in August 1859 at Oil Creek
in northwestern Pennsylvania near Titusville. Edwin L. Drake, also known
as Colonel Drake, used a homemade metal rig with a bit to drill down
approximately 70 feet into the ground. The drill bit came up coated with
oil. This was the rst commercial well, and eventually it produced between
Petroleum a 41
DID YOU KNOW?

Until the 1950s the United States produced nearly all the petroleum it needed. But
by the end of that decade, U.S. production of petroleum could not keep up with
demand. Eventually, imported petroleum constituted a major portion of petroleum
used in the United States. Beginning in 1994, the United States imported more petroleum than it produced.
15 and 20 barrels of oil a day. Valuable products were made from oil produced during the late 1800s and early 1900s, the most important being
kerosene used for fuel in lamps.
Then came the 20th century and the popularity of the new gas-powered
engine automobile. Hundreds of thousands of automobiles and trucks
were sold, and the demand for gasoline increased rapidly. Gasoline quickly
became the most important product of crude oil.
Today, the exploration, drilling, and rening of petroleum continues
throughout the world. Presently, Canada, Saudi Arabia, Mexico, United
States, Venezuela, and Russia are the major oil-producing countries.
WHAT IS PETROLEUM?
Petroleum is a ammable, liquid fossil fuel that occurs naturally in deposits,
usually underground, and is also known as crude oil. The composition of
petroleum varies with locality, but it is mainly a mixture of hydrocarbons,
of 5 to more than 60 carbon atoms each, with sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen
as impurities. Petroleum is liquid at Earths surface, varying in density, and
is described as heavy, average, or light. The light oils are the most valuable
because they produce the most gasoline
HOW DID PETROLEUM FORM?
Oil was formed from the remains of billions of microscopic marine organisms that lived millions of years ago, long before the dinosaurs.
When these organisms died, they settled to the bottoms of lakes, rivers,
streams, and even the oceans. As the years passed, the organisms were buried deeper and deeper under layers of sand and silt. The organisms nally
decomposed. The heat, pressure, and bacteria in the deep layers physically
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/U.S. Energy Information Administration/

Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
and chemically changed the organic remains of these organisms into a

thick, dark liquid, which we now call petroleum, crude oil, or simply oil.
The composition and viscosity of crude oil varies from a thin, light-colored
uid to a thick, dark-colored substance.
SEARCHING FOR OIL
Oil is not found just anywhere. Not all rock formations hold oil. Most
petroleum is found in sedimentary rock basins, of which there are about
700 worldwide. Sandstone and limestone, generally folded and faulted, are
common rocks where oil may be located. The oil lies in the pores of the
rocks, like water in a sponge.
Petroleum a 43
DID YOU KNOW?

The word petroleum means rock oil or oil from the earth.
Much work is needed to search for these underground oil deposits. The
oil search begins with a team of geologists, geophysicists, and petroleum
engineers. Their job is to search, identify, and map rock formations that
may contain quantities of oil and gas.
To do the work, the team uses a variety of tools, technology, and datagathering systems to explore, locate, and map underground rock layers
containing oil and gas deposits. Some of their tools for the quest for oil include satellites, global positioning systems, high-speed computer software
and hardware, and 3-D and 4-D seismic imaging technologies.
DRILLING FOR OIL
Once the oil deposit is located in a particular rock layer, the oil companies
begin the next stage, and that is to bring to the site a drilling rig and an oil
derrick. The derrick contains all of the piping and other materials to pump
out the oil from the well. The typical oil well, both on land and oshore, is
about one mile deep.
Oil drillers use rotary equipment and hardened drill bits, lubricated by
drilling uids, to penetrate the earths surface. To cut through the rock
layers, various types of bits are used, depending on the hardness of the
rock.
Once the bit reaches an oil or gas pool, the process of removing the oil
begins. To regulate and monitor uid ow and prevent potentially dangerous blowouts, oil drillers install a wellhead at the surface. New drilling
technology has, on average, doubled the amount of oil or gas supplies developed per well since 1985.
DID YOU KNOW?

Primitive rotary drilling rigs, such as the one Drake used, were popular in the 1880s.
However, in 1901, the first modern rotary rig was used at the Spindletop oil field on
a salt dome in Texas.
Horizontal and Directional Drilling

Oil and gas wells traditionally have been drilled vertically, at depths ranging from a few thousand feet to as deep as ve miles. Depending on the
rock layers, technology advances now allow wells to change from the standard vertical position to a completely horizontal one or even to be inverted
toward the surface.
Directional and horizontal drilling enable producers to reach reservoirs
that are not located directly beneath the drilling rig. This kind of drilling is
particularly useful in avoiding sensitive surface and subsurface environmental features. About 90 percent of all horizontal wells have been drilled into
(Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Petroleum a 45
rock layers, which account for about 30 percent of all U.S. reserves. In a given
year, 40,000 wells may be drilled in the search mostly for gas reserves.
Recovery
The process by which oil or gas is removed from the well is called recovery.
Pressure inside the well forces the gas or oil out of the well. However, most
wells do not ow naturally, so pumps are used to force the liquids or gas
out of the ground. The natural ow and the special pumps do not always
remove the gas and oil in the ground.
Enhanced Recovery
A special technology called the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technique
has been developed for increasing the amount of oil that can be extracted
from an oil eld.
In U.S. oil elds, producers have attempted EOR techniques that oer
the potential for recovering 3060 percent or more beyond the usual
amount extracted from the oil wells original site. Three major categories
of EOR have been found to be commercially successful: thermal recovery,
gas injection, and chemical injection.
Thermal Recovery
Thermal techniques account for more than 50 percent of all U.S. EOR production, primarily in California. Simply stated, thermal recovery involves
the injection of steam into a well. The hot steam reduces the thick, heavy
oils viscositythat is, the uids ability to resist ow. The steam thins out
the oil, allowing it to ow through the reservoir to be recovered.
Gas Injection
Another enhanced recovery technique commonly used is called gas injection. In this technology, a gas such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or nitrogen is
injected into the reservoir. In the reservoir, the gas expands and thereby
pushes additional oil up and out of the rock oil reservoir. CO2 injection
has been used successfully throughout western Texas and eastern New
Mexico. Gas injection is now being evaluated as an EOR process in such
states as Mississippi, Wyoming, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Montana, and
Alaska.
DID YOU KNOW?

In the United States, the average size of a new oil field installed on land is much
smaller than years ago. These new fields do not remain productive for long. More
than 50 percent of them produce fewer than 10 barrels per day.
Chemical Injection
The next type of EOR uses a detergent-like material instead of heat or gas
to recover oil in a reservoir. The use of detergent-like materials reduces the
surface tension of the water in the reservoir that often prevents oil droplets
from moving through a reservoir. The chemical injection technology is not
a major enhancement process. Today, it accounts for less than 1 percent of
U.S. EOR production.
Presently, EOR reports indicate that these techniques are not implemented very often because of their relatively high costs, and in some cases,
these methods are not too ecient. However, because there is a lot of U.S. oil
in the ground that presently cannot be recovered, there will be more research
in enhanced recovery technologies to retrieve this important resource.
CRUDE OIL REFINERIES
Once the petroleum is recovered and piped out of the well, it is transported
by tankers and pipelines and shipped to reneries. The renery is a huge
complex that separates crude oil into various products, such as gasoline,
kerosene, and asphalt, in a fractional distillation tower. Inside the tower,
the petroleum undergoes distillation produced by steam. The oil is heated
into a vapor, which rises inside the tower. Because the components in the
crude oil vapor, have dierent boiling points, they condense back to a liquid state at dierent temperature levels in the tower, producing separate
products such as diesel fuel, gasoline, and jet fuel. The lightest products,
VIDEO
U.S.Extreme Drilling: This method may recover heavy, thick oil, but at what cost?
To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QP2GejkLdwA&feature=rel
ated (03:03 minutes).
Petroleum a 47
such as gasoline, are removed at the top of the tower. The heaviest portions are removed at the bottom. When all products are completed, they
are pumped from the condensation level in the tower to special storage
tanks.
THE MAIN PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM
Gasoline
As mentioned earlier, gasoline is one of the main products of a renery.
Gasoline is a light, volatile, highly ammable mixture of hydrocarbons.
These hydrocarbons are obtained in the fractional distillation of petroleum, shale oils, or coal and are used as a fuel for internal combustion
engines and as a solvent. Solvents are special liquids that can dissolve other
substances.
Gasoline is a complex mixture, containing hundreds of dierent hydrocarbons, most with 3 to 12 carbon atoms per molecule, but varying widely
in structure. It is perhaps the most widely used product rened from petroleum. Gasoline is useful as an automobile fuel because it easily evaporates
to a gas, which when burned releases a great deal of energy.
Presently, gasoline is rated by an octane number. The octane rating indicates how much the fuel can be compressed in an engine before it spontaneously ignites. When the wrong-rated octane gasoline is used to power
a vehicle, it can cause knocking in the enginenot a good thing. At one
time, until the late 1960s, to increase the octane rating, additives containing lead were widely used. Because of the health and environmental hazards, manufacturers in the 1970s began to change automobile designs and
gasoline composition to exclude lead. In 1990, the Clean Air Act (CAA)
forced major compositional changes in gasoline; lead additives are now
banned in the United States.
Diesel Fuel
Diesel fuel is the common term for the motor vehicle fuel used in compression ignition engines. It was named for its inventor, the German engineer Rudolf Diesel, who patented his original design in 1892.
There are dierences in the rening of diesel fuel and gasoline. Petroleum diesel is a distillate rened from crude oil. A distillate is a puried
liquid produced by condensation from a vapor during distilling. Diesel fuel
diers from gasoline in a number of obvious waysit is heavier, oilier, and
A diesel-fueled bus takes passengers around the grounds at the Centennial

Park in Nashville, Tennessee. (iStockphoto)
much slower to evaporate. A less obvious quality, however, is diesel fuels

eciency. Diesel car engines get more miles per gallon than do gasoline
engines. In diesel engines, there is a higher compression of the air and
fuel mixture, which results in the production of more power than in their
gasoline counterparts. Diesel engines are common in the United States for
such vehicles as trucks, buses, boats, and tractors. In Europe, where the cost
of gasoline is notably higher, diesel engines are also quite common in cars.
European reneries produce more diesel fuel than gasoline, the reverse of
the situation in North America.
DID YOU KNOW?

One of the fuels that Rudolf Diesel originally considered for his engine was vegetable seed oil, an idea that is now coming back as so-called biodiesel. Biodiesel can
be manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease
from fryolators. It is biodegradable and can reduce vehicle emissions of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons. For more information about biodiesel,
refer to volume 4.
Petroleum a 49
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Jason Diodati, Chemistry Teacher, Marc and Eva Stern Math and
Science School, East Los Angeles, California
Go-Green Project: Powering the Cars of Tomorrow, Biodiesel
I teach chemistry at the Marc and Eva Stern Math and Science School, a public
charter in the Los Angeles Alliance for College Ready Academies. The school is
located on the California State Los Angeles campus and draws students predominantly from East Los Angeles. Our school was opened in 2006 with a freshman class
of approximately 150 students. A majority of our students are from low-income,
second-language households (Spanish), and most of them will be the first in their
family to attend college. I teach chemistry to the sophomore class, and I am in
charge of an after-school science club/energy club that is open to all grade levels.
I was born and raised in San Luis Obispo, California. I attended high school at San
Luis High and transferred to the local community college (Cuesta). After two years
of college, I spent the summer in Salamanca, Spain, learning Spanish, and then
transferred to UCLA, where I finished after two more years with a BS in biology.
After college I worked as an environmental biologist for several construction projects throughout California; then I moved to Las Vegas to build a biodiesel refinery. Later on, I realized teaching was where my heart was, so I moved back to
San Luis Obispo to attend college and earned teaching credentials in biology and
chemistry.
What were some of your favorite activities and subjects in high school?
Most of my favorite activities in high school did not involve class, primarily because
I was addicted to sports: soccer, baseball, football, wrestling, handball, golfthe
list goes on and on. I also enjoyed hanging out with friends, going to the beach, and
flirting with girls. Even though I never really had any educational goals or career
plans, I knew that if I worked hard, eventually I would figure things out and be able
to choose a career. I didnt get excited about science until I was in college.
I have loved to teach or to help others as far back as I can remember. I would tutor
other students in high school and college. I would also help my friends during study
sessions and during group work activities in class.
Describe the biodiesel project.
After seeing the enthusiasm and interest of my chemistry students when exposed
to alternative energy, the English teacher (Christine Powers) and I decided to have
the students work in pairs and apply for alternative energy grants. We had them
read through the BP America web page and follow their rubric, and we gave them
support in scientific writing and producing a budget. The students were very enthusiastic about the project, and the English teacher stated it was their highest-level
writing all year.
After the summer, we found out that two of the projects had been selected for
funding. One grant, for $5,000, was to install a weather station on the roof of the
school and to collect and monitor wind and solar data for the possible installation
of a wind turbine or solar panels. (That project was completed in addition to the one
described.) The second grant was for $10,000 to purchase a car and convert it to
run on waste vegetable oil. The students were very empowered and proud of their
projects. They had witnessed that writing could and would get them money (large
amounts of money), a teaching tool that far outweighs anything I have ever done in
class! Their first question, of course, was whether they could keep it.
We started the project by purchasing a 1978 Mercedes Benz 240 Diesel car. We
wanted to compare the fuel economy and emissions of diesel, biodiesel, and waste
vegetable oil and create a chart to educate the school and the community. After two
months of collecting data, the car (and teacher) was in a head-on collision, and the
car was totaled. Thankfully, we were able to purchase a second car, a 1984 Mercedes Benz 300 Turbo Diesel, to finish the project. We had to start the data-collection
process over, and we also coincided this data collection with the car conversion.
The fuel economy data were charted in an Excel graph showing average miles traveled for gallons of diesel used after 10 tanks (we did this for each fuel type).
Jason Diodati, a chemistry teacher, and his students at the Stern Math Science School in California, built a biodiesel car powered solely by vegetable oil. From left to right: Andres Juarez, Daniel Ramirez, Jose Rodriguez,
Jason Diodati, Angel Aleman, Cesar Gomez, Fermin Rojas, Raquel Molina,
Abigail Marquez, Emily Cendejas, Janneth Cervantes, Xiomara Martinez,
Ana Baez, Maricruz Gutierrez, Crystal Mendoza, Stephanie Alonzo, Rosy
Palapa, and Jasmine Vidaca. (Photo by Brendan Vitt)
Petroleum a 51
We purchased the Greasecar conversion kit and began working one hour a day
one day a week converting the car. We also collected data on the emissions of
diesel fuel. After a few months we started running the car on biodiesel that we
purchased from a local gas station. We continued to collect data on fuel economy
for biodiesel.
When the conversion was complete, we began collecting waste vegetable
oil from local restaurants and filtering it for use in the car. The students quickly
learned that getting clean oil meant less filtering, so they tried hard to find the
best oil they could. We used sock filters from 100 to 10 microns prior to using it in
the car.
The students then compared the fuel economy of the three fuels and analyzed
the performance and emissions. We then celebrated by driving the car to Magic
Mountain solely powered by vegetable oil!
Given that my background is in chemistry and biodiesel, which I learned in Las
Vegas, I decided to bring this subject to my chemistry students. I started by introducing my first year of students to the concept of alternative energy and fuel. When
they showed interest in the subject, I decided to team up with the English teacher
to get funding for a biodiesel type project.
Alternative energy research has become one of the most discussed topics in politics in the last few years. Both former President Bush and President Obama have
expressed interest in increasing funding for research and education in this area.
Many companies such as BP America have begun dedicating a large portion of
their profits to this field. People have started to realize that alternative energy will
be pivotal in maintaining our current demands for energy and balancing the environmental needs of the planet. Also, most governments are starting to see that
alternative energy is necessary for financial survival and independence. With
President Obamas new energy plan and revitalization efforts, the number of green
collar jobs is growing exponentially, and our students need the training and desire
to pursue those fields as careers.
What materials and references (Web sites, advisors, periodicals, etc.) did you use
Our main resource was BP America. They provided us with the funding to complete
the project. We also used Greasecar (www.greasecar.com) to purchase the kit to
run the vehicle on waste vegetable oil. The rest of the information came from trial
and error during the project and my background knowledge.
What advice would you give other teachers who would like to do this project?
My advice for other teachers is to make sure you have proper funding and then go
for it. Our project was completed without any auto shop or auto shop teacher, without the proper facilities, without the proper tools, and often without the technical
know-how of the teacher. We all worked together, and we got the job done without
any errors or mistakes, and the car ran perfectly! However, without the grant from
BP America to purchase the car and other supplies, this project would never have
even been considered.
Discuss some of the students contributions to this project.
The project was completely driven by the students; I was their guide and inspector,
but they were the workers and the thinkers. The best way to learn about something
is to roll up your sleeves and dive in head first, which is what they did. I was immensely proud of their work and very impressed with their learning curve. Many
of the students who had never held a pair of pliers were eagerly completing many
of the more difficult mechanical steps of the process. Also, many of the girls were
outperforming the boys in their ability to get their hands dirty and crank bolts and
cut metal. Overall, the students were very excited about their creation (modification) and were the envy of the school.
Our project was completed in many steps, but overall we needed about six months
to finish the entire project. Our school has no auto shop, no tools, and no place to
park or store a vehicle. We also have students whose primary transportation is the
bus or metro, and often it is dangerous for them to stay late after school and arrive
near their homes in the evening or late afternoon. Therefore, our project consisted
of one hour after school for only one day each week. We met on three different
Saturdays for about four hours each time. This means that we were working very
slowly, and each part of the project and car conversion had to be broken down
into very small parts. The car had to be moved off campus every day, meaning the
car had to be fully functional and running after every one-hour session. We had to
save the major parts of the project, such as the fuel system and heating/cooling
system, for the Saturdays when we had a longer period of time. Also, the students
who participated in this project had never done any mechanical work, increasing
the difficulty of meeting time deadlines. A school that has a shop and students with
some mechanical background should be able to finish the conversion in a much
shorter amount of time.
Sadly, we did not receive funding to continue our research on alternative fuels and
biodiesel. Our goal was to extend the program to build a biodiesel processor on
campus and purchase a school bus. We were then going to produce our own fuel
from waste vegetable oil and use the bus to transport our athletes to games and
our clubs on field trips. We will have to wait for additional funding to complete this
portion of the project.
The goal for the upcoming school year is to use waste vegetable oil and stirring hot plates to research various methods of producing and washing biodiesel.
My goal is to make the students experts in the reaction mechanism and washing
technique, which will be transferred to large-scale production if needed. Essentially, they are going to be chemists and apply their knowledge from my class to a
real-world application.
Petroleum a 53
Petrochemicals
The use of petrochemicals or petroleum-based products extends far beyond
fuels and power for our homes, cars, and factories. The strength, durability,
and exibility of petroleum-based plastics, resins, and foams make them
inexpensive, resilient, and lightweight.
Petrochemicals are compounds derived from petroleum or natural gas,
nonrenewable resources that are often referred to as fossil fuels. Petrochemicals are obtained when crude oil or natural gas is rened, or separated, into gasoline, heating oil, asphalt, and other useful substances. Some
petrochemicals, such as fuels, solvents, pesticides, drugs, and cosmetic
preparations, are put to direct use. Most petrochemicals, however, serve as
raw materials, or intermediates, in the production of synthetic substances,
particularly plastics.
Ethylene, a highly reactive gas, is perhaps the most widely used petrochemical. It is used in the production of plastics, synthetic bers, and antifreeze.
Other important petrochemicals include benzene, which is used to make synthetic rubber and latex paints, and phenols, which are important chemicals
used in the manufacture of perfumes, articial avorings, and pesticides.
Petrochemical products are used in just about every industry today,
from agriculture to medicine. Unfortunately, the production and use of
petrochemicals causes a variety of environmental problems. When these
substances are produced, for example, a number of pollutants, including
sulfur dioxide and particulates, are released into the air. Emission of sulfur
dioxide is one of the main contributors to acid rain formation. Certain
petrochemicals themselves, such as benzene and toluene, are also highly
toxic to humans and other organisms.
Other Products
Several other products are made at reneries. These products include liqueed petroleum (LPG), kerosene, fuel oil for furnaces, aircraft fuels, and
asphalt for road building.
In addition to crude oil, reneries and blending facilities add oils and
liquids to produce nished products for sale to consumers. These products include such items as the ammable liquid naphtha and kerosene.
Blending facilities add oxygenates (such as ethanol) and various blending
components to produce nished motor gasoline for gas stations. Blenders
also add relatively small but increasing amounts of biodiesel (made from
FEATURE
Alaska Pipeline
The U.S. government in 1973 approved construction of the Alaska Pipeline, an 808mile-long pipeline that transports petroleum across the state of Alaska, providing
about 10 percent of the oil used in the United States. The Alaska Pipeline, also
known as the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, extends from Prudhoe Bay, near the Arctic
Circle, to the Port of Valdez in southern Alaska. The 5-foot-diameter pipe carries
approximately 2 million barrels of oil each day. Oil flow is maintained by 11 pump
stations located along the pipeline.
To help prevent permafrost damage, more than half of the pipeline is located
above ground. Where the pipeline is below ground, it is refrigerated or buried in
thaw-stable, non-permafrost areas. In total, the Alaska Pipeline is buried under or
crosses over more than 800 rivers and streams. Workers constructed 13 bridges
along the route, including a 2,297-foot bridge that passes over the Yukon River.
The pipeline has been a subject of concern to citizens and environmentalists.
One major concern was how pipeline construction and operation might impact
Alaskas fragile tundra ecosystem, specifically its permafrost layer.
processed grain oils and other products) to diesel fuel and even heating
fuel.
From the renery, most petroleum products are shipped out through
pipelines. There are more than 200,000 miles of pipelines in the United
States used for transporting petroleum products.
U.S. PRODUCTION OF CRUDE OIL
Oil-Producing States
Approximately 25 percent of all crude oil produced in the United States
comes from oshore drilling rigs in the Gulf of Mexico. Texas, Alaska, California, and Louisiana are responsible for 52 percent of total U.S. crude oil
production. Other states that produce crude oil are Oklahoma, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Montana, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, and Nebraska.
CRUDE OIL IMPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES
Because the United States consumes about twice as much crude oil as it
produces, it must import supplies from other countries. The U.S. imports
crude oil from over 60 countries, and in 2000, approximately 70 percent of
net imports of petroleum were from ve countries: Canada, Saudi Arabia,
Petroleum a 55
FEATURE
Long Beach, California
Believe it or not, the petroleum industry also drills and produces crude oil and gas
in the midst of some of the nations largest cities. In recent decades, the industry
has successfully produced crude oil in urban environments where operations are
frequently visible for all to see.
One urban area where the production of crude oil takes place is Long Beach,
California. The oil company runs a 43,000-barrel-per-day operation at the East
Wilmington unit, located in the city of Long Beachs scenic harbor. The East Wilmington unit is part of the giant Wilmington oil field, one of the nations largest.
Production at East Wilmington occurs on four human-made islands built on
640,000 tons of boulders and 3.2 million cubic yards of sand dredged from the harbor and concealed by palm trees, flowers, concrete sculptures, waterfalls, and
colorful nighttime lighting. These islands represent the centerpiece of a solution
between the industry and the city of Long Beach to tap the harbors resources
without harming its natural beauty.
To shelter operations from public view, drilling rigs are covered by structures.
They are built to resemble high-rise buildings, and wellheads and other support
facilities are located below ground.
Texas and Alaska are the leading oil-producing states in the United States.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual 2007 )
VIDEO
Global IssuesPeak Oil: The world faces increasing demand for and a shrinking
supply of a finite resource. To learn more about the ultimate fuel supply crisis, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMQd5nGEkr4 (10:00 minutes).
Mexico, Venezuela, and Nigeria. Imports from all OPEC countries made
up 49 percent of total U.S. crude oil imports.
Major Oil-Producing Countries
As of 2007, 10 countries produced 60 percent of the total world production of oil. The top ve, which produced 42 percent of the world total, and
their share of total world production were as follows:
Russia, 13 percent
Iran, 5.4 percent
China, 5.1 percent
OPEC
Several countries that make up an organization called Organization of

Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) produce much of the worlds oil.
OPEC includes Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. In 2007 OPEC produced more than 40 percent of the worlds oil.
Oil reserves are increasingly concentrated in OPEC countries and by
national oil companies. These 13 countries control nearly 80 percent of
the worlds oil reserves. Most oil analysts agree that OPEC members are
major players in the world oil market and can set prices as world oil demand rises.
DID YOU KNOW?

The United States has no national oil company. The largest three U.S.-based international oil companies are ExxonMobil, Chevron, and ConocoPhillips.
Petroleum a 57
OIL SHALES AND OIL SANDS

Two kinds of materials can be converted into a petroleum-like liquid: oil
shales and oil sands. Oil shales are rock-like in appearance and oil sands
look like the soft asphalt that is used for driveways and roads. Both contain
organic chemicals that can be rened for fuels.
Oil Shales
The term oil shale generally refers to any sedimentary rock that contains
solid bituminous materials called kerogen. The kerogen is a mixture of organic chemical compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter
in sedimentary rocks.
Kerogen can be converted into petroleum-like liquids when the rock is
heated in the chemical process. Oil shales can yield 25 gallons of oil per
ton of rock when heated. Kerogen can be produced as a superior-quality jet
fuel, diesel fuel, and other products as well.
How Was Oil Shale Formed?
The Oil Shale and Tar Sands Programmatic Environment Impact Statement (PEIS) describes how oil shale was formed: Oil shale was formed
millions of years ago by deposition of silt and organic debris on lakebeds
Shale deposits have been discovered in several areas of the United States.
(Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Geology and Resources of Some World OilShale Deposits, Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5294)
and sea bottoms. Over long periods of time, heat and pressure transformed
the materials into oil shale in a process similar to the process that forms
oil. However, the heat and pressure were not as great. Oil shale generally
contains enough oil that it will burn without any additional processing,
and it is known as the rock that burns.
Mining of Oil Shale
As described in the PEIS, oil shale can be mined and processed to generate oil similar to oil pumped from conventional oil wells. However, extracting oil from oil shale is more complex than conventional oil recovery
and currently is more expensive. The oil substances in oil shale are solid
and cannot be pumped directly out of the ground. The oil shale must rst
be mined and then heated to a high temperature. This process produces
a liquid that goes to a renery plant where it is processed as a synthetic
crude oil.
In 1912 the U.S. government established the Naval Petroleum and Oil
Shale Reserves. This oce has overseen the U.S. strategic interests in oil
shale. Since that time, some commercial attempts have been made to produce oil from oil shale. However, these attempts have failed primarily because the cost of petroleum was lower.
Meaningful federal oil shale policy initiatives have not been undertaken
since the 1980s. In that time technology has advanced, and global economic, political, and market conditions have also changed. In the United
States, the richest oil shale deposits are located in Colorado, southeastern
Utah, and southern Wyoming. The nations total oil shale resources could
exceed 6 trillion barrels of oil. However, production of the oil shales may
not be economically feasible.
Oil Sands
Oil sands are layers of sticky, tar-like bitumen that are mixed with sand,
clay, and water. Bitumen is a black, oily, liquid material that is a byproduct
of decomposed organic materials. Bitumen is also known as asphalt or tar.
Bitumen has been mixed with other materials throughout history and has
been used as a sealant, adhesive, and building mortar and as a decorative
application on pottery.
Deposits of oil sands occur in several areas of the world, including
the United States, Russia, and the Middle East. The lions share of these
Petroleum a 59
deposits, however, can be found in only two countries: Canada and Venezuela. Astonishingly, the oil sands reserves in these two countries are roughly
equal to the worlds remaining total reserves of conventional crude oil. The
oil sands in Alberta, Canada, cover an area the size of North Carolina.
Mining Oil Sands
When oil sands are mined, approximately one hundred feet of topsoil must
be removed to reach the oil sand deposits. Then the production of extracting the oil sands starts at the bottom of the mine. Here a three-story giant
caterpillar machine with a shovel scoops up the sand and dumps it into
huge trucks. Each truck, carrying approximately 400 tons of the oil sand,
transports the material to an extraction plant. In the plant, the bitumen
in the oil sand is washed out and separated from the sand in a bath of
hot water. Leaves and other debris in the wash are removed. The bitumen
material is sent to a renery plant that converts it to synthetic crude oil.
The leftover water and debris are piped to a special pond where the water
is treated and cleaned to be reused in the mines.
Despite the complexity of this extraction process, oil sands have created
a so-called black gold rush in the Canadian province of Alberta. The Canadian government and oil companies have been quite successful in drawing
oil from Albertas sands, producing about 1.1 million barrels daily. Having
committed $80 billion more to intrastructural development, government
and industrial investors hope the sands will be yielding 5 million barrels
per day by 2015.
U.S. IMPORTS OTHER THAN REFINED CRUDE OIL
In addition to crude oil, the United States also imports 2 million barrels
per day of rened products. The rened products are special blends of petroleum fuels such as fuel ethanol. Five countries accounted for 71 percent
of the U.S. imports of rened petroleum products in 2007: Canada, Virgin
Islands, Russia, Algeria, and Venezuela.
DID YOU KNOW?

At room temperature, bitumen is similar to the texture of molasses. Below 50 degrees, bitumen is a very hard rubber-like material.
THE STRATEGIC PETROLEUM RESERVE

The United States created the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in the late
1970s with the goal of protecting the country from disruptions in the oil
supply. The reserve held 493 million barrels by 1985, enough oil to replace
about 115 days of net petroleum imports. Although the reserve held 541
million barrels in 2000, that amount now would replace only 53 days worth
of imports in large part because of increased energy consumption.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
When large volumes of petroleum products are burned, greenhouse gases
and other byproducts are released into the air. These gases can cause serious
Crude oil pipes at the Strategic Petroleum Reserve Bryan Mound site near
Freeport, Texas. (U.S. Department of Energy)
DID YOU KNOW?

Of every 10 barrels of petroleum consumed in the United States in 2000, more than
4 barrels were consumed in the form of motor gasoline. The transportation sector
alone accounted for two-thirds of all petroleum used in the United States in 2000.
Petroleum a 61
FEATURE
Biofuels
Biofuels are used as an alternative to fossil fuels and include biogas, biodiesel, and
methane. A biofuel is a solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived from biomass. About 5
percent of the energy consumed in the United States is provided by biofuels. Most
of the biofuels are produced from wood waste from logging operations, but they
can also be produced from corn and sugar crops. In France, Italy, and Germany,
biodiesel fuels are produced from domestic oilseeds and cottonseeds. Biofuels
are cleaner than fossil fuels because they release fewer emissions. To learn more
about biofuels, see volume 4 in this series.
environmental problems such as air pollution, smog, acid rain, and an enhanced greenhouse eect. Scientists generally believe that the combustion
of fossil fuels and other human activities are the primary reasons for the
increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Petroleum products burned to run vehicles, heat buildings, and provide
power for factories are responsible for about 80 percent of the worlds CO2
emissions, about 25 percent of U.S. methane emissions, and about 20 percent of global nitrous oxide emissions.
Processing petroleum and using its products also create many other air
pollutants, including airborne particulate matter. In addition, oil spilled
from tankers and oshore wells has damaged ocean and coastline environments. The environmentally disruptive eects of oil wells also have sometimes led to strong opposition to new drilling, as in wilderness areas of
northern Alaska and in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR).
Oil spill pollution is a particular problem in the worlds oceans, where
it can have devastating eects on wildlife and ecosystems. Oil is toxic and
directly kills small animals, such as shes, birds, shrimp, crabs, and other
shellsh.
One major oil spill took place on Tuesday, April 20, 2010. An oshore
oil drilling platform, Deepwater Horizon, exploded in the Gulf of Mexico
near Louisiana. It was the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history
of the petroleum industry. The spill has caused extensive damage to marine
and wildlife habitats, and the Gulf s shing and tourism businesses have
also suered. The Deepwater Horizon well was capped on July 15, 2010,
and is no longer discharging oil into the Gulf of Mexico, according to the
Florida Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Today, laws help protect against oil pollution in the oceans. For example,
the federal Oil Pollution Act of 1990 increases the legal liability of oil
tanker owners by requiring them to adhere to strict regulations regarding
oil transport. The petroleum companies have also made gains in reducing
emissions at their reneries.
HOW MUCH OIL IS LEFT?
Many in the petroleum business have estimated that about 1.3 trillion barrels of oil still exist presently in known oil reserves. If that number of barrels
is accurate, the data show that todays reserves will last a little more than
40 years. Other experts believe that oil production has already reached its
peak as of 2009 and that reserves will last less than the 20 years or so.
However, some experts believe that new and advanced technologies can
be applied to extract more oil from hard-to-nd places like underground
reservoirs. One new idea is to use a third stage of extraction to pump up
more oil from known and existing oil reservoirs. If these technologies
can be developed, there is a possibility that oil could last at least another
century. Following are the current stages and proposed third stage of oil
extraction.
First stage. Presently, according to experts, about 1015 percent of all
oil in a reservoir is ejected to the surface after drilling. The internal pressure in the well pushes the oil out. This is called the rst stage of oil
recovery.
Second stage. Once the oil can no longer be pumped out by internal
pressure in the well, oil companies use a second stage of recovery. In this
stage, water or natural gas is injected into the ground, providing enough
pressure to force more oil out of the well. Between the rst stage and this
stage, about 2040 percent of the original oil is extracted. The remaining
oil (about 60%) is trapped in smaller pockets or is too thick to ow toward
DID YOU KNOW?

Most of the oil and gas producers are independent oil and gas small businesses,
typically employing, on average, 10 full-time and 3 part-time employees. These
companies drill 85 percent of the nations wells and produce 65 percent of the natural gas and nearly 40 percent of the oil consumed by Americans.
Petroleum a 63
the reservoirs or into the wells on its own. So presently all of this oil is
unrecoverable.
Third stage. In order to extract the remaining 60 percent in the original
well, new technologies have to be adopted. Now oil companies are experimenting with a new stage to recover the remaining oil. This technology is
still very new and expensive. More experimentation and studies need to be
conducted. But here, briey, are some of the proposed methods for a third
stage of extracting oil:
Incendiary. This method would include burning part of the reservoir
to produce heat to thin out the oil so that it could ow easily to the
surface. The heated air would also produce carbon dioxide, a gas that
would add pressure to force the oil to the surface.
Chemical. Special chemicals called surfactants would be injected
into the oil reservoir. Surfactants are materials that lower the surface
tension of a liquid, allowing the liquid to ow easily and quickly.
These kinds of chemicals would assist the oil in breaking away from
the rocks to ow better. This is similar to the way we use soap to wash
our dishes.
Biological. In this method, bacteria would be injected into the reservoir, where the microorganisms would grow between the oil and
the rock. In time, the oil would then be released from the rocks to be
extracted.
THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM
As stated earlier, petroleum will continue to dominate fuel in the energy
marketplace. The U.S. Census Bureaus world population report states that
the population is expected to increase steadily over the rst half of the
21st century. More people means more demand for fuel, energy, plastics,
and foodall highly dependent on oil. In the 10 years from 2002 to 2012,
the world population is expected to increase from 6.23 billion to 6.96 billion, an extra 12 percent to be fed. Along with population, another factor
is the increasing use of oil in developing countriescountries that, up to
now, had been contributing little to consumption. Therefore, the problems
of oil consumption in the future revolve around two factors: population
and the increasing use by developing countries that want to obtain economic progress for their people.
SPECIAL INTERVIEW: CAREERS

IN ENERGY
Green Advocate: Keats Moeller, ConocoPhillips Company, Houston Texas
In this interview, Keats Moeller discusses her career in the energy field. If you
wish to learn more about energy-related careers, refer to the special section in the
appendix Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Careers.
The publisher and the author wish to thank National Energy Education Development (NEED) for permission to use the following Keats Moeller interview from their
newsletter Career Currents. To learn more about NEED, visit their web site at www.
need.org
Career Chat: Human Resources
Keats Moeller is a Senior Advisor of Recruiting & Staffing for the ConocoPhillips
Company in Houston, TX. Keats holds several degrees: a BBA in Marketing and a
MS in Management from Texas A&M in College Station, TX, and an MBA in Finance/
Marketing from Southern Methodist University in Dallas, TX.
Describe what you do.
I work in the university-recruiting group at ConocoPhillips. I have an exciting job
working with, and identifying, the next generation of top talent for ConocoPhillips.
I have the opportunity to meet and work with college students from across the nation and around the world.
ConocoPhillips has an amazing internship program for college students from a
variety of disciplines such as accounting and finance, marketing, communications,
human resources, engineering and geo-sciences. While college students are at
ConocoPhillips for their summer internships, the focus is on a meaningful assignment. However, ConocoPhillips also pairs each student with a mentor and provides
learning opportunities, to introduce students to other new hires and to experts in
our company. I coordinate speakers for these events on topics such as the energy
landscape, sustainable development and learning about different aspects of our
company such as exploration, production, and refining, and the importance of communicating our energy policy. In addition, I coordinate community service activities
so that our interns are able to participate in a hands-on way.
Describe your typical day of work.
When I first get into my office in the morning, I review my calendar for the day, and
then catch up on e-mails and voicemail. From there, my days vary and may include
preparing for our university recruiting activities, preparing for our summer interns,
or even working with faculty and staff at universities.
Did any special course work or training help you gain your current position?
There are many ways I prepared for my current job. Throughout school, I took a variety of courses that gave me a broad exposure to business and science. In addition,
Petroleum a 65
I got involved in a number of student organizations, which was a great way to build
my ability to work in teams and to hold leadership roles. One of the most valuable
experiences I had while in school was working in internships in my field of study.
Internships gave me the opportunity to get a first-hand look at companies and to
apply what I had learned. The great thing was that I was able to make a real contribution to a companyand then when I went back to school, my coursework made
even more sense! Once I was in industry, I have had the opportunity to continue
learning through each of the jobs that I have held.
Please share some of the opportunities youve had.
One of the most amazing opportunities has been all of the people that I have met
from college students and new employees to our experienced employees. Ive even
had the opportunity to travel with the CEO, Vice President and the Controller of our
company.
What challenges do you face working in human resources?
One challenge of my profession is identifying and preparing for the workforce of
tomorrow. The energy industry is an exciting and interesting place that is always
changing. Students have a number of choices of where to begin their career. My
challenge is in sharing the opportunities available in our company and industry!
Visit www.conocophillips.com/car eers/UnivRecruit/index.htm for information on
university recruiting.
Whats the most rewarding part of your job?
The most rewarding part of my job is working with students. I truly believe in the
opportunities that we have to offer at ConocoPhillips. It is exciting to be able to
introduce and share our company with our newest employees.
Whats the most surprising part of your job?
One of the most surprising aspects of my job has been to see the number of employees we have who have been at our company for over 20 yearsand how engaged
these employees are and how willing they are to share their experiences with new
and potential employees.
Would you follow the same career path again?
The energy industry is an exciting place to work. One of the most rewarding aspects is knowing that I am involved in a company that is making a difference in the
world we will live in. I feel very fortunate to work with the phenomenal talent that
ConocoPhillips attracts.
Careers in energy are interesting and dynamic and I would definitely encourage
young people to consider these careers! My advice would be to focus on doing
well in school and to get involved in organizations as a way to learn more about
teamwork, leadership, and an area of interest. Once you are in a company, your
technical skills are important, but so is your ability to interact with others and to
build relationships.

Adelman, Morris A. The Economics of Petroleum Supply. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1993.
Magueri, Leonardo. The Age of Oil: The Mythology, History, and Future of the
Worlds Most Controversial Resource. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006.
Nakaya, Andrea, ed. Oil: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA: Greenhouse
Press, 2006.
Raymond, Martin, and William Leer. Oil: Beginners Guide. Oxford, UK:
One World, 2008.
Smil, Vaclav. Oil: Beginners Guide. Oxford, UK: One World, 2008.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. On a world map locate those geographic areasland and water
where crude oil has been discovered and extracted. Research and
report on those areas that have experienced serious environmental
setbacks from oil drilling and/or its delivery systems (supertankers,
pipelines, o-shore platforms).
2. Explore and report on the economic and political impact of having
a small number of countries controlling a natural resource, such as
petroleum, that is needed on a regional or global basis.
3. In the late 1950s, construction began on Americas vast interstate
highway system. Explore the impact of its completion on freight distribution, population shifts, mass transit systems, nonrenewable fuel
consumption, air quality, and global warming. Use the following Web
sites for references and research: www.eia.doe.gov and www.epa.gov.
WEB SITES
www.api.org
The American Petroleum Institute represents producers, reners,
marketers, and transporters of oil, natural gas, and products. Its Web
site includes extensive information on topics such as the history of
oil, materials for teachers, petroleum products at home, and petroleum museums.
www.ogj.com/index.html
The Oil and Gas Journal focuses on new developments in the oil and
natural gas businesses.
Petroleum a 67
www.usgs.gov/
The U.S. Geological Survey is a science organization that provides
impartial information on the health of our ecosystems and environment, the natural hazards that threaten us, the natural resources we
rely on, the impacts of climate and land-use change, and the core science systems that help us provide timely, relevant, and useable information. The Geological Survey Energy Resources Program provides
energy publications and data.
www.usachoice.net/drakewell
The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission Drake Well
Museum is located on the site where Edwin L. Drake drilled the rst
commercially successful oil well in 1859. The museum documents
the birthplace of the petroleum industry with exhibits, operating
eld equipment, an extensive photograph collection, and a research
library.
www.capitalchevron.com
Chevron is one of the worlds largest integrated energy companies.
Headquartered in San Ramon, California, Chevron conducts business worldwide. Check out the Exploration Zone for an educational
primer about oil production and rening for students and teachers.
www.bp.com/
British Petroleum (BP) is one of the worlds largest energy companies, providing its customers with fuel for transportation, energy for
heat and light, retail services, and petrochemical products for everyday items. BP oers educational materials on energy in six languages
for teachers and students worldwide as part of its Science across the
World Web site.
www.conocophillips.com
ConocoPhillips oers several products and services that provide
businesses with high-quality fuels, lubricants, chemicals, specialty
products, and other solutions. Conocos Web site features short online movies about some of the industrys newest and most innovative
technologies.
http://www.stategeologists.org
The Web site of the Association of American State Geologists includes an Earth Science Education Source Book for teachers and students, a compendium of earth science education materials, and services
available from the 50 State Geological Surveys in the United States,
Puerto Rico, and the Association of American State Geologists.
www.agiweb.org
The American Geologic Institute is a nonprot federation of 32
geoscientic and professional associations that represent more than
100,000 geologists, geophysicists, and other earth scientists. The Institute maintains a Clearinghouse for Earth Science Education with
an electronic database for elementary school teachers and secondary
school science teachers.
www.agu.org
The American Geophysical Union is an international scientic society of more than 35,000 researchers, teachers, and science administrators in more than 115 countries, over 30 percent of whom are
outside the United States. The society is dedicated to advancing the
understanding of Earth and its environment and making results
available to the public.
www.nef1.org
The National Energy Foundation is a nonprot provider of educational materials and programs related to energy, natural resources, and
the environment. It is supported by businesses, government agencies,
professional associations, and the education community.
http://science.howstuworks.com/energy-channel.htm
See the HowStuWorks Web site library for numerous energy production videos and articles.
VIDEOS
You may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Petroleum (Oil)Where It Is Located: With oil (and gas) getting
harder to nd, this video comprehensively discusses and demonstrates how reserves were formed and where they might be found.
To learn more about the complex riddle of discovering new reserves
and the technologies and disciplines involved, go to http://www.
metacafe.com/watch/yt-_hwzJUDWIQQ/new_oil_and_gas_
exploration/ (09:54 minutes).
Petroleum a 69
EuropePetroleum Issues: Is power without fuel Europes answer

to the developing petroleum crisis? In terms of advertising, this is
a powerful and compelling video comparing petroleum with wind
power: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/2687883/no_fuel_viable_
energy/ (04:03 minutes).
Global IssuesPeak Oil: The world faces increasing demand for
and a shrinking supply of a nite resource. To learn more about
the ultimate fuel supply crisis, go to http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=DMQd5nGEkr4 (10:00 minutes).
U.S.Extreme Drilling: This process may recover heavy, thick oil, but
at what cost? To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=QP2GejkLdwA&feature=related (03:03 minutes).
U.S.Chevron Deep-Water Division: View this Reuters report on
drilling deeper than ever for oil in the Gulf of Mexico, below 10,000
ft: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnYELEO1UVM&feature=
related (02:05 minutes).
Chapter 3
Natural Gas
The Chinese were using natural gas as an energy source more than 3,000
years ago. They ignited the natural gas to produce heat to evaporate pools
of brine water to make salt. To extract the natural gas, the Chinese dug
wells that extended about 1,500 feet deep. To transport the gas to the surface, the Chinese used pipes made of bamboo.
Today, natural gas is used extensively in residential homes, commercial
businesses, and industrial plants in the United States. In fact, natural gas is
the dominant energy used for home heating. More than 66 million homes
in the United States use natural gas. The use of natural gas is also rapidly
increasing in electric power generation and cooling.
Worldwide, natural gas remains a key energy source for the industrial sector and for electricity generation. This industrial sector is often
divided into such industries as airplane manufacturing; steel production; and automobile, textile, consumer product, and electronic product
manufacturing.
Many of these industries consume large quantities of energy and require
factories and machinery to convert the raw materials into goods and products. They also produce waste materials and waste heat that may pose environmental problems or cause pollution. The industrial sector is the worlds
largest consumer of natural gas and is expected to account for 43 percent
of projected gas use in 2030.
In the United States, natural gas ranks number three in energy use, right
after petroleum and coal. About 22 percent of the energy we use in the
United States comes from natural gas.
Industry is the biggest consumer of natural gas, using it mainly as a
heat source to manufacture goods. Industry also uses natural gas as an
ingredient in fertilizer, photographic lm, ink, glue, paint, plastics, laundry
detergent, and insect repellents. Synthetic rubber and human-made bers
such as nylon also could not be made without the chemicals derived from
natural gas.
Residencespeoples homesare the second-biggest users of natural
gas. Six in 10 homes use natural gas for heating. Many homes also use gas
water heaters, stoves, and clothes dryers. Natural gas is used so often in
homes because it is clean-burning.
Like residential use, commercial use of natural gas is mostly for indoor
space heating of stores, oce buildings, schools, churches, and hospitals.
Natural gas is also used to make electricityit is the third-largest producer of electricity after coal and uranium. Many people in the energy
industry believe natural gas will play a bigger role in electricity production
as the demand for electricity increases in the future.
Natural gas power plants are cleaner than coal plants and can be brought
online very quickly. Natural gas plants produce electricity about 20 percent more eciently than new coal plants, and they produce it with fewer
emissions. Today, natural gas generates 15 percent of the electricity in the
United States.
To a lesser degree, natural gas is becoming popular as a transportation
fuel. Natural gas can be used in any vehicle with a regular internal combustion engine, although the vehicle must be outtted with a special carburetor and fuel tank.
WORLD CONSUMPTION OF NATURAL GAS
Worldwide consumption of natural gas is projected to increase by nearly
64 percent between 2004 and 2030. Among the end-use sectors, the industrial sector remains the largest consumer of natural gas worldwide,
accounting for 42 percent of the total expected increase in demand for
natural gas between 2004 and 2030. Natural gas also is expected to remain
an important energy source in the electric power sector, particularly for
new generating capacity.
Natural Gas a 73
Natural gas power plant near Ventura, California. The burning of natural gas
at the power plant produces nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide, but in lower
quantities than burning coal or oil. (Georg Henrik Lehnerer/Dreamstime.com)
Electricity generation will account for 35 percent of the worlds natural

gas consumption in 2030. Why the increase in natural gas usage? Natural
gas, although a fossil fuel, is an attractive choice for new power plants because of its high fuel-eciency rating and lower carbon dioxide emissions
than other fossil fuels. Also, there have been improvements in pipelines
and new technologies for locating and drilling new wells.
HISTORY OF NATURAL GAS
In the United States, natural gas was rst used to light the town of Fredonia, New York, in 1821. However, the fuels use remained localized over the
next century because long-distance transportation of gases was dicult.
For most of the 1800s, natural gas was used almost exclusively as a fuel for
lamps. Because there were no pipelines to bring gas into individual homes,
most of the gas went to light city streets.
After the 1890s, however, many cities began converting their street
lamps to electricity. Gas producers began looking for new markets for their
product. It took the construction of pipelines to bring natural gas to new
markets. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, thousands of miles of pipeline

were constructed throughout the United States. Today, the U.S. pipeline
network, laid end-to-end, would stretch to the moon and back twice.
HOW IS NATURAL GAS FORMED?
Natural gas was formed in Earths crust over millions of years by the
chemical and physical alteration of organic matter. Oil and natural gas
were created from organisms that lived in the water and were buried under
ocean or river sediments. Long after the great prehistoric seas and rivers
vanished, heat, pressure, and bacteria combined to compress and cook the
organic material under layers of silt.
In most areas, a thick liquid called oil formed rst, but in deeper, hot
regions underground, the cooking process continued until natural gas was
formed. Over time, some of this oil and natural gas began working its
way upward through the earths crust until they ran into rock formations
called caprocks that are dense enough to prevent them from seeping to
the surface. It is from under these caprocks that most oil and natural gas
is recovered today.
THE CONTENTS OF NATURAL GAS
The hydrocarbons in natural gas have one to four atoms of carbon each; at
Earths surface, these compounds exist as gases. Natural gas is a mixture of
ammable gases, including methane, ethane, propane, and butane. Because
natural gas has no smell of its own, a substance is added to natural gas to
produce an odor so that gas leaks can be detected. The mixture is usually
composed of 7080 percent methane.
Methane is an odorless, gaseous hydrocarbon formed by the thermal
decomposition or anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. It is the
simplest, lightest, most abundant hydrocarbon. It occurs naturally as the
chief component of natural gas, in association with coal beds, and as
the marsh gas released by the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of vegetable matter buried in wetland soils.
Methane is combustible and can form explosive mixtures with air at
concentrations between 5 and 14 percent; explosions of such mixtures
have been the cause of many coal mine disasters. As a component of
natural gas, methane is used for fuel and also in making solvents and
certain Freons, a trade name for chlorouorocarbons (CFCs). Methane
Natural Gas a 75
is a greenhouse gas whose concentration in the atmosphere has increased

sharply as a result of human activities; in fact, the increase of global methane has essentially kept pace with increases in world population. Large
quantities of methane are believed to be released by rice paddies, where
vegetation rots in the waterlogged soils. The mining of coal and production of natural gas produce lesser amounts of methane, previously trapped
with these deposits.
Other hydrocarbon constituents include ethane and propane, which are
used as nonrenewable fuels. However, the composition of natural gas varies
according to locality; minor components may include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and helium. It is the cleanest-burning
of the fossil fuels, yielding little more than carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water as combustion products. Although some natural gases can
be used directly from the well without treatment, most must be processed
rst to remove undesirable constituents, such as hydrogen sulde and other
sulfur compounds.
The natural gas that is delivered to many homes and businesses is almost pure
methane. Methane is a molecule made up of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms and is referred to as CH4. (Vasilyev/Dreamstime.com)
VIDEO
General (Global Uses): Do you know the fundamental difference between propane
and butane? To discover how one carbon atom makes the difference, go to http://
www.ehow.com/video_4756915_what-difference-between-propane-butane.html
(01:29 minute video).
LOCATING NATURAL GAS DEPOSITS

Natural gas is often found in solution with petroleum in sand, sandstone, and
limestone deposits. In order for gas to accumulate, it must be trapped. The underground gas reservoir must be sealed at the top by an impermeable stratum
or cap rock, such as clay or salt. The entire cover structure must be shaped in
such a way as to prevent gas from leaking to the surface. Gas accumulations
are mostly encountered in the deeper parts of sedimentary basins. On the
Gulf Coast of the United States, for example, more than half of the deposits
discovered at depths greater than 10,000 feet are gas elds. Among the largest
accumulations of natural gas are those in Siberia, the Texas Panhandle in the
United States, an area in the Netherlands, and Hassi RMel in Algeria.
DRILLING FOR NATURAL GAS
One of the drilling methods for natural gas is known as rotary drilling and
consists of a sharp, rotating metal bit used to drill through Earths crust.
This type of drilling is used primarily for deeper wells that may be under
very high pressure.
According to the Natural Gas Organization, drilling for natural gas oshore, in some instances hundreds of miles away from the nearest land
area, poses a number of dierent challenges in comparison with drilling
onshore. The actual drilling mechanism used to drill into the sea oor is
DID YOU KNOW?

The digestive systems of cattle and other grazing livestock are another major
source of methane. It is estimated that the large global cattle population and increasing land areas covered by rice paddies now account for almost 50 percent
of the global release of methane; another 20 percent is produced by the burning of
wood and other vegetation.
Natural Gas a 77
much the same as can be found on an onshore rig. But, with drilling at sea,
the sea oor can sometimes be thousands of feet below sea level, as mentioned earlier. Therefore, although with onshore drilling the solid ground
provides a platform from which to drill, out in the ocean a dierent drilling platform must be constructed. Since 1947, oshore production, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico, has resulted in the discovery and delivery
of a great number of large natural gas deposits.
New Technologies for Drilling for Natural Gas
According to the Department of Energy, although more than 70 percent of
the natural gas produced in the United States already comes from wells at
5,000 feet or deeper, only 7 percent comes from formations below 15,000
feet. Yet, at these deeper depths, an estimated 125 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas may be available.
Drilling at these depths is expensive and requires new drilling technologies. For wells deeper than 15,000 feet, as much as 50 percent of drilling
costs can come from penetrating the last 10 percent of a wells depth. The
rock is typically hot, hard, abrasive, and under extreme pressure. In deeper
wells, it is not uncommon for the drill bit to slow to only two to four feet
per hour, at operating costs of tens of thousands of dollars a day for a land
rig. For deep oshore drilling, the costs can exceed millions of dollars a
day. And it is exceedingly dicult to control the precise trajectory of a
well when the drill bit is nearly three miles below the surface.
The U.S. Department of Energys Oce of Fossil Energy has plans to
help develop the high-tech drilling tools that the gas industry needs to
use for deep drilling operations. The major goal of the plan is to develop a
smart drilling system tough enough to withstand the extreme temperatures, pressures, and corrosive conditions of deep reservoirs, yet economical
enough to make the gas aordable to produce.
DELIVERY OF NATURAL GAS
Methods of pipeline transportation were developed in the 1920s, and between World War II and the 1980s there was a period of tremendous
residential and commercial expansion that relied increasingly on the use of
pipeline transportation of gas. North American gas pipelines now extend
from Texas and Louisiana to the northeast coast, and from the Alberta gas
elds to the Atlantic seaboard.
Natural gas is delivered to customers through a safe, sound, 2.2-millionmile underground pipeline system that includes 1.9 million miles of local
utility distribution pipes (1.1 million miles of utility mains, plus 800,000
miles of utility service lines) and 300,000 miles of transmission lines.
HOW IS NATURAL GAS MEASURED?
We measure and sell natural gas in cubic feet (volume) or in British
thermal units (Btus; heat content). Heat from all energy sources can be
measured and converted back and forth between Btus and metric units.
Natural Gas a 79
One Btu is the heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water one degree Fahrenheit. Ten burning kitchen matches release 10 Btu.
A candy bar has about 1,000 Btu. One cubic foot of natural gas has about
1,031 Btu. A box 10 feet deep, 10 feet long, and 10 feet wide would hold
one thousand cubic feet of natural gas.
GLOBAL NATURAL GAS RESERVES
On a worldwide scale, the deposit with the greatest accumulation of natural gas reserves is a land area between the countries of Qatar and Iran.
Russia is home to the second-largest deposit of natural gas reserves, which
are located in various sections of this large country. Russia is also the leader
in global production of natural gas.
In Europe, the North Sea contains western Europes largest oil and
natural gas reserves and is one of the worlds key non-OPEC producing regions. Consequently, the region is a relatively high-cost producer.
Five countries operate crude oil and natural gas production facilities in the
North Sea: Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, and the United
Kingdom.
North America has enormous amounts of potential natural gas in underground reserves. Many sections of Canada have vast elds of natural
Much of the worlds natural gas reserves are located in the Middle East in
the countries of Qatar and Iran and in Eurasia, where Russia has the largest
natural gas reserve. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information
Administration)
Offshore drilling of gas and oil began in 1960 in Europes North Sea. These oil
and gas platforms are constructed on a foundation built on the bottom of the
sea or are permanently anchored in place. (iStockphoto)
gas reserves and the country is a major gas producer in the western hemisphere. Most of the natural gas reserves in the United States are located
around Texas and the Gulf of Mexico. The San Juan Basin is the secondlargest deposit of natural gas in the United States. This reserve is found in
the southwestern region of the United States, which includes New Mexico,
Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Utah. The basin contains more than
15 percent of the nations natural gas reserves.
Natural gas is produced in 32 U.S. states, but the top ve statesTexas,
Louisiana, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Wyomingproduce 80 percent
of the total. Altogether, the United States produces about 25 percent of the
worlds natural gas each year.
So, how much natural gas is available in the global reserves? Because
natural gas is essentially irreplaceable, it is important to have an idea of
how much natural gas is in the reserves. However, getting those numbers
is not an easy task. In fact, no one really knows exactly how much natural
Natural Gas a 81
A worker checks pipes for the

Portland Natural Gas Transmission
System (PNGTS) in Wells, Maine,
in 1998. PNGTS is a high-capacity,
high-pressure, interstate natural gas
pipeline that began serving New
Englands growing energy needs in
1999. (AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty)
gas exists until it is extracted. Measuring natural gas in the ground is complicated, and it involves a great deal of inference and estimation. With
new technologies, these estimates are becoming more and more reliable;
however, they are still subject to revision.
WORLD GAS PRODUCTION COUNTRIES
Worldwide, natural gas is produced by two major coalitions of countries.
The rst is the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and consists of three major groups: North America (United
States, Canada, Mexico), much of Europe (Norway, Italy, France, and others), and Asia ( Japan, South Korea, Australia/New Zealand). These member countries have pledged to work together to promote their economies,
to extend aid to underdeveloped nations, and to contribute to the expansion of world trade.
The second group of major gas producers includes the non-OECD
members. Some of the member countries include countries in the Middle
East, Brazil, Africa, Russia, China, India, and parts of Europe. Lets look
at the two major natural gas producersRussia and Norway.
Russia
Russia holds the worlds largest natural gas reserves, the second-largest
coal reserves, and the eighth-largest oil reserves. Russia is also the worlds
largest exporter of natural gas, the second-largest oil exporter, and the
third-largest energy consumer.
In 2007 Russias real gross domestic product (GDP) grew by approximately 8.1 percent, surpassing average growth rates in all other countries
and marking the countrys seventh consecutive year of economic expansion. Russias economic growth has been driven primarily by energy exports as a result of the increase in Russian oil production and the high
world oil prices. Internally, in 2007 Russia received more than half of its
domestic energy needs from natural gas, up from around 49 percent in
1992.
Norway
The vast majority of Norways energy output is exported. In 2007 Norway
was the worlds third-largest net exporter of natural gas, behind Russia and
Canada. This is largely attributable to the fact that almost all of Norways
electricity is generated by hydropower.
Norways energy business sector is a major contributor to its economy.
Exports of crude oil, natural gas, and rened petroleum products accounted
for 68 percent of total exports, and this energy producing sector also contributes around one-third of countrys budget revenue.
Norways importance as a global energy supplier has grown steadily
since production rst began in the early 1970s. It is now the largest oshore oil producer in the world behind Saudi Arabia and Russia, and is the
second-largest supplier of natural gas to continental Europe.
THE WORLDS LARGEST
CONSUMERS OF NATURAL GAS
The biggest consumers of natural gas in 2006 were the United States,
Russia, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, the demand for
natural gas in Spain grew by 92 percent from 2000, placing Spain in sixth
place in Europe behind the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, France, and
the Netherlands.
Natural Gas a 83
United States
In 2005, according to the Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 2009, natural gas accounted for 19 percent of net
electricity generation in the United States. Coal-powered plants provided
about 50 percent of the electricity demands for the country. In 2010 the
natural gas share of electricity use in the United States was expected to
reach about 21 percent. Natural gas supplies nearly one-fourth (23%) of
all of the energy used in the United States. In 2004 the United States consumed 22.4 trillion cubic feet (Tcf ) of natural gas. Because of its eciency,
cleanliness, and reliability, natural gas is growing increasingly popular. Consumption of natural gas will increase 20 percent by 2030, according to the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The top natural gasconsuming states
in 2006 were Texas, California, Louisiana, New York, Illinois, and Florida.
Although in 2005, the United States imported more than 65 percent
of the oil it used from abroad. However, in the same year, 97 percent of
the natural gas used in the United States was produced in North America.
The breakdown included 85 percent from the United States and 12 percent from Canada. Natural gas energy advocates report that every gallon
equivalent of natural gas used in vehicles is one less gallon of petroleum
that has to be imported.
Alaska North Slope
One of the United States largest deposits of recoverable natural gas is
located on Alaskas North Slope. Geologists estimate that this region contains an estimated 85.4 trillion cubic feet of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates, according to a new assessment
from the U.S. Geological Survey. According to current usage rates provided
by the Energy Information Administration, this would be enough natural
gas to heat more than 100 million average homes for 10 years. However,
further research, including long-term production tests, still is needed to
demonstrate gas hydrates as an economically producible resource.
Germany
Germany is the third-largest consumer of natural gas in the world, and
Germanys natural gas reserves are the third-largest in the European
Union, after the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Almost all of
Germanys natural gas reserves and production occur in the northwestern
areas of the country. Germanys sector of the North Sea also contains sizable natural gas reserves. However, environmental regulations have curtailed the complete exploration and development of the area. Despite the
lack of domestic production, Germany is, as previously noted, the thirdlargest consumer of natural gas in the world, behind the United States and
Russia.
United Kingdom
Britains dependence on natural gas as a source of energy is growing, even
as supplies from the North Sea are running out. With the depletion of gas
from the United Kingdom continental shelf, Britain is becoming dependent on imports, either by pipelines from Norway or as liqueed natural gas from places farther away, such as Algeria and Qatar. By 2015 the
United Kingdom is expected to import up to 80 percent of its gas supplies. Believe it or not, in 2004 the United Kingdom was a net exporter of
natural gas.
France
France imports almost all of the natural gas it uses from Norway, Russia, the Netherlands, and Algeria. However, natural gas has a small share
in Frances energy portfolio. Frances share of natural gas consumption in
2009 was estimated at approximately 10 percent.
Netherlands
The Netherlands depends on natural gas for about 60 percent of its domestic electricity. Coal is used for about 25 percent of its electricity needs. The
Netherlands is also a major of exporter of natural gas.
Central and South America
Natural gas is the second-fastest growing energy source after nuclear power
in Central and South America. For example, in Brazil, South Americas
largest economy, natural gas consumption in 2030 will increase by 30 percent from 2009.
Natural Gas a 85
Australia
Natural gas is the fastest-growing fuel in Australia and New Zealand and is
expected to account for approximately 30 percent of the projected growth
between 2005 and 2030. It also is expected be the fastest-growing fuel
in the electric power sector. The country will be displacing more carbondioxide coal power plants with natural gas power generation.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM
GASPROPANE
Another product that can be produced from natural gas is liqueed petroleum gas (LPG), commonly called propane. Propane is a gas that can be
turned into a liquid and stored in pressure tanks. However, when propane
is drawn from a tank, it changes to a gas. In many parts of the world, this
gas is used as a fuel for cooking and heating or for motor vehicle fuel.
Liqueed petroleum gas is produced during natural gas processing and
crude oil rening. In natural gas processing, LPG, butane, ethane, and pentane are removed prior to the natural gas entering the pipeline distribution
system. About 55 percent of LPG processed in the United States is from
natural gas. The other 45 percent comes from crude oil rening. Liqueed
petroleum gas is the rst product that results at the start of the crude oil rening process and is therefore always produced when crude oil is rened.
Liqueed petroleum gas has a long and varied history in transportation
applications. It has been used in rural and farming settings since its inception as a motor vehicle fuel in 1912, and it is the third most commonly
used fuel in the United States, behind gasoline and diesel. More than
350,000 light- to medium-duty vehicles running on LPG are used in the
United States. Propane-fueled vehicles produce fewer emissions than do
gasoline-fueled vehicles. As an example, propane-fueled vehicles produce
60 percent less carbon dioxide than gasoline-fueled vehicles.
NATURAL GAS VEHICLES
According to the Energy Information Agency (EIA), the greatest potential
for large-scale substitution of natural gas for petroleum is in the transportation sector, especially in local eet vehicles refueled at a central facility. Fleets
generally operate a number of vehicles that are centrally maintained and fueled. They also travel more miles daily than the average personal use vehicle
Buses powered by compressed natural gas (CNG) are now common in the
United States. These CNG buses belong to the fleet of the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority. (Publicimage/Dreamstime.com)
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Bob Walters, Technology Education Teacher, DeWitt Middle
School, Ithaca, NY 14850
Go-Green Project: Designing Solar Sprint Model Cars
Describe your current position and your responsibilities in your particular
program.
I am a technology education teacher and department head at the DeWitt Middle School in Ithaca, NY. I teach 8th grade and a computer class to 6th-grade
students.
I grew up and attended the Massapequa High School, Massapequa, Long Island,
New York.
school?
I enjoyed the sciences. The typical science sequence was general science, biology, and earth science. Most people took earth science, and it had the reputation
Natural Gas a 87
as the science for dummies. Because I really enjoyed science, I took physics
in 11th grade and chemistry in grade 12. Ironically, in the middle school in which
I teach, many 8th-grade students accelerate to take 9th-grade earth science. Here
it is an honors course.
In high school I wanted to take auto shop. That required engine mechanics first.
In that class we learned the basics and rebuilt lawn mower engines. Then in auto
shop we worked on teachers cars. I was the brake ace. I also rebuilt the carburetor on the family car and the transmission in my dads van, the old parts of which
have been a pencil holder on my desk for the last 33 years.
What colleges did you attend, and what was your major field?
I received a bachelor of science degree from SUNY Oswego, New York, in industrial arts
and a master of arts degree from Indiana State University in School of Technology.
During this period, the industrial arts programs were starting to change, and
the department was renamed technology education at the university; another grad
student and I developed and taught a new course called communication technology. It was very popular.
I just fell into this career. My high school guidance counselor told me that I was
not college material. That bothered me to the point that I brought my grades up.
Bob Walters and his students design and construct solar model cars to be used in
the Junior Solar Sprint car competition. The students used a variety of materials
to build their cars, including balsa wood, plastic soda bottles, and even a Pringles
container. (Courtesy Bob Walters)
I went to a college that a friend was going to and found they had an industrial arts
program. It looked fun, so I enrolled. The rest is history.
Describe your current model solar vehicle program.
For the most part, every student in New York State must take a school years worth
of technology education by the end of eighth grade. The course is hands-on, and
students learn the design process, how to use tools and machines, and how to
process various materials and information and are given design challenges. Much
of the work is done in groups.
There are two complementary aspects of the Junior Solar Sprint (JSS) project.
One is the JSS in-class activity, and the other is the multi-school competition.
For the Junior Solar Sprint class activity, students usually work in groups of
three, to design and construct a vehicle. Each student is a lead engineer who
designs one of the three subsystems, chassis, power train, or solar collection.
The vehicle is built by the group. The design parameters are spelled out in the
JSS rules available from the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association (NESEA):
http://www.nesea.org/k-12/juniorsolarsprint/. Before they design or build, students take an open-book, online quiz to be sure they understand the design
parameters.
The JSS multi-school competition has been held for 10 consecutive years.
I added a design requirement to the rules. Student must submit sketches that show
their ideation, part of the design process. Each student participant receives a commemorative t-shirt and has a chance to win trophies and medals.
The materials for constructing the vehicle largely come from the class supply
budget. Other funds are needed for the t-shirts and awards. Some years we have
sold pizza and water to raise money. However, the majority of money comes from
grants. NESEA provides a grant. They are a pass-through agency. For the last several years, the money actually has come from the U.S. Army. Other money has also
been secured through a variety of mini-grants. These have been available from
various sources, including the professional association for technology teachers in
New York State, local school district grants, the PTA, and the local power utility as
well as the local universities.
I was always interested in the environment and saving energy. This seemed like a
fun way to engage students in learning about green technology.
Our country uses a disproportionate amount of energy and produces a disproportionate amount of greenhouse gases and pollution. To reverse this, change has to
start at home, beginning with new attitudes.
There are great resources available from the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association: http://www.nesea.org/k-12/. In addition to the JSS rules, there is a wealth
Natural Gas a 89
of curriculum materials. There is a video that I show to students and have them
take a quiz on, just to make sure they understand the challenge. The video is a
bit dated but is available from the NESEA, and they even have the eight-minute
introduction, which is all I show my students, online at http://www.nesea.org/k-12/
juniorsolarsprint/modelsolarracecarteacherresources/.
There are many links at NYSERDAs site (http://www.getenergysmart.org/De
fault.aspx), including http://www.getenergysmart.org/EnergyEducation/Teachers/
Curriculum.aspx.
Many of the materials for this project are available from Pitsco: http://www.
pitsco.com/tabid/210/default.aspx?art=702. Some are available through Kelvin
Electronics: http://www.kelvin.com/.
Although my own district is updating its web presence, and I have not been able
to update my own site for some time, there are references that have been compiled
there. These include samples of vehicles as well as subsystems of vehicles: http://
www.icsd.k12.ny.us/dewitt/teched/jss.html.
Although not required, if possible you can attend a JSS workshop. NESEA offers
and coordinates these. Consider building some vehicles on your own and/or having
a group of interested students build vehicles for fun or extra credit. Watch the video
clip. The link is mentioned earlier in the interview.
Students come up with some very creative solutions to the problem. Most students
really enjoy this project.
I spend about three to four weeks on this. Our classes meet each school day for
39 minutes.
Do you have any current plans to improve on or to extend this program?
This activity is also done in conjunction with other energy activities. Most recently,
this has been a wind turbine activity: http://www.kidwind.org/. This was coordinated
with the science teachers. They taught about societal impacts of wind energy, and
the tech students designed and made wind turbine blades and conducted experiments of their own design. Other energy activities have involved fuel cell vehicles
and energy conversion activities. This year I may start an energy club of some sort
to provide students with opportunities to go further than they can in class.
and therefore can take better advantage of the lower price per gallon of natural
gas. Among the eets in which use of natural gas vehicles (NGVs) is already
growing are taxi cabs, over-the-road trucks, street sweepers, transit buses, refuse haulers, school buses, delivery vehicles, airport shuttles, and forklifts.
As of 2010, there are more than 120,000 NGVs on U.S. roads and
more than 8.7 million worldwide. Most NGVs are fueled at some 1,225
compressed natural gas stations throughout the United States, a number
that has increased fourfold since 1991. Natural gas vehicles are the most
commercially advanced of vehicles that are alternatively fueled (the others
being those powered by methanol, ethanol, propane, and electricity).
The benets of NGVs are most pronounced in congested urban areas
that have air quality concerns, and eet vehicles in those areas oer the
most promise. Promotional federal initiatives include the Clean Air Act,
the Clean Cities Program, the Congestion Mitigation Air Quality Program, the Energy Policy Act, and the Advanced Natural Gas Vehicle
Program.
A number of factors make eet vehiclesbuses, taxis, and delivery
vehiclesthe prime target for natural gas. Because natural gas generally
costs less than gasoline, these high-mileage vehicles can realize large savings in fuel costs. Also, eet vehicles tend to be centrally located. Thus,
eets can locate near refueling stations, or they can install their own
facility.
Natural gas vehicles oer tremendous benets. Highway gasolinepowered vehicles account for roughly one-third of all carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxides emissions and half of all carbon monoxide emissions.
Using natural gas rather than gasoline can produce major reductions in
a number of vehicular emissions. In addition to being cleaner than conventional vehicles, NGVs reduce the nations extreme dependence on
imported oil, and the fuel cost is generally less than the cost of gasoline
or diesel fuel.
But despite these benets, and the fact that a survey of eet operators
by the Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition showed that NGVs are their favorite
type of alternatively fueled vehicle, NGVs face serious hurdles. Market
growth for these vehicles has not been dramatic. The primary obstacle is
that vehicle production levels are limited, making the purchase price of
an NGV higher than that of a comparable conventionally fueled vehicle.
Even for high-mileage vehicles, it is dicult to oset the extra thousands
of dollars on an NGVs price tag with fuel-cost savings of 1020 cents per
gallon. Once the demand for NGVs reaches a level that can sustain full
production, prices will fall. Currently, the natural gas fueling infrastructure
also is limited, but the fueling infrastructure will expand as NGVs gain in
popularity.
Natural Gas a 91
Natural gas costs, on average, one-third less than conventional gasoline

at the pump. More than 50 dierent manufacturers produce 150 models of
light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles and engines. Roughly 22 percent
of all new transit bus orders are for natural gas. Natural gas is sold in gasoline gallon equivalents, or GGEs. A GGE has the same energy content
(124,800 Btus) as a gallon of gasoline.
Drawbacks of Natural Gas for Vehicles
The United States would need a lot more natural gas stations to power a
third of its vehicles. Natural gas is still a fossil fuel: it might be cleanerburning than oil, but it is still a hydrocarbon that has to be taken out of
wells and is in limited supply. Natural gas vehicles have a shorter driving
range than regular gas-powered vehicles because natural gas has a lower
energy content compared to gas.
Benefits of Natural Gas Vehicles
Exhaust emissions from a typical NGV are much lower than those from
gasoline-powered vehicles. In addition, dedicated NGVs produce little
or no evaporative emissions during fueling and use. In gasoline vehicles,
evaporative and fueling emissions account for at least 50 percent of a vehicles total hydrocarbon emissions.
Typical dedicated NGVs can reduce the following exhaust emissions:
FEATURE
Using Natural Gas to Power Motor Vehicles
Many taxi and bus drivers in Cairo, Egypt, have converted their gasoline-powered
engines to run on natural gas. Cairo is the world leader in the number of privately
owned natural gaspowered motor vehicles, and now the countrys bus and taxi
companies are coming aboard. Egypt has abundant natural gas reserves and can
offer car owners a fuel that is less expensive than gasoline and a cleaner-burning
fuel than gasoline. Natural gas vehicles produce about 80 percent less carbon
monoxide and fewer hydrocarbons than gasoline-powered vehicles. And natural
gas costs less than gasoline in Egypt. A cubic meter of natural gas is 50 percent
less expensive than the equivalent amount of gasoline. By 2010 Egypt is expected
to have more than 25 stations to service natural vehicles.
Carbon monoxide by 70 percent

Non-methane organic gas by 87 percent
Nitrogen oxides by 87 percent
Carbon dioxide (CO2) by almost 20 percent below those of gasoline
vehicles
Natural gas vehicles also produce far less urban emissions than diesel vehicles. The NGVs produce less amounts of nitrogen oxides than comparable
diesel engines.
Natural gas contains less carbon than any other fossil fuel and thus
produces lower carbon dioxide emissions per vehicle mile traveled. Although NGVs do emit methane, another principle greenhouse gas, any
increase in methane emissions is more than oset by a substantial reduction in CO2 emissions compared to other fuels. Tests have shown that
NGVs produce up to 20 percent less greenhouse gas emissions than comparable gasoline vehicles and up to 15 percent less than comparable diesel
vehicles.
Are Natural Gas Vehicles Safe?
The fuel in NGVs, unlike gasoline, dissipates into the atmosphere in the
event of an accident. On the other hand, gasoline pools on the ground
create a re hazard. The fuel storage cylinders used in NGVs are much
stronger than gasoline fuel tanks. Natural gas vehicle cylinder designs are
subjected to a number of federally required severe abuse tests, such as
heat and pressure extremes, gunre, collisions, and res.
Natural gas vehicle fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spills
or evaporative losses. Even if a leak were to occur in an NGV fuel system,
however, the natural gas would dissipate into the air because it is lighter
than air.
Natural gas has a high ignition temperature, about 1,200 degrees Fahrenheit, compared with about 600 degrees Fahrenheit for gasoline. It also
has a narrow range of ammability; that is, in concentrations in air below
about 5 percent and above about 15 percent, natural gas will not burn. The
high ignition temperature and limited ammability range make accidental
ignition or combustion of natural gas unlikely. Natural gas is not toxic or
corrosive and will not contaminate ground water.
Natural Gas a 93
A gas station attendant refuels a vehicle with compressed natural gas at one
of Cairo, Egypts several fueling stations. As of January 1996, almost all taxi
drivers in Cairo, under a government project, have converted their engines to
work with natural gas. Natural gas is half the price of gasoline and offers a
means of fighting air pollution cheaply and safely. (AP Photo/Leila Gorchev)
NATURAL GAS BENEFITS

Natural gas (largely methane) burns cleaner than the other fossil fuels
(45% less carbon dioxide emitted than coal and 30% less than oil). It is
easily transported via pipelines and fairly easily using tankers (land and
sea). It can be piped into homes to provide heating and cooking and to
run a variety of appliances. Where homes are not piped, it can be supplied
in small tanks. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles (cars, trucks, and jet
engines), where it is cleaner than gasoline or diesel.
NATURAL GAS EMISSIONS
Pollutants emitted in the United States, particularly from the combustion of fossil fuels, have led to the development of many pressing environmental problems. Natural gas, emitting fewer harmful chemicals into
the atmosphere than other fossil fuels, can help to mitigate some of these
environmental issues. Natural gas is an extremely important source of energy for reducing pollution and maintaining a clean and healthy environment. In addition to being a domestically abundant and secure source of
energy, the use of natural gas also oers a number of environmental benets over other sources of energy, particularly other fossil fuels.
Natural gas is the cleanest of all the fossil fuels. Because carbon dioxide makes up such a high proportion of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions,
reducing carbon dioxide emissions can play a huge role in combating the
greenhouse eect and global warming.
As noted previously, the combustion of natural gas emits almost 30 percent less carbon dioxide than oil and just under 45 percent less carbon
dioxide than coal. Composed primarily of methane, the main products of
the combustion of natural gas are carbon dioxide and water vapor, the same
compounds we exhale when we breathe.
Coal and oil are composed of much more complex molecules, with a
higher carbon ratio and higher nitrogen and sulfur contents. This means
that when combusted, coal and oil release higher levels of harmful emissions, including a higher ratio of carbon emissions, nitrogen oxides, and
sulfur dioxide. Coal and fuel oil also release ash particles into the environment, substances that do not burn but instead are carried into the atmosphere and contribute to pollution. The combustion of natural gas, on the
other hand, releases very small amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides, virtually no ash or particulate matter, and lower levels of carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other harmful emissions.
FUTURE OF NATURAL GAS
increase from about 100 trillion cubic feet in 2005 to 158 trillion cubic feet
in 2030. Natural gas will probably replace petroleum and coal wherever
VIDEO
U.S. The Natural Gas Star Program: Partnered with the Environmental Protection Agency, this video claims to be a blueprint for resource management.
For more, go to http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/documents/videos/processing.html
(06:32 minutes).
Natural Gas a 95
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration)
possible. The reason is that natural gas combustion produces less carbon
dioxide than coal or petroleum production and products. Therefore, natural
gas is expected to remain a key energy source for the industrial sector. The
industrial sector, made up of such major manufacturing groups as plastics,
chemical, and steel making, will be large consumers of natural gas, accounting for 43 percent of the projected natural gas use in 2030. Natural gas will
also be a major supplier of electricity. Electricity generation will account
for 35 percent of the worlds total natural gas consumption in 2030.
The Gas Resource of the FutureMethane Hydrate?
Historically, the United States has produced much of the natural gas it has
consumed, with the balance imported from Canada through pipelines. According to Energy Information Administration, total U.S. natural gas consumption is expected to increase from about 23 trillion cubic feet in 2008 to
26 trillion cubic feet in 2030a projected jump of more than 18 percent.
However, production of domestic conventional and unconventional
natural gas cannot keep pace with demand growth. So the development
of new, cost-eective resources such as methane hydrate, huge amounts

of which underlie the Arctic polar regions and ocean sediments, can play
a major role in moderating price increases and ensuring adequate future
supplies of natural gas for American consumers.
Methane hydrate is a crystalline combination of natural gas molecules
and water molecules. The caged-like molecules look like ice but burn if they
are lighted with a match. Inside the ice are trapped molecules of methane,
the chief product of natural gas. If methane hydrate is either warmed or
depressurized, it will revert back to water and natural gas. When brought
to Earths surface, one cubic yard of gas hydrate releases approximately
450 cubic yards of natural gas.
Hydrate deposits may be several hundred meters thick and generally
occur in two types of settings: under Arctic permafrost and beneath the
ocean oor. Methane hydrate is stable in ocean oor sediments at water
depths greater than 930 feet. Estimates on how much energy is stored in
methane hydrates range from 350 years worth to 3,500 years worth.
More Work Ahead and Concerns about Methane Hydrates
Although methane hydrates have the potential to oer a clean source of energy, more research needs to be conducted. For example, because methane
Discoveries of methane hydrate deposits, first in polar regions and then

throughout the deep-water shelves of every continent, reveal that natural
methane hydrate occurs on a truly staggering scale. (Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
Natural Gas a 97
is also a greenhouse gas, release of even a small percentage of total deposits

could have a serious eect on Earths atmosphere. Despite its short atmospheric half-life of seven years, methane has a global warming potential.
Another concern is that unstable hydrate layers could give way beneath oil
platforms, which could cause the freed gas to explode.
Landfill Gas from Biomass
Scientists are also researching ways to produce natural gas (methane) from
biomass. Biomass is a term used to describe the total amount of living matter in a particular area at any given time. The energy from biomass is the
oldest fuel used by humans.
Drilling in Landfills to Recover Methane
In 2009 more than four billion cubic feet of landll methane gas was used
for heating and electricity production. Landll gas is created when microorganisms cause organic waste, such as food wastes and paper, to decompose
in landlls. Landll gas is composed of about 50 percent methane. Carbon
dioxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) make up the remainder.
Landll gas escapes into the air unless it is collected and burned. In
landll gas energy projects, landll gas is burned in boilers, special engines,
and combustion turbines to produce electricity. The landlls size and age,
the quantity of organic waste, and the local climate help determine how
much gas a landll can produce. The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) requires large landlls to collect and burn landll gas with ares to
destroy the VOCs.
Although some landlls simply burn landll gas with a are, as of 2010
more than 380 projects at 365 U.S. landlls are collecting and using landll
gas to produce energy. The EPA estimates that more than 600 additional
landlls could support landll gas energy projects cost-eectively.
Landll gas continues to be produced for 20 years or more after a landll is closed. Therefore, as long as landlls continue to be built, landll gas
will continue to be a resource for producing electricity.
Some Benets
Burning landll gas to produce electricity has little impact on land
resources. Although the equipment used to burn the landll gas and
generate electricity does require space, it can be located on land already

occupied by the existing landll, thus avoiding any additional use of
land.
Air Emissions
Burning landll gas produces nitrogen oxide emissions as well as trace
amounts of toxic materials. The amount of these emissions can vary widely,
depending on the waste from which the landll gas was created. The carbon dioxide released from burning landll gas is considered to be a part
of the natural carbon cycle of the earth. Producing electricity from landll
gas avoids the need to use nonrenewable resources to produce the same
amount of electricity. In addition, burning landll gas prevents the release
of methane, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere.
In Europe, processing plants use up to 50 percent of municipal trash
for energy production. Energy trash processing plants are also located in
several American cities in Maryland, California, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin,
and Washington.
Using Marine Plants
to Produce Methane
Another source of methane may be marine plants, according to a recent
British report. Algae, as well as other marine biomass such as kelp, could
have an important role in the future of energy production. The methane
from this biomass could be used to generate electricity and heat or used as
compressed natural gas for transportation fuel.
In 2009 a team of marine scientists from the United Kingdom and
Ireland received funding to determine the possibility of producing renewable fuel using seaweed, through a study of the brown seaweed Laminaria
hyperborean more commonly referred to as kelp. Their goal is to determine
whether large areas of kelp grown through ocean farming could be used
as biomass for the production of methane and ethanol. There are approximately 386 square miles of kelp forests in the waters around the United
Kingdom that are dense enough to be harvested.
More research is necessary to nd better methods for the conversion
step, biomass to methane, on a large scale, but the work already done shows
that methane energy can result from algae biomass.
Natural Gas a 99
DID YOU KNOW?

Kelp grows one and a half feet per day.
BOOKS AND OTHER READING MATERIAL

Burleson, Clyde W. Deep Challenge!: The True Epic Story of Our Quest for
Energy Beneath the Sea. Burlington, MA: Gulf Professional Publishing, 1998.
Natural Gas Supply Association. Natural Gas and the Environment. www.
naturalgas.org/environment/naturalgas.asp
Sietz, John L. Global Issues: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2002.
Snedden, Robert. Energy from Fossil Fuels. Boston: Heinemann Library,
2001.
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. http://
www.eia.doe.gov.
U.S. Department of Energy, Oce of Fossil Energy. http://www.fe.doe.gov.
U.S. Geological Survey Energy Resources Program. http://energy.usgs.
gov/index.html.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. On a world map locate the 10 largest producers of natural gas, explain
the infrastructure needed to transport and distribute the gas over
long distances, and identify and analyze the political chokepoints
that could disrupt the distribution of the gas.
2. Marcellus shale covers most of New York State. Located deep within
the Marcellus shale formations are large deposits of natural gas.
Extracting the gas is a delicate process. Research how it might be
accomplished and the dangers to human and animal inhabitants.
3. Conduct research to discover how we get natural gas, how it is stored
and delivered, and how it impacts the environment. For references
and additional research, visit the following web sites: www.eia.doe.
gov; www.loe.org; www.citizenscampaign.org.
4. Go to the Oil and Gas Journal Online Web site, read a selection of
the articles, and summarize what you determine to be the journals
purpose and audience.
WEB SITES
The following Web sites, although not inclusive, include government and
www.aga.org
The American Gas Association, founded in 1918, represents 195
local energy companies that deliver clean natural gas throughout the
United States.
www.ngsa.org
The National Gas Supply Association (NGSA) represents suppliers
that produce and market natural gas. Established in 1965, NGSA
encourages the use of natural gas within a balanced national energy
policy.
http://www.iangv.org
The International Association for Natural Gas Vehicles was established
in 1986 to provide the NGV industry with an international forum and
to foster growth, safety, product development, and policy formation. In
June 2010 the Association was renamed to NGV Global.
http://www.energy.gov/energysources/naturalgas.htm
The Department of Energy Oce of Fossil Energy invests in research
and development of technologies in the areas of natural gas supply,
delivery reliability, and utilization. Through the Strategic Center for
Natural Gas, DOE works with industry to develop technologies to
support this fuel.
VIDEOS
U.S. Texas (Issues): This infrared video reveals that clean natural gas is
not always what it seems. Follow this helicopter video of fugitive emissions: http://txsharon.blogspot.com/2009/08/clean-burning-naturalgas-has-dirty.html (03:15 minutes).
Natural Gas a 101
U.S. Natural Gas Star Program: Created in partnership with the Environmental Protection Agency, this video claims to be a blueprint
for resource management: http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/documents/
videos/processing.html (06:32 minutes).
South AmericaNatural Gas in Columbia: This short lm documents a project to connect poor homes with natural gas, to improve
the lives of those in this impoverished section of Columbia: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=watcK8hi5RA (13:28 minutes).
General (Global Uses): Do you know the fundamental dierence
between propane and butane? To discover how one carbon atom
makes the dierence, go to http://www.ehow.com/video_4756915_
what-dierence-between-propane-butane.html (01:29 minutes).
Chapter 4
Coal
The worlds largest producers and consumers of coal are China, Poland,
Russia, India, and the United States. In the United States, coal accounts
for approximately 49 percent of electricity output. Wyoming is the largest
coal-producing state and Texas is the largest coal-consuming state and it is
also the largest consumer of electricity.
Coal has been used for thousands of years. There is archeological evidence that China was burning coal in 1100 b.c. But not until brick chimneys became popular did people burn coal indoors. During the Industrial
Revolution in England, the common use of steam engines led to a surge
in the demand for coal. As an example, approximately 100,000 coal-fed
steam engines were used to power machinery, trains, and steamboats and
for pumping water out of coal mines.
COAL: A MAJOR SOURCE
OF THE WORLDS ENERGY
world energy consumption in 2006 is projected to increase by 48 percent
in 2030. Coals share of the electric power sector will reach 46 percent
by 2030.
HISTORY OF COAL
During the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, the demand for coal surged. The major reason for the growth in the use of coal
was improvement of the steam engine. The steam engine was designed by
James Watt and patented in 1769, and Watt used coal to make the steam
to run his engine. Steamships and steam-powered railroads were becoming
the chief forms of transportation. All of these vehicles and boats used coal
to fuel their boilers for mechanical power.
With the development of electric power in the 19th century, coals future became closely tied to electricity generation. Thomas Edison developed the rst practical coal-red electricity-generating power plant. The
coal-red power plant went into operation in New York City in 1882,
supplying electricity for household lights.
In the second half of the 1800s, more uses for coal were found. By 1875,
coke (which is made from coal) had replaced charcoal as the primary fuel
for iron blast furnaces to make steel.
MAJOR USES OF COAL
Today, coals primary use is for the generation of electricity. In the United
States, coal generates approximately 50 percent of the electricity consumed
in America each day, far more than any other energy source. Worldwide,
coal generates 40 percent of total electricity. Coal is also used in retail
businesses and the industrial sector as a fuel for heating and for powering
steel-making plants, cement plants, and other industrial and manufacturing facilities.
Other important users of coal include alumina reneries, paper manufacturers, and the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Several chemical products can be produced from the by-products of coal. For example,
rened coal tar is used in the manufacture of chemicals such as creosote oil,
DID YOU KNOW?

In North America, during the 1300s in what is now the U.S. southwest, the Hopi
Indians used coal for cooking, for heating, and to bake the pottery they made
from clay.
Coal a 105
naphthalene, phenol, and benzene, and ammonia gas recovered from coke
ovens is used to manufacture ammonia salts, nitric acid, and agricultural
fertilizers.
Thousands of dierent products have coal or coal by-products as components: soap, aspirins, solvents, dyes, plastics, and bers such as rayon and
nylon. Coal is also an essential ingredient in the production of specialty
products, of which the following are examples:
activated carbonused in lters for water and air purication and in
kidney dialysis machines
carbon beran extremely strong but lightweight reinforcement
material used in construction, mountain bikes, and tennis rackets
silicon metalused to produce silicones, which are in turn used to
make lubricants, water repellents, resins, cosmetics, hair shampoos,
and toothpastes
WHAT IS COAL AND HOW IS IT FORMED?

Coal is a blackish organic substance and the most abundant fossil fuel; it is
used primarily to produce electricity and to a lesser degree to heat buildings.
Environmental issues associated with coal include air pollution from coalred power plants and the impact of coal mining on natural resources.
Coal is a mixture of carbon and various other materials formed from the
accumulation of partially decayed plants in large, shallow swamps, lakes,
and marshes millions of years ago. It is found in beds and seams both near
the surface and underground. The transformation of organic deposits into
coal involved compaction and compression by burial under hundreds and
hundreds of feet of sediments. The formation of peat was the rst step
in the coal-making process. Over time, the peat was compacted beneath
other deposits. As a result, water was squeezed out of the peat, and gases
such as methane were expelled into the atmosphere. Over thousands of
years, the continued burial and compression caused the peat to alter into
dierent grades of coal: lignite, bituminous, and anthracite. Lignite is the
lowest grade, with the highest percentage of volatile matter. Bituminous,
the next grade from lignite, is the most abundant of the three types of
coal. Anthracite, or hard coal, is the highest-grade coal, with high carbon
content and a low percentage of volatile matter.
WHERE IS COAL FOUND?
Coal deposits are found all over the world. Even Antarctica has coal deposits. However, most of the coal reserves are found in large deposits in the
midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. There are fewer coal deposits in
the Southern Hemisphere. In all, about 100 countries have coal reserves.
Most of the worlds largest deposits are in North America, eastern Europe, Russia, China, India, and Africa. In the United States, coal is found
in 38 states, and nearly one-eighth of the country lies over coal beds. Some
of the top coal-mining states include: Montana, Illinois, Wyoming, West
Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Colorado, Texas, and Indiana.
HOW IS COAL MINED?
There are two basic ways to mine coal. Surface mining is used when coal is
found close to the surface or on hillsides. Underground mining, or subsurface mining, is used to extract coal deep beneath Earths surface or in coal
seams on hillsides.
Coal a 107
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/U.S. Energy Information Administration/

Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Surface Mining and Reclamation

Surface mining is essentially a process that involves removing the overburden (earth and rock covering the coal) with heavy earth-moving
equipment, scooping out the coal, replacing the excavated soil, and reestablishing vegetation and plant life, a process known as reclamation.
Much of the reclamation activity in the United States was the result of
legislation passed in 1977 called the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. The act requires companies involved in surface mining operations to restore mined lands back to their natural conditions after the
mining operations cease. It also prohibits surface mining on certain lands,
such as national forests. Reclaimed land has been successfully used for
wildlife preserves, golf courses, recreational parks, pasture land, native habitats, productive farmland, and for commercial development.
The advantages of surface mining are many. Where it can be used, it

permits recovery of 90 percent or more of the coal to be mined.
To remove coal from regions located at or near Earths surface, large
equipment such as a bulldozer is generally used. Bulldozers remove soil
and rock to expose coal, which is located near the surface. Surface mining
may involve digging up approximately between 30 and 80 feet of topsoil
and rock to reach the underground coal layers. Compared to underground
mining, surface mining generally costs less, is safer for miners, and usually
results in the removal of a greater percentage of the coal underground.
However, it also results in extensive disruption of the land.
Surface mining can cause environmental problems. Common problems
include the destruction of ecosystems and habitats. In addition, the removal of vegetation involved in surface mining makes an area more prone
to soil erosion and landslides. Water pollution can also occur in nearby
streams. As water leaches through tailings leftover from mining operations, it picks up minerals and carries them into groundwater reserves or
to lakes and streams. Acid mine drainage is also a pollution problem that
results from many types of surface mining. In many countries, including
the United States, government agencies enforce reclamation operations
that restore the land to its pre-environmental conditions once the mining
operations cease.
Underground Mining
Underground mining is used to extract coal lying deep beneath the Earths
surface or in seams exposed on hillsides. The coal is reached through the
drilling of two openings into the coal bed to transport workers and equipment and to send coal to the surface. Both openings serve to circulate air
in the mine. Coal is then broken up and mined by one of several methods,
including the following:
Conventional Mining: Conventional mining is an older practice of
using explosives to break up coal seams.
Continuous Mining: In continuous mining, a huge machine with a
large rotating steel drum equipped with tungsten carbide teeth
scrapes coal from a seam at high speeds.
Longwall Mining: In longwall mining, a cutting machine with a large
rotating steel drum is dragged back and forth across a long wall or
seam of coal. The loosened coal falls onto a conveyer belt for removal
Coal a 109
There are several forms of surface mining; one is the removal of shallow coal
over a broad area where the land is mostly flat. (Airphoto/Dreamstime.com)
from the work area. After coal is extracted, it is removed by automatic

extraction systems that cut the coal, which is loaded onto shuttle cars
in a central loading area in the mine or placed on belt conveyors,
which remove coal to the surface.
Environmental Issues in the Mining of Coal
Acid Mine Drainage
Mining coal can result in environmental problems, including the destruction of ecosystems and habitats. In addition, the removal of vegetation
involved in surface mining makes an area more prone to soil erosion and
DID YOU KNOW?

Coal is the official state rock of Utah.
landslides. Water pollution can also occur when runo of wastes enters
nearby streams. Water leaching through mine tailings leftover from mining operations picks up minerals and carries them into groundwater reserves or into lakes and streams.
Underground mines and open-pit mines can be a serious environmental
problem if left abandoned. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a water pollution
problem resulting from the discharge into streams or rivers of acidic water
from coal or other mines containing iron, copper, lead, or zinc mineral ores.
Acid mine drainage also results when rainwater leaches through overburden or tailingsthe waste materials produced by mining operations. Such
water leaching through mine shafts and tailings causes chemical reactions
to occur. The combination of air, dissolved oxygen in the water, and the
activities of organisms that synthesize nutrients from inorganic chemicals
causes iron-sulde compounds in ores and waste rock to oxidize, producing a high concentration of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). When released into
streams, the acidic solution is toxic to aquatic life. The acid can also leach
into and pollute groundwater.
Acid mine drainage is a potential problem in any area with abandoned
coal or metal mines or where deposits of mine tailings are present. Some
states with AMD problems are Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Colorado,
J. Scott Horrell, the environmental

program manager with the Department of Environmental Protections
(DEP) Bureau of Abandoned Mine
Reclamation, shows acid mine drainage flowing from an entrance to an
old mine in Fallston, Pennsylvania,
in May 2005. DEP officials planned
to seal several entries to the mine,
which was abandoned in the 1960s.
(AP Photo/Keith Srakocic)
Coal a 111
Ohio, Wyoming, and Oklahoma. Outside the United States, AMD has
been reported in Indonesia and South Africa. Although not yet reported
elsewhere, AMD is likely a problem in other countries that now have, or
once had, heavy coal, zinc, iron, copper, or lead mining industries.
Reducing Acid Mine Drainage Problems
Acid mine drainage pollution can be reduced. One method involves sealing abandoned mines to prevent water from owing in or out, thus eliminating the discharge of acidic water into streams. Chemical treatment, in
which limestone or lime is used to neutralize acids that form in mines, is
most often used to eliminate AMD. Another successful method for reducing AMD involves using natural and human-made bog-type wetlands to
lter sulfuric acid from mine wastewater before it enters streams and rivers. Organic matter, bacteria, and algae all work together to lter, absorb,
and precipitate out the heavy metal ions and raise the pH level. More than
300 wetland water treatment systems have been built in the United States,
many in coal-mining regions.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established regulations to limit acid levels of mine drainage to no net acidity. The regulations require the pH of discharge to be between 6.0 and 9.0. The average
total iron content of the discharge must be less than 3 mg/L. According to
the EPA standards, new mines must be designed and operated to meet the
standard of zero discharge.
FEATURE
Cleanup Techniques for Acid Mine Drainage
Ohio Universitys Mary Stoertz, a professor of geology, and others have developed
a unique way to clean up AMD resulting from tailings surrounding abandoned coal
mines located in southeastern Ohio. A major stream in the area of the study was
highly acidic because of rainwater that leached sulfur from coal mine tailings. The
cleanup organization used flue gas desulphurization (FGD), an alkaline substance,
to neutralize the acid in the stream. Flue gas desulphurization is a waste byproduct
formed when calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is used by power plants to scrub sulfur
dioxide (SO2) from smokestack gases. A local power plant donated the FGD to the
university research team. There are also other experimental trials in Pennsylvania
using fly ash mixed with a solidifier to fill abandoned coal mines.
Coal Ash Slurry Spills

Coal power plants burn a lot of coal per year. Besides producing electricity,
these power plants also produce millions of tons of coal ash waste. The coal
ash wastes are stored in special lagoons or containment ponds in which a
mixture of coal ash and water produces coal ash slurry, which resembles a
thick mud or sludge. There are hundreds of these lagoons or ponds containing ash waste slurry throughout some of the leading coal-mining regions in the United States.
At times, the toxic material in the slurry has leached out of some of
these containment ponds, causing health problems for humans and wildlife. The toxic material can penetrate into groundwater reservoirs and local
streams as well. A major concern is that some of the dams containing the
slurry could break apart, causing millions of liters of slurry to spill out
into the environment, killing wildlife and damaging homes and businesses.
Now the U.S. government is planning policies to regulate and govern coal
ash waste disposal sites in those coal regions that have coal ash slurry containment ponds or lagoons.
HOW IS COAL TRANSPORTED?
Once the mining of coal is completed, the coal is ready to be shipped.
Shipping coal to various places in the country and overseas is a major business. Most coal sent from mining operations to various geographical areas
travels either by rail or by barges. Trucks and covered conveyor systems are
used to move coal over shorter distances. There is even a coal slurry pipeline (which mixes coal with water and sends it through a metal tube to its
destination) connecting a mine in Arizona with a power plant in Nevada
that handles several million tons annually. Lake carriers and ocean vessels
move huge quantities of coal shipments across the Great Lakes and to
countries overseas. Much of this coal is used to produce electricity.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 2008, in Kingston, Tennessee, approximately one billion gallons of coal ash slurry
and sludge spilled out of a containment pond and covered more than 400 acres of
land and contaminated local water resources.
Coal a 113
A Tennessee Valley Authority towboat heads off after pushing a bargeload of

coal into place to be unloaded at the Cumberland City Fossil plant in Cumberland City, Tennessee. The plant uses several thousand tons of coal each day.
(AP Photo/The Leaf-Chronicle, Greg Williamson)
HOW DOES A COAL-FIRED POWER

STATION PRODUCE ELECTRICITY?
Fossil fuel power plants using coal or natural gas convert the energy stored
in fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy, and nally electric energy. The rst step toward
using coal as an energy source is to pulverize the coal into ne powder for
proper combustion. The coal is then fed into a boiler to convert water into
steam. The steam is then used to drive steam turbines connected to a generator shaft, which generates electricity. Then the electricity is distributed
across a wide geographic area through transmission lines.
DID YOU KNOW?

The U.S. coal industry currently employs 80,000 people, down from 700,000 in the
1920s, when production was half of what it is today.
VIDEO
Peabody Energy: What Is Coal? To learn more about Earths coal, go to http://www.
schooltube.com/video/39882/Peabody-Energy-What-Is-Coal (02:33 minutes).
Almost 50 percent of all electricity produced in the United States is generated

by coal-fired plants. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
MAJOR COAL-PRODUCING STATES

The United States is the worlds second-largest coal producer after China,
and its coal production is spread throughout the country.
In the United States, coal adds $81 billion a year to the economy and
more than 1 million jobs for Americans. As stated earlier, in the United
States, coal is the major power behind our electricity needs.
More coal is produced in the state of Wyoming than in any other state
in the United States. One of the reasons is the low sulfur content of the coal
found in the Powder River Basin. Every time you turn on a light or turn
on your computer, it is possible that you are using coal, maybe even Powder
River coal. The Powder River Basin in Wyoming accounts for 35 percent of
all the nations coal production and produces low-ash, low-sulfur coal suitable for use since the Clean Air Act of 1990. West Virginia is responsible
for about 14 percent of all coal production in the United States, followed
by Kentucky, where about 10 percent of U.S. coal production takes place.
Coal a 115
DID YOU KNOW?

Coal mining in Pennsylvania fueled the Industrial Revolution in the United States in
the mid-1700s.
Wyoming is the largest producer of coal in the United States and has the largest number of surface coal mining operations. Some of the countrys largest
underground mining operations are in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
Colorado. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Coal Reserves 2007)
MAJOR GLOBAL COAL-PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Coal is the worlds most abundant and widely distributed fossil fuel. According to the International Energy Agency, by 2030 coal-based power generation will provide about one-third of all global electricity generation.
Major hard-coal producers include China, the United States, India,
Australia, South Africa, Russia, Indonesia, Poland, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. Although coal deposits are widely dispersed, more than 59 percent
of the worlds recoverable reserves are located in ve countriesAustralia,
China, India, the United States, and Canada.
Germany
Germany ranks seventh worldwide in coal production and ranks rst in
Europe and fourth worldwide in coal consumption. If the last coal-mining
pits are closed by 2018 as planned, it will mark an end to a long chapter in
German coal history. However, the country might have to import coal for
its power plants even though its mines will be closed.
India
India has a long history of commercial coal mining starting from 1774.
India relies mostly on coal to meet the nations energy demands, which
are growing along with its economy. Given Indias commitment to reduce
its coal-red emissions by 25 percent by 2030, the government has set up
plans and programs to search for alternative fuels.
China
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), China
is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world, and many of
Chinas large coal reserves have yet to be developed. As of 2006, coal accounts for about 70 percent of Chinas total energy consumption.
China is building coal plants that rst gasify the coal before it burns.
This process allows coal plants to burn coal between 30 percent and
44 percent more eciently. However, coal will remain a critical part of
Chinas energy mix for decades to come, but growth will slow and then
peak at perhaps 3.4 billion tons per year by 2020, according to Chinas
Energy Research Institute.
Poland
Poland is one of the leading coal producers in the world with an annual
coal production of more than 160 million metric tons. Poland has three
major Carboniferous coal basins, namely the Lower Silesian, Upper Silesian, and Lublin basins.
EXPORTERS OF COAL
Australia
According to the Australian Coal Industry, Australia is the worlds biggest
coal exporter, and black coal is Australias largest export, worth more than
$A50 billion in 20082009. With extensive coal reserves concentrated
along the nations eastern seaboard in New South Wales and Queensland,
Australia has more than 76 billion tons of identied black coal reserves,
which will last for more than 200 years at current rates of production.
Coal a 117
United States
As of 2008 the United States will export approximately 70 percent of
its total coal production. The value of U.S. coal exports is approximately
3.75 billion dollars annually. The United States exports to more than
40 countries around the world. Currently, Canada, Japan, and Italy are
among the biggest customers receiving shipments.
COAL IMPORTERS
Japan has continued to rely on coal and is expected to remain the worlds
largest coal importer. South Korea also is expected to continue importing
most of the coal it consumes. With planned increases in coal-red generating capacity, South Korea and Taiwan together are projected to maintain
a roughly 16 percent share of world imports in 2030, despite sizable increases in coal imports by other countries. Indias coal imports in 2030 are
projected to be three times the 2007 level.
Italys conversion of power plants from oil to coal also is projected to
increase its coal imports, and Germanys planned closure of its remaining hard coal mines by 2018 is expected to result in increasing imports of
coal for electricity generation. Israel also imports coal to meet approximately 25 percent of its energy requirements, primarily for electric power
generation.
COAL CONSUMPTION
The biggest market for coal is Asia, which currently accounts for 56 percent
of global coal consumption, although China is responsible for a signicant
proportion of this. Many countries do not have natural energy resources
sucient to cover their energy needs and therefore need to import energy
to help meet their requirements. Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, for example, import signicant quantities of steam coal for electricity generation
and coking coal for steel production.
According to the World Coal Institute, about 36 percent of the worlds
electricity is produced by burning coal. Coal is a major fuel for generating
electricity in Poland (97% of electricity), South Africa (93%), Australia
(85%), China (80%), India (75%), and the United States (49%). In the year
2010, coal use was expected to rise in Southeast Asia, where coal was to be
the major fuel for producing electricity.
As noted previously, most of the coal reserves are found in large deposits in the midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, but there are a few
coal deposits in the Southern Hemisphere. About 100 countries have coal
reserves. Most of the worlds largest deposits of coal are located in United
States, Russia, China, Australia, and India. The largest producers and users
of coal are China, the United States, India, and South Africa. Recent estimates indicate that the worlds supply of coal should last for another 250
to 400 years, at current production levels.
Coal a 119
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
All coal-red plants produce major air pollutants, such as carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, into the atmosphere. Studies indicate
that about 70 percent of all sulfur dioxide emissions and 35 percent of carbon dioxide pumped into the atmosphere come from coal-burning power
plants. Other air pollutants include volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
soot, ash, and other particulate matter. Heavy metals such as cadmium and
mercury are also released from coal-burning plants. They also produce bottom ash that needs to be collected and disposed of in landlls.
Sulfur Dioxide Emissions
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a characteristic acrid odor at high
concentrations that is a common pollutant emitted when fossil fuels containing sulfur are burned.
Major emissions of sulfur dioxide in the United States derive from power
plants east of the Mississippi River, particularly those in the Ohio Valley.
When released into the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapor
to form sulfuric acida major component of acid rain. Sulfate particles
also can be deposited as a dry contaminant that reacts with moisture in soil
to form sulfuric acid. Acids formed from sulfur dioxide can be damaging
to plants, aquatic ecosystems, and structures made from rock and metal.
Reducing Sulfur Dioxide Emissions
Today coal companies mine in areas where there is low-sulfur coal instead
of high-sulfur coal when economically feasible. Using low-sulfur coals can
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions. Washing coal to remove its sulfur is also
eective but expensive. Some power plants use special equipment called
scrubbers to remove most of the sulfur from coal emissions before they
enter the atmosphere. One option that eliminates emissions of sulfur includes coal gasication, a process used by manufacturing plants to scrub
the gas and remove sulfur compounds.
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Environmental scientists are concerned because the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is increasing, and more is being released
into the atmosphere than ever before. As global energy consumption
increases, so will CO2 emissions. According to some environmental reports, CO2 emissions are projected to rise from 30 billion tons in 2006 to
36.1 billion tons in 2015 and 44 billion metric tons in 2030an increase
of 39 percent over this projection period if the data is correct.
Pulverized coal-red burners dominate the power industry today, and
a typical power plant can pump out more than six million tons of CO2 a
yeara major cause of global warming and the main greenhouse gas. And
the addition of new power plants could bring an increase in future carbon
dioxide emissions.
As a result of concerns about harmful emissions of coal burning, particularly the burning of high-sulfur and low-quality coal, the United States,
Europe, and Japan initiated research and development programs in the
1980s to generate technologies, projects, and devices for controlling harmful emissions. These programs also sought ways to increase the eciency of
coal combustion, such as using clean coal technologies.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration Annual

Outlook 2009 projections)
DID YOU KNOW?

Additional increases in carbon dioxide levels are caused by deforestation. When
trees are cut down and burned to clear land for agriculture, CO2 is released. In
addition, as forests are cut down, there are fewer trees and other green plants to
absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Coal a 121
CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGY

In the United States, the Clean Coal Technology Program legislation was
launched in 1986. Supervised by the U.S. Department of Energy, the program directed industry to burn coal more eciently and to reduce emissions from domestic coal-red plants. The program also sought ways to
reduce the release of acid rain pollutants. One of the options in clean coal
technology programs is coal gasication, the conversion of coal to a gaseous product by one of several available technologies; this is considered an
alternative fuel.
Fluidized Bed Combustion Systems
The new Spurlock Fossil Plant in Maysville, Kentucky, uses clean coal technology known as the circulating uidized bed combustion process. The
new 268-megawatt plant is one of the cleanest coal-powered plants in the
United States.
How Does the Fluidized Bed Combustion System Work?
Fluidized bed combustion is a low-polluting technology for burning lowgrade coal in a boiler that traps sulfur dioxide emissions before they are
emitted into the atmosphere. The technology was created through research
and development sponsored by the Department of Energy.
According to the Department of Energy, the uidized beds suspend
solid fuels on upward-blowing jets of air during the combustion process.
A mixture of pulverized coal and limestone is forced into the boiler, where it
oats on the air while it burns. The calcium and some magnesium from the
limestone absorb the sulfur dioxide from the sulfur materials in the coal. The
result is a mixing of gas and solids. The tumbling action, much like a bubbling uid, provides more eective chemical reactions and heat transfer.
Fluidized bed combustion evolved from eorts to nd a combustion
process able to control pollutant emissions without external emission controls such as scrubbers. The technology burns fuel at temperatures of 1,400
DID YOU KNOW?

Americas coal-based electricity power companies have invested billions of dollars
in technologies to reduce emissions. As a result, the coal-generating plants are
much cleaner on the basis of regulated emissions per unit of energy produced.
to 1,700 degrees Fahrenheit, well below the temperature where nitrogen

and oxygen atoms combine to form nitrogen oxide pollutants.
In summary, it is the mixing action of the uidized bed that brings the
ue gases into contact with a sulfur-absorbing chemical, such as limestone
or dolomite. More than 95 percent of the sulfur pollutants in coal can be
captured inside the boiler by the sulfur-absorbing chemical.
The popularity of uidized bed combustion is due largely to the technologys fuel exibilityalmost any combustible material, from coal to
municipal waste, can be burnedand the good news is that the process has
the capability of meeting sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emission standards without the need for expensive add-on emission control systems.
Other Coal-Cleaning Processes
As part of the Department of Energys Clean Coal Technology Program,
Custom Coals International of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is testing coalcleaning processes that will produce low-cost coals with low sulfur content. One such process crushes and screens mined coal and then applies a
separation technique to remove about 90 percent of the sulfur. This special
coal product can reduce sulfur dioxide emissions to levels that meet the
compliance standards set by the new Clean Air Act.
Carbon Capture and Sequestration
Scientists are looking for new ways to use this old fuel and at the same
time nd ways to reduce, eliminate, or store the CO2. One promising program is called carbon capture and sequestration. Carbon sequestration
is a plan for the long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of
carbon. It would take the CO2 out of power plant emissions and store it
deep in the earth.
One method to help reduce the CO2 and store it underground is called
the integrated gasication combined cycle (IGCC). There are only two
IGCC plants now operating in the countryboth gasify coal.
VIDEO
Coal Comeback: A new generation of coal power stations promises zero emissions.
To learn more watch the this video from Hitachi: http://videos.howstuffworks.com/
hitachi/712-coal-comeback-video.htm (03:58 minutes).
Coal a 123
DID YOU KNOW?

Twenty-first-century coal plants emit 40 percent less CO2 than the average 20thcentury coal plants.
Gasication begins when coal slurry is injected with oxygen into a highpressure environment to create a gas. A turbine burns it to make power. Pollutants such as sulfur and particulates are stripped from the pressurized gas
during the gasication. The same method could be used to strip out CO2
as well. The leftover CO2 could be buried in the ground or used in some
places to force oil and gas from old wells. The carbon dioxide could also be
pumped deep into formations in the earth where high pressure would make
it a liquid. Small-scale tests show that the liquid CO2 stays underground.
One study found that most parts of the country could store large
amounts of CO2 underground. Some of these places include aquifers, reservoirs, aging oil elds, or other carbon sinks. Now, the Department of
Energys main coal project is a billion-dollar partnership with coal and
power companies called FutureGen. FutureGen would be the rst IGCC
plant with zero emissions.
FEATURE
The National Energy Technology Laboratory
The National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) is part of the Department of
Energys national laboratory system, and it runs a project called the Carbon Sequestration Program. This program is helping to develop technologies to capture,
separate, and store carbon dioxide (CO2) in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions without hindering economic growth. Carbon sequestration technologies capture and store CO2 that would otherwise reside in the atmosphere for long periods
of time.
Worldwide CO2 emissions from human activity have increased from an insignificant level two centuries ago to annual emissions of more than 33 billion tons today.
The U.S. Energy Information Administration predicts that, if no action is taken, the
United States will emit approximately 7,550 million tons of CO2 per year by 2030, increasing 2005 emission levels by more than 14 percent. The Carbon Sequestration
Program contributes to President Barack Obamas goal of developing technologies
to substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Clean Coal Technology in Germany

As mentioned, the concept of clean coal technology is to prevent carbon dioxide emissions from entering into the atmosphere from a power
plant. Instead the carbon dioxide emissions are captured, collected,
and then pumped deep into a natural rock formation for permanent
storage.
In theory clean coal technology sounds good. However, such a system
has not been built until recently.
In 2009 Germany built the rst clean coal-red power plant in the eastern region of the country. The pilot plant captures the carbon emissions
before the gases are released into the atmosphere. First the coal is burned,
producing boiling water to make steam that drives a turbine to generate
electricity. The leftover carbon dioxide emissions and other materials are
cycled back into a boiler. Under great pressure, the carbon dioxide is condensed into a liquid. The liquid is then transported to a closed natural gas
site and pumped a few thousand feet deep into the depleted gas reservoir
for storage.
Schwarze Pumpe is the worlds first coal-fired plant ready to capture and
store its own CO2 emissions. The Schwarze Pumpe coal power plant is located
in Spremberg, Germany. (AP Photo/Matthias Rietschel)
Coal a 125
U.S. Funding for Sequestration Technology

The United States is also doing research on sequestration technology. In
2009 Energy Secretary Steven Chu announced that more than $8.4 million in funding had recently been approved for seven sequestration technology projects across the country and at some colleges and universities.
These projects will train workers for a clean energy economy and help
position the United States as a leader in carbon capture and storage technologies for years to come, said Secretary Chu.
The National Energy Technology Laboratory of the Department of
Energy (DOE) in the past has also oered numerous grants for carbon
sequestration technologies and research. The national lab is responsible for
advancing carbon storage research and projects. As recently as October
2009, it oered grants for Geological Sequestration Training and Research
for up to $300,000. The Department of Energy also awarded more than
$1 million for Wyoming professors to study carbon dioxide plume movements within storage reservoirs. Ocials say the goal is to develop technologies for underground storage of the carbon dioxide that is emitted by
power plants and other facilities that burn coal and gas.
Coal Gasification Technology: Synthetic
Natural Gas
Coal gasication is the process of converting coal into a gas. The process
results in what is known as synthetic natural gas. Synthetic natural gas fuel
burns cleaner than coal and can be transported by pipeline. Gasication
works by mixing coal with oxygen, air, or steam at very high temperatures
to form methane, the major ingredient of natural gas. As a result, gasication plants allow for signicant reductions in pollutants. For example, carbon dioxide emissions can be reduced by approximately 20 percent using
coal gasication technology.
The Process
Step 1: Gasication. Gasication turns coal into a very hot, up to 3,200
degrees Fahrenheit, synthetic gas, or syngas, which is composed of carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, as well as small amounts of other
gases and particles. This is accomplished by mixing pulverized coal with an
oxidant, usually steam, air, or oxygen.
Step 2: Cooling and Cleaning. Next, the syngas is cooled and cleaned
to remove the other gases and particles, leaving only carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. Syngas is easier to clean than the emissions
from a pulverized coal power plant. During syngas cleaning, mercury, sulfur, trace contaminants, and particulate matter are removed.
Step 3: Shifting. Next, the syngas is sent to a shift reactor. During the
shift reaction, the carbon monoxide is converted into more hydrogen and
carbon dioxide by mixing it with steam. Afterward, the syngas consists
mostly of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Step 4: Purication. Once the syngas has been shifted, it is separated into streams of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen, once
cleaned, is ready for use. The carbon dioxide is captured and sent o for
sequestration.
The heart of a gasification-based system is the gasifier. A gasifier converts

hydrocarbon feedstock such as coal into gaseous components by applying
heat under pressure in the presence of steam. The gasification power plant
can also use feedstocks such as biomass and petroleum to produce synthetic
gas. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Coal a 127
Step 5: Usage. There is now a stream of pure hydrogen ready for a variety
of uses. It can be burned in a gas turbine for electricity generation, converted to electricity in a fuel cell, used as a fuel for an internal combustion
engine, or used as a chemical for making fertilizer, semiconductors, and
many other valuable energy products.
Coal-gasication electric power plants are now operating commercially
in the United States and in other nations, and many experts predict that
coal gasication will be at the heart of future generations of clean coal
technology plants.
Environmental Benets
The environmental benets of gasication are that the process can achieve
extremely low sulfur dioxides, nitrogen dioxides, and emission particles
from burning coal-derived gases. During gasication, sulfur in coal, for
example, is converted to hydrogen sulde and can be captured by processes presently used in the chemical industry. In some methods, the sulfur can be extracted in either a liquid or a solid form that can be sold
commercially.
In an integrated gasication combined cycle (IGCC) plant, the syngas
produced is virtually free of fuel-bound nitrogen. Nitrogen oxide from the
gas turbine is limited to thermal nitrogen oxide. Diluting the syngas allows
for nitrogen oxide emissions as low as 15 parts per million.
Using Synthetic Gas for Hydrogen Production:
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Gasication, in fact, may be one of the most exible technologies for producing clean-burning hydrogen for tomorrows automobiles and powergenerating fuel cells for homes and businesses. Hydrogen and other coal
gases can also be used to fuel power-generating turbines, or as the chemical building blocks for a wide range of commercial products.
DID YOU KNOW?

Synthetic fuels, or synfuels, can also be made from oil shale and biomass (animal
and plant wastes), but most are produced from solid coal.
Some energy companies are considering using gasication of coal for

the production of hydrogen. The resulting syngas, when burned, produces
nearly twice as much usable energy as coal.
Although syngas is a cleaner-burning energy source than coal, it does
produce carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas associated with global
warming. So one company plans to break down the syngas into its two
components, hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The next step is to chemically change the carbon monoxide to make carbon dioxide. This process
produces excellent sources of both hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen is used to operate fuel cells. The carbon dioxide could be stored
underground in a process called sequestration.
Not everyone believes that clean coal technologies are sucient in
reducing air pollutants. Many environmentalists believe the best way to
reduce air pollutants is to replace coal-red plants with those that use
cleaner-burning fossil fuels or to eliminate the plants entirely and use
renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar energy. But the
problem is that several nations with large coal reserves want to build up
their economies. These countries may nd it cheaper to continue to use
coal rather than switch to renewable technologies, which they might feel
cost too much to use or take too long to develop.
THE FUTURE OF COAL
Coal will continue to play a key role in the worlds energy mix, with demand
in certain regions set to grow rapidly. Growth in the coal markets will be
strongest in developing Asian countries, where demand for electricity and
steel for construction and car production will increase as incomes rise.
Environmental Issues Still Prevail
Even though there have been major accomplishments in producing cleaner
coal, some energy experts are predicting less coal use in the future because
of emission regulations. As mentioned earlier, environmental scientists are
concerned because the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing; more is being released into the atmosphere than ever before.
Other energy experts favor the installation of new gas plants because
even an ecient coal-red power plant emits twice the carbon dioxide of
a natural gasred plant. And there are a number of people who recommend eliminating coal-red power plants altogether by 2030. Will coal
be a dominant energy source for the next several decades? There is plenty
Coal a 129
of coal in the ground, and it may last more than 200 years at the present
rate of consumption. But time will tell the story of coal as a major energy
source after 2030.
Burns, Shirley Stewart. Bringing Down the Mountains: The Impact of Mountaintop Removal on Southern West Virginia Communities. Morgantown: West Virginia University Press, 2007.
Coal Age Magazine. http://coalage.com.
Freese, Barbara. Coal: A Human History. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Book
Group, 2003.
Mahlum, D. D., et al., eds. Coal Conversion and the Environment: Chemical, Biomedical, and Ecological Considerations. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Energy, 1981.
Riddle, John. Coal Power of the Future. New York: Rosen, 2003.
U.S. Geological Survey National Coal Resources Data System. http:energy.
er.usgs.gov/coalqual.htm.
van Krevelen, D. W. Coal: TypologyPhysicsChemistryConstitution.
3rd ed. Maryland Heights, MO: Elsevier Science.
SOMETHING TO DO
Synthetic fuels technology has been explained as a means to produce clean,
reliable, and sustainable energy sources for the 21st century. The conversion of coal to liquid forms of energy is one of those technologies. There is
serious debate as to whether liquid coal should be an option for reducing
Americas dependence on oil. Explore the arguments for and against the
transformation of coal into diesel and other liquid fuels. Take a side and
explain your decision. For some references, visit www.futurecoalfuels.org
and www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/solutions.
WEB SITES
non-government organizations.
www.americancoalcouncil.org
The American Coal Council (ACC) is dedicated to advancing the
development and utilization of American coal as an economic, abundant/secure, and environmentally sound energy fuel source.
www.coaleducation.org/miningtv/modern_videos.htm
Kentuckys coal education Web site presents factual, useful information about coal in a fun and productive way.
web.mit.edu/coal/.
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) faculty group examines the role of coal in a world where constraints on carbon dioxide emissions are adopted to mitigate global climate change.
http://fossil.energy.gov/
The primary mission of the Department of Energys Oce of Fossil
Energy is to ensure that we can continue to rely on clean, aordable
energy from our traditional fuel resources.
VIDEOS
understanding of coal energy topics and issues. The author has made a consistent eort to include up-to-date Web sites. However, over time, some
may move or may no longer be available.
What is coal and how is electricity produced? To learn more about
the earths original biofuel, go to http://www.schooltube.com/
video/39882/Peabody-Energy-What-Is-Coal (02:33 minutes).
Coal EnergyDuke Power, United States: Caught between a rock
and a hot place! The CEO of Duke Power, Americas third-largest
energy provider, discusses the daunting challenges ahead for the coal
industry to lower CO2 emissions. Clean coal makes putting a man
on the moon look easy. To learn more about how the United States
could adapt its 200-year reserve to benet the globe and preserve
the American way of life, go to http://www.cbsnews.com/video/
watch/?id=4969902n (10:00 minutes).
Coal ComebackA new generation of coal power stations promises zero emissions. To learn more, watch the following video from
Hitachi: http://videos.howstuworks.com/hitachi/712-coal-comeback-video.htm (03:58 minutes).
Chapter 5
Nuclear Energy
In 2009 U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu announced the selection

of 71 university research project awards. The awards were part of the Department of Energys investments in nuclear energy research and development.
Under the Nuclear Energy University Program (NEUP), the cost of
these projects will be about approximately $44 million when completed.
The NEUP program will help advance new nuclear technologies in support of the nations energy goals and will play a key role in addressing the
global climate crisis and moving the nation toward greater use of nuclear
energy.
As a zero-carbon energy source, nuclear power must be part of our
energy mix as we work toward energy independence and meeting the
challenge of global warming, said Secretary Chu. The next generation of
nuclear power plantswith the highest standards of safety, eciency and
environmental protectionwill require the latest advancements in nuclear
science and technology. These research and development university awards
will ensure that the United States continues to lead the world in the nuclear eld for years to come.
In 2010 President Barack Obama announced an $8.3 billion federal
loan to build two new reactors in Georgia. Well have to build a new
generation of safe, clean nuclear power plants in America, said President
FEATURE
The U.S. Department of Energy
The Department of Energys nuclear energy program is designed to promote secure, competitive, and environmentally responsible nuclear technologies to serve
the present and future energy needs of the United States and the world.
Obama. This was signicant news given that there have been no new
nuclear units licensed since the near-meltdown at the Three Mile Island
nuclear power plant near Middletown, Pennsylvania, in 1979.
WHY THE INTEREST IN NUCLEAR ENERGY?
One answer to this question is that the global demand for electricity is
expected to increase by almost 50 percent by 2030, according to the U.S.
Department of Energy. As of 2009, nuclear energy provides almost 20 percent of all electricity used in the United States and is responsible for about
15 percent of the worlds electrical energy output, according to the World
Nuclear Industry Report. However, the construction of new nuclear power
plants in the United States could provide 33 percent of U.S. electricity, according to advocates for nuclear power.
The current conventional sources of electric power, such as coal, natural
gas, and hydropower, may not be able to supply all of the worlds electrical
needs by 2030. Additionally, the renewable energy sources such as wind,
solar, and geothermal may still lag behind as major sources of electricity
during this time. In fact, presently, the renewable non-hydropower fuels
supply less than 3 percent of electrical energy needs in the United States,
according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
One of the major benets of nuclear energy is that nuclear power plants
can operate without contributing to climate change. Although the complete nuclear fuel cycle emits small amounts of greenhouse gases because
of the fossil fuels used to mine uranium, transport nuclear fuel, and provide some of the electrical energy to run uranium enrichment plants, the
ratio of greenhouse gases emitted to the electricity generated is lower for
nuclear energy than for virtually all other electricity generation sources.
(The possible exceptions may be certain hydropower and geothermal
Nuclear Energy a 133
The dome of the nuclear reactor

of Sizewell nuclear power plant in
eastern England, commissioned in
1995. According to the World Nuclear Association, the United Kingdom has 19 reactors generating
about 15 percent of its electricity;
all but one of these will be retired by
2023. (iStockphoto)
plants, but these sources confront geographical and environmental limitations.) When operating, nuclear power plants do not emit greenhouse
gases. However, there are safety, security, and environmental issues related
to using nuclear power as a major energy supplier in the future. Nonetheless, because of nuclear powers benets, several countries are now initiating new and extensive nuclear energy projects and programs to help supply
more worldwide electricity demands in the future.
WHAT IS NUCLEAR ENERGY?
Nuclear energy is the energy stored within the nuclei of atoms. Atoms are
tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous
energy in the bonds that hold atoms together. However, the energy is very
concentrated, so it is hard to release it unless a nuclear reactor is used.
Inside the nuclear reactor, the nuclei of heavy atoms of an element, such
as uranium or plutonium, are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing
DID YOU KNOW?

Nuclear energy is used to detect and treat certain illnesses.
energy when struck by a neutron. The splitting or the visioning of the

nucleus releases more atoms and energy, both at the same time. When
this action occurs, energy is released. The neutrons continue to split other
nuclei to cause a chain reaction, a series of nuclear ssions that produce
enough neutrons to keep the reaction going.
The heat energy given o during ssion in the reactor is used to boil
water into steam, which turns the turbine blades. As they turn, they drive
generators that make electricity. Afterward, the steam is cooled back into
water in a separate structure at the power plant called a cooling tower. The
water can be used again and again.
The electricity is transmitted along transmission power lines carried to
communities. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates
the safe and secure operation of all U.S. nuclear power plants.
HISTORY OF USING NUCLEAR ENERGY
The rst experimental ssion reaction was observed in December 1938
by chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman in Germany, but the results
were not fully understood until January 1939, when physicists Otto Frisch
and Lise Meitner explained the reaction as ssioning of uranium nuclei.
In 1942 at the University of Chicago, scientists, led by Enrico Fermi, produced a self-sustaining chain reaction using nuclear fuel.
During World War II, the U.S. government approved The Manhattan
Project, a top-secret program conducted between 1942 and 1945 for the
purpose of developing an atomic (nuclear) bomb for use during World
War II. As a result of the Manhattan Project, three atomic bombs (Trinity Test, Fat Man, and Little Boy) were produced. In the summer of 1945,
two atomic bombs were dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
Japan.
After World War II, a major eort was made to apply nuclear energy to
nonweapon uses. The worlds rst commercial-scale nuclear reactor power
plant began to operate in Britain in 1956. In 1957 in Shippingport, Pennsylvania, the rst large-scale nuclear power plant, a pressurized water reactor, began operations.
The U.S. program expanded quickly in the 1960s and 1970s. In 2009,
104 power reactors supplied about 800 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity in the United States, almost 20 percent of total electricity for the
country.
The Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Shippingport, Pennsylvania, was

the countrys first large-scale civilian atomic power plant to generate electricity for commercial use. (Library of Congress)
CONCERNS ABOUT NUCLEAR WEAPONS

During the 1960s and 1970s, many nations were concerned about the
buildup of nuclear weapons and the proliferation of these weapons to
other nations. The concern centered on the misuse of nuclear energya
dual-use technologyfor weaponry. In 1970 the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons went into eect. Nations without nuclear
weapons agreed not to develop them in exchange for the provision of
non-nuclear materials and technology from the nations that already had
nuclear weapons. In a major eort to limit the nuclear arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union, negotiations such as
the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were pursued during the
1980s.
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) attempts to ensure that
countries do not misuse peaceful nuclear programs to make weapons. It is
a United Nations agency, headquartered in Vienna, Austria, that promotes

safe and secure use of peaceful nuclear energy. The IAEA advises countries
on such matters as nuclear energy, nuclear radioactive waste management,
and nuclear safety and security programs.
WORLD USE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries, including the United States,
have chosen nuclear power as part of their energy needs. Other countries
that use nuclear energy include China, Russia, France, Belgium, Germany,
India, Japan, Poland, and South Korea. According to the World Nuclear
Association, there were 444 nuclear power reactors worldwide in 2009.
These reactors supply approximately 17 percent of the worlds electrical
needs for more than one billion people without emitting any carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases during their operation.
Many of the worlds nuclear power reactors are located in the United States
and in Europe. In recent years France has emerged as a leader in the nuclear
industry. (Source: International Nuclear Safety Center at Argonne National
Laboratory, 2005)
United States
the world, with 104 units supplying more than 750 billion kilowatt (kW)
hours as of 2009. The United States is using more nuclear energy today as a
a new reactor order. (Watts Bar Unit 1, completed in 1996, was the latest
completed U.S. reactor as of 2010.)
There are currently 31 states with nuclear power plants. Some of these
states include Washington, Texas, Tennessee, Illinois, Florida, and California. Most plants go oine for relatively short periods of timeless than one
month annuallyfor refueling and basic maintenance. However, some plants
may go oine for extended periods to make more substantial repairs.
Of the 31 states, 6 rely on nuclear power for more than 50 percent
of their electricity, and another 13 states rely on nuclear power for up to
2550 percent of their electricity. However, determining which states use
nuclear power can be dicult. Because power generation is shared across
state lines, it is reasonable to assume a vast majority of states, if not all, use
nuclear power to some extent.
France
Frances rst nuclear reactor began operating in 1974; the most recent
one (before Flamanville and Penly) in 2000. About 78 percent of Frances
electricity is produced by nuclear energy. France is a major exporter of
electricity to other countries in Europe.
DID YOU KNOW?

In addition to state nuclear power plants, the U.S. military is a big user of nuclear
power. Submarines and naval ships often have nuclear power plants as their primary power source. This is particularly true for newer vessels.
VIDEO
Frances Nuclear Energy Program. With nuclear power producing nearly 80 percent of the countrys energy needs, France has more than 55 nuclear reactors in a
country the size of Texas. To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
i-rKBrs7kYE&feature=related (10:00 minutes).
Other Countries
As of 2009, South Korea had 20 reactors providing almost 40 percent of
the countrys electricity. Japans 53 reactors produce about 30 percent of
the countrys electrical needs. Russia uses 31 reactors for generating about
16 percent of its electricity. Across Europe there are about 192 reactors in
such countries as Belgium, Germany, Lithuania, and Poland. Today, additional nuclear power plants are under consideration, in the planning stages,
or under construction in Russia, China, and India, to name a few.
NUCLEAR FUEL
Nuclear plants use uranium fuel, consisting of solid ceramic pellets. The
basic fuel used in nuclear reactors is uranium-235 (U-235). In nature, less
than 1 percent of uranium is in the form of isotope U-235. It occurs mixed
in with uraniums much more abundant form, U-238, which constitutes
more than 99 percent of natural uranium. For most commercial reactors,
the concentration of U-235 has to be increased through an industrial process called enrichment in order to be able to sustain a ssion chain reaction. Following is an example of this ssion reaction:
U235 0n1 36Kr90 56Ba142 neutrons
92
This chemical reaction in the fuel releases several neutrons per atom of
U-235, making a chain reaction possible. (Kr-90 and Ba-142 are two examples of ssion products; other common ssion products include Cs-137
and Sr-90.) In a nuclear reactor, the fuels chain reaction is controlled to
maintain a steady reaction rate.
Mining Uranium
Uranium minerals are widely distributed in Earths crust. They are present
in sandstones, in veins within rock fractures, and in placer depositsore
Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. In nuclear fission,

atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power
plants use this energy to produce electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
materials that have been transported and deposited in river deltas and
streams.
Most uranium mined in the United States derives from sandstone deposits. Worldwide, the richest deposits of uranium are in Russia, Ukraine,
Australia, Canada, and southern Africa. According to the Nuclear Energy
Agency, known uranium deposits could fuel the current global reactor eet
for at least another 80 years. The total amount of uranium is unknown. As
the price of uranium goes up, there is more incentive for additional prospecting to nd more deposits. The worlds oceans could conceivably supply
several hundred years or more of uranium based on current demands for
nuclear-generated electricity.
According to the Department of Energy, in 2008 the major foreign suppliers of uranium to the United States were Australia and Canada (42%),
followed by Kazakhstan, Russia, and Uzbekistan (33%) and nally, Brazil,
DID YOU KNOW?

A single, quarter-ounce pellet of uranium creates as much energy as three and a
half barrels of oil or 1,780 pounds of coal, without carbon dioxide emissions.
Czech Republic, Namibia, Niger, South Africa, and the United Kingdom
(11%). Only 14 percent of the delivered uranium to nuclear power plants
was from uranium ore deposits in the United States. Two of the states
with the largest known uranium ore reserves include Wyoming and New
Mexico.
Processing Uranium to Make Fuel
The major nuclear reactors use essentially the same uranium fuel. However,
before uranium can be used in a reactor, it must undergo several processing
steps to be converted from an ore to solid ceramic fuel pellets. The pellets
are about the size of a humans ngertip, but each one produces roughly the
same amount of energy as 150 gallons of oil.
The processing steps include mining and milling, conversion, enrichment, and fabrication. Uranium miners obtain uranium ore via surface or
open-pit mining and underground mining. Special liquid cleaners remove
the uranium from the mined ore, and the resulting uranium oxide is called
yellowcake.
The yellowcake is ltered and dried and then is converted in a chemical processes to uranium hexauoride. Uranium hexauoride is a chemical compound of uranium consisting of one atom of uranium combined
with six atoms of uorine. The uranium hexauoride is processed as a gas.
The enriched uranium hexauoride is stored in cylinders. When it cools,
it condenses into a solid. Through another chemical process, the uranium
hexauoride is transformed into uranium dioxide, which is used to make
fuel rods.
Fuel Rods
The fuel used in most nuclear reactors is natural uranium oxide or enriched
uranium oxide U-235. (Note: Some reactors are fueled with mixed oxide
fuel, which combines uranium oxide and plutonium oxide.) U-235 is one
of the ssionable isotopes of uranium. The enriched fuel is made into the
ceramic pellets and placed inside fuel rods made of a zirconium alloy, or
other material. The fuel rods are joined together in a reactor core. When
the U-235 is bombarded with neutrons, ssion reaction takes place in the
reactor core:
U235 0n1 36Kr90 56Ba142 neutrons
92
Uranium pellets fill fuel rods in this full-scale model of a nuclear fuel assembly at
the Ulba Metallurgical Plant in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan. These energyrich pellets are stacked end-to-end into long metal fuel rods. A bundle of fuel
rods is called a fuel assembly. A reactor core contains many fuel assemblies.
(Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images)
In U-235 atoms, the nucleus is unstable. As the atoms nuclei break up,
they release neutrons. When the neutrons hit other uranium atoms, those
atoms also split, releasing neutrons along with heat energy. These neutrons strike other atoms, splitting them, and they in turn split other atoms,
until there is a chain reaction. When that happens, ssion becomes selfsustaining.
Moderator and Coolants
The moderator in the nuclear reactor is used to slow down the neutrons.
The right speed is maintained for a steady ssion rate. The moderators
contain a variety of materials, including pure water, heavy water or deuterium oxide, and graphite. Coolants are piped into and out of the reactor
core, removing excessive amounts of heat that build up in the reactor. The
steam generator is part of the cooling system in which the heat from the
reactor is used to make steam for the turbine.
The list of coolants includes pure water or heavy water, carbon dioxide,
sodium, and helium. Most commercial reactors use water as both coolant
and moderator. The discharges of the heated water are pumped into cooling towers or nearby waterways.
Control Rods
The chain reaction is regulated by control rods made from neutronabsorbing materials such as cadmium or boron. The control rods in the reactor core are raised or lowered to speed up, slow down, or stop the ssion.
No combustion occurs in the process of producing nuclear energy, and
therefore, no greenhouse gas emissions are released into the atmosphere.
THE KINDS OF NUCLEAR REACTORS
Commercial nuclear power plants in the United States are either boiling water reactors or pressurized water reactors. Both boiling water reactors and pressurized water reactors are cooled by ordinary water. The water
is the main that carries the heat from the ssion reaction to the generator
that produces electricity. The other kind of reactor is the breeder reactor.
The United States does not use breeder reactors.
Boiling Water Reactors
Boiling water reactors use ssion to boil water and produce steam. The
steam is transferred by pipes directly to the turbine, which drives the
electric generator to produce electricity. The boiling water reactor obtains
the water it needs from several sources, including rivers, lakes, streams,
and oceans. The radioactive water ows back to the reactor core, where
it is reheated and returned back to the steam generator. Approximately
30 of every 100 nuclear reactors in the United States are boiling water
reactors.
VIDEO
To view an animated boiling water reactor in action, visit http://www.nrc.gov/
reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html.
A boiling water reactor is a light water reactor in which water is used as both
coolant and moderator and is allowed to boil in the core. The resulting steam
can be used directly to drive a turbine to produce electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
Pressurized Water Reactors

Approximately 70 of every 104 reactors in the United States are pressurized water reactors. Pressurized water reactors heat water, similar to
the other kinds of reactors. However, the pressurized water reactors keep
the water under high pressure to prevent it from boiling. The hot water is
pumped from the reactor to a steam generator. There, the heat from the
water is transferred to a second, separate supply of water that boils to make
steam. The steam spins the turbine, which drives the electric generator to
produce electricity.
Breeder Reactor
The breeder reactor is quite dierent from the other reactors. A breeder
nuclear reactor generates at least as much ssionable fuel as it consumes,
while also producing steam that can drive a turbine and generator to produce electricity. Because they produce fuel, breeder reactors could greatly
extend the useful life of uranium reserves.
A pressurized water reactor is a nuclear reactor in which heat is transferred

from the core to a heat exchanger by water. The water is kept under high
pressure so that high temperatures can be maintained in the system without
boiling the water. Steam is generated in a secondary circuit. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
According to the Department of Energy, a breeder reactor is designed to

produce ssionable plutonium-239 (Pu-239) from uranium-238 (U-238).
The core of the reactor consists of bundles of plutonium-lled fuel rods
surrounded by an outer layer of U-238 fuel rods. The U-238 fuel rods are
bombarded by high-speed neutrons, which split apart the U-238 and cause
a chain reaction in which some U-238 is transformed into Pu-239. This
process can produce plutonium in sucient amounts for extraction and
processing for later use as fuel.
However, a disadvantage of breeder reactors is that the electricity they
generate is generally more costly than that produced by other nuclear
reactors. Breeder reactors are also expensive to construct and require a
great deal more engineering to be made operational. Another disadvantage is that plutonium is much more radioactive than uranium, making
disposal of breeder reactor wastes dicult and the threat of a nuclear
disaster more imposing. Plutonium can also be used to build nuclear
weapons.
SOME MAJOR NUCLEAR REACTOR MANUFACTURERS

Globally, General Electric and the Westinghouse Electric Company are
some of the major manufacturers and suppliers of nuclear power plant
products and technologies. In 1957, Westinghouse supplied the worlds
rst pressurized water reactor in Shippingport, Pennsylvania.
General Electric designs the boiling water reactor that is used throughout the world. Its newly designed boiling water reactor will be installed in
Japan. Other manufacturers developing newer designs of nuclear reactors
are GE-Hitachi Nuclear Energy Canada, Areva Company in France, and
Mitsubishi in Japan.
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS GENERATE WASTE
Like all industrial processes, nuclear power generation has by-product
wastes such as spent fuels and other radioactive wastes, which are the principal environmental concerns for nuclear power.
A nuclear plant can produce up to several hundred pounds of highlevel radioactive wastes each year. Radioactive wastes can fall into several categorieshigh-level radioactive wastes, low-level radioactive waste,
transuranic wastes, and uranium mill tailings.
High-Level Radioactive Wastes
Highly radioactive material waste associated with the production of
weapons and in the operation of nuclear reactors is called high-level
radioactive waste. Th is waste is no longer useful in sustaining a nuclear
reaction.
One form of high-level radioactive waste is spent nuclear fuel. This is a
solid material that is composed of uranium oxide pellets encased in metal
tubes called fuel rods. This material is highly radioactive and very dangerous and must be stored safely. Thousands of tons of spent nuclear fuel are
stored at commercial nuclear power reactors, and the amount grows each
year. In fact, the average-sized nuclear power plant reactor produces 25 to
30 tons of spent fuel per year.
Low-Level Radioactive Wastes
However, according to the Department of Energy, most nuclear waste is
low-level radioactive waste. Uranium enrichment processes, contaminated
lab equipment, isotope production, and research and development activities generate such waste.
Mostly, low-level wastes (LLW) include materials such as tools, clothing, rags, papers, lters, equipment, soil, and construction rubble that are
contaminated with low levels of radioactivity. This waste does not include
high-level wastes, transuranic waste, or uranium mill tailings.
Low-level wastes are less hazardous than high-level radioactive wastes
because the radioactivity of most LLW diminishes to harmless levels
through radioactive decay after several years. They require little or no
shielding and no cooling during handling and transporting.
However, a small fraction of LLW are longer-lived radioactive substances
that can pose public health risks for up to a few hundred years. Therefore,
these materials are subject to special regulation that governs their disposal
so that they will not come in contact with the outside environment.
Transuranic Wastes
Transuranic (TRU) waste materials have been generated in the United
States since the 1940s. Most of this waste originates from nuclear weapons production facilities for defense programs. Transuranic refers to the
heaviness of the elementthese elements are heavier, meaning higher in
atomic number in the periodic table, than uranium. Some of these heavy
elements include plutonium, neptunium, americium, and curium. The most
major element in most TRU waste is plutonium.
Some TRU waste consists of items such as rags, tools, glassware, protective clothing, and laboratory equipment contaminated with radioactive materials. Other forms of TRU waste include organic and inorganic
residues or even entire enclosed contaminated cases in which radioactive
materials were handled. These wastes decay slowly and need long-term
waste storage.
Most of the TRU waste can be packaged and stored in metal drums or
in metal boxes. They can be handled under controlled conditions without
any shielding beyond the container itself. The waste emits primarily alpha
particles that are easily shielded. However, about 3 percent of TRU waste
must be both handled and transported in shielded casks. This TRU waste
emits gamma radiation, which is very penetrating and requires concrete,
lead, or steel to block the radiation.
Other radioactive wastes include uranium mill tailings from the mining
and processing of uranium ore. The tailings consist of rock and soil containing small amounts of radium and other radioactive materials. Uranium
mill tailings become a radioactive waste disposal problem because radon, a
radioactive gas, is produced when radium decays.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is an agency established by the U.S.
Congress under the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974. According to the
agencys objectives, the NRC ensures protection of the publics health and
safety and the environment in the use of nuclear materials in the United
States. Other responsibilities include the regulation of commercial nuclear
reactors, industrial uses of nuclear materials, and the transport, storage, and
disposal of nuclear materials and waste.
Either the NRC or the States must license low-level waste disposal
facilities in accordance with health and safety requirements. The facilities
are to be designed, constructed, and operated to meet the safety standards
required by the license. Those responsible for operating the facilities must
analyze how the facility will perform for thousands of years into the future. As of 2009, the United States is facing a shortage of low-level waste
disposal facilities.
Disposing of Nuclear Waste
Safely disposing of radioactive wastes that may remain radioactive for thousands of years is a major concern and top-priority issue for many countries
that use nuclear energy. According to the IAEA, about 350,000 cubic feet
of high-level waste accumulate each year. Unfortunately, not one country
has any long-term plan or program for where to store radioactive wastes
DID YOU KNOW?

If the waste is transuranic and has a concentration of more than 100 nanocuries
per gram, it is treated as transuranic waste. If the concentration is less than 100
nanocuries per gram, it is treated as low-level waste.
safely. The United States had investigated the possibility of constructing

a high-level waste depository in Yucca Mountain in Nevada. However,
the Obama administration decided not to fund the project in 2009; nevertheless, many members of Congress still favor using the facility. At that
time, President Obama and Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid agreed to
form a blue ribbon senior advisory panel to study other high-level waste
disposal options. Both President Obama and Senator Reid have said that
Yucca Mountain is not a viable option. Meanwhile, the NRC is continuing
to review the license application for Yucca Mountain because as of 2009,
U.S. law requires ongoing consideration of the project. Depending on the
deliberations of the blue ribbon panel, the president and Congress may
formally shut down the project, decide to continue it by itself, or decide
to pursue another disposal facility with or without the Yucca Mountain
option.
Nuclear Waste Policy Act
The U.S. government is responsible for nding a way to safely dispose
of this spent nuclear fuel. In 1982 the U.S. Congress passed the Nuclear
A worker conducts an underground train in 2006 into a tunnel leading to the

proposed Yucca Mountain nuclear waste dump near Mercury, Nevada. (AP
Photo/Isaac Brekken)
Waste Policy Act, which directed the Department of Energy to nd a

site. Although sites in Texas and the state of Washington were considered, Yucca Mountain, in the southwestern part of Nevada, was selected
in 1987.
More than two decades of work went into making a Yucca Mountain
nuclear facility that would be used as a long-term repository for the nations commercial and defense spent fuel and high-level radioactive wastes.
The project is under the supervision of the U.S. Department of Energy,
which, along with the U.S. Geological Survey, conducted studies to evaluate earthquake activity, ways to ensure habitat preservation, and the socioeconomic impact of this potential site. But several environmentalists and
organizations voiced their objections to the Yucca program because they
believe the stored radioactive wastes would be a health risk and a danger to future populations in the area, and as noted previously, in 2009 the
Obama administration did not request funding for further construction of
the project, leaving its continuation very much in doubt. In the future, a
blue ribbon panel will assess high-level waste disposal options and report
to the president and Congress.
Recycle Nuclear Waste
Can any of the spent fuel be recycled? One of the misconceptions of nuclear power is that once the fuel is removed from the commercial nuclear
reactor, it has been used up. It turns out that there is still 95 percent usable
energy in the spent nuclear fuel after it is removed from the light-water
nuclear reactor used today. This spent fuel can be recycled and used in fast
neutron reactors or used in a new generation of nuclear reactors to produce
more energy.
Fast Neutron Reactors or Fast Breeders
According to nuclear experts, the development of fast neutron reactors can
result in the creation of more energy and less nuclear wastes in comparison
with the present conventional nuclear reactors. Fast breeders can also burn
the recycled spent fuel wastes from other nuclear reactors. Therefore, this
kind of reactor is more ecient in using nuclear fuel than other types of
reactors. How is it done? Simply stated, fast neutron reactors extract more
energy from nuclear fuel than other reactors because their fast-moving,
higher-energy neutrons cause atomic ssions more eciently than the
slow-moving neutrons used in the other reactors. And in the process, a bit
more usable new fuel, plutonium, is also created for use in the reactor.
Several countries have or are considering building fast neutron reactors.
In fact, France is planning for half of its present nuclear capacity to be replaced by fast neutron reactors by 2050. China, Japan, and Russia are also
planning on more advanced fast neutron nuclear reactors.
Other Plans to Transform Wastes into Nuclear Fuel
In the United States, scientists at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in
Tennessee have worked on plans to transform nuclear leftover wastes into
fuel for a new breed of reactors. The new reactor and fuel, according to
the scientists, could produce up to 100 times as much energy as a conventional reactor and generate 40 percent less waste than the conventional
reactor.
Presently, countries such as France, the United Kingdom, Japan, and
Russia use a process called plutonium uranium recovery by extraction
In the liquid metal fast breeder reactor, the fission reaction produces heat to
run the turbine while at the same time breeding plutonium fuel for the reactor.
(PUREX) to recycle nuclear waste. The United States stopped recycling

waste to support the nonproliferation policy because the PUREX process
can be used to create weapons-grade plutonium.
Many of these technologies to recycle spent fuel are still in the research
phase. The benets of these technologies would create less waste while
binding the plutonium to other chemicals so that it is much less desirable
for use in weapons.
CUTTING-EDGE NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES
Pebble Bed Modular Reactor
Many companies are developing new technologies in building nuclear
reactors. One such technology is called a pebble bed modular reactor
(PBMR).
The PBMR is a steel pressure vessel that holds about 450,000 fuel
spheres. The spheres consist of low-enriched uranium particles that are
encased in graphite and are about the size of a baseball. The coated layers on the spheres provide a barrier that is dense enough to ensure that
no radioactive products escape. The heat provides energy to the turbines
generators to produce electricity. The heat that is transferred by the helium to the power conversion system is converted into electricity through a
turbine. The PBMR system is cooled with helium. More research is being
conducted on this technology.
Floating Nuclear Power Plants
There are more than 200 nuclear reactors powering various kinds of ships.
Russia has designed a plan to build a nuclear power plant on a large barge.
The barge would be permanently moored, and the nuclear power plant
would supply electricity to local shore communities and coastal industrial
VIDEO
Nuclear waste and recycling: For more on nuclear waste recycling, refer to the
following video, Waste and Recycling, featuring nuclear engineer Dr. Kathy McCarthy: www.ne.doe.gov/video/videoGallery.html (2:20 minutes).
FEATURE
Neutropolis: The Nuclear Energy Zone for Students
The U.S. Department of Energys Office of Nuclear Energy is extending its outreach
efforts for youth with the launch of a new Web site geared toward students in
grades K12. The new site features a mythical city known as Neutropolis and was
tested by select target audiences prior to posting.
Neutropolis: The Nuclear Energy Zone for Students provides information
about nuclear energy and its many uses in separate tracks directed at younger,
intermediate, and advanced students. It also contains games and challenges designed to appeal to students of different ages, ideas for science projects, information about colleges that offer studies related to nuclear science, and details about
Department of Energy internships and career opportunities.
Although the primary audience for the site is K12 students, there is a section devoted to providing information to classroom teachers, including suggested
classroom activities targeted to elementary, middle, and high school students.
The Department of Energy hopes the new Web site will set a new bar for quality outreach to students, delivering the message that nuclear energy is an important current and future part of our nationals energy mix. For more information see
http://www.nuclear.energy.gov/students/intro.html.
complexes in remote areas of the Russian Far North and East. For more
information about this plan, see http://cns.miis.edu/stories/020624.htm.
Is There a Future for Nuclear Energy?
Most energy analysts would probably agree that a rapid growth of nuclear
energy power plants in the next 20 years looks a bit challenging. Throughout the world, there is public opposition to new nuclear plants, concerns
about safety standards and regulations, and the potential for accidents in
the present plants. Other concerns include how to remove and dispose of
existing nuclear waste as well as the challenge of decommissioning obsolete plants.
In 2008 the Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) oered its annual outlook
for the future of nuclear power, and it was optimistic. Todays 104 nuclear
power plants in the United States generate about 20 percent of the countrys electricity. Because of rising energy demands and aging infrastructure,
the NRC predicts that industry will need to build 50 new reactors to continue producing the same proportion of the countrys power over the next
30 years.
Thirty-one reactors, representing 17 power companies and consortia,

are somewhere in the application process. The NEI predicts that only four
to eight of those will be in commercial operation by 2016. By that time,
pressure for an aordable, clean source of energy could inspire a second
wave of applications.
However, other countries are more aggressive in viewing nuclear energy
as another clean energy alternative to fossil fuels. According to the IAEA,
there were several nuclear reactors under construction in 2009; additionally, India was planning to build eight reactors, China and Ukraine were
set to build four each, Japan and the Russian Federation will build three
each, Iran and South Korea will build two each, and Argentina and Romania are planning to construct one each.
The global demand for electricity is growing rapidly. If this trend continues, nuclear exponents may resurrect more creative technologies for
developing new kinds of nuclear reactors and power plants to meet the
growing needs for electricity.
Designing New and Different Kinds of Nuclear Reactors
There is a growing international consensus that to be broadly acceptable
for the 21st century and beyond, the next-generation advanced reactor system must meet these ve criteria:
provide a long-term energy source not limited by resources
be passively safe, based on characteristics inherent in the reactor
design and materials
reduce the volume and toxicity of nuclear waste
keep nuclear materials unsuitable for direct use in weapons
be economically competitive with other electricity sources
One type of reactor that can meet all ve requirements simultaneously
is the advanced fast reactor mentioned earlier. These fast reactors can extract more energy from the nuclear fuel than other kinds of nuclear reactors and can recycle spent fuel from other nuclear reactors. The advanced
fast reactor produces extremely hot and high-pressured steam that is used
to turn a steam turbine, which in turn drives generators to produce electricity. This kind of reactor produces clean, safe nuclear power and less
waste and is unsuitable for use in weapons, according to the Department
of Energy.
This new nuclear power technology may still be developed as the supply
of fossil fuel resources dwindles down in this century. So interest in nuclear
energy is still alive, but whether it will be a major source of future energy
is still open to debate.
INTERVIEW
With the permission of the National Energy Education Development (NEED) Project
and Dr. Charles Ferguson, we have included a comprehensive career article in the
nuclear energy field.
Green Advocate: Charles Ferguson, Philip D. Reed Senior Fellow for Science and
Technology, Council on Foreign Relations, Washington, D.C.
Charles Ferguson holds a BS with distinction in physics from the U.S. Naval Academy, a masters degree equivalent in nuclear engineering from the Naval Nuclear
Power School, and a PhD in physics from Boston University. In this interview
Charles shares his unique and diverse involvement in the nuclear industry.
How or why did you choose to work in the nuclear industry?
I entered the nuclear industry through my training as a nuclear engineering officer
in the Navy. I chose the nuclear submarine service because I thought it would be
the most intellectually challenging service within the Navy. I served as a nuclear
engineering officer of the watch on a ballistic missile submarine during the last
years of the Cold War. As a watch officer, I was responsible for a 12-person crew
that operated the power and propulsion systems of the submarine. As a result of
the political changes happening at the end of the Cold War, I became very interested in nuclear arms control. These experiences about 20 years ago transformed
my life and led to my current career. While the nuclear navy has been a gateway
for many people to work in the commercial nuclear power industry, I am not currently working in this industry. Instead, I am working as an analyst who assesses
policy options for nuclear power and examines where the industry appears to be
headed. In addition, I research more effective ways for stopping the proliferation of
nuclear weapons to countries and to terrorist groups. Thus, I work on public policy
development on the peaceful and military sides of nuclear energy.
What subjects, courses, internships, or special training were instrumental in
helping you gain your current position?
At the U.S. Naval Academy I majored in physics. When I graduated from the academy, I worked for a few months at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which is
one of the nuclear weapons laboratories. After this experience, I studied nuclear
engineering at the Naval Nuclear Power School. I then served on a nuclearpowered submarine where I qualified as an engineering watch officer. After leaving
Dr. Charles Ferguson is a Philip D. Reed

Senior Fellow for Science and Technology, Council on Foreign Relations, Washington, DC. (Courtesy Charles Ferguson)
the Navy, I decided to become a physics professor and earned my doctorate in
physics at Boston University. However, my interest in nuclear nonproliferation and
energy issues convinced me to leave the academic physics job track and take a job
working on nuclear policy. The analytic training of my physics degree program has
been helpful in my current policy work. One of the most influential jobs I had was
working as a physical scientist on nuclear safety issues at the U.S. Department of
State.
Would you follow the same career path again?
I have had a nontraditional career path that I could not have predicted more than
20 years ago when I started down it. I believe that if I had to start all over again,
I probably would follow a similar path. My current career as a nuclear policy analyst has been very satisfying.
What do you think of the nuclear industry now that you work in it?
Because I analyze the industry rather than work in it, I have had the type of job
in which I can step back and examine the big picture of the industry. On balance,
the industry has made significant contributions to strengthening energy security
and to countering climate change. However, there are still significant risks including the potential for terrorist attacks on nuclear facilities, the possibility that some
countries may exploit the peaceful nuclear fuel cycle for military purposes, and the
legacy of nuclear waste.
What opportunities or exciting experiences have you had in your career?
As part of my work, I have traveled to more than two dozen countries, including
China, North Korea, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Turkmenistan. When I worked at the
State Department, I had the exciting experience of helping to secure radioactive
materials that could fuel dirty bombs and to negotiate a treaty with Russia and
other European countries to clean up nuclear waste in northwest Russia.
What is the most rewarding part of your job?

The most rewarding part is when I have had some influence on public policy
through my writings, testimonies to Congress, or briefings to government officials.
For example, a recommendation I made at a congressional hearing in 2007 led to
the creation of a government program to improve the security of radioactive materials used in the nuclear industry and other industries.
What advice can you give to a young person considering a career in the nuclear
industry?
Be intellectually curious about many things. Read deeply about the nuclear field
but also read broadly about a range of subjects, especially science, politics, the
environment, and history. Be disciplined in your studies and always strive to do
your best.

Energy in Brief. Nuclear: What Is the State of the U.S. Nuclear Industry?
Washington, D.C. http://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov.
Energy Information Administration. Uranium (Nuclear) Basics. Rockville,
MD: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2008.
Energy Information Administration. Uranium (Nuclear): Nuclear Power
Plants. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 2008.
Hodgson, Peter E. Nuclear Power, Energy and the Environment. London:
Imperial College Press, 1999.
Murray, Raymond L. Nuclear Energy: An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems,
and Applications of Nuclear Processes. Burlington, MA: ButterworthHeinemann, 1993.
Ramsey, Charles B., and Mohammad Modarres. Commercial Nuclear Power:
Assuring Safety for the Future. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1998.
Winnacker, Karl. Nuclear Energy in Germany. La Grange Park, IL: American Nuclear Society, 1979.
Wolfson, Richard. Nuclear Choices: A Citizens Guide to Nuclear Technology.
Rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Both the Three Mile Island nuclear plant in Pennsylvania and the
Chernobyl nuclear facility in Ukraine suered meltdowns in their
nuclear reactors. Although the accident at the Pennsylvania plant
was eventually controlled, the Chernobyl accident became a major

disaster to the community and the environment. Compare the
construction of the two plants, the reasons for the meltdowns, the
management of the accidents, and the procedures in place for disaster control. You can use the following web sites for some of your
research: www.loe.org; www.world-nuclear.org; and www.nrc.gov.
2. Contact your local energy companies and nd out which types of
reactors are used in your areas (light water reactor, boiling water reactor, and fast breeder reactor) and what their power ratings are. How
do they dispose of their waste?
WEB SITES
www.nrc.gov
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission is headed by ve commissioners appointed by the president and conrmed by the Senate for
ve-year terms. The commission formulates policies, develops regulations governing nuclear reactor and nuclear material safety, issues
orders to licensees, and adjudicates legal matters.
www.ne.doe.gov
The Oce of Nuclear Energy promotes nuclear power as a resource
capable of meeting the nations energy, environmental, and national
security needs by resolving technical and regulatory barriers through
research, development, and demonstration.
www.nirs.org
The Nuclear Information and Resource Service (NIRS) is an information and networking center for citizens and environmental activists concerned about nuclear power, radioactive waste, radiation, and
sustainable energy issues.
www.ans.org
The core purpose of the American Nuclear Society is to promote the
awareness and understanding of the application of nuclear science
and technology.
www.nei.org
Nuclear Energy Institutes objective is to ensure the formation of
policies that promote the benecial uses of nuclear energy and technologies in the United States and around the world.
VIDEOS
understanding of nuclear energy topics and issues. The author has made
a consistent eort to include up-to-date Web sites. However, over time,
some Web sites may move or no longer be available.
Nuclear PowerHow It Works: A video presentation showing how
the atom is used to generate electricity. To learn how 81-inch fuel
pellets can generate enough energy to power a house for a whole year,
go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjgdgAhOzXQ&feature=re
lated (03:08 minutes).
How a Nuclear Pressurized Water Nuclear Reactor Works: A comprehensive video describing the three circuits involved in producing
energy from U-235 pellets. To get to the heart of the matter, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u0VjHg0juz4&feature=related
(06:03 minutes).
Nuclear PowerFrance: France meets nearly 80 percent of its
energy needs with its 59 nuclear reactors, in a country the size of
Texas. To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=irKBrs7kYE&feature=related (10:00 minutes).
Nuclear PowerAustralia: When it produces a large portion of the
worlds uranium, why is Australia resisting nuclear energy and 80 percent dependent on the carbon economy? For more, view this video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mLPu_xPD8Qo&feature=fvw
(10:09 minutes).
BOOKS AND
OTHER READING MATERIALS
a
VOLUME 1: OIL, NATURAL GAS, COAL, AND NUCLEAR

American Petroleum Institute. Natural Gas Supply and Demand. http://
www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
http://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
160 a Books and Other Reading Materials
naturalgas.org.
2003.
Riddle, John. Coal Power of the Future. New York: Rosen Publishing,
2003.
2002.
Smil, Vaclav. Oil: Beginners Guide. Oxford, UK: One World Publications,
2008.
VOLUME 2: SOLAR ENERGY
AND HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS
Craddock, David. Renewable Energy Made Easy: Free Energy from Solar,
Wind, Hydropower, and other Alternative Energy Sources. Ocala, FL:
Atlantic Publishing, 2008.
Ewing, Rex A. Got Sun? Go Solar: Harness Natures Free Energy to Heat
and Power Your Grid-Tied Home. Masonville, CO: PixyJack Press,
2009.
Harper, Gavin D. J. Solar Energy Projects for the Evil Genius. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Haugen, David M., ed. Hydrogen. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2006.
Hayhurst, Chris. Hydrogen Power: New Ways of Turning Fuel Cells into Energy. New York: Rosen, 2003.
Jones, Susan. Solar Power of the Future: New Ways of Turning Sunlight into
Energy. New York: Rosen, 2002.
Kachadorian, James. The Passive Solar House. White River Junction, VT:
Chelsea Green, 2006.
Kryza, Frank. The Power of Light: The Epic Story of Mans Quest to Harness
the Sun. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Oxlade, Chris. Solar Energy. Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2008.
Pieper, Adi. The Easy Guide to Solar Electric. Santa Fe, NM: ADI Solar,
2001.
Ramsey, Dan, with David Hughes. The Complete Idiots Guide to Solar Power
for Your Home. New York: Alpha Books, 2007.
Smith, Trevor. Renewable Energy Resources. Mankato, MN: Weigh Publishers, 2003.
Books and Other Reading Materials a 161
Solway, Andrew. Hydrogen Fuel. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens, 2008.

Vaitheeswaran, Vijay V. Power to the People: How the Coming Energy Revolution Will Transform an Industry, Change Our Lives, and Maybe Even
Save the Planet. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003.
Walker, Niki. Hydrogen: Running on Water. St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree,
2007.
VOLUME 3: WIND ENERGY, OCEANIC
ENERGY, AND HYDROPOWER
American Wind Energy Association. Wind Web Tutorial. http://www.
awea.org.
Energy Resources: Tidal Power. http://www.clara.net.
Gasch, Robert. Wind Power Plants: Fundamentals, Design, Construction and
Operation. London: Earthscan, 2004.
Gipe, Paul. Wind Power: Renewable Energy for Home, Farm or Business.
White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2004.
Koller, Julia. Oshore Wind Energy. New York: Springer, 2006.
Matthew, Sathyajith. Wind Energy Fundamentals. New York: Springer,
2006.
Morris, Neil. Water Power. North Mankato, MN: Apple Media, 2006.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory and U.S. Department of Energy.
Wind Energy Information Guide. Honolulu, HI: University Press of
the Pacic, 2005.
Pasqualetti, Martin. Wind Power in View: Energy Landscapes in a Crowded
World. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2002.
Renewable Energy, UK. Introduction to Tidal Power. http://www.reuk.
co.uk.
Renewable Energy, UK. Severn Barrage Tidal Power. http://www.reuk.
co.uk.
Szarka, Joseph. Wind Power in Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan,
2007.
U.S. Department of Energy. How a Microhydropower System Works. http://
www.energy.gov/forresearchers.
U.S. Department of Interior and the U.S. Geological Survey. Hydroelectric
Power: How It Works. http://www.library.usgs.gov.
Whitcomb, Robert. Cape Wind . . . and the Battle for Our Energy Future on
Nantucket Sound. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007.
VOLUME 4: GEOTHERMAL AND BIOMASS ENERGY

Armentrout, David, and Patricia Armentrout. Biofuels. Vero Beach, FL:
Rourke, 2009.
Garza, Amanda de la, ed. Biomass: Energy from Plants and Animals. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2007.
Haugen, David M., ed. Fueling the Future / Biomass. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2007.
Hayhurst, Chris. Biofuel Power of the Future: New Ways of Turning Organic
Matter into Energy. New York: Rosen, 2002.
Kemp, William H. The Renewable Energy Handbook: A Guide to Rural Independence, O-Grid and Sustainable Living. Tamworth, Ontario: Aztext Press, 2005.
Morris, Neil. Biomass Power. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media,
2007.
Morris, Neil. Geothermal Power. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple
Media, 2007.
Orr, Tamra. Geothermal Energy. Ann Arbor, MI: Cherry Lake Publishing,
2008.
Pahl, Greg. Biodiesel: Growing a New Energy Economy. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2005.
Povey, Karen D. Biofuels. San Diego, CA: KidHaven Press, 2007.
Saunders, N. Geothermal Energy. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens, 2008.
Savage, Lorraine, ed. Geothermal Power. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press,
2007.
Sherman, Josepha. Geothermal Power. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press,
2004.
Tabak, John. Biofuels. New York: Facts on File, 2009.
Walker, Niki. Biomass: Fueling Change. New York: Crabtree, 2007.
VOLUME 5: ENERGY EFFICIENCY,
CONSERVATION, AND SUSTAINABILITY
Bauer, Seth, ed. Green Guide. Washington, DC: National Geographic,
2008.
Chiras, Dan. The Homeowners Guide to Renewable Energy. Gabriola Island,
BC: New Society, 2006.
Edwards, Andre. The Sustainability Revolution. Gabriola Island, BC: New
Society, 2005.
Freeman, S. David. Winning Our Energy Independence. Salt Lake City, UT:
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
Gore, Al. An Inconvenient Truth. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 2006.
Grant, Tim, and Gail Littlejohn. Greening School Grounds. Gabriola Island,
Krigger, John, and Chris Dorsi. The Homeowners Handbook to Energy Efciency. Helena, MT: Saturn Resource Management, 2008.
Osmundson, Theodore. Roof Gardens: History, Design and Construction.
New York: Norton, 2000.
Riley, Trish. Guide to Green Living. New York: Alpha-Penguin, 2007.
Roberts, Jennifer. Good Green Homes. Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith, 2003.
Schaeer, John, ed. Real Goods Solar Living Source Book. Hopland, CA:
Real Goods Trading, 2007.
Schor, Juliet B., and Betsy Taylor. Sustainable Planet: Solutions for the TwentyFirst Century. Boston: Beacon Press, 2002.
Trask, Crissy. Its Easy Being Green. Salt Lake City, UT: Gibbs Smith,
2006.
U.S. Department of Energy. A Place in the Sun: Solar Buildings. Merryeld,
VA: EERE Clearing House, 2005.
U.S. Green Building Council. Meet the USGBC: Mission Statement. http://
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATION WEB SITES
a
Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases: www.atsdr.cdc.gov/contacts.

html
American Gas Association: www.aga.org
American Nuclear Society: www.ans.org
American Oceans Campaign: www.americanoceans.org
American Petroleum Institute: www.api.org
American Solar Energy Society: www.ases.org
American Wind Energy Association: www.awea.org
Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology (CREST),
Solar Energy Research and Education Foundation: solstice.crest.
org/
Clean Air Council (CAC): www.libertynet.org/cleanair/
Coal Age Magazine: coalage.com
Coalition for Economically Responsible Economies (CERES): www.
ceres.org
Electric Vehicle Association of the Americas: www.evaa.org
Environmental Defense Fund: www.edf.org
Federal Emergency and Management Agency (FEMA): www.fema.gov
Hazard Ranking System: www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/npl_hrs/
hrsint.htm
Hydrogen InfoNet: /www.eren.doe.gov/hydrogen/infonet.html
166 a Government and Nongovernmental Organization Web Sites
International Atomic Energy Commission: www.iaea.org

International Centre for Antarctic Information and Research: www.
icair.iac.org.nz
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI):
www.iclei.org
Los Alamos National Laboratory: www.lanl.gov/wvu.edu/news/nsamd.
html
National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration and Divisions: www.
noaa.gov/
National Renewable Energy Laboratory: www.nrel.gov/
National Research Center for Coal and Energy, West Virginia University: www.nrcce.wvu.edu
Natural Resources Conservation Service: www.nrcs.usda.gov
National Science Foundation (NSF): www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/
National Weather Service: www.nws.noaa.gov
Noise Pollution Clearinghouse: www.nonoise.org
North Sea Commission: www.northsea.org
Nuclear Energy Institute: www.nei.org
Nuclear Regulatory Commission: www.nrc.gov
Oce of Surface Mining: www.osmre.gov
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): www.opec.
org
Ozone Action: www.ozone.org
Resources for the Future (RFF): www.sandia.gov/
Superfund: www.epa.gov/superfund
Union of Concerned Scientists: www.ucsusa.org
United Nations Environment Programme: www.unep.org
United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO): www.fao.
org
United Nations Man and the Biosphere Programme (UNMAB): www.
mabnet.org
United States Bureau of Reclamation, Hydropower Information: www.
usbr.gov/power/edu/edu.html
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA): www.usda.gov
United States Department of Defense (DOD): www.defenselink.mil/
United States Department of Education: www.ed.gov/index.jhtml
United States Department of Energy: www.energy.gov/index.htm
United States Department of the Interior: www.doi.gov
Government and Nongovernmental Organization Web Sites a 167
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): www.epa.gov

United States Geological Survey (USGS): www.usgs.gov
United States Geological Survey (USGS), Geology Research: geology.
usgs.gov/index.shtml
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC): www.wcmc.org.uk
World Resources Institute: www.wri.org/wri/biodiv; e-mail: info@wri.
org
ENERGY DATA
a
The eight tables in this section include information about the United
States and the worlds consumption of nonrenewable and renewable energy sources, and how various sectors use energy. These kinds of statistics are vital to economists, energy theorists, policymakers, engineers, and
environmentalists for predicting future energy demands and assessing to
what extent the worlds remaining resources can meet those energy needs.
In addition, such data show which countries consume the most energy,
produce the most energy, and contribute the most pollution due to energy
intakeall valuable factors to take into consideration as a global economy,
waning natural resources, and growing world population require increasing
worldwide cooperation when it comes to energy policy. Due to the pervasiveness of energy in our everyday lives, these types of data are important
even to citizens who do not directly work for the energy sector.
Table 1: Primary Energy Consumption by Source, 19492008
Data on U.S. energy use, listing the annual consumption amounts by individual energy
sources and categorized into renewable and nonrenewable categories.
Table 2: Renewable Energy Production and Consumption by Primary Energy Source,
19492008
Data on U.S. renewable energy production and consumption, divided by source.
Table 3: Energy Consumption by Sector, 19492008
Energy use statistics of four main sectors in the United States: residential, commercial,
industrial, and transportation.
Table 4: Household End Uses: Fuel Types and Appliances, Selected Years, 19782005
Energy consumption in the U.S. housing sector, including appliance-specic energy use
and energy sources used for household heating and cooling purposes.
Table 5: World Primary Energy Consumption by Region, 19972006
Total energy use by world region and country.
Table 6: World Crude Oil and Natural Gas Reserves, January 1, 2008
Amount of oil and natural gas reserves available as of 2008 by world region and country.
Table 7: World Recoverable Reserves of Coal, 2005
Amount of coal reserves technologically and economically feasible to recover as of 2005,
listed by region, country, and type of coal.
Table 8: World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Consumption, 19972006
Data listing the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by each world region and country.
170 a Energy Data
TABLE 1
Primary Energy Consumption by Source, 19492008 (Billion Btu)

Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Coal
11,980,905
12,347,109
12,552,996
11,306,479
11,372,684
9,714,667
11,167,259
11,349,723
10,820,631
9,533,287
9,518,353
9,837,785
9,623,351
9,906,454
10,412,538
10,964,385
11,580,608
12,143,080
11,913,750
12,330,677
12,381,540
12,264,528
11,598,411
12,076,917
12,971,490
12,662,878
12,662,786
13,584,067
13,922,103
13,765,575
15,039,586
15,422,809
15,907,526
15,321,581
15,894,442
17,070,622
17,478,428
17,260,405
18,008,451
18,846,312
19,069,762
19,172,635
18,991,670
19,122,471
19,835,148
19,909,463
20,088,727
21,001,914
Coal
Coke Net
Importsb
6,671
992
21,452
11,879
9,002
6,746
10,044
13,020
17,459
6,721
8,358
5,630
7,886
5,506
7,390
10,441
18,451
24,949
15,326
17,310
36,109
57,660
33,108
25,966
7,465
56,098
13,541
99
14,582
124,719
62,843
35,018
15,946
21,650
15,624
11,482
13,491
16,740
8,630
39,556
30,405
4,786
9,697
34,621
27,106
58,330
61,058
22,816
Natural Gasc
5,145,142
5,968,371
7,048,518
7,549,621
7,906,645
8,330,202
8,997,935
9,613,975
10,190,753
10,663,199
11,717,422
12,385,366
12,926,392
13,730,841
14,403,306
15,287,850
15,768,667
16,995,332
17,944,788
19,209,656
20,677,984
21,794,707
22,469,052
22,698,190
22,512,399
21,732,488
19,947,883
20,345,426
19,930,513
20,000,400
20,665,817
20,235,459
19,747,309
18,356,222
17,220,836
18,393,613
17,703,482
16,591,364
17,639,801
18,448,393
19,601,689
19,603,168
20,032,957
20,713,632
21,228,902
21,728,065
22,671,138
23,084,647
Petroleumd
11,882,722
13,315,484
14,428,043
14,955,682
15,555,829
15,839,176
17,254,955
17,937,473
17,931,667
18,526,937
19,322,650
19,919,230
20,216,387
21,048,981
21,700,828
22,301,257
23,245,680
24,400,523
25,283,661
26,979,447
28,338,336
29,520,695
30,561,290
32,946,738
34,839,926
33,454,627
32,730,587
35,174,688
37,122,168
37,965,295
37,123,381
34,202,356
31,931,050 [R]
30,231,608 [R]
30,053,921 [R]
31,051,327
30,922,149 [R]
32,196,080
32,865,053 [R]
34,221,992 [R]
34,211,114
33,552,534
32,845,361
33,526,585 [R]
33,744,490 [R]
34,561,665
34,436,967 [R]
35,673,290 [R]
Total
29,002,099
31,631,956
34,008,105
33,799,903
34,826,156
33,877,300
37,410,105
38,888,151
38,925,592
38,716,702
40,550,068
42,136,751
42,758,243
44,680,770
46,509,283
48,543,050
50,576,504
53,513,987
55,126,873
58,502,470
61,361,751
63,522,269
64,595,645
67,695,880
70,316,351
67,906,091
65,354,796
69,104,082
70,989,367
71,855,989
72,891,627
69,825,607
67,569,939
63,887,761
63,153,575
66,504,079
66,090,567
66,031,109
68,521,935
71,556,253
72,912,970
72,333,123
71,879,686
73,397,310
74,835,647
76,257,523
77,257,890
79,782,668
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
112
1,915
2,187
6,026
19,678
26,394
38,147
39,819
43,164
64,158
88,456
141,534
153,722
239,347
412,939
583,752
910,177
1,272,083
1,899,798
2,111,121
2,701,762
3,024,126
2,775,827
2,739,169
3,007,589
3,131,148
3,202,549
3,552,531
4,075,563
4,380,109
4,753,933
5,586,968
5,602,161
6,104,350
6,422,132
6,479,206
6,410,499
6,693,877
7,075,436
7,086,674
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Energy Data a 171
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PV
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Wind
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Biomass
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554
6,034,459
6,562,330
6,523,526
6,186,780
6,224,827
5,741,161
5,570,238
6,393,667
6,208,290
6,240,085
5,995,131
6,264,397
6,157,054
6,706,907
7,169,179
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Importsb
5,420
6,094
7,461
7,740
6,852
7,983
13,879
15,519
12,288
11,320
12,127
15,474
7,689
1,829
334
6,671
482
3,725
1,020
2,152
3,656
6,688
12,046
26,227
48,715
43,311
21,103
29,378
59,422
67,318
69,381
71,399
113,406
100,026
120,547
135,323
139,655
122,481
158,101
108,399
37,450
7,888
66,965
86,733
94,910
152,937
133,856
137,144
Total
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
172 a Energy Data
TABLE 1
(Continued )
Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Coal
Coke Net
Year
Coal
Importsb
1997 21,445,411
46,450
1998 21,655,744
67,084
1999 21,622,544
57,685
2000 22,579,528
65,348
2001 21,914,268
29,264
2002 21,903,989
60,760
2003 22,320,928
50,518
2004 22,466,195
137,739
2005 22,796,543
44,194
2006 22,447,160
60,810
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197
2008 P 22,420,827
40,771
Natural Gasc
23,222,718
22,830,226
22,909,227
23,823,978
22,772,558
23,558,419
22,897,268
22,931,481
22,583,385
22,223,903 [R]
23,627,629 [R]
23,837,695
Petroleumd
36,159,835 [R]
36,816,619
37,838,081 [R]
38,264,303 [R]
38,186,476 [R]
38,226,666 [R]
38,809,183 [R]
40,294,351
40,393,325
39,958,151 [R]
39,773,213 [R]
37,136,675
Total
80,874,414
81,369,672
82,427,536
84,733,157
82,902,566
83,749,834
84,077,896
85,829,766
85,817,446
84,690,024
86,175,506
83,435,968
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
6,596,992
7,067,809
7,610,256
7,862,349
8,032,697
8,143,089
7,958,858
8,221,985
8,160,028
8,213,839
8,457,783 [R]
8,455,236
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Most data are estimates.
Net imports equal imports minus exports. Minus sign indicates exports are greater than imports.
Natural gas only; excludes supplemental gaseous fuels.
Petroleum products supplied, including natural gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel. Does not include the fuel
ethanol portion of motor gasolinefuel ethanol is included in Biomass.
Conventional hydroelectric power.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary. NA = Not available. (s) = Less than 0.0005 and greater than 0.0005 quadrillion Btu.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration Annual Energy Review 2009.
Energy Data a 173
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PV
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
Wind
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Biomass
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
7,178,202
6,657,589
6,680,737
6,264,394
5,315,670
5,893,795
6,149,881
6,260,276
6,422,883
6,908,484
6,813,935
7,300,048
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Total
Importsb
116,203
94,765,811 [R]
88,224
95,183,293 [R]
98,924
96,817,452 [R]
115,199
98,975,100 [R]
75,156
96,326,089 [R]
71,595
97,858,314 [R]
21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
38,597
100,350,624 [R]
84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
62,849
99,875,196 [R]
106,632
101,553,855 [R]
112,381
99,303,634
174 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Renewable Energy Production and Consumption by Primary Energy

Source, 19492008 (Billion Btu)
Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Biofuelsb
Totalc
Energyd
NA
1,549,262
2,973,984
NA
1,562,307
2,977,718
NA
1,534,669
2,958,464
NA
1,474,369
2,940,181
NA
1,418,601
2,831,460
NA
1,394,327
2,754,099
NA
1,424,143
2,783,987
NA
1,415,871
2,850,582
NA
1,333,581
2,849,194
NA
1,323,123
2,915,090
NA
1,352,874
2,901,339
NA
1,319,870
2,928,619
NA
1,294,762
2,953,406
NA
1,300,242
3,118,714
NA
1,323,316
3,098,396
NA
1,336,802
3,227,637
NA
1,334,761
3,398,036
NA
1,368,985
3,434,674
NA
1,340,249
3,693,799
NA
1,419,495
3,777,541
NA
1,440,487
4,101,751
NA
1,430,962
4,075,857
NA
1,432,323
4,268,335
NA
1,503,065
4,398,409
NA
1,529,068
4,433,121
NA
1,539,657
4,769,395
NA
1,498,734
4,723,494
NA
1,713,373
4,767,792
NA
1,838,332
4,249,002
NA
2,037,605
5,038,938
NA
2,151,906
5,166,379
NA
2,475,500
5,485,420
12,979
[R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
35,106
[R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
64,432
[R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
78,880
[R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
95,052
[R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R]
192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R]
144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R]
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Geo-thermalf
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PVg
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Energy Data a 175
Windh
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Woodi
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,428,649
1,430,229
1,500,992
1,527,012
1,537,755
1,496,928
1,711,484
1,836,524
2,036,150
2,149,854
2,473,861
2,495,563
2,510,048
2,684,271
2,685,817
2,686,765
2,562,134
2,463,159
2,576,663
2,679,623
2,216,165
2,214,083
2,313,471
2,259,774
2,323,820
2,369,869
2,437,027
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2,313
NA
2,094
NA
2,073
NA
2,056
NA
1,902
NA
1,806
NA
1,889
NA
1,808
NA
1,455
NA
2,052
NA
1,639
NA
88,000
12,979
[R]
119,000
35,106
[R]
157,000
64,432
[R]
208,000
78,880
[R]
236,317
95,052
[R]
262,861
109,285
[R]
289,000
125,229
[R]
315,328
126,589
[R]
354,357
127,936
[R]
408,078
113,129
[R]
439,715
130,612
[R]
473,201
147,965
[R]
479,336 [R]
172,512
[R]
515,324
192,236
[R]
531,476 [R]
203,875
[R]
576,990
145,703
[R]
Total
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554 [R]
6,034,459 [R]
6,562,330 [R]
6,523,526 [R]
6,186,780 [R]
6,224,827 [R]
5,741,161 [R]
5,570,238 [R]
6,393,667 [R]
6,208,290 [R]
6,240,085 [R]
5,995,131 [R]
6,264,397 [R]
6,157,054 [R]
6,706,907 [R]
7,169,179 [R]
176 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
(Continued )
Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Energyd
Year
Biofuelsb
Totalc
1997
190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R]
1998
206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R]
1999
215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R]
2000
237,904
3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R]
2001
259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R]
2002
314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R]
2003
411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R]
2004
500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R]
2005
580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R]
2006
743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R]
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R]
2008P 1,428,745
3,899,915
7,315,711
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Geo-thermalf
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PVg
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
Production equals consumption for all renewable energy sources except biofuels.
Total biomass inputs to the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel.
Wood and wood-derived fuels, biomass waste, fuel ethanol, and biodiesel.
Hydroelectric power, geothermal, solar/PV, wind, and biomass.
Conventional hydroelectricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plants heat rate).
Geothermal electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the geothermal energy plants heat rate), and geothermal
heat pump and direct-use energy.
g
Solar thermal and photovoltaic electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plants heat rate) and
solar thermal direct-use energy.
Wind electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plants heat rate).
Wood and wood-derived fuels.
Municipal solid waste from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts, and other biomass.
Through 2000, also includes nonrenewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources and tire-derived
fuels).
Fuel ethanol and biodiesel consumption, plus losses and co-products from the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary. NA = Not available. (s) = Less than 0.5 trillion Btu.
Note: Totals may not equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related information, see http://
www.eia.doe.gov/fuelrenewable.html.
Energy Data a 177
Windh
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Woodi
2,370,991
2,184,160
2,214,167
2,261,715
2,005,833
1,995,283
2,002,040
2,121,251
2,136,351
2,151,731
2,142,417
2,040,616
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
550,602 [R]
187,375
[R]
542,295
205,137
[R]
540,156
213,232
[R]
510,800 [R]
240,523
363,874
257,769
[R]
402,006
309,456
[R]
401,347
413,217
[R]
389,044 [R]
512,571
[R]
403,219 [R]
593,576
[R]
414,226 [R]
794,656
[R]
430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R]
430,554
1,413,082
Total
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
7,178,202 [R]
6,657,589 [R]
6,680,737 [R]
6,264,394 [R]
5,315,670 [R]
5,893,795 [R]
6,149,881 [R]
6,260,276 [R]
6,422,883 [R]
6,908,484 [R]
6,813,935 [R]
7,300,048
178 a Energy Data
TABLE 3
Energy Consumption by Sector, 19492008 (Billion Btu)

End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Primary
4,475,121
4,847,590
5,124,031
5,178,644
5,074,890
5,286,016
5,633,095
5,866,467
5,771,579
6,155,096
6,223,822
6,688,963
6,814,611
7,122,112
7,135,126
7,161,257
7,328,128
7,549,262
7,740,902
7,963,327
8,276,760
8,352,750
8,456,799
8,655,327
8,250,226
7,927,553
8,005,740
8,408,252
8,207,376
8,272,389
7,933,806
7,453,254
7,057,589
7,154,067
6,840,628
7,220,681
7,160,776
6,921,722
6,940,917
7,372,024
7,586,093
6,570,463
6,758,442
6,963,482
7,155,529
6,990,569
6,946,268
7,471,455
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
5,613,938
6,006,806
6,399,747
6,580,694
6,581,124
6,869,767
7,303,271
7,689,809
7,739,679
8,230,400
8,447,378
9,077,668
9,325,376
9,825,201
10,034,384
10,290,804
10,688,770
11,218,183
11,669,926
12,368,421
13,205,347
13,798,057
14,277,629
14,890,531
14,929,771
14,683,314
14,841,755
15,440,661
15,688,729
16,155,929
15,841,970
15,786,781
15,295,246
15,557,340
15,456,669
15,998,041
16,088,348
16,029,197
16,321,196
17,186,278
17,858,128
17,014,681
17,490,321
17,426,920
18,288,984
18,181,216
18,577,978
19,562,439
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
2,660,963
2,824,267
2,727,158
2,661,902
2,500,330
2,444,814
2,547,641
2,592,274
2,434,391
2,541,202
2,630,274
2,702,042
2,743,974
2,901,109
2,896,921
2,949,284
3,150,462
3,383,741
3,738,448
3,866,000
4,045,666
4,196,051
4,282,718
4,369,078
4,381,061
4,221,192
4,022,853
4,332,587
4,217,258
4,268,843
4,333,251
4,074,270
3,805,343
3,835,241
3,806,026
3,968,567
3,694,740
3,656,730
3,736,106
3,957,548
4,004,442
3,858,007
3,905,836
3,951,199
3,933,859
3,978,979
4,063,119
4,234,533
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
3,660,910
3,883,472
3,862,700
3,862,377
3,758,937
3,720,157
3,881,530
4,008,279
3,945,887
4,103,153
4,353,069
4,588,973
4,706,925
5,013,919
5,226,862
5,438,649
5,819,530
6,299,383
6,870,845
7,296,778
7,795,301
8,307,155
8,681,492
9,144,775
9,506,982
9,362,537
9,465,906
10,035,225
10,177,267
10,480,604
10,626,851
10,562,769
10,601,863
10,847,354
10,922,977
11,436,092
11,443,724
11,603,742
11,943,383
12,575,483
13,202,580
13,332,926
13,512,501
13,453,951
13,835,823
14,111,283
14,697,525
15,181,207
Industrialb
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
12,626,532
13,881,079
15,118,070
14,661,778
15,328,413
14,305,657
16,090,702
16,562,350
16,512,867
15,797,985
16,518,951
16,977,066
16,993,115
17,589,807
18,365,964
19,426,503
20,123,911
21,029,715
21,012,628
21,872,069
22,653,721
22,974,833
22,732,356
23,532,489
24,740,862
23,816,329
21,454,213
22,685,371
23,192,694
23,276,491
24,211,500
22,610,288
21,338,216
19,075,786
18,578,019
20,197,515
19,467,805
19,098,662
19,977,070
20,884,381
20,897,403
21,208,225
20,854,317
21,786,666
21,784,999
22,422,272
22,747,660
23,443,770
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 179
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
14,716,733
16,232,875
17,669,234
17,301,575
18,200,961
17,146,242
19,472,329
20,196,256
20,204,730
19,306,571
20,315,979
20,823,424
20,936,742
21,768,109
22,729,891
24,089,579
25,074,894
26,397,297
26,615,564
27,888,371
29,114,339
29,641,226
29,600,938
30,952,764
32,652,616
31,818,721
29,447,184
31,429,542
32,306,559
32,733,452
33,962,118
32,077,090
30,756,076
27,656,788
27,481,484
29,624,598
28,877,080
28,333,363
29,443,635
30,738,557
31,397,833
31,895,492
31,486,967
32,661,236
32,721,292
33,607,366
34,046,786
34,988,791
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
7,879,581
8,383,528
8,933,753
8,907,235
9,030,518
8,823,059
9,475,032
9,791,039
9,837,442
9,952,797
10,298,441
10,560,452
10,734,679
11,185,922
11,621,165
11,964,508
12,400,149
13,069,166
13,718,214
14,831,020
15,470,880
16,061,232
16,693,481
17,681,086
18,576,065
18,085,915
18,209,133
19,065,144
19,784,143
20,580,415
20,436,369
19,658,353
19,476,200
19,050,580
19,132,451
19,606,799
20,040,687
20,739,703
21,419,125
22,266,855
22,424,597
22,366,185
22,065,034
22,363,309
22,716,447
23,311,806
23,793,148
24,383,906
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
7,990,087
8,492,594
9,042,162
9,003,096
9,123,484
8,903,125
9,550,811
9,860,083
9,897,017
10,004,893
10,349,357
10,596,801
10,770,077
11,220,519
11,654,898
11,998,284
12,433,906
13,101,884
13,752,106
14,865,583
15,506,152
16,097,603
16,729,212
17,716,273
18,611,660
18,119,206
18,243,706
19,099,331
19,819,581
20,614,766
20,470,711
19,696,034
19,512,537
19,087,723
19,175,075
19,653,933
20,087,315
20,788,771
21,469,449
22,318,176
22,478,708
22,419,888
22,118,484
22,415,918
22,769,843
23,367,224
23,848,651
24,438,890
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Primary
Itemf
4,339,470
165
4,679,283
21
5,070,830
188
5,338,183
82
5,730,355
39
5,779,745
91
6,461,471
30
6,942,296
174
7,231,035
128
7,197,936
11
7,794,295
61
8,158,344
3
8,452,741
103
9,028,798
42
9,626,860
124
10,315,765
140
11,014,449
121
11,984,863
203
12,698,249
333
13,886,738
238
15,174,112
260
16,259,175
119
17,123,917
307
18,466,362
75
19,752,816
7,334 [R]
19,932,789
7,102 [R]
20,306,611
640 [R]
21,513,405
7,613 [R]
22,590,665
7,418 [R]
23,586,613
1,619 [R]
23,986,723
1,564
24,326,509
1,080 [R]
24,488,373
2,766 [R]
24,033,531
4,189 [R]
24,679,081
2,796 [R]
25,719,102
2,794 [R]
26,132,459
3,903 [R]
26,338,257
3,452
27,104,445
2,533 [R]
28,337,687
3,364 [R]
30,024,713 [4]
8,999 [R]
30,660,106
9,335 [R]
31,024,645
595 [R]
30,893,368
355 [R]
32,025,108
10,490 [R]
32,563,463
5,698
33,620,747
3,148 [R]
34,637,665
4,336 [R]
Totalg
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
180 a Energy Data
TABLE 3
(Continued )
End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008 P
Primary
7,039,505
6,423,825
6,783,779
7,168,979
6,878,917
6,938,187
7,251,896
7,019,274
6,920,879
6,190,514
6,625,793
6,778,379
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
19,025,680
19,020,712
19,620,860
20,487,621
20,106,132
20,873,763
21,208,021
21,177,889
21,697,240
20,769,777
21,619,373
21,636,900
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
4,256,507
3,963,729
4,007,378
4,227,143
4,036,108
4,099,189
4,238,672
4,180,422
4,013,701
3,703,258
3,895,928
3,972,150
Industrialb
e
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
15,693,953
15,979,296
16,383,617
17,176,087
17,141,259
17,366,740
17,351,447
17,664,445
17,875,276
17,723,994
18,287,222
18,541,387
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
23,721,864
23,210,838
22,990,578
22,870,804
21,835,587
21,857,313
21,575,582
22,454,620
21,465,855
21,632,057
21,454,002
20,630,137
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Commercial sector, including commercial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and commercial electricity-only plants.
Industrial sector, including industrial CHP and industrial electricity-only plants.
c
Electricity-only and CHP plants within the NAICS 22 category whose primary business is to sell electricity, or electricity
and heat, to the public.
d
Through 1988, data are for electric utilities only; beginning in 1989, data are for electric utilities and independent
power producers.
Total energy consumption in the end-use sectors consists of primary energy consumption, electricity retail sales, and
electrical system energy losses.
f
A balancing item. The sum of primary consumption in the five energy-use sectors equals the sum of total consumption
in the four end-use sectors. However, total energy consumption does not equal the sum of the sectoral components
because of the use of sector-specific conversion factors for natural gas and coal.
g
Primary energy consumption total.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary. (s) = Less than 0.5 trillion Btu.

Energy Data a 181
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
35,288,218
34,928,190
34,855,491
34,757,478
32,806,204
32,764,483
32,649,843
33,609,067
32,545,253
32,541,235
32,523,120
31,210,299
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
24,697,145
25,203,168
25,893,727
26,491,500
26,215,564
26,787,738
26,927,646
27,820,116
28,279,693
28,761,209
29,046,175
27,842,133
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
24,751,817
25,258,473
25,951,203
26,551,610
26,278,577
26,848,508
27,002,137
27,899,279
28,361,295
28,840,577
29,134,189
27,924,560
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
35,044,648
36,385,110
37,135,709
38,214,371
37,365,995
38,171,067
38,217,654
38,876,247
39,798,935
39,588,544
40,542,007
40,090,347
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Itemf
6,142 [R]
3,378 [R]
6,281 [R]
2,304 [R]
6,084 [R]
4,820 [R]
2,908 [R]
55 [R]
5,694 [R]
385 [R]
10,049 [R]
9,512
Totalg
94,765,811
95,183,293
96,817,452
98,975,100
96,326,089
97,858,314
98,208,541
100,350,624
100,484,758
99,875,196
101,553,855
99,303,634
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
182 a Energy Data
TABLE 4
Household End Uses: Fuel Types and Appliances, Selected Years, 19782005
Year
Appliance
Total households (millions)

Space heatingMain fuel
Natural Gas
Electricitya
Liquefied petroleum gases
Distillate fuel oil
Wood
Other b or no space heating
Air conditioningEquipment
Central Systemc
Window/wall unitc
None
Water heatingMain fuel
Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Otherb or no water heating
Appliances and electronics
Refrigeratord
One
Two or more
Separate freezer
Clothes washer
Clothes dryerTotal
Natural gas
Electric
Dishwasher
Range/stove/oven
Natural gas
Electric
Microwave oven
Television
One or two
Three or more
Personal computer
One
Two or more
1978
1979
1980
1982
1984
1987
77
78
82
83
84
Percent of Households
1981
86
91
55
16
4
20
2
3
55
17
5
17
4
2
55
18
5
15
6
2
56
17
4
14
6
3
57
16
5
13
7
3
55
17
5
12
7
3
55
20
5
12
6
3
23
33
44
24
31
45
27
30
43
27
31
42
28
30
42
30
30
40
34
30
36
55
33
4
8
0
55
33
4
7
0
54
32
4
9
1
55
33
4
7
1
56
32
4
7
1
54
33
4
6
1
54
35
3
6
1
100
86
14
35
74
59
14
45
35
99
48
53
8
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
38
74
61
14
47
37
99
46
57
14
98
85
14
NA
NA
NA
100
87
13
38
73
61
16
45
37
100
46
56
17
98
84
14
NA
NA
NA
100
86
13
37
71
60
15
45
36
99
47
56
21
98
83
15
NA
NA
NA
100
88
12
37
73
62
16
46
38
99
46
57
34
98
80
18
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
34
75
66
15
51
43
99
43
60
61
98
75
23
NA
NA
NA
Retail electricity.
Kerosene, solar, or other fuel.
Households with both a central system and a window or wall unit are counted only under Central System.
Fewer than 0.5 percent of the households do not have a refrigerator.
R = Revised. NA = Not available. (s) = Less than 0.5 percent.

Note: Data are estimates. For years not shown, there are no data available. For related information, see http://www.
eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs.
Sources: For 1978 and 1979, Energy Information Administration (EIA), Form EIA-84, Residential Energy Consumption
Survey; for 19802005, EIA, Form EIA-457, Residential Energy Consumption Survey.
Energy Data a 183
Year
1990
1993
Change
1997
2001
2005
94
97
101
55
23
5
11
4
2
53
26
5
11
3
2
52
29
5
9
2
2
39
29
32
44
25
32
47
25
28
55
23
23
59
25
16
32
5
27
53
37
3
5
1
53
38
3
5
1
52
39
3
5
1
54
38
3
4
0
53
39
4
4
0
1
7
0
5
1
100
84
15
34
76
69
16
53
45
100
42
59
79
99
71
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
35
77
70
14
57
45
100
33
63
84
99
70
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
33
77
71
15
55
50
99
35
62
83
99
69
29
35
29
6
100
83
17
32
79
74
16
57
53
100
35
62
86
99
63
36
56
42
15
100
78
22
32
83
79
17
61
58
99
35
62
88
99
56
43
68
45
23
0
8
8
6
9
18
3
14
21
0
11
5
74
1
29
29
NA
NA
NA
[R]
[R]
[R]
107
1980 to 2005
[R]
[R]
[R]
55
29
5
7
2
2
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
111
29
52
30
5
7
3
3
3
12
0
8
3
1
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
184 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
World Primary Energy Consumption by Region, 19972006 (Quadrillion Btu)
Region and Country

North America
1997
1998
113.13
1999
113.53
Mexico
5.68
5.96
6.04
6.32
94.77
95.18
96.82
98.98
.02
.02
.02
.02
19.45
20.12
20.27
20.84
Argentina
2.47
2.58
Brazil
7.86
8.12
Venezuela
2.66
2.85
[R]
12.96
118.26
12.67
Other
12.37
115.82
Canada
United States
[R]
2000
[R]
2.61
[R]
8.27
[R]
2.67
[R]
2.73
6.57
12.95
8.55
[R]
2.77
Other
6.46
Europe a
79.87
[R]
80.44
[R]
80.51
6.67
[R]
81.53
6.85
[R]
Belgium
2.65
[R]
2.70
[R]
2.66
[R]
2.73
[R]
France
10.36
10.58
10.71
10.85
Germany
14.26
14.36
14.34
14.13
Italy
7.22
7.43
7.56
7.63
Netherlands
3.70
3.70
3.69
3.79
Poland
4.09
3.85
3.98
3.62
Spain
4.76
4.99
5.26
Sweden
2.32
Turkey
2.93
United Kingdom
[R]
[R]
2.40
[R]
3.00
2.37
5.62
[R]
2.91
9.75
9.74
Other
17.74
17.72
Eurasia b
39.02
[R]
38.73
Russia
25.81
[R]
25.93
Ukraine
6.07
5.85
5.76
5.75
Uzbekistan
1.88
1.84
1.86
1.94
Other
5.26
5.11
5.19
5.45
15.61
16.28
16.62
17.32
Iran
4.43
4.58
4.83
5.01
Saudi Arabia
4.37
4.54
4.60
4.85
Other
6.81
7.15
7.18
11.40
11.30
1.79
1.85
Middle East
Africa
Egypt
[R]
2.27
[R]
3.16
9.79
[R]
9.72
17.47
[R]
17.87
[R]
39.83
[R]
40.61
[R]
[R]
27.01
[R]
27.47
[R]
[R]
[R]
11.62
[R]
[R]
7.46
[R]
1.92
12.03
[R]
2.00
South Africa
4.56
4.35
4.46
4.59
Other
5.05
5.10
[R]
5.23
5.44
[R]
101.98
[R]
105.28
107.33
[R]
Asia and Oceaniaa

Australia
102.89
[R]
[R]
4.56
4.59
4.82
4.85
China
37.91
37.32
37.23
37.18
India
11.64
12.17
12.99
13.46
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
3.66
21.91
1.67
3.56
[R]
21.52
1.69
3.91
[R]
21.97
1.74
[R]
4.06
[R]
22.43
1.87
[R]
Energy Data a 185
2001
2002
115.36
12.76
2003
117.25
[R]
2004
118.20
2005
120.74
13.13
[R]
13.56
[R]
13.84
6.26
6.25
[R]
6.42
[R]
96.33
97.86
98.21
2006 P
121.62
[R]
121.18
14.23
[R]
6.53
6.86
[R]
13.95
7.36
100.35
100.51
[R]
99.86
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
21.16
21.12
21.61
22.44
23.40
24.18
2.61
8.47
[R]
2.48
[R]
2.67
8.58
[R]
8.69
2.78
[R]
9.02
[R]
2.95
[R]
3.15
9.37
[R]
9.64
[R]
3.19
86.18
[R]
86.42
2.78
[R]
2.75
11.36
[R]
11.44
3.03
2.93
2.72
2.93
3.12
7.05
7.13
7.54
7.71
7.96
82.77
[R]
2.70
[R]
82.50
[R]
2.68
[R]
84.24
[R]
85.70
[R]
[R]
8.20
2.78
[R]
2.81
11.00
11.11
[R]
11.39
14.33
14.59
[R]
14.74
[R]
14.50
[R]
14.63
7.70
7.99
[R]
8.08
[R]
8.14
[R]
8.07
3.93
3.94
4.00
4.11
4.23
[R]
4.14
3.45
3.44
3.60
3.70
3.68
[R]
3.86
5.87
5.95
6.26
6.39
[R]
6.51
[R]
6.51
2.30
[R]
11.08
14.62
7.67
2.40
[R]
[R]
2.89
2.27
[R]
3.15
2.17
[R]
3.32
3.51
2.33
[R]
2.22
3.73
[R]
3.91
9.86
[R]
9.72
[R]
9.86
[R]
9.88
[R]
9.92
[R]
9.80
18.28
[R]
18.33
[R]
18.56
[R]
18.77
[R]
19.01
[R]
19.10
40.94
[R]
41.59
[R]
43.37
[R]
44.69
[R]
45.79
[R]
45.88
27.72
[R]
27.93
[R]
28.77
[R]
29.60
[R]
30.06
[R]
30.39
5.87
5.64
5.82
6.28
6.26
6.32
[R]
2.03
2.08
2.10
2.22
2.13
[R]
2.21
7.27
[R]
7.41
5.55
[R]
5.75
[R]
6.22
[R]
6.62
[R]
17.95
18.98
19.76
20.89
22.75
[R]
23.81
5.39
5.89
6.18
6.39
7.22
[R]
7.69
5.14
5.38
5.76
6.21
6.59
[R]
6.89
7.42
7.71
7.82
8.29
8.93
[R]
9.23
13.36
[R]
13.97
14.54
[R]
14.50
2.44
[R]
2.59
2.73
[R]
2.54
5.21
5.12
[R]
5.18
12.63
[R]
12.72
2.23
[R]
2.26
4.66
[R]
4.54
4.88
[R]
5.74
[R]
5.91
[R]
6.04
[R]
6.18
[R]
6.69
[R]
6.77
111.34
[R]
116.41
[R]
125.48
[R]
138.71
[R]
147.78
[R]
156.31
5.14
[R]
5.26
[R]
5.57
[R]
5.61
[R]
43.30
[R]
50.62
[R]
59.99
[R]
66.80
[R]
73.81
17.68
5.02
39.44
5.13
13.94
13.84
14.29
15.54
[R]
16.34
[R]
4.46
4.64
4.56
[R]
4.88
[R]
4.91
[R]
4.15
22.15
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.79
2.58
[R]
2.56
22.24
2.11
[R]
22.15
2.18
[R]
2.42
2.66
186 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
(Continued )
Region and Country

South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Other
World
1997
7.41
3.21
2.60
8.34
381.35
1998
[R]
6.83
3.40
2.44
8.47
[R]
382.38
1999
[R]
7.55
3.55
2.50
9.01
[R]
389.95
2000
[R]
7.89
3.77
2.58
9.23
[R]
[R]
397.93
[R]
Excludes countries that were part of the former USSR.
Includes only countries that were part of the former USSR.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary.
Notes: Data in this table do not include recent updates for the United States or for other countries (see http://tonto.
eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm). World primary energy consumption includes consumption of petroleum products (including natural-gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel), dry natural gas, and coal (including
net imports of coal coke) and the consumption of net electricity generated from nuclear electric power, hydroelectric
power, wood, waste, geothermal, solar, and wind. It also includes, for the United States, the consumption of renewable energy by the end-use sectors. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. For related
information, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Source: Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2006 (JuneDecember 2008), Table E1.
Energy Data a 187
2001
8.10
3.86
2.70
9.47
402.15
2002
2003
[R]
[R]
8.39
4.02
2.94
9.80
[R]
410.56
2004
[R]
[R]
8.64
4.21
3.22
10.23
[R]
8.91
4.36
3.45
10.92
[R]
426.02
[R]
447.15
2005
[R]
2006 P
[R]
[R]
9.23
4.43
3.67
11.52
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
9.45
4.57
3.74
11.97
[R]
462.06
[R]
472.27
188 a Energy Data
TABLE 6
World Crude Oil and Natural Gas Reserves, January 1, 2008

Crude Oil
Oil & Gas Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
211.6
178.6a
11.7
21.3
57.5
25.2b
11.1
21.3
309.8
58.2
13.9
237.7
314.1
58.3
18.1
237.7

Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Peru
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela
Otherc
109.9
2.6
.5
12.2
.2
1.5
.1
4.5
.4
.7
87.0
.2
104.8
2.7
.5
12.5
.0
1.5
.7
4.8
.4
.6
81.0
.2
261.8
15.8
26.5
12.3
3.5
4.3
2.5
NA
11.9
18.8
166.3
(s)
247.0
16.5
28.0
12.9
1.0
6.7
.8
.3
12.0
16.7
152.0
(s)
Europed
Austria
Croatia
Denmark
Germany
Hungary
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Romania
Serbia
United Kingdom
Otherc
14.3
.1
.1
1.2
.4
(s)
.4
.1
6.9
.1
.6
.1
3.6
.8
13.8
.1
.1
1.1
.2
.1
.4
.2
6.7
.2
.5
NR
3.6
.7
172.0
.6
1.0
2.5
9.0
.3
3.3
50.0
79.1
5.8
2.2
1.7
14.6
1.9
169.0
1.1
1.1
2.6
5.2
.6
3.0
48.8
81.7
4.7
4.2
NR
14.0
2.1
Eurasiae
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Otherc
98.9
7.0
30.0
60.0
.6
.4
.6
.3
126.0
NR
NR
76.0
NR
NR
NR
50.0
2,014.8
30.0
100.0
1,680.0
100.0
39.0
65.0
.8
2,104.0
NR
NR
1,654.0
NR
NR
NR
450.0
Energy Data a 189
Crude Oil
Oil & Gas
Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
Middle East
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwaitf
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabiaf
Syria
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Otherc
748.3
.1
138.4
115.0
104.0
5.5
15.2
266.8
2.5
97.8
3.0
(s)
727.3
NR
137.0
126.0
99.4
5.7
20.0
264.8
2.9
68.1
2.7
.7
2,548.9
3.3
948.2
111.9
56.0
30.0
905.3
253.1
8.5
214.4
16.9
1.3
2,570.2
NR
985.0
91.0
66.3
32.0
903.2
254.0
12.1
196.3
16.8
13.6
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Cameroon
Congo (Brazzaville)
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Libya
Mozambique
Nigeria
Sudan
Tunisia
Otherc
114.8
12.2
9.0
.2
1.6
3.7
1.1
2.0
41.5
.0
36.2
5.0
.4
1.9
114.7
11.9
9.5
NR
1.9
3.7
1.7
3.2
36.5
.0
37.2
6.7
.6
1.8
489.6
159.0
9.5
4.8
3.2
58.5
1.3
1.0
50.1
4.5
184.0
3.0
2.3
7.6
504.2
160.0
5.7
NR
4.1
68.5
3.4
2.5
52.8
.0
184.5
4.0
3.5
15.4
Asia and Oceaniad

Australia
Bangladesh
Brunei
Burma
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
New Zealand
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Thailand
Vietnam
Otherc
34.3
1.5
(s)
1.1
.1
16.0
5.6
4.4
(s)
4.0
.1
.3
.1
.5
.6
.2
40.0
4.2
NR
1.1
.2
18.1
4.0
4.5
NR
5.5
.1
.3
.2
.4
1.3
.2
415.4
30.0
5.0
13.8
10.0
80.0
38.0
93.9
.7
83.0
1.0
28.0
8.0
11.7
6.8
5.5
527.6
151.9
NR
11.0
15.0
61.8
31.8
92.0
NR
88.0
2.0
29.8
14.7
11.2
8.2
10.2
1,332.0
1,184.2
6,212.3
6,436.0
World
190 a Energy Data

a
Comprises 5.4 billion barrels of conventional crude oil and condensate and 173.2 billion barrels of bitumen in Albertas
oil sands.
World Oil states the following about its Canadian crude oil reserves estimate: conventional crude reserves are 4.9
Bbbl [billion barrels]. Alberta's estimates of established oil sands reserves of 174 Bbbl are not proved; that would
require at least 350 Tcf [trillion cubic feet] of gas delivered to northern Alberta, and/or implementation of future technologies. Oil sands reserve estimate is based on 50 years times current production capacity.
c
Includes data for those countries not separately reported.
Data for Kuwait and Saudi Arabia include one-half of the reserves in the neutral zone between Kuwait and Saudi
Arabia.
NA = Not available. NR = Not separately reported. (s) = Less than 0.05 billion barrels.
Notes: All reserve figures are proved reserves, except as noted. Totals may not equal sum of components as a result of
independent rounding. For related information, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Sources: U.S. data, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Crude Oil, Natural Gas, and Natural Gas Liquids
Reserves, 2007 Annual Report; All other data, PennWell Corporation, Oil & Gas Journal 105, no. 48 (December 24,
2007) and Gulf Publishing Company, World Oil 229, no. 9 (September 2008).
TABLE 7
World Recoverable Reserves of Coal, 2005 (Million Short Tons)
Region and Country

North America
Canada
Greenland
Mexico
United Statesa
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Peru
Other
Europeb
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Former Serbia and Montenegro
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Turkey
United Kingdom
Other
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
126,271
3,826
0
948
121,496
7,969
0
34
7,251
154
529
9,296
6
1,844
7
168
0
219
6,627
13
0
171
241
145,206
3,425
202
387
141,193
9,973
7,791
1,268
420
0
494
41,485
2,195
3,117
15,299
7,227
4,299
3,420
1,642
452
2,000
0
1,834
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
271,477
7,251
202
1,335
262,689
17,941
7,791
1,302
7,671
154
1,023
50,781
2,200
4,962
15,306
7,394
4,299
3,640
8,270
465
2,000
171
2,076
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 191
TABLE 7
(Continued )
Region and Country

Eurasiac
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Other
Middle East
Iran
Africa
Botswana
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Other
Asia and Oceaniab
Australia
China
India
Indonesia
North Korea
Pakistan
Thailand
Other
World
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
103,186
31,052
54,110
16,922
1,102
0
1,528
1,528
54,488
44
52,911
553
980
169,994
40,896
68,564
57,585
1,897
331
1
0
721
472,731
145,931
3,450
118,964
20,417
2,205
895
0
0
192
0
0
0
192
113,813
43,541
57,651
4,694
2,874
331
2,184
1,493
1,046
456,599
[R]
[R]
Total
249,117
34,502
173,074
37,339
3,307
895
1,528
1,528
54,680
44
52,911
553
1,172
283,807
84,437
126,215
62,278
4,771
661
2,185
1,493
1,767
929,331
[R]
U.S. data are as of the end of 2007, 2 years later than the other data on this table.
R = Revised.
Notes: Data are at end of year. World Energy Council data represent proved recoverable reserves, which are the
tonnage within the proved amount in place that can be recovered (extracted from the earth in raw form) under
present and expected local economic conditions with existing, available technology. The Energy Information Administration does not certify the international reserves data but reproduces the information as a matter of convenience
for the reader. U.S. reserves represent estimated recoverable reserves from the Demonstrated Reserve Base, which
includes both measured and indicated tonnage. The U.S. term measured approximates the term proved as used by
the World Energy Council. The U.S. measured and indicated data have been combined and cannot be recaptured as
measured alone. Totals may not equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related information, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Sources: U.S. data based on EIA, Annual Coal Report 2007, Table 15, and unpublished file data of the Coal Reserves
Data Base; All other data, World Energy Council, 2007 Survey of Energy Resources.
192 a Energy Data
TABLE 8
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Consumption, 19972006

(Million Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide)a
Region and Country

North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
Other
1997
1998
1999
2000
6,492
[R]
6,547
[R]
6,615
[R]
6,810
[R]
549
[R]
554
[R]
568
[R]
565
[R]
350
[R]
372
[R]
364
[R]
383
[R]
5,592
[R]
5,620
[R]
5,682
[R]
5,860
[R]
1
950
1
[R]
975
[R]
984
[R]
993
[R]
136
[R]
140
[R]
138
[R]
[R]
325
[R]
336
[R]
345
[R]
[R]
142
Argentina
130
Brazil
326
Venezuela
135
Other
359
[R]
372
[R]
374
[R]
375
Europeb
4,503
[R]
4,487
[R]
4,436
[R]
4,500
[R]
Belgium
146
[R]
151
[R]
143
[R]
149
[R]
France
385
[R]
410
[R]
404
[R]
402
[R]
Germany
889
[R]
872
[R]
841
[R]
857
[R]
Italy
425
[R]
441
[R]
441
[R]
448
[R]
Netherlands
240
[R]
242
[R]
239
[R]
252
[R]
Poland
339
[R]
316
[R]
329
[R]
295
[R]
Romania
120
[R]
101
[R]
91
Spain
272
[R]
282
[R]
309
[R]
327
[R]
Turkey
182
[R]
184
[R]
182
[R]
202
[R]
United Kingdom
569
[R]
564
[R]
559
[R]
561
[R]
Other
935
[R]
924
[R]
898
[R]
913
[R]
Eurasiac
2,244
[R]
2,235
[R]
2,320
[R]
2,356
[R]
120
[R]
116
[R]
133
[R]
143
[R]
1,483
[R]
1,482
[R]
1,560
[R]
1,582
[R]
344
[R]
333
[R]
328
[R]
327
[R]
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
133
134
93
Uzbekistan
103
102
[R]
103
Other
194
[R]
201
[R]
195
[R]
197
989
[R]
1,019
[R]
1,057
[R]
1,094
[R]
291
[R]
295
[R]
317
[R]
321
[R]
Middle East
Iran
106
[R]
Saudi Arabia
255
[R]
258
[R]
264
[R]
291
[R]
Other
443
[R]
467
[R]
475
[R]
483
[R]
[R]
Africa
872
[R]
861
[R]
877
[R]
892
Egypt
112
[R]
115
[R]
117
[R]
119
South Africa
388
[R]
370
[R]
381
[R]
392
[R]
Other
371
[R]
376
[R]
378
[R]
381
[R]
7,197
[R]
7,035
[R]
7,247
[R]
7,366
[R]
334
[R]
340
[R]
359
[R]
360
[R]
Asia and Oceaniac

Australia
China
3,133
[R]
3,029
[R]
2,992
[R]
2,967
[R]
India
878
[R]
914
[R]
971
[R]
1,012
[R]
247
[R]
241
[R]
266
[R]
274
[R]
1,161
[R]
1,116
[R]
1,158
[R]
1,204
[R]
Indonesia
Japan
Energy Data a 193
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
6,697
[R]
6,782
[R]
6,870
[R]
6,970
[R]
7,034
[R]
6,954
554
[R]
573
[R]
602
[R]
615
[R]
632
[R]
614
380
[R]
384
385
[R]
407
[R]
436
5,762
[R]
5,824
[R]
5,969
[R]
5,994
[R]
5,903
1,016
[R]
128
349
149
389
[R]
5,878
1,005
[R]
1,023
[R]
1,066
[R]
1,111
[R]
1,138
[R]
121
[R]
134
[R]
141
[R]
152
[R]
162
[R]
347
[R]
346
[R]
356
[R]
371
[R]
377
[R]
147
[R]
134
[R]
143
[R]
150
[R]
152
390
[R]
408
[R]
426
[R]
438
389
447
4,559
[R]
4,532
[R]
4,679
[R]
4,713
[R]
4,717
[R]
4,721
146
[R]
143
[R]
151
[R]
154
[R]
151
[R]
148
406
[R]
402
[R]
409
[R]
416
[R]
414
[R]
418
878
[R]
857
[R]
874
[R]
872
[R]
853
[R]
858
445
[R]
453
[R]
475
[R]
470
[R]
473
[R]
468
278
[R]
259
[R]
261
[R]
271
[R]
273
[R]
260
279
[R]
276
[R]
289
[R]
295
[R]
290
[R]
303
102
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
98
[R]
99
332
[R]
349
[R]
357
[R]
371
[R]
384
[R]
373
184
[R]
195
[R]
207
[R]
211
[R]
231
[R]
236
575
[R]
564
[R]
575
[R]
582
[R]
585
[R]
586
934
[R]
934
[R]
980
[R]
972
[R]
966
[R]
973
2,332
[R]
2,354
[R]
2,471
[R]
2,529
[R]
2,600
[R]
2,601
[R]
148
[R]
154
[R]
166
1,571
[R]
1,572
[R]
1,627
319
[R]
327
[R]
357
114
[R]
115
206
111
184
185
[R]
203
[R]
213
1,663
[R]
1,699
[R]
1,704
[R]
347
[R]
350
[R]
329
[R]
122
[R]
117
[R]
121
[R]
212
[R]
231
[R]
233
[R]
188
1,119
[R]
1,175
[R]
1,240
[R]
1,330
[R]
1,444
[R]
1,505
334
[R]
365
[R]
387
[R]
407
[R]
446
[R]
471
301
[R]
312
[R]
347
[R]
389
[R]
406
[R]
424
483
[R]
499
[R]
506
[R]
535
[R]
593
[R]
610
923
[R]
924
[R]
975
[R]
1,025
[R]
1,062
[R]
1,057
130
[R]
134
[R]
144
[R]
153
[R]
161
[R]
152
399
[R]
385
[R]
418
[R]
448
[R]
438
[R]
444
394
[R]
405
[R]
413
[R]
424
[R]
463
[R]
461
7,608
[R]
8,050
[R]
8,806
[R]
9,821
[R]
10,517
[R]
11,220
374
[R]
383
[R]
381
[R]
391
[R]
417
[R]
417
3,108
[R]
3,441
[R]
4,062
[R]
4,847
[R]
5,429
[R]
6,018
1,035
[R]
1,034
[R]
1,048
[R]
1,151
[R]
1,194
[R]
1,293
300
[R]
315
[R]
305
[R]
323
[R]
324
[R]
280
1,197
[R]
1,203
[R]
1,253
[R]
1,258
[R]
1,250
[R]
1,247
194 a Energy Data
TABLE 8
(Continued )
Region and Country
1997
Malaysia
102
South Korea
435
Taiwan
1998
1999
2000
103
[R]
107
[R]
112
[R]
[R]
375
[R]
433
[R]
446
[R]
210
[R]
225
[R]
224
[R]
252
[R]
Thailand
177
[R]
162
[R]
171
[R]
162
[R]
Other
520
[R]
530
[R]
567
[R]
578
[R]
23,247
[R]
23,160
[R]
23,535
[R]
24,011
[R]
World
a
Metric tons of carbon dioxide can be converted to metric tons of carbon equivalent by multiplying by 12/44.
Notes: Data in this table do not include recent updates (see http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.
cfm). Data include carbon dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel energy consumption and natural-gas flaring. Totals may
not equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related information, see http://www.eia.doe.
gov/international.
Source: Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 2006 (JuneDecember 2008), Table H.1co2.
Energy Data a 195
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
125
[R]
134
[R]
150
[R]
166
[R]
160
[R]
164
452
[R]
468
[R]
478
[R]
489
[R]
497
[R]
515
249
[R]
274
[R]
290
[R]
287
[R]
290
[R]
300
172
[R]
187
[R]
206
[R]
226
[R]
243
[R]
245
594
[R]
612
[R]
633
[R]
683
[R]
714
[R]
741
24,253
[R]
24,823
[R]
26,064
[R]
27,453
[R]
28,485
[R]
29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:

3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a
3000 B.C.
Mesopotamians use petroleum for a range of purposes,

including medicine, roads, shipbuilding, and architecture.
2800
Sales of olive oil for use as fuel in lamps and for cooking
are recorded on clay tablets in Sumer.
1100
Written evidence of the use of coal for fuel appears in
various localities.
200
China pioneers the use of natural gas as a fuel, developing
a gas-red evaporator used to extract salt from brine. Gas
reaches the evaporators from shallow wells by means of
simple percussion rigs and bamboo piping.
250 400 A.D. Romans build a 16-wheel watermill in southern France,
which produces more than 40 horsepower.
500 900
Persians invent the rst windmills, using them to pump
water and grind grain.
600
Middle Eastern chemists discover an incendiary
weaponcomparable to modern napalmderived from
petroleum and quicklime.
874
Iceland is settled. Geothermal energy keeps the new inhabitants warm.
1400s
Coal becomes a viable fuel for common use in home heating because of the invention of rebricks, which make
chimney construction inexpensive.
198 a Energy Time Line
1626
1769
1800s
1800 1826
1816
1830 1839
1860
18701880
French explorers document the burning of natural gas

from seeps by Native Americans at Lake Erie.
James Watt patents the steam engine.
Coal becomes the principal fuel used by steam-powered
trains.
Humphrey Davy builds a battery-powered arc lamp.
The rst energy utility in the United States is founded.
The relationship between electricity and magnetism is
conrmed.
The rst electric motor is developed by Faraday.
Ohms Law is published.
Natural gas lights up the street lamps of Baltimore.
Through the 19th century, natural gasat that time still
largely derived from coal, rather than extracted directly
from the earthis used extensively as a lighting fuel in
North America and Europe.
Michael Faraday builds an induction dynamo based on
the principles of electromagnetism, induction, generation,
and transmission.
The rst industrial electric motors are built.
The rst fuel cell is designed.
Auguste Mouchout demonstrates that solar radiation can
be converted into mechanical power.
Wood remains the primary fuel for cooking and heating
and is also used for steam generation in industries and
transportation.
Draft animals account for more than half of the total
horsepower of all prime movers.
The gas turbine is invented.
The rst combustion engine is designed to use alcohol,
and gasoline is made.
Edison Electric Light Co. (U.S.) and American Electric
and Illuminating (Canada) are founded.
The rst commercial power station opens in San Francisco using brush generator and arc lights.
Thomas Edison opens the rst electricity-generating plant
(in London) in January 1881.
Edisons Pearl Street Station opens in New York as the
rst American plant to generate electricity. A month
after beginning operations, it is feeding 1,300 light bulbs.
Within a year, it is feeding 11,000 bulbseach a hundred
times brighter than a candle.
Energy Time Line a 199
1878
18811887
1883
18831884
1885
1888
1890s
1900
19001910
19061970
William Adams constructs a reector of at-silvered mirrors, arranged in a semicircle, that concentrates solar radiation onto a stationary boiler.
The rst hydroelectric station opens (Wisconsin).
The transformer is invented.
The steam turbine is invented.
William Stanley develops the transformer and invents the
alternating current electric system.
Nicola Tesla invents the induction motor with a rotating
magnetic eld. This makes unit drives for machines and
AC power transmission economically feasible.
The electron is discovered.
Charles Fritts builds the rst solar cell.
John Ericsson (U.S.) invents and erects a solar engine
using the parabolic trough construction.
Robert Bunsen invents the Bunsen burner, which produces a ame that can be safely used for cooking and
heating with the mixing of the right proportion of natural
gas and air.
Charles F. Brush uses the rst wind turbine to generate
electricity in Cleveland, Ohio. Brush Electric Co. will ultimately be acquired by General Electric.
Electricity begins to replace natural gas for lighting
purposes.
Coal displaces much of the wood used in steam generation.
Ethanol competes with gasoline to be the fuel for cars.
Rudolph Diesel demonstrates his rst engine. It runs on
peanut oil.
The rst geothermal electricity commercialization begins
in Italy.
The rst electric vacuum cleaner is produced.
The rst electric washing machine is sold.
Henry Fords Model T is designed to use ethanol, gasoline, or any combination of the two fuels.
The rst pumped storage plant (Switzerland) opens.
One of the most signicant events of the 20th century
is Albert Einsteins discovery of E = mc2. This eventually
leads to nuclear power, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine, and astrophysics.
U.S. residential demand for natural gas grows 50 times
bigger.
1910
1920
1940s1960s
1942
1950
1956
Mid-1950s
1957
1958
1961
1973
1986
1987
1990
Most rural homes are still heated with wood. In towns,

coal is displacing wood in homes.
The Ford Motor Company manufactures the Model T in
large numbers.
Thousands of miles of new pipeline are constructed
throughout the United States, leading to rapid growth in
the natural gas market.
The Manhattan Project is formed in the United States
to secretly build the atomic bomb for use in World
War II.
The rst controlled nuclear chain reaction is led by Enrico
Fermi (U.S. immigrant from Italy) and other scientists at
the University of Chicago.
Electricity and natural gas displace wood heat in most
homes and commercial buildings.
Oil surpasses coal as the countrys number one fuel
source.
Americans own 50 million cars.
President Eisenhower signs the Federal-Aid Highway Act
of 1956, which establishes the interstate highway system.
The Bridgers-Paxton Building, now listed in the National
Historic Register as the worlds rst solar-heated oce
building, is designed.
The rst full-scale nuclear power plant (Shippingport,
Pennsylvania) begins service.
Airlines begin replacing propeller planes with jet planes.
Coal has earned its place as the primary fuel for electricity
generation in the United States.
Several Arab OPEC nations embargo the sale of oil to the
United States and Holland.
The Perry power plant in Ohio becomes the 100th U.S.
nuclear power plant in operation.
The worlds worst nuclear power accident happens at the
Chernobyl plant in the former USSR (now Ukraine).
Congress selects Yucca Mountain in Nevada for study as
the rst high-level nuclear waste repository site.
More than 2,200 megawatts of wind energy capacity are
installed in Californiamore than half of the worlds capacity at the time.
The Clean Air Act amendments require many changes to
gasoline and diesel fuels to make them pollute less. The
use of these cleaner fuels is phased in during the 1990s.

From 1995 on, reformulated gasoline is used in places
with the worst pollution problems.
1993forward For the rst time, the United States imports more oil and
rened products from other countries than it produces.
More and more imports are needed because of growing
petroleum demand and declining U.S. production.
1997
The Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement for industrialized nations to cut emissions by 5 percent by 2010,
is adopted. The United States does not sign.
2005
Trucking accounts for 65 percent of energy used for
transporting freight. Water transportation accounts for
18 percent, natural gas pipelines for 9 percent, and Class
I railroads for 8 percent.
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 sets
a new corporate average eet eciency (CAFE) standard
for cars and light trucks. The new standard will require car
makers to meet a eet-wide average of at least 35 miles
per gallon by 2020, a 40 percent increase over the old
standard.
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 is responsible for regulations that ensure gasoline sold in the United States contains a minimum volume of renewable fuel.
2007
U.S. wind power produces enough electricity on average
to power the equivalent of more than 2.5 million homes.
The installed capacity of wind-powered electricitygenerating equipment is 13,885 megawatts as of September 30, more than four times the capacity in 2000.
Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant Unit 1 is the rst U.S.
nuclear reactor to come online in the 21st century.
2008
In the United States, crude oil price break $100 per barrel
for the rst time.
In the United States, gasoline prices break $4 per gallon
for the rst time.
2009
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act includes
billions of dollars for energy-eciency and renewableenergy programs and research activities.
2010
China takes the lead as the worlds largest manufacturer
of wind turbines and solar panels.
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
Designed solar panels, which tracked sunlight. The electricity was used to
power engines for large-scale power plants.
BACON, FRANCIS T.
British scientist who built the rst practical hydrogenair fuel cell, which
was used to power welding machines. NASA now uses Bacons fuel cell for
everyday needs and on spacecraft.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
French physicist who observed the photoelectric eect. He also measured
intensity of light by using photochemical reactions.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
Built the rst windmill to generate power on a large scale in Cleveland, Ohio. His windmill had 144 blades and was 17 meters in diameter. His windmill design produced 12 kW of power, which he stored in
batteries.
204 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
Built the rst system for harnessing energy from the oceans. This paved
the way for Steven Salter, who works with ocean energy systems and is the
inventor of the Salter duck. (See later entry for Salter.)
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
St. Louis University mechanical engineer who developed the rst hollow
wind turbine. His development can supply up to 75 percent of the average
homes energy needs. His turbine wraps around a chimney, tree, or utility
pole and can catch breezes from any direction.
CONLOGUE, FRED
Director of design services for Hannaford Bros. supermarket chain who
was instrumental in creating one of the rst stores to meet LEED building standards.
CONRAD, WILLIAM
Conrad, an American, was the rst person to pilot an airplane powered by
hydrogen gas as the fuel.
DE SAUSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT
Swiss physicist and geologist who designed the rst solar water heater,
consisting of a wooden box with a black face and a glass top.
DRAKE, EDWIN
Drilled the rst oil well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. The oil was rened
through fractional distillation to make kerosene to be used in lamps and
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Won the Nobel Prize in physics for his theories explaining the photoelectric eect. A. E. Becquerel observed the photoelectric eect while studying
intensities of light.
Profiles a 205
ERICSSON, JOHN
Expanded on Mouchouts solar panel design using a parabolic trough
instead of a dish, which became the standard for modern-day parabolic
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
Received patents for engines running on pure hydrogen. His Erren engines
were used to run a eet of industrial trucks and railroad cars.
FARADAY, MICHAEL
Discovered that a conductor moving through a magnetic eld produces an
electric current. In a hydroelectric plant, turbines provide rotational energy
created by the kinetic energy of moving water. The rotational energy spins
an armature in a coil of copper wire, generating electricity.
FERMI, ENRICO
Won the Nobel Prize in physics for his study of the decay of unstable isotope nuclei. He built the rst nuclear pile under the football stands at the
University of Chicago.
FRITTS, CHARLES
Constructed the rst selenium solar cell. His design was inecient, converting less than 1 percent of received light into usable electricity.
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
Designer of a solar-powered geodesic dome house. He discovered Buckminster fullerene, a crystalline form of carbon similar to a geodesic
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
Bell scientist and the rst to devise a semiconductor made of phosphorus
and boron, increasing the eciency of semiconductors to 15 percent.
206 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
A Department of Energy biofuels expert who is experimenting with an
open pond system for producing algae for biofuel.
GRANT, JOHN D.
Drilled a well in a place called The Geysers in California, creating the rst
geothermal power plant in the United States.
GROVE, WILLIAM-ROBERT
Devised an electric cell making use of hydrogen and oxygen to produce
electricity as they combined to form water. His fuel cell is now known as a
hydrogen fuel cell and was used in the spacecraft when NASA astronauts
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
A New Englander who designed a windmill with more than the usual
four blades and with a vane orienting the blades to the wind. The blades
were hinged so that they could fold up in extremely high winds to avoid
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
Director of MITs Center for Advanced Nuclear Systems. He says commercial reactors provide 20 percent of the United States power but account for 70 percent of our emission-free energy.
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
A French inventor who designed and patented a disk-shaped solar reector that used solar rays to heat water to create steam to power a motor.
MUSK, ELON
South Africanborn owner of a new company, Tesla Motors. His goal is
to develop a practical car that runs entirely on electricity. His company is
named for Nikola Tesla, who studied ways to get free electricity from the
atmosphere to power America.
Profiles a 207
NAUEN, ANDREAS
CEO of the Siemens wind power unit. The German company is a leading manufacturer of wind turbines, in the growing eld of wind turbine
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
Princeton thermonuclear physicist who was the rst to use garbage as a
substitute for gasoline. He calls it P (for Princeton) series fuel, which is a
blend of 45 percent ethanol, 35 percent natural gas, and 20 percent methyltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF).
SALTER, STEVEN
Mechanical engineer who works with ocean energy systems. Inventor of
the Salter duck, a series of aps, which pivot around a shaft, driving a
hydraulic uid to produce electricity.
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
Inventor of a wind turbine called the Sky Serpent. His wind turbine is so
compact that it can be carried by hand and adapted for many commercial
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
A battery expert working at Argonne National Laboratory. His mission is
to develop a next-generation electric battery that will meet todays strategic and industrial requirements.
OPPORTUNITIES IN RENEWABLE
AND NONRENEWABLE ENERGY
CAREERS
a
AMERICAN SOLAR ENERGY SOCIETYWWW.ASES.ORG

This site presents green-collar jobs forecast in the United States to the year
2030. It explores job opportunities in wind, solar, thermal, photovoltaics,
fuel cells, and biofuels.
CLEAN EDGE JOBSWWW.JOBS.CLEANEDGE.COM
This is a source of job listings for clean technology job seekers, employers,
and recruiters.
CLEAN LOOPWWW.CLEANLOOP.COM
Clean Loop lists job opportunities in emerging for-prot companies that
are exploring new technologies to create alternate fuel sources and software applications to revolutionize the energy industry.
CLEAN TECHNOLOGY JOBS
WWW.TECHNICALGREEN.NET
This is a green job locater and network for career opportunities in renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and green building technology.
210 a Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy
EERE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

WWW1.EERE.ENERGY.GOV
Provides information on clean energy jobs in the public, private, and
nonprot sectors, ranging from entry-level opportunities to professional
positions.
ENERGY CAREERSWWW.ISEEK.ORG
A site that explores the question, What energy career is right for you? It
focuses on examining career opportunities in engineering, installation and
repair, production, and construction.
ENVIRONMENTAL GREEN CAREERS CENTER
WWW.GREENCAREERS.COM
This site oers a comprehensive listing of environmental and natural resources job opportunities, with a focus on career news, inside tips and advice for job seekers, and career research reports.
GET INTO ENERGYWWW.GETINTOENERGY.COM
The focus of this site is to develop an awareness among students, parents,
and educators regarding career paths in the energy industry.
GREEN BIZWWW.GREENBIZ.COM
This site maintains a list of job postings and internships for green jobs
in solar and renewable energy, clean tech, green building, and sustainable
businesses.
GREEN CAREERS GUIDE
WWW.GREENCAREERSGUIDE.COM
This database displays articles on green jobs and presents career guidance
on jobs, training, and green entrepreneurship.
GREEN CAREERS JOURNAL
WWW.ENVIRONMENTALCAREER.COM
This is a publication that contains current green jobs listings and information as well as articles on environmental careers and a growing green
economy.
Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy a 211
GREEN CORPSWWW.GREENCORPS.ORG
Green Corps oers hands-on experiences and training for university graduate students to help them nd careers with organizations committed to
resolving global environmental issues.
GREEN DREAM JOBS
WWW.SUSTAINABLEBUSINESS.COM
A sustainable business job service that posts renewable energy jobs in
solar, wind, geothermal, and wave energy and green building technology,
as well as opportunities in government green-job areas.
GREEN ENERGY JOBS
WWW.GREENENERGYJOBS.COM
Provides a career guide to those wanting an overview of opportunities in
renewable resources: green building, planning, marine energy, wave energy,
hydro energy, bioenergy, solar technology, and micro-renewable energy.
GREEN JOBS NETWORK
WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
The goal of the network is to connect people seeking jobs that focus on
environmental and social responsibilities to available related opportunities
and services.
TREE HUGGER JOB BOARD
WWW.JOBS.TREEHUGGER.COM
The job board lists recent green and non-green jobs in a variety of
occupational categories related to environmental sustainability.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
WWW.DOE.GOV
Features information about job vacancies in the U.S. Department of Energy and its DOE laboratories.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, CAREER VOYAGES
WWW.CAREERVOYAGES.GOV
This is a site that explores job training opportunities available in various
renewable energy industries.
U.S. GREEN BUILDING COUNCILWWW.USGBC.ORG

A career center established to connect applicants to employment opportunities in green job technology.
USA GREEN ENERGY JOBS
WWW.USAGREENENERGYJOBS.COM
This site presents a sample of green energy jobs by type in states and cities
VOCATIONAL INFORMATION CENTER
WWW.KAHKE.COM
An international site that explores careers in energy with links to skill requirements, salary, and training and job opportunities.
ENERGY PRODUCT DEVELOPERS

AND MANUFACTURERS
a
Besides the following product developers and manufacturers, you can also
go to an online buyers guide and business directory for renewable energy
businesses and organizations worldwide: www.energy.sourceguides.com
ABENGOA SOLAR, DENVER, CO
Develops and constructs solar power tower systems and photovoltaic cells
for use in the production of electricity. www.abengoasolar.com
ABUNDANT RENEWABLE ENERGY, NEWBURG, OR
Manufactures wind energy generators and towers designed for harsh climates and low wind-speed areas. www.abundantre.com
ALTA ROCK ENERGY INC., SEATTLE, WA
Develops and commercializes geothermal deep drilling technology. www.
altarockenergy.com
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY RESEARCH, INTERNATIONAL
Automobile manufacturers are exploring engineering strategies to produce
clean and ecient vehicles using biofuels, tire and motor oil technology,
214 a Energy Product Developers and Manufacturers
hydrogen fuel cells, lithium-ion battery technology, fuel-eciency technology, and light plastic materials. www.cargroup.org
BP PETROLEUM, WARRENVILLE, IL
Developed a carbon capture and storage technology that extracts carbon
emissions from fossil fuels and processes them into hydrogen to generate electricity and capture and store carbon elements permanently underground. www.BP.com/EnergyLab
BRIGHT SOURCE ENERGY, OAKLAND, CA
Builds, owns, and operates large-scale solar energy projects. www.
brightsourceenergy.com
CARRIER CORPORATION,
FARMINGTON, CT
Manufactures geothermal heat pumps for use in residential heating and
cooling systems. www.residentialcarrier.com
CETC SOLAR GROUP, CHANGSHA, CHINA
Manufacturer and supplier of all solar products, including solar cells and
panels and photovoltaic systems. www.cetc-solar.com
CHEVRON ENERGY SOLUTIONS CO.,
SAN FRANCISCO, CA
Applies proven energy-eciency and renewable-power technologies such
as infrastructure systems, energy controls, solar power, biomass, and fuel
cells to meet the facility needs of individual and institutional customers.
www.chevron.com/globalissues
E.I. DUPONT DE NEMOURS,
BREVARD, NC
Manufactures alternate fuel boilers, which convert on-site industrial waste
materials and nonrecyclable by-products into usable steam energy. www2.
dupont.com
Energy Product Developers and Manufacturers a 215
EXXON MOBIL, HOUSTON, TX

Designs and uses equipment for extracting oil and gas reserves while reducing
the environmental impact of energy development. www.exxonmobil.com
FRAUNHOFER INSTITUTE FOR SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS,
FEIBURG, GERMANY
Research and production of solar electric power systems and photovoltaic
modules. www.fraunhofer.de
GENERAL ELECTRIC, ATLANTA, GA
Manufactures products for the energy industry incorporating the use of
fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, and wind applications. www.gepower.com
IBM, SAN JOSE, CA
Using nano-membrane technology, it is developing lightweight, highenergy lithium air batteries. www.almadenibm.com
NANOSOLAR, SAN JOSE, CA
Developed the Nanosolar Utility Panel, the rst designed and manufactured solar electricity panel for inclusion in utility-scale solar powered systems. www.nanosolar.com
NEVADA SOLAR ONE, BOULDER CITY, NV
Constructed and maintains a solar energy plant that concentrates and converts desert sunlight into thermal energy for electric power generation.
www.acciona-na.com
OERLIKON SOLAR, SWITZERLAND
Mass-produces thin-lm silicon solar modules. www.oerlikon.com
OXFORD YASA MOTORS, GREAT BRITAIN
Manufactures lightweight, energy-ecient electric motors for the automobile industry. www.ox.ac.uk
PV CRYSTALOX SOLAR, ERFURT, GERMANY

Manufactures photovoltaic cell materials, solar-grade silicon, silicon wafers, and ingots. www.pvcrystalox.com
SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORIES, LIVERMORE, CA
Researches and develops commercially viable energy technologies based
on wind, solar, and geothermal resources. www.public.ca.sandia.gov
SIEMENS CORPORATION, NEW YORK, NY
Manufactures wind turbines for onshore, coastal, and oshore sites. www.
energysiemens.com
SOLIX BIOFUELS, COYOTE GULCH, CO
Planned and built a demonstration facility that is anticipated to produce
3,000 gallons of algal biofuels per acre per year. www.solixbiofuels.com
SUNCOR (SUNOCO) ENERGY INC., ALBERTA, CANADA
Maintains an ethanol facility with a capacity to produce 200 million liters per year. The rened ethanol is blended into gasoline products. www.
suncor.com
USDA SOUTHERN RESEARCH STATION, ASHEVILLE, NC
Partners with private industries to use basic and applied science to develop
wood energy products from southern forests. www.srs.fs.usda.gov
XTREME POWER AND CLAIRVOYANT ENERGY,
DEARBORN, MI
These companies have converted an idle Ford Motor Company assembly plant into one of the nations largest renewable-energy manufacturing parks. They produce solar power and energy storage systems. www.
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
EDUCATION STANDARDS,
CONTENT STANDARDS
a
Unifying Concepts and Processes, K12

Systems, order, and organization
Evidence, models, and explanation
Constancy, change, and measurement
Evolution and equilibrium
Form and function
Science as Inquiry, Content Standard A, Grades 912
Abilities necessary to do scientic inquiry
Understandings about scientic inquiry
Physical Science, Content Standard B, Grades 912
Structure of atoms
Structure and properties of matter
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces
Conservation of energy and increase in disorder
Interactions of energy and matter
218 a National Science Education Standards, Content Standards
Life Science, Content Standard C, Grades 912

The cell
Molecular basis of heredity
Biological evolution
Interdependence of organisms
Matter, energy, and organization in living systems
Behavior of organisms
Earth and Space Science, Content Standard D, Grades 912
Energy in the earth system
Geochemical cycles
Origin and evolution of the earth system
Origin and evolution of the universe
Science and Technology, Content Standard E, Grades 912
Abilities of technological design
Understandings about science and technology
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, Content Standard F,
Grades 912
Personal and community health
Population growth
Natural resources
Environmental quality
Natural and human-induced hazards
Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges
History and Nature of Science, Content Standard G, Grades 912
Science as a human endeavor
Nature of scientic knowledge
History of science
INDEX
a
Boldface page numbers refer to volume numbers. A key appears on all

verso pages. An italicized t following a page number indicates a table. An
italicized f following a page number indicates a gure.
A.A. Kingston Middle School, 2:17,

5:34, 5:34f
Abate, Dee, 5:39
Abengoa Solar, 1:213, 2:40, 2:55,
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
ABI. See Allied Business Intelligence
Abu Dhabi, 5:92 93, 5:93f, 5:129
Abundant Renewable Energy, 1:213,
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
ACC. See American Coal Council
Accionas Solar One, 2:38f
Acid mine drainage (AMD),
1:109 11, 1:110f
Active solar heating systems, 2:70 74
Active solar water heaters, 2:76f
Active yawing, 3:12
Adams, William, 1:198, 1:203, 2:5,
2:168, 2:173, 3:166, 3:171, 4:168,
4:173, 5:170, 5:175
Adlai E. Stevenson High School,

5:38f
Advanced DC 4001 30 HP electric
motor, 2:96
Aeroturbine, 3:14
Afghanistan, 3:94
Africa: OTEC station o of, 3:122;
solar energy used in, 2:26
Ahuachapn geothermal
eld, 4:43
Airborne wind turbines, 3:62
Aircraft propulsion, 2:105
Air quality standards, 4:25 26,
5:29 30
Air-to-water heat pumps, 4:74
Alamos National Laboratory, 5:115
Alaska: geothermal resources of,
4:18 19; as oil-producing state,
1:55f; pipeline, 1:54
220 a Index
1: Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, and Nuclear

2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel
Cells
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and
Hydropower
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy
5: Energy Eciency, Conservation,
and Sustainability
Alaska North Slope, 1:83

Albuquerque, New Mexico, 5:17
Aleman, Angel, 1:50
Aleutian Islands, 4:18
Algae, 2:93f; as biofuel, 4:115;
blue-green, 2:94; high-oil,
2:93; hydrogen produced by,
2:92 94
All American Homes, 5:23
Alliance to Save Energy, 1:27, 5:42
Allied Business Intelligence (ABI),
2:117, 5:118
Alonzo, Stephanie, 1:50
Altamont Pass Wind Farm, 3:32,
3:33f
Alta Rock Energy, 1:213, 2:183,
3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Alternate Fuels and Advanced
Vehicles Data Center, 5:127
Alternative energy, 5:59 62
Alternative Energy Primer, 4:105
Alternative Fuels and Advanced Data
Center, 2:103, 4:105
Aluminum industry, 1:21
AMD. See Acid mine drainage
American Coal Council (ACC), 1:35,
1:129
American Electric and Illuminating,
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170
American Federation of Teachers,
5:37
American Gas Association, 1:35,
1:100, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137
American Geologic Institute, 1:68

American Geophysical Union, 1:68
American Hydrogen Association,
2:127
American Institute of Architects,
5:91
American Nuclear Society, 1:35,
1:157, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137
American Petroleum Institute, 1:35,
1:66
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, 1:33, 1:201, 2:171,
3:169, 4:89, 4:171, 5:120, 5:173
American Solar Energy Society
(ASES), 1:35, 1:165, 1:209, 2:33,
2:80, 2:135, 2:179, 3:133, 3:177,
4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
American Wind Association, 1:35
American Wind Energy Association
(AWEA), 1:165, 2:135, 3:2, 3:26,
3:133, 4:135, 5:137
Anaerobic digestion, 4:97
Animal husbandry, 4:100
Anode, 2:88
Antifreeze, 4:60, 4:66f
ANWR. See Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge
Appliances, 5:50f; eciency of,
5:52 53; fuel use and, 1:178t 179t,
2:148t 149t, 3:146t 147t,
4:148t 149t, 5:150t 151t
AquaBuoy, 3:116f, 3:117f
Aquaculture, 4:50
Aramaki, Teiichi, 1:32f
Arch dam, 3:80
Archimedes, 2:35
Architecture: ecological, 5:24; green,
5:88 89; for green roof, 5:81 82
Arctic ice mass, 1:24f
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
(ANWR), 1:61
Arizona: geothermal energy in, 4:18;
geothermal heat pumps tested in,
Index a 221
4:65 66; solar power plant in, 2:39;

Tucson, 5:17
Arkansas, 4:5, 4:118, 5:91, 5:91f
Arquin, Michael, 3:47 51, 3:48f
Arsdell, Brent Van, 2:40f
Arsene dArsonval, Jacques, 3:118
ASES. See American Solar Energy
Society
Association for the Advancement of
Sustainability in Higher Education,
5:41
Association of American State
Geologists, 1:67
Atoms, 2:10
Auburn University, 4:83
Austin, Texas, 5:91
Australia, 1:85; coal exports of, 1:116;
geothermal power plants in, 4:42;
hot dry rock resources in, 4:47 48;
photovoltaic technology used by,
2:25
Austria: biomass energy in, 4:89; hydroelectric power plants in, 3:89
AutoDesk, 5:18
Automotive Industry Research,
1:213 14, 2:183 84, 3:181 82,
4:183 84, 5:185 86
AWEA. See American Wind Energy
Association
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f
B20 fuel, 4:119f, 4:120
Babcock Ranch, 2:22
Backhus, DeWayne, 3:20
Bacon, Francis T., 1:203, 2:90, 2:173,
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Bacteria, 4:103
Baez, Ana, 1:50
Bahrain World Trade Center,
3:55 56, 3:55f
Ballard Power System, 2:90, 2:102
Ball State University (BSU), 4:68
Bantam, Doug, 4:1
Bargeloads, of coal, 1:113f
Baring-Gould, Ian, 3:44

Barrage technologies, 3:107
Basics of Energy Ecient Living
(Wibberding), 5:61
Bates, John, 5:123
Bats, 3:60
Batteries: fuel cells using, 2:97; future
of, 5:122 23; NiMH, 5:122 23;
thin-lm lithium-ion, 5:123, 5:123f
Battersdy, Leah, 5:64f
Battery storage: for home and business, 2:15f; PV to, 2:14
Bay Localize, 1:28
Bay of Fundy, 3:110
Beaufort, Francis, 3:5, 3:6t
Beaufort scale, 3:5, 3:6t
Beaver County power plant, 4:20
Becquerel, Edmond, 1:203, 2:2, 2:173,
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Belize, 4:34
Bell Laboratories, 2:5
Belote, Dave, 2:3f
Benz, Daimler, 2:90
Benzene, 1:53
Bergey Windpower, 3:72
Berkeley Biodiesel Collective, 4:126
Biliran, 4:33
Billings, Montana, 5:91
Binary power plants, 4:9 10, 4:9f,
4:22, 4:40f
Binder, Michael, 2:98
Biodiesel, 1:48, 1:49, 1:51, 1:53 54,
4:127 28; advantages of, 4:121;
of America, 4:126; Arkansas
school buses using, 4:118; B20
fuel, 4:119f, 4:120; buses using,
4:109f; California using, 4:121;
composition of, 4:112; dening,
4:109; disadvantages of, 4:121 25;
discarded restaurant oil used
as, 4:116f; grassroots eort in,
4:112; high-oil algae for, 2:93;
home heating with, 4:120; Idaho
projects of, 4:118; petroleum diesel
222 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
emissions compared to, 4:116;

production specications
of, 4:114 16; race car using,
4:107 8, 4:108f; school buses
using, 4:117 20, 4:119, 4:119f;
students building cars using,
4:121; in US, 5:122; vegetable oil
as, 4:116f; vehicles powered by,
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75
Biodiesel Solutions, 4:107
Biodigester, 4:98, 4:99f, 4:101
Bioethanol, 4:91 92
Biofuel, 1: xvii, 1:14, 2: xvii, 3: xvii,
4: xvii, 4:89 90, 5: xvii; algae used
as, 4:115; bacteria producing,
4:103; biotechnology used in,
5:123; buses, 5:7, 5:8f; dening,
4:90 91; dry-milling for, 4:94f; in
sustainable development, 5:120 22;
US consumption of, 1:61
Biogas, 4:96 97, 4:128; Chinas use
of, 4:102 3; CO2 from, 4:96; cow
manure producing, 4:98; digester,
4:100 101; production facilities
for, 4:97f; savings from, 4:101 2;
technology of, 4:102 3
Biogas plant, components of, 4:98
Biogen Idec, Inc., 4:64
Biojet, 4:107
Biomass, 1:13 14, 2:64 65; Asian
countries using, 4:85 88; Austrias
energy source of, 4:89; benets of,
4:103 4; dening, 4:81 82;
Denmarks energy source of, 4:89;
economic benets of, 4:104;

electricity capacity of, 4:104;
Finland using, 4:88; gasication
plant, 4:79, 4:80f; heating system
using, 5:25; hybrid poplars as,
4:83 85, 4:84f; Indonesias energy
source of, 4:86; landll gas from,
1:97; Philippines energy from,
4:87; reading materials on, 1:162,
2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
interest in, 4:85; Swedens energy
source of, 4:88; switchgrass as,
4:82 83, 4:82f; types of, 4:81f; US
government interest in, 4:80; US
percentage use of, 4:85; Vietnams
energy source of, 4:87; woodburning boilers and, 4:105
Biomass Research Center, 4:105
Biomass Solar Greenhouse Project,
2:64
Bioreactors, 2:93f
Biorenery plants, 4:90f
Biotechnology, 5:123
Birdsville geothermal power plant,
4:42
Bitumen, 1:58, 1:59
Blackfeet Indian Reservation,
5:25 26
Blade design, 3:9
Blenders, 1:53 54
Blohm, Margaret, 5:117f
Bloom Energy Corporation,
5:121 22, 5:121f, 5:128
Bloom Energy Server, 5:121 22
Blower door test, 5:56f
Blue-green algae, 2:94
Bluenergy Solarwind Turbine, Inc.,
3:14
Blue Sun Company, 4:115
BMW Mini E, 5:72
Boeing Research & Technology,
2:105, 2:106f
Boiling water reactors, 1:142 43,
1:143f
Index a 223
Boise State University, 3:46

Bolluyt, Jan, 3:19 23
Bonneville Dam, 3:97f
Borrego Solar Systems, 2:33
Boston, Massachusetts, 5:91
Boulder, Colorado, 5:91
BP. See British Petroleum
Brazil, 2:113, 3:86 87
Breakthrough Technologies Institute,
2:103
Breeder reactors, 1:143 44; fast,
1:149 50; liquid metal fast, 1:150f
Bright Source Energy, 1:214, 2:184,
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
British Petroleum (BP), 1:67, 1:214,
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
British thermal unit (Btu), 1:18, 1:78
Browning High School, 5:25 26
Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant,
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Brush, Charles F., 1:199, 1:203, 2:169,
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173,
5:171, 5:175
BSU. See Ball State University
Btu. See British thermal unit
Buckley Air Force Base, 2:14
Bualo Ridge Wind Farm, 3:34
Bunsen, Robert, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Burdin, Claude, 3:7
Buses: biodiesel, 4:117 20, 4:119f;
biofueled, 5:7, 5:8f; CNG powered,
1:86f; diesel-fueled, 1:48f;
hydrogen fuel cells, 2:111 13,
2:112f; soybean-powered, 4:109f
Businesses: battery storage for, 2:15f;
carbon footprint of, 5:18 19; wind
farms, 3:39 40
Butane, 1:74, 1:76
Buttress dam, 3:80
C. reinhartii, 2:92
CAA. See Clean Air Act
CAC. See Clean Air Council
CaCO3. See Calcium carbonate

Cactus Shadows High School, 4:66
CAFE. See Corporate aver eet
eciency
Caithness/COC, 4:20
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 1:111
CalEnergy Navy I, 4:11
California: biodiesel used in, 4:121;
Energy, 4:20; geothermal energy
in, 4:14 15; go-green projects in,
5:33 34; Golden Gate Bridge and,
3:111, 3:112f; solar energy used in,
2:17; wind energy in, 1:200, 2:170,
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
California Fuel Cell Partnership,
2:115 16
California Wind Energy Association,
3:32
California Youth Energy Services
(CYES), 1:30
Calorie, 1:18
Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
Canada: airborne wind turbines
in, 3:62; energy consumption
per capita of, 1:22; geothermal
activity in, 4:38 39; hydroelectric
generation of, 3:85 86; hydrogen
fuel cell buses in, 2:111
Canadian Hydrogen Highway, 2:111
Canola, 4:115
Cantor, Phillip, 4:122 25
Caprocks, 1:74
Carbon, 1:94, 5:7
Carbon capture and sequestration,
1:122 23, 1:124f
Carbon cycle, 4:91f
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 1:75, 4:26;
from biogas, 4:96; from coal,
1:119 20; coal-red power station
capture and storage of, 1:124f;
countries with highest emissions
of, 5:5; deforestation increasing,
1:120; electricity and reduction
of, 5:48 50; emissions, 1:95f,
224 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
1:119 20, 1:120f; emissions

increasing of, 5:4 5; emissions
of fuel, 1:95f; gas injection using,
1:45; geothermal energy credits
for, 4:51; geothermal heat pump
reducing, 4:68, 4:69; global
emissions of, 1:192 95, 2:162 65,
3:160 63, 4:162 65, 5:5, 5:105,
5:164 67; as greenhouse gas, 1:23;
long-term storage of, 1:122 23;
power plant producing, 1:73f; trees
capturing, 5:1; US emissions of,
1:120f; waste creating, 5:51
Carbon footprint, 5:5 6, 5:104;
of businesses, 5:18 19; of cities,
5:15 16; cities ranked for, 5:17;
cities reducing, 5:17; emissions
tracking of, 5:18; estimating your,
5:20; of homes, 5:8 9; Idaho
reducing, 5:11 12; individuals,
5:6f; legislative eorts reducing,
5:21; Minnesota reducing, 5:9 10;
musicians reducing, 5:6 8,
5:8f; New Hampshire reducing,
5:10 11; reducing, 5:19; of schools
and colleges, 5:9 12; schools
reduction of, 5:12, 5:14 15; Texas
reducing, 5:11; two parts of, 5:6;
Virginia reducing, 5:11; Washington reducing, 5:11
Carbon monoxide, 4:92
Career resources, 1:209 12,
2:179 82, 3:177 80, 4:179 82,
5:181 84
Carlisle, Anthony, 2:90

Carlson, Jason, 5:38f
Car maintenance, 5:75 76
Carmichael, Don, 5:37 40, 5:38f
Carrier Corp., 1:214, 2:184, 3:182,
4:184, 5:186
Catalytic lters, 5:124
Cathode, 2:88
Cattle, 1:76
Cavendish, Henry, 2:90
CDM. See Clean Development
Mechanism
Cendejas, Emily, 1:50
Central America, 1:84
Certication plaque, 5:81f
Cervantes, Janneth, 1:50
CETC Solar Group, 1:214, 2:184,
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
CFCs. See Chlorouorocarbons
CFL. See Compact uorescent light
bulb
Chaplin, Daryl, 2:5
Charcoal, 4:102
Charest, Chris, 2:95f
Charging station nozzle, 5:73f
Chaudes-Aigues, France, 4:32
Chemical energy, 1:5
Chemical injection, 1:46
Chen, David, 2:52 54, 2:52f
Chena Hot Springs, 4:19
Chernobyl plant, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
4:170, 5:172
Chevron, 1:67, 4:41
Chevron Energy Solutions Co.,
1:214, 2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Chevy Volt, 5:71
Chicago Biofuels, 4:124
Chief Joseph Dam, 3:75
China: biogas use of, 4:102 3; coalred power station dependence
reduced by, 4:39; coal production
of, 1:114, 1:116; Dongtan, 5:94;
energy use of, 5:107; geothermal
resources in, 4:39; natural gas
Index a 225
extracted by, 1:71; natural gas use

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169; Nuclear reactors in, 1:11f;
parabolic cookers used in, 2:72;
renewable energy promoted by,
3:61f; rooftop solar heaters in,
2:79f; solar cell manufacturing
of, 1: xiv, 1:201, 2: xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3: xiv, 3:169, 4: xiv, 4:171, 5: xiv,
5:173; Three Gorges dam project
of, 3:83 85, 3:84f; tidal power in,
3:110; using microhydroelectric
power plants, 3:94; wind turbines
in, 1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:61f, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
China Dome digester, 4:102, 4:103f
Chinese Guorui Biogas Company,
4:102
Chlorouorocarbons (CFCs), 1:74
Chrysler ecoVoyager, 5:70
Chu, Steven, 1:125, 1:131, 2:85, 3:73,
4:80, 4:89, 5:108, 5:111, 5:120,
5:129
Churchill, Winston, 3:86
Churchill Falls, 3:86
Cities: carbon footprint ranking
of, 5:17; carbon footprint
reduction of, 5:17; carbon
footprints of, 5:15 16; Solar
America, 2:21; using solar energy,
2:17 21
Claude, Georges, 1:204, 2:174,
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
CLC. See College of Lake County
Clean Air Act (CAA), 1:47, 1:114,
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
Clean Air Act Amendments,
4:115 16
Clean Air Council (CAC), 1:165,
2:135, 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
Clean coal technology, 1:121 28
Clean Coal Technology Program,
1:122
Clean Development Mechanism

(CDM), 4:51
Clean Edge jobs, 1:209, 2:179, 3:177,
4:179, 5:181
Clean Fuels Development Coalition,
4:126
Clean Urban Transport for Europe
(CUTE), 2:112
Climate change, 5:14 15, 5:16f;
environmental concerns for,
1:22 24; reducing, 1:25 33;
United Nations Convention on,
1:32f
Climate Protection Summit, 5:16f
Clinton Climate Initiative, 5:18
Closed-cycle systems, 3:119 20, 4:26
Closed-loop ground-coupled heat
pump (GCHP), 4:68
Closed-loop systems, 4:60 61, 4:61f
CNG. See Compressed natural gas
CO2. See Carbon dioxide
Coal, 1: xii, 1:10, 2: xii, 3: xii, 4: xii,
5: xii; ash slurry, 1:112; bargeload
of, 1:113f; carbon ratio of, 1:94;
Chinas production of, 1:114, 1:116;
CO2 from, 1:119 20; consumption
of, 1:118; countries production of,
1:115 16; deposits, 1:106; early
uses of, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169; environmental issues of,
1:109 11, 1:128 29; exporters of,
1:116 17, 1:117t; formation of,
1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
future of, 1:128 29; gasication,
1:125 28, 1:126f; Germany
and, 1:115 16, 5:106; history of,
1:104; imports of, 1:117; Indias
production of, 1:116; Industrial
Revolution and, 1:10, 1:115;
mining of, 1:106 12; Polands
production of, 1:116; production,
1:115 16; products made from,
1:105f; recoverable reserves
of, 1:190t 191t, 2:160t 161t,
226 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,

5:162t 163t; states producing,
1:114 15; sulfur dioxide from,
1:119; surface mining of, 1:109;
transportation of, 1:112 13;
uses of, 1:104 5; US industry of,
1:113 15, 1:115f, 1:117; Utah state
rock as, 1:109; videos on, 1:130;
world consumption of, 1:103
Coal-red power stations: carbon
dioxide capture and storage at,
1:124f; China reducing dependence
on, 4:39; electricity produced by,
1:113 14, 1:114f; emissions from,
1:122, 5:124; environmental issues
of, 1:119 20; nanotechnology
based catalytic lters for, 5:124;
zero emissions from, 1:122
Coal-generating plants, 1:121
Cob Connection, 4:124
College of Lake County (CLC),
5:39
Colleges: carbon footprints of,
5:9 12; Contra Costa Community,
2:4; green architecture in, 5:88 89;
Iowa Central Community, 4:71;
Middlebury, 4:79 80, 4:80f; solar
energy installation at, 2:4; Texas
State Technical, 3:47
Collins, Patrick, 5:125 26, 5:126f
Colorado: Boulder, 5:91; geothermal
energy in, 4:17, 4:51f; wind farms
in, 3:34
Columbia, 1:101
Compact uorescent light bulb

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
Components: of biogas plant,
4:98; of green buildings, 5:79;
of green roofs, 5:84 86, 5:85f;
of hydroelectric power plants,
3:81 83; of microhydroelectric
power plants, 3:90 93, 3:92f; of
wind turbines, 3:10
Compressed air storage, 2:28; for
wind energy, 3:69 70; for wind
farms, 3:31 32
Compressed natural gas (CNG):
buses powered by, 1:86f; Egypt
using, 1:93f
Computers, 5:54
Concentrating solar power (CSP),
1: xiv, 1:12, 2: xiv, 2:1, 2:35, 2:38f,
3: xiv, 4: xiv, 5: xiv; environmental impacts of, 2:50 51; future
of, 2:50 51; land use of, 2:50;
sustainable development with,
5:113; types of, 2:36 47
Concrete dome homes, 5:46, 5:47f
Condoor, Sridhar, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
Conduction, 2:68
Congressional Research Service
(CRS), 3:24, 3:30
Conlogue, Fred, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
ConocoPhillips Company, 1:64 65,
1:67, 3:67
Conrad, William, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
Conserv Fuels, 4:109
Construction materials, 5:80 81
Consumer Energy Center, 2:55
Consumers: of natural gas, 1:82 85;
wind energy cost to, 3:17f, 3:44,
3:68
Consumption: of biofuel, 1:61; of
coal, 1:118; of electricity, 5:48,
5:49f; of energy, 1:4f; of fossil fuels,
Index a 227
2: xiii; household electricity, 5:49f;

natural gas, 1:83 84
Containment ponds, 1:112
Contra Costa Community College,
2:4
Controlled burn program, 5:87
Controller, 3:11
Control rods, 1:142
Convection, 2:68
Conventional water heaters, 5:67f
Conversion, energy loss from, 1:7 8
Coolants, 1:141 42
Copenhagen, 3:58f
Corn crops, 4:93, 4:96
Corn ethanol, 4:92 93
Corn gluten meal, 4:95
Corn kernels, 4:94f
Cornwall Geothermal Project, 4:41
Corporate aver eet eciency
(CAFE), 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
Coso geothermal eld, 4:11 12
Cost: of FCVs, 2:114; of fuel cells,
2:97, 2:121 22; geothermal heat
pump eectiveness of, 4:69; of
geothermal power plants, 4:46; of
green roofs, 5:87; of microhydroelectric power plants, 3:93 94;
of solar energy, 2:30 31; of solar
water heaters, 2:79, 5:66 67; of
wind energy, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68
Costa Rica, 4:43 44
Countries: CO2 emissions of, 5:5;
coal production of, 1:115 16;
energy ecient, 5:21; geothermal
energy interest of, 4:45; green
cities of, 5:92 94; natural gas
production of, 1:81 82; nuclear
energy in, 5:112; oil-producing,
1:56; using biomass, 4:85 88;
using geothermal energy, 4:32f;
using geothermal heat pumps, 4:73;
using microhydroelectric power
plants, 3:94 95; using tidal power,
3:109 11; using wave energy,

3:116 18
Cow manure, 4:98
CRS. See Congressional Research
Service
Crude oil, 1:60f; global reserves
of, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
5:160t 161t; imports of, 1: xi xii,
2: xi xii, 3: xi xii, 4: xi xii, 5: xi xii;
products from, 1:40f; reneries,
1:46 47; US imports of, 1:54 56
Crystalline silicon solar cells, 2:7 8
CSP. See Concentrating solar power
Cubic foot, 1:18
Currie, Linda, 1:28 31
Custom Coals International, 1:122
CUTE. See Clean Urban Transport
for Europe
Cut-in speeds, 3:21
CYES. See California Youth Energy
Services
Daimler AG, 2:86, 5:119
Dam gates, 3:81
Dams: for hydroelectric energy,
3:78 80; types of, 3:80
Danube river, 3:87 88, 3:88f
Darajat, 4:41
Darfur Refugee Camps, 2:72
da Rosa, Aldo V., 5:61
Darrieus wind turbines, 3:13 14
Database of State Incentives for
Renewable Energy (DSIRE), 3:71
Davenport University, 4:72
Davy, Humphrey, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
DC. See Direct current
Dearborn, Michigan, 5:86
Deepwater oating wind turbines,
3:63
Deepwater Horizon well, 1:61
Deforestation, 1:120, 4:102
Delaware, 3:37
228 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Delhaize American organization,

5:105
Dell-Winston School Solar
Challenge, 2:45
Denmark: biomass energy source in,
4:89; wind energy production of,
3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115
Department of Energy (DOE), 1:34,
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138;
energy security and, 5:127; Energy
Star program of, 4:73; hydrogen
research of, 2:100 101; hydrogen
storage research of, 2:123; job
vacancies in, 1:212, 2:182, 3:180,
4:182, 5:184; net metering
information from, 3:43; wind
energy report of, 3:17, 3:24, 3:71
Department of Energy Oce of
Fossil Energy, 1:100
Department of Labor, 1:212, 2:182,
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
Deposits, coal, 1:106
De Saussure, Horace Benedict, 1:204,
2:174, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Desiccant displacement systems, 5:29
DeSoto Next Generation Solar
Energy Center, 1: xiii, 2: xiii, 2:22,
2:22f, 3: xiii, 4: xiii, 5: xiii
Desuperheater, 4:69
Diesel, Rudolf, 1:47, 1:48, 1:199,
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169,
5:171
Diesel engines, 4:112f; biodiesel
bus fueled by, 1:48f; emissions of,

4:116; fuel, 1:47 48; functioning
of, 4:112 13; hydrogen injection
in, 2:113; vegetable oil operation
originally for, 4:113
Diodati, Jason, 1:49 52
Direct current (DC), 2:8, 3:39
Directional drilling, 1:44 45
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
Discover Solar Energy, 2:33, 2:56
DiscoverThis, 2:127, 5:61
Dissolved oxygen levels, 3:96
Diversion power plant, 3:81
Dixon, Patrick, 4:55
DMFCs. See Direct methanol fuel
cells
DOE. See Department of Energy
Dongtan, China, 5:94
Doping process, 2:7
Double-ash power plants, 4:11
Double-pane windows, 5:52f
Dr. FuelCell Science kit, 2:126
Drake, Edwin L., 1:67, 1:204, 2:174,
3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Drilling: horizontal and directional,
1:44 45; rig, 1:44f
Driving habits, 5:75 76
Dry-milling plants, 4:93
Dry-milling process, 4:94 95, 4:94f
Dry steam powered plants,
4:8 9, 4:8f
DSIRE. See Database of State
Incentives for Renewable Energy
Ducks Unlimited National
Headquarters, 5:87
DuPont, 2:102
Durability, 4:70
DVD players, 5:54
Dye-sensitized solar cells, 2:11 12,
2:12f
Earth: ecosystem of, 5:99 100;
geothermal heat pump and, 4:57;
Index a 229
global warming of, 5:4 5; global

winds of, 3:3f; Honor the, 2:8;
human demands on, 5:7; interior
heat energy of, 4:2 5, 4:3f; science,
1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190;
temperatures and pressures of, 4:3;
temperature underground of, 4:4,
4:57; thermal energy of, 4:15
Eastern Interconnection, 5:119
Eastport, Maine, 3:108
Eco-friendly certication, 5:35
Eco-friendly materials, 5:8f
Eco-friendly schools, 4:65f
Ecological architecture, 5:24
Ecological footprint, 5:7
Econar, 4:75
Economics: biomass benets of,
4:104; of geothermal heat pump,
4:73 74; of solar energy, 2:30; of
solar water heaters, 2:78; of tidal
power, 3:111; of wind energy,
3:16 18
Economic stimulus Bill, 1:33
Economy, hydrogen, 2:101
Eco-Roof Incentive Programs, 5:95
Eco-roofs, 5:65
Eco-structure, in Florida, 5:96
Ecosystem, of earth, 5:99 100
Ecoversity, 4:127
ECR Industries, 4:75
Edison, Thomas, 1:199, 2:1, 2:169,
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
Edison Electric Co., 1:198, 2:168,
3:166, 4:168, 5:170
EERE. See Energy Eciency and
Renewable Energy
EFRC. See Energy Frontier Research
Centers
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f
E.I. Dupont De Nemours, 1:214,
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Einstein, Albert, 1:199, 1:204, 2:169,
2:174, 3:167, 3:172, 4:169, 4:174,
5:171, 5:176
Electrical grid system: grid-connected

system and, 3:42 43; main power
grids in, 5:119; residential system
connection to, 3:42 43, 3:42f; of
US, 2:29; US improvement needed
in, 5:119. See also Transmission
grid; Utility grid
Electricity: biomass capacity of,
4:104; CO2 emission reduction
and, 5:48 50; coal-red power
station producing, 1:113 14,
1:114f; energy and, 1:16 17;
geothermal energy generating,
4:8 13; homes requirements of,
3:16, 3:41; homes use of, 3:44,
3:90, 5:48, 5:49f; household
consumption of, 5:49f; from
hydroelectric power plants, 3:83;
kWh of, 3:15; light producing, 2:2;
from photovoltaic power plants,
2:16f; solar cells producing, 2:7f;
solar energy creating, 2:14 15;
sources producing, 1:16 17;
stationary bicycles generating, 5:9;
thin-lm solar cells production
of, 2:10; transmission of, 1:17; US
infrastructure modernization for,
3:68 69; wind energy generating,
3:38; wind turbines generating,
3:16, 3:21 22
Electric motor, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
Electric Power Research Institute,
3:110
Electric power transmission system,
3:25
Electric street cars, 5:89f
Electric Vehicle Association of
America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
4:135, 5:77, 5:126, 5:137
Electric vehicles, 5:18f, 5:71 74;
benets and challenges of, 5:73 74;
charging station nozzle for, 5:73f;
gas powered vehicle conversion
230 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
to, 5:125 26; green, 5:71 74;

hydrogen fuel cell with, 2:86f;
infrastructure needed for, 5:72 73;
miles per gallon estimation of, 5:74;
Nissan Leaf as, 5:74; Saturn EV-1,
5:72
Electrolysis, 2:87, 2:91 92, 2:92f
Electrolyte, 2:88
Electromagnetic energy, 1:6
Electrons, 2:92
El Paso Solar Pond, 2:81
El Salvador, 4:42 43
Emissions: biodiesel v. diesel, 4:116;
carbon footprint tracking of, 5:18;
CO2, 1:95f, 1:119 20, 1:120f; CO2
increasing, 5:4 5; CO2 reduction of, 5:48 50; coal-red plants
from, 1:122, 5:124; coal-generating
plants with, 1:121; of fossil fuels,
1:22f; fuel and CO2, 1:95f; of
greenhouse gases, 4:69; greenhouse
gases reduction of, 2:78, 5:16; natural gas, 1:90 94; nitrogen oxide,
1:98; petroleum diesel, 4:116;
sulfur dioxide, 1:119; sulfur oxide,
4:117; US CO2, 1:120f; zero, 1:122,
5:73 74, 5:94. See also Carbon
dioxide
Empire State Building, 5:82
Enel, 4:20
Energized Learning, 5:22
Energy: careers in, 2:54; China and
Indias use of, 5:107; consumption
of, 1:4f; conversion loss of, 1:7 8;
electricity and, 1:16 17; forms

of, 1:5 6; fossil fuels for, 1:8f,
1:24, 1:36 37; future of, 5:129;
global consumption of, 1:18 19;
global role of, 1:1 2, 3:vii viii;
homes saving, 5:47 48; impact
of, 1:vii viii, 2:vii viii, 3:vii viii,
4:vii viii, 5:vii viii; industries
using a lot of, 1:20 21; Information Administration, 3:66, 4:54;
landscaping saving, 5:56 57; law
of conservation of, 1:6 7; manufacturers in, 1:213 16, 2:183 86,
3:181 84, 4:183 86, 5:185 88;
measuring, 1:18; nonrenewable
sources of, 1:9 11; policies, 1:viii,
1:2 3, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii, 5:viii;
product development in, 1:213 16,
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
5:185 88; renewable energy
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
5:152t 155t; renewable sources of,
1:12 16; rotor blades involving,
3:7 9; Savers, 4:54, 4:76; security,
5:127; sources of, 1:8 15; storage, 3:69; time line of, 1:197 201,
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73; US history of, 1:3 4,
1:4t; US supply of, 1:14f; worldwide uses of, 1:19 21
Energy audits, 5:20, 5:24, 5:54 55
Energy Clean Cities Program,
4:118
Energy conservation, 1:25 26, 5:107;
dening, 5:3; reading materials on,
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; in schools,
1:26 28
Energy consumption: Canadas per
capita, 1:22; environmental issues
and, 5:102; future of, 1:21 22;
global, 1:20f; global and regional,
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
Index a 231
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,

5:156t 159t; lighting strategies
reducing, 1:27; renewable energy
production and, 1:180t 183t,
2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
4:150t 153t, 5:152t 155t; by
sector, 1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
5:146t 149t; by source,
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t; of US, 1:19f
Energy eciency, 1:25 26, 5:12;
audits, 1:31; countries, 5:21;
dening, 5:3 4; dome homes and,
5:48; in go-green program, 5:3 4;
green buildings for, 5:80 81;
home heating and, 5:50; of homes,
5:51 54; homes outdoor landscaping and, 5:56 57; reading materials
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; school
programs for, 5:45; in schools,
1:26 28; sustainable development
and, 5:107; windows and, 5:33
Energy Eciency and Renewable
Energy (EERE), 1:36, 2:104, 4:76,
4:105, 5:22, 5:128
Energy Frontier Research Centers
(EFRC), 1:33
EnergyGuide, 5:50f
Energy Independence and Security
Act of 2007, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
Energy Policy Act of 2005, 1:201,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f,
5:55
Enhanced geothermal system,
4:12 13, 4:41, 4:46 47, 4:47f,
4:48f
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 1:45
Environmental Energy Technologies
Division, 5:22
Environmental issues: climate change

and, 1:22 24; of coal, 1:109 11,
1:128 29; of coal-red power
station, 1:119 20; of CSP, 2:50 51;
design projects responsible to,
5:31 32; energy consumption and,
5:102; gasication with, 1:127;
of geothermal energy, 4:53; of
mining, 1:109 11; musicians conscious of, 5:6 8, 5:8f; petroleum
and, 1:60 62; surface mining and,
1:108; in tidal power, 3:112 13
Environmentalists, 2:29
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), 1:97, 1:166, 2:136, 3:134,
4:136, 5:138; carbon footprint reduction tips from, 5:19; electric car
mileage from, 5:74; Energy Star
program of, 4:73; geothermal heat
pump eciency and, 4:57; Green
Vehicle Guide from, 5:77; human
health mission of, 4:76; personal
carbon footprint estimation from,
5:20; SmartWay designation of,
5:75; Space Conditioning: The Next
Frontier by, 4:69
EOR. See Enhanced oil recovery
EPA. See Environmental Protection
Agency
Equinox Fuel Cell SUV, 5:70
EREC. See European Renewable
Energy Council
Ericsson, John, 1:198, 1:205, 2:5,
2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
4:175, 5:170, 5:177
Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
4:175, 5:177
Erren engines, 1:205
ESHA. See European Small
Hydropower Association
Ethane, 1:74 75
Ethanol, 4:82f, 4:92; benets of, 4:96;
bio, 4:91 92; concerns about, 4:96;
corn, 4:92 93; corn crops for, 4:96;
232 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
gasoline with, 4:93f, 4:96; production of, 4:93 95; wet-milling process in, 4:95f. See also Methanol
Ethylene, 1:53
Europe: air-to-water heat pumps
in, 4:74; geothermal heat pumps
in, 4:72 73; hot dry rock project
of, 4:48 49; hydrogen fuel cell
research of, 2:112 13; wind energy
in, 1: xv xvi, 2: xv xvi, 3: xv xvi,
3:57, 4: xv xvi, 5: xv xvi
European Association for Battery,
Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicles, 5:77
European Renewable Energy Council
(EREC), 3:98
European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA), 3:98
European Union, 4:72
European Wind Energy Association,
3:59
Evaporator coil, 4:59
Exide Technologies, 5:2
Experimental aircraft, 2:106f
Experimental vehicle team, 2:44 45
Exporters, of coal, 1:116 17, 1:117t
Exxon Mobil, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
Faraday, Michael, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177
Farmers, of wind energy, 3:38, 3:39
Fast breeder reactors, 1:149 50
Fast neutron reactors, 1:149 50

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Faya, Antnio, 3:87
FCHV. See Fuel-cell hybrid vehicle
FCO. See Fuel Cell Quadracycle
FCVs. See Fuel cell vehicles
Federal-Aid Highway Act, 1:200,
2:170, 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
Fenton Wind Farm, 3:34
Ferguson, Charles, 1:154 56, 1:155f
Fermentation, 2:92, 4:94 95, 4:100
Fermi, Enrico, 1:134, 1:200, 1:205,
2:170, 2:175, 3:168, 3:173, 4:170,
4:175, 5:172, 5:177
FGD. See Flue gas desulphurization
Finland, 4:88
First Solar, Inc, 2:22
Fish farms, 4:17, 4:19, 4:50, 4:51f
Fish ladders, 3:97f
Fission reaction, 1:138
Flash-steam power plants, 4:10 12,
4:10f
Flat-plate collector, 2:76
Fleet vehicles, 1:85 86, 1:90
Floating nuclear power plants,
1:151 52
FloDesign Wind turbines, 3:56
Flores, Jordan, 1:30
Florida: eco-structure in, 5:96; LEED
certied school in, 5:33
Florida Solar Energy Center, 2:11,
2:33
Flue gas desulphurization (FGD),
1:111
Fluidized bed combustion systems,
1:121 22
Food Lion, 5:105
Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Ford 999, 2:109
Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
5:72, 5:86, 5:172, 5:188
Forebay, 3:92f
Index a 233
Forklifts, 2:113
Formula 3 racing car, 4:108f
Fort Atkinson School District, 4:17,
4:66 67
Fortman, Mark, 5:10f
Fossil Energy Study Guides and
Activities, 5:128
Fossil fuels, 1:9 19; coal as, 1:106;
consumption of, 2: xiii; emission
levels of, 1:22f; for energy, 1:8f,
1:24, 1:36 37; natural gas cleanest
of, 1:94; petroleum as, 1:41;
reading materials on, 1:159 60,
2:129 30, 3:127 28, 4:129 30,
5:131 32
Fourneyron, Benoit, 3:7
Fox River, Wisconsin, 3:78
France: Chaudes-Aigues, 4:32;
geothermal district heating
facilities in, 4:50; natural gas and,
1:84; nuclear energy in, 1:137 38;
tidal power energy in, 1: xvi xvii,
2: xvi xvii, 3: xvi xvii, 3:109, 3:109f,
4: xvi xvii, 5: xvi xvii
France, Brian, 5:1 2, 5:2f
Francis, James, 3:82
Francis reaction turbines, 3:92, 3:94
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
Frazer, Susan, 4:98 102
Freedom CAR (Cooperative Automotive Research) Program, 2:108
Freons, 1:74
Fresnel Stirling engine, 2:42
Frisch, Otto, 1:134
Fritts, Charles, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177
Fruit, solar cells from, 2:13
Fuel: appliances and use of,
1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,
5:150t 151t; CO2 emissions of,
1:95f; vegetable oils as, 4:114;

world use of, 1:8f
Fuel Cell 2000, 2:103
Fuel-cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV),
2:109
Fuel Cell Quadracycle (FCO), 2:99
Fuel cells, 2:116; basic applications
of, 2:103; batteries used with,
2:97; benets of, 2:121; Bloom
Energy, 5:121 22; concerns
about, 2:121 23; cost of, 2:97,
2:121 22; dening, 2:87; drawbacks of, 2:89 90; functioning of, 2:88, 2:88f; growth of,
2:106 7; history notes of, 5:120;
home applications of, 2:117 19;
home installation of, 2:117 19,
2:118f; hydrogen model cars
with, 2:127; Molten Carbonate,
2:119; on-site, 5:119; phosphoric
acid, 2:119; production, 2:104;
school education on, 2:125 26;
small, 2:106, 2:120, 2:120f; solid
oxide, 2:107, 5:121; space shuttles
using, 5:120; stationary systems
of, 2:119; telecommunications
using, 2:119 20; transportation
applications of, 2:107 16; types of,
2:89. See also Hydrogen fuel cells
Fuel Cell Technologies Program,
2:104
Fuel Cell Test and Evaluation Center,
2:98
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), 2:89, 2:98,
2:99, 2:107, 2:108f, 5:69 70; cost
of, 2:114; in Germany, 2:110 11; in
Japan, 2:109; refueling, 2:114 15;
in United Kingdom, 2:110; in US,
2:107 9
Fuel economy, 1:51
Fuel rods, 1:140 41, 1:141f
Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 72, 4:102
Fuller, Buckminster, 1:205, 2:175,
3:173, 4:175, 5:177
234 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Fuller, Calvin, 1:205, 2:5, 2:175,

3:173, 4:175, 5:177
Fumaroles, 4:52
Fundamentals of Renewable Energy
Processes (de Rosa), 5:61
Furling, 3:8
FutureGen, 1:123
Gabcikovo Dam, 3:98
Gap headquarters, 5:83
Garden roofs, 5:65, 5:78, 5:84
Garner, Mark, 3:74, 5:108, 5:108f
Garst, Charlotte, 3:65
Gas, 1:45; injection, 1:45; oshore
drilling for, 1:80f; production,
1:62
Gas-red turbine, 3:32
Gasholder, 4:98
Gasication, 1:123; biomass plant
for, 4:79; coal, 1:125 28, 1:126f;
environmental issues with, 1:127;
of wood, 4:97
Gasohol, 4:92
Gasoline, 1:41, 1:47, 4:93f, 4:96
Gasoline gallon equivalent (GGEs),
1:91
Gasper, Peter, 3:87
Gas powered vehicle conversion,
5:125 26
GCHP. See Closed-loop
ground-coupled heat pump
Gearbox, of wind turbines, 3:9 11
General Electric, 1:145, 1:215, 2:185,
3:183, 4:185, 5:187
General Motors, 2:108f, 2:114 15;

Chevy Volt from, 5:71; Equinox
Fuel Cell SUV of, 5:70; hydrogen
research and development by,
2:109; Saturn division of, 5:71;
Saturn EV-1 electric car of, 5:72,
5:122
Generators: building wind, 3:51; of
hydroelectric plant, 3:82 83; of
microhydroelectric power plant,
3:90; of wind turbine, 3:9 10
Geo-Heat Center, 4:76
Geological Survey, US, 1:67
Geology, 4:63
GEO Mission, 4:54
GeoThermal, 4:54
Geothermal Education Oce, 4:29
Geothermal energy, 1:13; air
quality standards and, 4:25;
Alaskas resources of, 4:18 19; for
aquaculture, 4:50; in Arizona, 4:18;
benets of, 4:2, 4:52; binary plant
of, 4:40f; in California, 4:14 15;
in Canada, 4:38 39; Chevron
largest producer of, 4:41; Chinas
resources in, 4:39; CO2 credits
from, 4:51; in Colorado, 4:17,
4:51f; in Costa Rica, 4:43 44;
countries interested in, 4:45;
countries using, 4:32f; dening,
4:2 5; electricity generated from,
4:8 13; in El Salvador, 4:42 43;
environmental issues of, 4:53; Fort
Atkinson School District using,
4:17; Frances district heating
facilities with, 4:50; future of,
4:27 28, 4:53; Germanys resources
in, 4:45; greenhouses heated by,
4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
Hawaii, 4:16 17; heating system
with, 4:22 23, 4:50; history of,
4:5 6; in Iceland, 1:197, 2:167,
3:165, 4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169;
in Italy, 4:35 37; in Japan, 4:35,
Index a 235
4:50 51; Kalina system and, 4:49;

Kenyas resources of, 4:43; land use
and, 4:24; locations of, 4:6 7, 4:29;
in Mexico, 4:34 35; Minnesota
using, 4:66; in Montana, 4:20; in
national parks, 4:52; in Nevada,
4:15; in New Mexico, 4:17 18;
new technologies employed in,
4:18; New Zealands resources in,
4:44; Oregon Institute of Technology using, 4:1 2; in Philippines,
4:32 34; reading materials on,
1:162, 2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134;
South Dakotas schools using,
4:67; in sustainable development,
5:109 10; tax revenue from, 4:27;
in Thailand, 4:39 40; Turkeys
resources of, 4:41; in US, 1: xvii,
2: xvii, 3: xvii, 4: xvii, 4:13 20,
4:31, 5: xvii, 5:110f; US companies in, 4:20; used in Toledo Zoo,
4:67; uses for, 4:49 51; in Utah,
4:19 20; Williston Northampton School and, 4:66f; Wisconsin
using, 4:66 67
Geothermal Energy Association,
1:35, 4:27 28
Geothermal uids, 4:9f
Geothermal heat pumps: advantages of, 4:74 75; Arizona
testing, 4:65 66; benets of,
4:68 69; as closed-loop systems,
4:60 61, 4:61f; CO2 reduced
by, 4:68, 4:69; cost-eectiveness
of, 4:69; countries using, 4:73;
desuperheater used with, 4:69;
disadvantages of, 4:75; durability
and maintenance of, 4:70; earths
underground temperature used
by, 4:57; economics of, 4:73 74;
EPA and eciency of, 4:57; in
Europe, 4:72 73; functioning of,
4:59 60, 4:60f; geology required
for, 4:63; growth of, 5:109 10; for
homes, 5:63; hydrology required

for, 4:63; in Idaho, 4:71 72; industry growth of, 4:58 59, 4:58f;
in Iowa Central Community
College, 4:71; in Kentucky, 4:65,
4:70 71; land use and, 4:63 64;
manufacturers of, 4:75; Massachusetts schools using, 4:67 68;
in Michigan, 4:72; in Mississippi,
4:72; Nebraskas schools using,
4:68; in North Dakota, 4:72; as
open-loop systems, 4:61 63, 4:62f;
radial drilling with, 4:59, 4:77;
school benets of, 4:64; schools
using, 4:64 68; site evaluation
for, 4:63 64; in Sweden, 4:72; in
US, 4:59, 4:70 73; US installed
capacity of, 4:70; water heaters
using, 4:62 63
Geothermal power plants: advantages of, 4:24 25; in Australia,
4:42; binary, 4:22; Birdsville,
4:42; cost factors of, 4:46; at the
Geysers, 4:14f; history of, 4:55; in
Iceland, 4:26; in Idaho, 4:15 16;
in Indonesia, 4:40; in Larderello,
4:36f; in New Zealand, 4:44f;
ORC, 4:21f, 4:24f; single-ash,
4:11; in United Kingdom, 4:41 42
Geothermal reservoir, 4:10, 4:22
Geothermal Resources Council, 4:6,
4:29
Geothermal Steam Act Amendments,
4:27
Geothermal turbines, 4:35
Geothermal wells, 4:51f, 4:65f, 4:66f,
4:67, 4:68, 5:104
Gerdeman, Frederick, 1:206, 2:176,
3:174, 4:176, 5:178
Germany: clean coal technology
in, 1:124; coal plants removal
in, 5:106; coal production of,
1:115 16; FCVs in, 2:110 11;
geothermal resources in, 4:45;
236 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
green roofs in, 5:83 84; hydrogen

fuel cells in, 2:117; natural gas
consumption of, 1:83 84; photovoltaic systems in, 2:24 25; solar
panels in, 2:27f; wind farms in,
3:53, 3:57
Geysers, 4:4 5, 4:52
The Geysers, 4:5 6, 4:8 9, 4:14, 4:14f
GGEs. See Gasoline gallon equivalent
Gill, Dena, 3:65
Ginori Conti, Piero, 4:36f
Global Biofuels Outlook: 2009 2015,
5:120
Global consumption: of coal,
1:103; of energy, 1:18 19, 1:20f,
1:184 87t, 2:154 57t, 3:152 55t,
4:154 57t, 5:156 59t; of natural
gas, 1:72 73, 1:94 95; wind energy
and, 3:56
Global economy: energy driving,
1:1 2; energys role in, 3:vii viii
Global emissions, of CO2, 1:192 95,
2:162 65, 3:160 63, 4:162 65,
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 67
Global installations, 2:78 79
Global leaders, 2:24 26
Global Learning, Inc, 2:33, 5:127
Global reserves: of crude oil,
1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
5:160t 161t; of natural gas,
1:79 81, 1:79f, 1:188t 189t,
2:158t 159t, 3:156t 157t,
4:158t 159t, 5:160t 161t
Global warming, 1:viii, 1:23 24,

1:25 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
5:viii, 5:106f; CO2 increasing
causing, 5:4 5; synthetic natural
gas and, 1:128
Global winds, 3:3f
Glycerin, 4:112
Go-green program: energy eciency
in, 5:3 4; of NASCAR, 5:1 3
Go-green project: in California,
5:33 34; Empire State Building
and, 5:82; in Kentucky, 5:32
Go-green public schools, 5:31 36
Golden Gate Bridge, 3:111, 3:112f
Gomez, Cesar, 1:50
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., 5:2
Gore, Al, 5:129
Government: organization websites and, 1:165 67, 2:135 37,
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39;
US, 4:80
Gradient zones, 2:81
Grand Coulee Dam, 3:75, 3:76f
Granite quarry, 4:64
Grant, John D., 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Grtzel, Michael, 2:11
Gravity dam, 3:80
Gray, Rande, 5:102 5
Greasecar, 1:51, 4:124
Great Geysir, 4:37
Great Rift Valley, 4:43
Great Seneca Creek Elementary
School, 5:35
Green architecture, 5:88 89
Green biz, 1:210, 2:180, 3:178, 4:180,
5:182
Green Building Initiatives, 5:95
Green Building Rating System,
5:26 27
Green buildings: components of, 5:79;
construction materials for, 5:80 81;
energy eciency of, 5:80 81;
natural environment and, 5:80
Index a 237
Green careers guide, 1:210, 2:180,

3:178, 4:180, 5:182
Green certication, 5:27f
Green cities: in other countries,
5:92 94; ranking criteria of, 5:90;
snapshots of, 5:90 92; in US,
5:89 92, 5:92t
Green Club, 2:19 20
Green Cluster, 5:77
Green-Collar Jobs report, 2:80
Green community, 4:65f
Green corps, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
Green-e, 3:97
Green energy jobs, 1:211, 2:181,
3:179, 4:181, 5:183
Green Existing Tool Kit, 5:41
Green Faith in Action Project, 1:29,
1:30
Green Grid trays, 5:40
Greenhouse, geothermal heated, 4:23,
4:50
Greenhouse eect, 2:62, 2:62f, 2:66,
2:77f, 5:4
Greenhouse gases, 1:22 24, 5:106f;
CO2 as, 1:23; emission reduction
of, 2:78, 5:16; emissions of, 4:69;
human caused, 5:4f; law, 3:32;
natural gas and, 1:94; nuclear energy and, 1:11; solar water heaters
reducing, 2:78; US emissions reduction target for, 5:16
GreenLearning Canada, 5:127
Greenpeace, 1:36
Green Power Network Net Metering,
3:71
Green Roof Construction and Maintenance (Luckett), 5:40
Green Roof for Healthy Cities, 5:42
Green Roof Plants (Snodgrass and
Snodgrass), 5:40
Green roofs, 1:26f, 5:42 43, 5:82; architecture for, 5:81 82; around the
world, 5:83 84; benets of, 5:86;
components of, 5:84 86, 5:85f;

cost of, 5:87; in Dearborn, Michigan, 5:86; eectiveness of, 5:84; in
Germany, 5:83 84; of Hanneford
Supermarket, 5:103; for homes,
5:65 66, 5:65f; issues with, 5:87;
LHistorial de la Vende with, 5:83,
5:83f; maintenance of, 5:86; of
school buildings, 5:38 40, 5:38f
Greenroofs.com, 5:95
Greensburg, Kansas, 5:47
Greensburg tornado, 5:45
Greensburg Wind Farm, 3:34
Green School Buildings, 5:42
Green Schools Program, 1:27 28
Green Vehicle Guide, 5:77
Green vehicles, 5:68 76; car
maintenance and, 5:75 76;
driving habits and, 5:75 76;
electric, 5:71 74
Green Vision program, 5:90
GreenWood Resources, 4:84f
Grid-connected system, 3:42 43,
3:42f
Grieves, Tim, 3:19 23
Groundwater, 4:26 27
Grove, William, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:120, 5:178
Guatemala, 4:34
Guiding Stars, 5:104
Gulf of Mexico, 1:61
Gunung Salak, 4:41
Guorui, Luo, 4:103
Guri Dam, 1: xvii, 2: xvii, 3: xvii, 4: xvii,
5: xvii
Guri Hydroelectric power plants, 3:87
Gutierrez, Maricruz, 1:50
H2SO4. See Sulfuric acid
Hahn, Otto, 1:134
Halliday, Daniel, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Hancock County Wind Energy
Center, 3:34
238 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Hanneford Supermarket, 5:103 4,

5:103f
Harman, Stephanie, 2:62 66, 2:63f
Harriman, Chris, 4:16f
Harris, Matt, 2:8
Hashimoto, Ryutaro, 5:106f
Hawaii, 4:16 17
the Head, 3:91 92
Heat, 1:6 8
Heating system, 4:22 23, 4:50, 5:25
Heat pumps, 1:13
Heifer International, 5:91, 5:91f
Heliocentris Solar Hydrogen Fuel
Cell kit, 2:125
Heliostats, 2:47, 2:48f
Henry Sibley Senior High School,
5:10f
Herbert Bryant Conference Center,
4:72
Herschel, John, 2:5
HFC. See Hydrogen fuel cells
High-level nuclear waste, 1:145
High-level radioactive wastes
(HLRW), 1:34
High-oil algae, 2:93
High pressure, 3:4
High Winds Energy Center, 3:32 33
Hilderbrand, John, 3:39
HLRW. See High-level radioactive
wastes
Hobby Lobby, 5:61
Home entertainment systems, 5:54
Homes: appliances in, 5:52 53; battery storage for, 2:15f; biodiesel
heating of, 4:120; blower door

test of, 5:56f; carbon footprints
of, 5:8 9; concrete dome, 5:46,
5:47f; ecient heating of, 5:50;
electricity requirements of, 3:16,
3:41; electricity use of, 3:44, 3:90,
5:48, 5:49f; energy audits of,
5:54 55; energy eciency dome,
5:48; energy eciency of, 5:51 54,
5:56 57; energy saving, 5:47 48;
fuel cell applications at, 2:117 19;
fuel cell installation in, 2:117 19,
2:118f; fuels and appliances used
in, 1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,
5:150t 151t; of future, 5:46 47;
geothermal heat pumps for, 5:63;
green roofs for, 5:65 66, 5:65f;
heating and cooling tips for,
5:51 52; home entertainment systems in, 5:54; hydrogen fuel
cell applications for, 5:118 19;
landscaping of, 5:57f; lighting systems of, 5:53; microhydroelectric
power plants and, 3:91f; passive
solar design of, 2:68 69; renewable
energy for, 5:63 64; smaller, 5:55;
Solar Decathlon of, 5:64 65, 5:64f;
solar energy for, 5:63 64; solar
water heaters for, 5:64; Wind Energy for, 3:26, 3:72; wind turbines
for, 5:63
Home Solar Panels, 5:77
Honda FCX Clarity, 2:86f, 2:109
Hong Kong ferry boats, 2:6
Honor the Earth (HTE), 2:8
Hoover Dam, 1:17f, 3:76 77
Hopi Indians, 1:104
Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies,
2:127, 5:69
Horizontal-axis turbines, 3:12 13,
3:13f, 3:40 41
Horizontal drilling, 1:44 45
Horizontal ground loops, 4:64
Index a 239
Horrell, J. Scott, 1:110f

Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center,
3:31, 3:31f
Hot dry rock, 4:12 13, 4:12f,
4:41 42, 4:49; Australias resources
in, 4:47 48; enhanced geothermal system v., 4:46 47; European
project of, 4:48 49
Hot rod, Model T, 2:95 99, 2:95f
Hot Springs, Arkansas, 4:5
Hot springs, outdoor, 4:52f
HowStuWorks web site, 1:68, 2:55
HTE. See Honor the Earth
Human body, carbon in, 5:7
Human health, 4:76
Hurricane Katrina, 2:119
Hybrid cars, 5:68, 5:69t, 5:78
Hybrid poplars, 4:83 85, 4:84f
Hybrid systems, 3:122
Hydrocarbons, 1:47, 1:74 75
Hydroelectric energy, 1: xvi, 1:12 13,
2: xvi, 3: xvi, 4: xvi, 5: xvi; advantages
of, 3:95 96; Canadas generation of,
3:85 86; dams built for, 3:78 80;
along Danube river, 3:87 88, 3:88f;
dening, 3:77; disadvantages of,
3:96 98; history of, 3:77; in India,
3:89; kinetic energy from, 3:73 74;
large-scale, 3:100; in Norway,
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
5:xvi, 5:112; reading materials on,
1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133;
in Romania, 3:88 89; in sustainable development, 5:108 9, 5:108f;
tidal power creating, 3:104; turbine improvement in, 3:82; in US,
3:74 77, 3:74f
Hydroelectric power plants: in Austria, 3:89; components of, 3:81 83;
electricity from, 3:83; global leading, 3:83, 3:84f; Guri, 3:87; Itaip,
3:86 87, 3:86f; in Italy, 2:94;
Simn Bolivar, 3:87; small-scale,
3:89 90; types of, 3:80 81, 3:82f
Hydrogen, 2:104; algae producing,

2:92 94; basics of, 2:87; blue-green
algae producing, 2:94; Canadian
highway with, 2:111; diesel trucks
injection of, 2:113; DOE research
on, 2:100 101; DOE storage research on, 2:123; economy, 2:101;
fuel cell model cars, 2:127; gas
tanks, 2:122, 2:123f; General
Motors research and development
of, 2:109; history using, 2:90; InfoNet, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137; Italys power plant using,
2:94; Norways refueling for, 2:114,
2:115f; power plants, 2:94; production of, 2:91 100; Riversimple car
using, 2:110, 2:110f, 5:69; storage,
2:122 23; technology research on,
2:99 100; temperature and, 2:87;
thermochemical, 2:92; uses of,
2:90 91; vehicle, 2:116
Hydrogen fuel cells (HFC), 1:xv,
1:15, 2:xv, 2:85 86, 2:128, 3:xv,
4:xv, 5:xv; aircraft propulsion with,
2:105; buses using, 2:111 13,
2:112f; Canadas buses using, 2:111;
companies making, 2:102; electric vehicle with, 2:86f; Europes
research of, 2:112 13; experimental
aircraft powered by, 2:106f; functioning of, 2:88f, 5:120; future of,
2:100 101; in Germany, 2:117;
home applications of, 5:118 19; in
Japan, 2:118 19; model racing cars
with, 2:101 2; Model T hot rod
running on, 2:95 99, 2:95f; NASA
using, 1:16f; reading materials on,
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; sales growth
of, 5:116; specialty transportation
using, 2:113 14; in sustainable
development, 5:116 19; synthetic
natural gas and, 1:127 28; transportation application of, 5:117 18;
240 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
US buses using, 2:111; US cutting

funding for, 2:86. See also Fuel cell
vehicles
Hydrogenics, 2:97, 2:102
Hydrogen sulde, 1:75, 4:25, 4:26f
Hydrology, 4:63
Hydrophobic nanocoating technologies, 5:117f
Hydropower Program, 3:124
Hydrothermal uids, 4:8f, 4:10f
Hyundai Motor Co., 2:86, 2:111,
5:69, 5:119
IAEA. See International Atomic
Energy Agency
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
Iceland, 2:112, 4:38f; geothermal
energy in, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165,
4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169; geothermal
power plants in, 4:26
ICS. See Integral collector-storage
systems
Idaho: biodiesel projects of, 4:118;
carbon footprint reduction in,
5:11 12; geothermal heat pumps
in, 4:71 72; geothermal power
plants in, 4:15 16
Idaho National Laboratorys Geothermal Program, 4:76
IGCC. See Integrated gasication
combined cycle
IHA. See International Hydropower
Association
Illinois, 4:119 20
Illinois EPA Green School Checklist,
5:12f
Imports: of coal, 1:117; of crude oil,
1:xi xii, 2:xi xii, 3:xi xii, 4:xi xii,
5:xi xii
Impoundment hydropower plants,
3:80, 3:82f
India, 2:72; coal production of, 1:116;
energy use of, 5:107; hydroelectric
energy in, 3:89; wind energy in,
3:59 60
Indiana, 4:68, 4:120
Individuals carbon footprint, 5:6f
Indonesia: biomass energy source in,
4:86; geothermal power plants in,
4:40; sugarcane eld in, 4:86f
Industrial Revolution, 1:10, 1:24,
1:115
Industry: aluminum, 1:21; energy
used by, 1:20 21; geothermal heat
pumps growth and, 4:58 59, 4:58f;
of natural gas, 1:78f; natural gas
used in, 1:72; oil, 3:16; stationary fuel cell systems in, 2:119;
steel, 1:20 21; US coal, 1:113 15,
1:115f, 1:117; Worldwide Fuel
Cell, 2:106
Infrastructure: for electric vehicles,
5:72 73; hydrogen requiring,
2:101; US modernizing of, 3:68 69
Insulation, 5:52
Integral collector-storage systems
(ICS), 2:77
Integrated gasication combined
cycle (IGCC), 1:122
Interior heat energy, 4:2 5, 4:3f
International Association for Natural
Gas Vehicles, 1:100
(IAEA), 1:135 36, 1:166, 2:136,
3:134, 4:136, 5:138
International Geothermal Association, 4:20
Index a 241
International Green Roof Association, 5:96

International Ground Source Heat
Pump Association, 4:76 77
International Hydropower
Association (IHA), 3:99
International Journal on Hydropower
and Dams, 3:99
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee on Hydrogen Technologies,
2:124
International Partnership for a Hydrogen Economy (IPHE), 2:124
International Renewable Energy
Agency (IRENA), 5:93f
International Solar Energy Society,
2:33, 2:83
Interstate Renewable Energy
Coalition, 2:16
Inverter, 3:42, 3:90
Ions, 2:88
Iowa, 5:35
Iowa Central Community College,
4:71
Iowa Stored Energy Park, 3:70
IPHE. See International Partnership
for a Hydrogen Economy
IRENA. See International Renewable
Energy Agency
Iron Gate Dam I, 3:88, 3:88f
Itaip hydroelectric power plants,
3:86 87, 3:86f
Italy: geothermal energy in, 4:35 37;
hydrogen power plant in, 2:94
James, David, 4:127
Japan: FCVs in, 2:109; geothermal
energy sources in, 4:35, 4:50 51;
hydrogen fuel cells in, 2:118 19;
Kirishima City, 4:52f; rooftop garden in, 5:84; solar energy and, 2:83;
solar powered cargo ships of, 2:27;
solar systems installed in, 2:25 26
Jiu River, 3:88 89

John Day Dam, 3:75 76
JSS. See Junior Solar Sprint
Juarez, Andres, 1:50
Junior Solar Sprint ( JSS), 1:88, 2:127
Junior Solar Sprint/Hydrogen Fuel
Cell ( JSS/HFC), 2:127
K-9 Comfort Cottage, 2:11
Kaipara Harbor, 3:111
Kalina system, 4:49
Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
Kazimi, Mujid, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Keahole Point, Hawaii, 3:121, 3:121f
Keighley, Seth, 4:110f, 4:111
Kelp, 1:98
Kemp, Clarence, 2:59
Kentucky: biodiesel school buses in,
4:119; geothermal heat pumps in,
4:65, 4:70 71; go-green projects
in, 5:32
Kenya, 4:43
Keros, Alex, 2:108f
Kerosene, 1:53
Kibaki, Mwai, 4:43
KidWind Project, 3:47 51
Kilauea Volcano, 4:16
Kill A Watt, 5:62
Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 1:18, 3:15
Kinetic energy, 1:5; from hydroelectric energy, 3:73 74; from oceans,
3:103 4; temperature and heat as,
1:6
Kirishima City, Japan, 4:52f
Kirwan, Kerry, 4:108f
Krocker, J. D., 4:6
kWh. See Kilowatt-hour
Kyoto Box oven, 2:71
Kyoto International Convention,
5:106
Kyoto Protocol, 1997, 1:32 33, 1:201,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:16, 5:105 6,
5:106f, 5:173
242 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
LaDuke, Winona, 2:8

Lake County-Southeast Geysers Efuent Pipeline Project, 4:6
Landlls: biomass gas from, 1:97;
methane gas recovered from,
1:97 98, 2:120, 4:97; nitrogen
oxide emissions of, 1:98
Land of Volcanoes, 4:37
Landscaping: energy eciency and,
5:56 57; of homes, 5:57f; saving
energy, 5:56 57
Land use: CSP plants and, 2:50; geothermal energy and, 4:24; geothermal heat pump and, 4:63 64; solar
energy and, 2:29
La Rance River tidal power plant,
3:109f
Larderello, 4:36 37, 4:36f
Large-scale hydroelectric energy,
3:100
Las Pailas Geothermal Plant, 4:43
Lavoisier, Antoine, 2:90
Law of conservation of energy, 1:6 7
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), 5:2,
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also
LEED certication
LEDs. See Light emitting diodes
LEED. See Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design
LEED certication: American Federation of Teachers and, 5:37; Florida
school with, 5:33; plaque of, 5:81f;
Pleasant Ridge Montessori School
with, 5:33; schools with, 5:28 32,

5:82; of Summereld Elementary
School, 5:35 36; supermarket with,
5:102 5
Legislation, on carbon footprint, 5:21
Lentz, Timothy, 5:64f
Lewis, Mike, 2:98
Lewis, Zane, 2:95f, 4:110f, 4:111
Leyte Geothermal Production Field,
4:33
LHistorial de la Vende, 5:83, 5:83f
Life science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
Light emitting diodes (LEDs), 5:53
Lighting strategies, 1:27
Lighting systems, 5:53
LIH. See Low-impact hydropower
facilities
Limestone, 1:42
Liqueed petroleum gas (LPG), 1:53,
1:85
Liquid hydrogen tanks, 2:123
Liquid metal fast breeder reactors,
1:150f
Liquid refrigerant, 4:59
Lithium, 5:124
Little Rock, Arkansas, 5:91, 5:91f
LLW. See Low-level nuclear waste
Local winds, 3:4
London, England, 5:93
Long-term storage, of carbon dioxide,
1:122 23
Lorusso, Jarred, 5:125 26, 5:126f
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:13, 4:136,
5:138
Louisiana, 4:112
Low-impact hydropower facilities
(LIH), 3:97
Low-level nuclear waste (LLW),
1:145 46
Low pressure, 3:4
Low-temperature solar collectors,
1:12
Index a 243
LPG. See Liqueed petroleum

Luckett, Kelly, 5:40
Luminant, 3:31
Lund, John W., 4:20 23
Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria, 4:87
Macari Family Foundation, 5:125
Maggs, Steve, 4:108f
Maine Public Utilities Commission
Program, 5:62
Maintenance: car, 5:75 76; geothermal heat pump, 4:70; of green
roofs, 5:86; wind turbines, 3:41
Mak-Ban, 4:41
Malaysia, 4:87
Mammoth Pacic power plant, 4:10
Manhattan Project, 1:200, 2:170,
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
The Manhattan Project, 1:134
Manufacturers: Chinas solar cell,
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
5:173; in energy, 1:213 16,
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
5:185 88; geothermal heat pump,
4:75; nuclear reactors, 1:145; paper,
1:21; wind turbines, 3:16
Mariculture, 3:123
Marine organisms, 1:41 42, 3:123
Marine plants, 1:98
Marquez, Abigail, 1:50
Martinez, Xiomara, 1:50
Maryland, 5:35
Masdar City, 5:92 93, 5:93f
Massachusetts: Boston, 5:91;
geothermal heat pump used in,
4:67 68
Mastaitis, Vicki, 1:xiii, 2:xiii, 2:16,
3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii
Mayer, John, 5:8f
Mayors Climate Protection Center,
5:16
Mazda Premacy Hydrogen RE,
5:70
McCurdy, Ross, 2:94 99, 2:125,

2:126, 4:110 11
McDonough, William, 5:86
MCFC. See Molten Carbonate fuel
cells
McGrath, Gerald, 5:66 68
Meager Mountain, 4:38
Medford Township school district,
4:119f
Meitner, Lise, 1:134
Mendoza, Crystal, 1:50
Mercedes BlueZero F-Cell, 5:70,
5:70f
Mercymount Country Day School,
5:71
Meredith, James, 4:108f
Methane, 1:74 75, 1:75f, 4:96; cattle
source of, 1:76; drawbacks of,
4:101; landlls producing, 1:97 98,
2:120, 4:97; marine plants producing, 1:98
Methane hydrate, 1:95 97; deposits of, 1:96f; research needed on,
1:96 97
Methanol, 2:89, 2:120, 2:120f
Methyl esters, 4:112
Mexico, 4:34 35
Michigan, 4:72
Microhydroelectric power plants,
3:89 90, 3:91f; China using,
3:94; components of, 3:90 93,
3:92f; cost of, 3:93 94; countries
using, 3:94 95; generator of, 3:90;
homes and, 3:91f; Shutol, 3:95f;
terrain required for, 3:93; US
potential of, 3:96, 3:98
Microsoft Corporation, 5:18
Microturbines, 2:41
Middlebury College, 4:79 80,
4:80f
Middle East, 1:79f
Migratory sh, 3:87
Miles per gallon estimation, 5:74
Military, US, 1:137
244 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Mining: of coal, 1:106 12; environmental issues of, 1:109 11; of

oil shale, 1:58; surface, 1:107 9;
underground, 1:108 9; uranium,
1:138 40
Minnesota: carbon footprint reduction in, 5:9 10; geothermal systems
used in, 4:66; wind farms in, 3:34
Minnesota Schools Cutting Carbon
project, 5:9, 5:10f
Miravalles volcano power station,
4:43
Mississippi, 4:72
Missouri, 3:29, 3:36
Mitsubishi, 2:102, 5:71
Mochida, Hiroko, 5:118f
Model cars, solar energy, 1:87f, 1:88
Model racing cars, 2:101 2
Model T hot rod, 2:95 99, 2:95f
Moderators, 1:141 42
Modernization, 5:27 28
Moeller, Keats, 1:64 65
Mojave Desert, 2:36 38, 2:51, 3:32,
4:11
Molecules, 2:10
Molina, Raquel, 1:50
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127
Molten Carbonate fuel cells
(MCFC), 2:119
Molten salt storage, 2:39, 2:48 49
Monarch School, 5:11
Mongillo, John, 5:125 26, 5:126f
Montana, 4:20
Moos Lake water-treatment plant,
5:83
Motion, 1:6
Mouchout, Auguste, 1:198, 1:206,
2:168, 2:176, 3:166, 3:174, 4:168,
4:176, 5:170, 5:178
Mount Washington Cog Railway,
4:108
Mt. Washington, 3:5
Muddy Run Pumped Storage Facility,
3:81
Murphy, John, 2:98
Museum of Science, 3:26
Musicians, 5:6 8, 5:8f
Musk, Elon, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Nacelle, 3:11
Nanocoatings Subscale Laboratory,
5:117f
Nanometers, 2:10
Nanosolar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
Nano Solar Technology, 2:56
Nanotechnology, 4:77, 5:114 15,
5:114f, 5:116
Nanotechnology and Energy, 5:128
Naruse, Masanori, 2:118
NASA. See National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
NASCAR, 5:1; France, Bill, of, 5:2f;
go-green program of, 5:1 3
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), 1:16f,
2:90, 5:120
National Association for Stock Car
Auto Racing. See NASCAR
National Biodiesel Board (NBB),
4:117, 4:127
National Earth Comfort Program,
4:73
National Energy Education
Development (NEED), 1:154,
2:52, 3:64 68; mission of, 3:66;
real world issues addressed by,
3:66 67
National Energy Foundation, 1:68
Index a 245
National Energy Technology

Laboratory (NETL), 1:123, 1:125
National Fuel Cell Research Center,
2:103
National Gas Supply Association
(NGSA), 1:100
National Geographic Societys Green
Guide, 5:90
National Hydropower Association,
1:36, 3:100
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), 3:124
National parks, 4:52
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 1:166, 2:9, 2:30,
2:33, 2:99 100, 2:103, 2:127,
2:136, 3:14, 3:44, 3:134, 4:118,
4:136, 5:109, 5:115, 5:138
National science education standards,
1:217 18, 2:187 88, 3:185 86,
4:187 88, 5:189 90
National Solar Bike Rayce, 2:45
National Wind Technology Center
(NWTC), 3:52
Native American tribes, 2:8
Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii
Authority, 3:119
Natural environment, 5:80
Natural gas, 1:xii, 1:9 10, 1:71 72,
2:xii, 3:xii, 4:xii, 5:xii, 5:124; Alaska
North Slopes deposits of, 1:83;
benets of, 1:93; China extracting,
1:71; Chinas use of, 1:197, 2:167,
3:165, 4:167, 5:169; as cleanest fossil fuel, 1:94; in Columbia,
1:101; consumers of, 1:82 85;
consumption, 1:83 84; contents
of, 1:74 75; drilling for, 1:76 77;
emission levels and, 1:90 94; formation of, 1:74; France and, 1:84;
future of, 1:94 95; Germanys
consumption of, 1:83 84; global
consumption of, 1:72 73, 1:94 95;
global reserves of, 1:79 81,
1:79f, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,

5:160t 161t; greenhouse gases
and, 1:94; history of, 1:73 74;
industries use of, 1:72; industry of,
1:78f; industry using, 1:72; locating deposits of, 1:76; measurement
of, 1:78 79; in Middle East, 1:79f;
Netherlands and, 1:84; new drilling
technologies for, 1:77; Norways
reserves of, 1:82; pipeline transportation of, 1:77 78; power plant for,
1:73f; production, 1:81 82; Russias
reserves of, 1:82; steam reformation
from, 2:91; synthetic, 1:125 28;
United Kingdoms consumption of,
1:84; US consumption of, 1:83
Natural Gas Star Program, 1:94
Natural gas vehicles (NGVs),
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75; advantages
and disadvantages of, 1:91 92;
safety of, 1:92
Natural lighting, 5:37, 5:105
Natural resources, 1:25 26
Natural Resources Research Institute
(NRRI), 4:83
Nauen, Andreas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale
Reserves, 1:58
NBB. See National Biodiesel Board
Nebraska, 4:68
NECAR 1, 2:90
NEED. See National Energy
Education Development
NEI. See Nuclear Energy Institute
Nellis Air Force Base, 2:3 4, 2:3f,
2:13
NESEA. See Northeast Sustainable
Energy Association
Netherlands, 1:84
NETL. See National Energy
Technology Laboratory
Net metering, 2:15 16, 3:43, 3:71
NEUP. See Nuclear Energy
University Program
246 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Neutropolis: The Nuclear Energy

Zone for Students, 1:152
Nevada, 4:15
Nevada Solar One, 1:215, 2:38 39,
2:185, 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Newell, Craig, 3:20
New Hampshire, 5:10 11
New Jersey, 4:118, 5:35 36
New Mexico, 4:17 18
New Planet Energy, 5:128
Newsom, Gavin, 2:112
New York, 2:17, 2:114 15, 5:34, 5:82
New York gym, 5:9
New Zealand, 1:85; geothermal
power station in, 4:44f; geothermal
resources in, 4:44; tidal power in,
3:110 11
NGSA. See National Gas Supply
Association
NGVs. See Natural gas vehicles
Niagara Falls, 3:76
Nicholson, William, 2:90
Nickel-metal hydride battery
(NiMH), 5:122 23
Nielsen, Carl, 4:6
NiMH. See Nickel-metal hydride
battery
NIRS. See Nuclear Information and
Resource Service
Nissan Leaf electric car, 5:74
Nissan Motor Co., 5:71, 5:72
Nitrogen oxide, 1:98
NOAA. See National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
Nonrenewable energy, 1:xi xiii,

1:9 11, 2:xi xiii, 3:xi xiii, 4:xi xiii,
5:xi xiii; career resources in,
1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84
Non-silicon-based technologies, 2:11
Norman, Marie, 5:28 31, 5:29f
Northbrook High School, 5:57 62
North Dakota, 4:72
Northeast Blackout of 1965, 1:1, 1:2f
Northeast Sustainable Energy Association (NESEA), 1:88
Northeast US, 3:36 37
Northern Ireland, 3:110
North Grand High School, 4:122 25
North Sea, 1:80f
Norway: hydroelectric energy in,
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
5:xvi, 5:112; hydrogen refueling in,
2:114, 2:115f; natural gas reserves
of, 1:82; wave energy used in,
3:117 18
NRC. See Nuclear Regulatory
Commission
NREL. See National Renewable Energy Laboratory
NRG Energy, Inc, 2:22
NRRI. See Natural Resources Research Institute
Nuclear energy, 1:xiii, 1:5, 1:10 11,
2:xiii, 3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii; benets
of, 1:132 33; in countries, 5:112;
description of, 1:133 34; in France,
1:137 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 41,
1:141f; functioning of, 1:158; future of, 1:152 53; greenhouse gases
and, 1:11; history of, 1:134; nuclear
ssion in, 1:139; reading materials
on, 1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
4:129 30, 5:131 32; in sustainable
development, 5:110 12, 5:111f;
technologies in, 1:151 52; in US,
1:132 33, 1:137, 5:112; US military use of, 1:137; worlds electrical
Index a 247
needs and, 1:11; world use of,

1:136 38; as zero-carbon energy
source, 1:131 32
Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI),
1:152, 1:157
Nuclear Energy University Program
(NEUP), 1:131, 5:111
Nuclear ssion, 1:134, 1:139
Nuclear fuel: cycle, 1:132; nuclear
waste transformed to, 1:150 51;
uranium mining and, 1:138 40
Nuclear Information and Resource
Service (NIRS), 1:157
Nuclear power plants, 1:200, 2:170,
3:168, 4:170, 5:172; Browns Ferry,
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173;
oating, 1:151 52; Sizewell, 1:133;
waste generated by, 1:145 51
Nuclear reactors: in China, 1:11f;
designing, 1:153 54; manufacturers of, 1:145; types of, 1:142 44; in
US, 1:136
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC), 1:134, 1:147, 1:157, 1:166,
2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Nuclear waste: disposing of,
1:147 48; high-level, 1:145; lowlevel, 1:145 46; nuclear fuel transformed from, 1:150 51; of power
plants, 1:145 51; recycling of,
1:149, 1:151; transuranic,
1:146 47
Nuclear Waste Policy Act, 1:148 49
Nuclear weapons, 1:135
NWTC. See National Wind Technology Center
Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
1:150, 5:123
Obama, Barack, 1:xiii, 1:51, 1:123,
1:131, 1:148, 2:3, 2:3f, 2:86, 3:xiii,
4:xiii, 4:80, 5:xiii, 5:108f, 5:110 11,
5:124, 5:129
Ocean Energy Council, 3:124
Ocean Power Technologies, 3:114

Ocean Renewable Power Company
(ORPC), 3:124
Oceans: kinetic energy from,
3:103 4; as solar energy collector, 3:108; thermal energy from,
3:118 23; tidal technologies
and, 3:124 25; wave energy from,
3:113 18
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC), 1:15, 3:104, 3:118 19,
3:120f; Africa and, 3:122;
challenges facing, 3:122; dening, 3:119; future of, 3:122 23;
technologies in, 3:119 22
Octane rating, 1:47
OECD. See Organization of
Economic Cooperation and
Development
Oerlikon Solar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
Oce of Energy Eciency and
Renewable Energy, 4:73
Oce of Fossil Energy, 1:77
Oshore drilling, 1:80f
Oshore wave energy generation
systems, 3:114
Ohio, 5:33
Ohms Law, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
Oil: algae high in, 2:93; carbon ratio
of, 1:94; deposits, 1:43; discarded
restaurant, 4:116f; drilling rig,
1:44f; enhanced recovery of,
1:45; extraction of, 1:63; elds,
1:43, 1:55; gas production and,
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
1:69; producing countries,
1:56; producing states, 1:55f;
recovery of, 1:45; reneries, 1:20;
reserves remaining of, 1:62 63;
spills, 1:61; thermal recovery of,
1:45; US elds of, 1:46; US imports of, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
248 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158,

4:160, 5:162
Oil and Gas Journal, 1:66
Oil Pollution Act, 1:62
Oil sands, 1:58 59, 1:190, 2:160,
3:158, 4:160, 5:162
Oil shale, 1:57 58; mining of, 1:58;
US deposits of, 1:57f
Old Faithful, 4:4, 4:4f
Olive oil, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park, 2:24
Online Fuel Cell Information Resource, 2:127
Onshore wave energy systems,
3:114 16
On-site fuel cells, 5:119
OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Open-cycle systems, 3:121
Open-loop systems: disadvantages of,
4:61 62; geothermal heat pump as,
4:61 63, 4:62f
ORC. See Organic Rankine cycle
Oregon Institute of Technology,
4:1 2, 4:20 23, 4:21f, 4:24f
Organic matter, 1:74
Organic Rankine cycle (ORC), 4:21f,
4:24f
Organic vegetable waste, 4:86
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD),
1:20f, 1:81
Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC), 1:56, 1:166,
2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Organizations, government websites and, 1:165 67, 2:135 37,
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39
Ormat, 4:20
ORPC. See Ocean Renewable Power
Company
Oscillating water column converter,
3:115
OTEC. See Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion
Overmann, Harold, 3:20
Oxford Yasa Motors, 1:215, 2:185,
3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Oxygenates, 1:53
Pacic Fuel Cell Company, 2:102
Pacic Gas and Electric, 3:67
Pacic ocean, 4:6 7
PAFCs. See Phosphoric acid fuel cells
Paint Lick Elementary School, 4:65
Palapa, Rosy, 1:50
Panjshir River, 3:95f
Paper manufacturing, 1:21
Parabolic cookers, 2:72
Parabolic solar oven, 2:71
Parabolic trough system, 2:36 39,
2:37f, 2:43f
Paraguay, 3:86 87
Parr, Alexandria, 1:30
Passamaquoddy Bay, 3:109
Passive heating and cooling, 1:26
Passive Solar Design, 2:83
Passive solar energy, 2:62
Passive solar heating systems,
2:67 70, 2:67f; benets of, 2:70;
home design with, 2:68 69; school
design with, 2:69 70
Passive solar technology, 2:60 61
Passive solar water heaters, 2:77f
Passive yawing, 3:12
Index a 249
Paul, Stephen, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
PBMR. See Pebble bed modular
reactor
Peak oil, 1:56, 1:69
Pearl Street Station, 1:199, 2:169,
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
Pearson, Gerald, 2:5
Pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR),
1: 151
Peck, Rick, 5:13 15, 5:13f
Pelamis Wave Power, Ltd., 3:114
Pelton, Lester, 3:93f
Pelton and Turgo impulse turbines,
3:92 93, 3:93f, 3:94
PEM. See Polymer electrolyte
membrane
Pendulor devices, 3:115
Penn State Green Roof Research
Center, 5:96
Pennsylvania, 4:121, 5:31
Penstock, 3:90, 3:92f
Petrochemicals, 1:53
Petroleum, 1:9; biodiesel emissions
compared to, 4:116; dening, 1:43;
drilling for, 1:43 45; early uses of,
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169;
environmental issues concerning,
1:60 62; forming of, 1:41 42; as
fossil fuel, 1:41; future of, 1:63;
history of, 1:40 41; locating, 1:68;
petrochemicals from, 1:53; present
uses of, 1:39 40; products from,
1:47 48; recovery of, 1:45; searching for, 1:42 43; US consuming,
1:60; US importing, 1:41; world
production of, 1:xi xii, 2:xi xii,
3:xi xii, 4:xi xii, 5:xi xii
Philippines, 4:32 34, 4:87
Phone chargers, 5:54
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs),
2:119
Photosynthesis, 2:11, 2:92 93
Photovoltaic cells (PV), 1:xiii, 1:12,

2:xiii, 2:1, 3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii; to
battery storage, 2:14; disposal and
recycling of, 2:30; installation of,
2:19 20, 2:22f; materials used in,
2:6; sized and shapes of, 2:12 13;
uses for, 2:6
Photovoltaic power plants, 2:16f
Photovoltaic system, 5:34, 5:34f,
5:113
Photovoltaic technology: Australia
using, 2:25; future of, 2:30 31;
Germany using, 2:24 25; global
leaders in, 2:24 26
Physical science, 1:217, 2:187, 3:185,
4:187, 5:189
Pickens, T. Boone, 3:27
Picohydro, 3:91
Pipeline transportation, 1:77 78
Pittsburgh National Corporation,
5:88
Plate-boundary volcanoes, 4:7f
Pleasant Ridge Montessori School,
5:33
Plutonium uranium recovery by
extraction (PUREX), 1:150 51
Poland, 1:116
Polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM), 1:xv, 2:xv, 2:89, 3:xv, 4:xv,
5:xv
Pools, 4:50 51
Portland, Maine, 3:105f, 5:90 91
Portsmouth Abbey monastery, 3:37
Portugal: wave energy in, 3:117; wind
energy in, 3:59
Potential energy, 1:5, 3:8
Powder River Basin, 1:114
PowerBuoy, 3:114
Power plants: Beaver County, 4:20;
binary, 4:9 10, 4:9f, 4:22; CO2
producing, 1:73f; diversion,
3:81; double-ash, 4:11; ashsteam, 4:10 12, 4:10f; oating
250 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
nuclear, 1:151 52; hydrogen,

2:94; La Rance River tidal, 3:109f;
Mammoth Pacic, 4:10; for
natural gas, 1:73f; nuclear waste of,
1:145 51; oshore wind energy,
3:62 64; pumped storage, 3:81;
Raft River, 4:15 16, 4:16f; Raser
Technologies thermo, 4:19f; Velling
Mrsk-Tndpibe wind, 3:59;
Voith Siemens Hydro, 5:108f. See
also Geothermal
power plants; Hydroelectric power
plants; Microhydroelectric power
plants
Power strips, 5:54
Power Technology, 2:83
Pressures, 4:3
Pressurized water reactors, 1:143,
1:144
Primary footprint, 5:6
Princeton Review, 5:42
Prism Solar Technologies, 2:33
Probst, Pete, 4:124
Product development, in energy,
1:213 16, 2:183 86, 3:181 84,
4:183 86, 5:185 88
Production: biodiesel specications
of, 4:114 16; biogas facilities
for, 4:97f; Chinas coal, 1:114,
1:116; coal, 1:115 16, 1:116;
countries coal, 1:115 16; ethanol,
4:93 95; fuel cells, 2:104; gas and
oil, 1:62; hydrogen, 2:91 100;
Indias coal, 1:116; natural gas,
1:81 82; Polands coal, 1:116;

renewable energy consumption
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
5:152t 155t; residential systems,
3:16, 3:41; thin-lm solar cells
electricity, 2:9 10; wind energy,
3:29 38, 3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115;
wind turbines energy, 3:42
Products: coal made in to, 1:105f;
from crude oil, 1:40f; from
petroleum, 1:47 48; rened,
1:59
Project Driveway, 2:114
Project Two Degrees, 5:18
The Promise of Solar Energy, 2:83
Propane, 1:74 75, 1:76, 1:85
Puertollano Photovoltaic Park, 2:24
Pulverized coal-red burners, 1:120
Pumped storage power plant, 3:81
Puna Geothermal Venture, 4:16 17
PUREX. See Plutonium uranium recovery by extraction
PV. See Photovoltaic cells
PV Crystalox Solar, 1:216, 2:186,
3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Quad, 1:18
Quantum dots, 5:114 15
Quantum Technologies, 2:122
Quebec, 3:86
Race cars, 4:107 8, 4:108f
Radial drilling, 4:59, 4:77
Radiant energy, 1:5
Radiation, 2:61, 2:68
Raft River power plant, 4:15 16,
4:16f
Rain barrels, 5:32
Ramirez, Daniel, 1:50
Rance estuary, 3:106
Ranking criteria, 5:90
Raser Technologies, 4:19f, 4:20
Rawal, Bhavna, 5:57 62, 5:58f
Index a 251
Reading materials: on biomass, 1:162,

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on
energy conservation, 1:162 63,
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
5:134 35; on energy eciency,
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; on fossil fuels,
1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
4:129 30, 5:131 32; on geothermal energy, 1:162, 2:132, 3:130,
4:132, 5:134; on hydroelectric
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
5:133; on hydrogen fuel cells,
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; on nuclear
energy, 1:159 60, 2:129 30,
3:127 28, 4:129 30, 5:131 32; on
solar energy, 1:160 61, 2:130 31,
3:128 29, 4:130 31, 5:132 33; on
sustainable development, 1:162 63,
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
5:134 35; on wave energy, 1:161,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
5:133
Reclamation, surface mining and,
1:107 8
Recoverable reserves, of coal,
1:190 91t, 2:160t 161t,
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,
5:162t 163t
Recycling, 1:25; of materials, 5:7,
5:104, 5:109; of nuclear waste,
1:149, 1:151; of PV, 2:30
REEEP. See Renewable Energy and
Energy Eciency Partnership
Rened products, 1:59
Reneries, crude oil, 1:46 47
Refrigerant, liquid, 4:59
Refueling of FCVs, 2:114 15
Regional energy consumption,
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,
5:156t 159t
Regulator, 3:90
Reid, Harry, 1:148, 2:3f
Renewable energy, 1:12 16, 1:14f,
5:23, 5:30; career resources in,
1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84; China
promoting, 3:61f; Database of
State Incentives for, 3:71; future
of, 5:124; for homes, 5:63 64;
interstate coalition for, 2:16;
Native American tribes providing, 2:8; primary energy sources
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
5:152t 155t; production and
consumption of, 1:180t 183t,
2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
4:150t 153t, 5:152t 155t; resources of, 1:xiii xviii, 2:xiii xviii,
3:xiii xviii, 4:xiii xviii, 5:xiii xviii;
seaweed as, 1:98; sustainable future
powered by, 5:107 22; transmission of, 2:28 29
Renewable Energy Act, 4:87
Renewable Energy and Energy Eciency Partnership (REEEP), 4:34
Renewable Resource Data Center
(RReDC), 5:125
Renovation, 5:27 28
Residential systems: annual production of, 3:16, 3:41; fuel cell,
5:118 19; grid connection of,
3:42 43, 3:42f; net metering
with, 3:43; small wind turbines
for, 3:40 42; using wind energy,
3:40 44; wind turbine maintenance of, 3:41
Revenues, 3:38
Reverb, 5:8f
Reykjavik, Iceland, 4:25
Rhode Island, 3:37, 4:118 19, 5:126
Rhode Island Resource Recovery,
2:98
Rice paddies, 1:76
252 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Richardson, Bill, 4:18

Richmond BUILD, 1:30
Ring of Fire, 4:6 7, 4:7f, 4:18, 4:31,
4:32, 4:33; active volcanoes in,
4:40, 4:44
Rising Sun Energy Center,
1:29, 1:31
River control projects, 3:79
Riversimple hydrogen car, 2:110,
2:110f, 5:69
Robbins, Steve, 2:9
Rocket stoves, 4:88
Rock Port, Missouri, 3:29
Rodriguez, Jose, 1:50
Rojas, Fermin, 1:50
Romania, 3:88 89
Roof is Growing, 5:95
Roofscapes, Inc., 5:96
Rooftop gardens, 5:78, 5:84, 5:87
Rotary drilling rigs, 1:43, 1:76 77
Rotor blades, 3:7 9
Roy Lee Walker Elementary School,
5:31
RReDC. See Renewable Resource
Data Center
Rudensey, Lyle, 4:116f
Russia: natural gas reserves of,
1:82; wind energy potential
of, 3:62
Safety-Kleen, Inc., 5:2
SAI. See Solar America Initiative
Saint Thomas Academy, 2:44 45,
2:44f
SAITEM. See Sakarya University

Advanced Technologies Implementation Group
Sakarya University Advanced Technologies Implementation Group
(SAITEM), 2:116
Salter, Steven, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
Sandia National Laboratories, 1:216,
2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
5:188
San Diego High School, 4:121
San Domenico School, 5:33
Sandstone, 1:42
San Francisco, 3:111, 4:5 6
San Francisco International Airport,
2:111
Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 5:47f
San Jose, California, 5:90
San Juan Basin, 1:80
Santa Coloma de Gramenet cemetery,
2:25
Santa Monica, California, 5:17
Saturn, 5:71
Saturn EV-1 electric car, 5:72, 5:122
Savannah River National Laboratory,
2:94
Schaefer, Natasha, 5:27f
School building: green roof of,
5:38 40, 5:38f; renovation and
modernization of, 5:27 28; sustainable green, 5:26
School Planning & Management, 2:69
Schools: biodiesel buses for, 4:117 20,
4:119, 4:119f; biodiesel vehicles
used by, 4:117 20; carbon footprint
reduction of, 5:12, 5:14 15; carbon
footprints of, 5:9 12; eco-friendly,
4:65f; energy conservation and
eciency in, 1:26 28; energy eciency in, 1:26 28; energy ecient
programs for, 5:45; Fort Atkinson
School District, 4:66 67; fuel cell
education in, 2:125 26; go-green
Index a 253
public, 5:31 36; green certication

of, 5:27f; heat pump benets to,
4:64; Indianas geothermal well
used in, 4:68; LEED certication
for, 5:28 32, 5:82; Massachusetts
4:67 68; Minnesotas geothermal
systems in, 4:66; natural lighting
in, 5:37; Nebraska and geothermal
heat pump in, 4:68; passive solar
design for, 2:69 70; South Dakotas
geothermal energy in, 4:67; using
geothermal heat pump, 4:64 68;
using solar energy, 2:16 17;
utility bills lowered in, 5:36;
wind energy in, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
wind turbines for, 3:16 23;
Wisconsins geothermal systems
in, 4:66
SchoolsCuttingCarbon.org, 5:10
Schools for Energy Eciency, 5:23
Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 3:32
Schwarze Pumpe, 1:124f
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188,
5:190
Science education, 1:217, 2:64, 2:187,
3:185, 4:187, 5:189
SciKits, 2:127
Scooters, 2:113 14
Scott, Allister, 4:123
Scott, Paul, 5:18f
SEAT. See Student Energy Audit
Training
Seattle, Washington, 5:89f
Seaweed, 1:98
Secondary footprint, 5:6
Sector, energy consumption by,
1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
5:146t 149t
Sedum, 5:39
SEGS. See Solar Energy Generating
Systems
SEI. See Solar Energy International
Selsam, Douglas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
Seneca Ridge Middle School,
5:13 15, 5:13f
Sequestration technology, 1:125
Sharp Corp., 2:26
Shell Hydrogen Fuel, 2:114
Shell WindEnergy, Inc., 3:31
Shippingport Atomic Power Station,
1:135
Shutol microhydroelectric power
plants, 3:95f
Siemens Corp., 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Silicon, 2:9
Simn Bolivar hydroelectric power
plants, 3:87
Single-ash geothermal power plants,
4:11
Site evaluation, 4:63 64
Sizewell nuclear power plant, 1:133
Skystream 3.7 wind turbine, 3:46f
Small Business Guide to Energy
Eciency, 5:23
Smaller homes, 5:55
Small-scale hydroelectric power
plants, 3:89 90
SmartWay designation, 5:75
Smith, David, 5:48
Smith, Wylie, 4:110f, 4:111
Smith Family Dome Homes, 5:48
Snodgrass, Edmund C., 5:40
Snodgrass, Lucie L., 5:40
SOFC. See Solid oxide fuel cell
Solar America Cities, 2:21
Solar America Initiative (SAI), 2:31
Solar arrays: at Buckley Air Force
Base, 2:14; at Hanneford
Supermarket, 5:103f; power of,
2:13; SunPower, 2:18f
Solar cells: Chinas manufacturing
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
5:173; crystalline silicon, 2:7 8;
254 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
dye-sensitized technology of,

2:11 12, 2:12f; electricity produced
by, 2:7f; from fruit, 2:13; functioning of, 2:7 8; nanotechnology
used in, 5:114f; new generation of,
2:8 10; non-silicon-based technologies in, 2:11; quantum dots with,
5:114 15; thin-lm, 2:9 10, 2:9f
Solar Decathlon, 2009 homes in,
5:64 65, 5:64f
Solar dish-engine system, 2:39 42
Solar energy, 1:xiii xv, 1:12, 2:xiii xv,
3:xiii xv, 4:xiii xv, 5:xiii xv;
Abengoa Solar and, 1:213, 2:40,
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185;
Africa using, 2:26; availability
of, 2:4 5; benets of, 2:26 27;
California using, 2:17; cities using,
2:17 21; collectors for, 2:73 74,
2:74f; college installation of,
2:4; cost of, 2:30 31; economics of, 2:30; electricity created by,
2:14 15; future, 2:83; history of,
2:5 6, 2:56; for homes, 5:63 64;
Hong Kong ferry boats using,
2:6; Japan and, 2:83; Japans cargo
ships using, 2:27; Japans installations of, 2:25 26; land use and,
2:29; limiting factors of, 2:27 29;
model cars using, 1:87f, 1:88; net
metering and, 2:15 16; oceans collector of, 3:108; passive, 2:62; photovoltaic power plants for, 2:16f;
2:130 31, 3:128 29, 4:130 31,

5:132 33; schools using, 2:16 17;
science of, 2:61 62; solar tower
plant and, 2:48f; Southwestern
farms for, 2:23; Spains investments in, 2:24; storage of, 2:13 14,
5:112 15; transmission gridlines
for, 2:28 29; US installations of,
2:3 4; US projects of, 2:21 23; US
using, 2:17 21; utility grid and,
2:14 15, 2:28; videos for, 2:34. See
also Photovoltaic cells; Photovoltaic
technology
Solar Energy Generating Systems
(SEGS), 2:37, 2:51, 2:51f
Solar Energy International (SEI), 2:8
Solar Energy Review, 2:82
Solar greenhouse, 2:65 66
Solar heaters, 2:79f
Solar heating systems, 2:66 67
Solar oven: benets of, 2:71 72;
parabolic, 2:71; Thames and
Cosmos, 2:73f
Solar ovens, 2:71
Solar panels: A.A. Kingston Middle
School with, 5:34f; in Germany,
2:27f; of Hanneford Supermarket, 5:103 4; Spains installation
of, 2:25; temperature inuencing,
3:64f
Solar ponds, 2:80 82
Solar powered vehicles, 2:45 46
Solar power plant, 2:39
Solar power tower system, 2:42 47
Solar radiation, 2:5, 2:61 62
Solar schools program, 3:67
Solar thermal electric (STE), 2:38fs
Solar towers, 2:56, 2:83; benets of,
2:49 50; molten salt storage with,
2:48 49; solar energy from, 2:48f;
of Spain, 2:47
Solar Two, 2:47 50
Solar wall, 2:60 61
Index a 255
Solar water heaters, 1:xiv, 2:xiv, 2:24,

3:xiv, 4:xiv, 5:xiv, 5:66 68; active,
2:76f; cost and benets of, 2:79,
5:66 67; economics of, 2:78;
evolution of, 2:75; global installations of, 2:78 79; greenhouse
gas emissions reduced by, 2:78; for
homes, 5:64; passive, 2:77f; storage
tanks required by, 2:77; students
designing, 2:80; types of, 2:75 77;
worlds rst, 2:59
Solatubes, 5:37
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), 2:107,
5:121
Solix Biofuels, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Solvents, 1:47
Sony Corporation, 2:12f
Soultz-sous-Forts, 4:48, 4:48f
Sound, 1:6
Source, energy consumption by,
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t
South America, 1:84
South Dakota: geothermal energy in,
4:67; wind farms in, 3:36
Southeast Asia, 3:61
South Korea, 3:110
Southwestern solar farms, 2:23
Soybean-powered buses, 4:109f
Soybean-powered cars, 4:121
Soy crops, 4:125
Space Conditioning: The Next Frontier,
4:69
Space science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
Space shuttles, 5:120
Spain: solar energy investments of,
2:24; solar panel installation in,
2:25; solar tower of, 2:47; wind energy in, 3:59
Spas, 4:50 51
Specialty transportation, 2:113 14
Spindletop oil eld, 1:43

Spirit Lake Community School District, 3:1, 3:19 23, 3:45, 5:35, 5:36f
Split systems, 4:59
Spring Mills Elementary School, 5:32
Spruill, Mary E., 3:64 68
Spurlock Fossil Plant, 1:121
Sridhar, K. R., 5:121 22, 5:121f
Sri Lanka, 3:95
St. Anthony High School, 2:60f
St. John Bosco Boys Home,
4:98 102, 4:99f
Stanley, William, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
STAR. See Sweep Twist Adaptive
Rotor
States: coal producing, 1:114 15;
hydroelectricity from, 3:74f; oilproducing, 1:55f
Stationary bicycles, 5:9
Stationary fuel cell systems, 2:119
STE. See Solar thermal electric
Steam reformation, 2:91
Steam turbines, 4:38
Steel industry, 1:20 21
Step-up transformers, 1:17
Stirling, Robert, 2:41
Stirling Energy Systems, 2:41, 2:43f
Stirling engine, 2:40 42, 2:40f, 2:56
Stokkur Geysir, 4:38f
Storage tanks, 2:77
Stored mechanical energy, 1:5
Strassman, Fritz, 1:134
Strategic Petroleum Reserve, 1:60 62,
1:60f
Student Energy Audit Training
(SEAT), 1:28
Students, 4:121
Sugarcane eld, 4:86f
Sulfur dioxide, 1:53, 1:111, 1:119,
4:92
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 1:110 11
Sulfur oxides, 4:117
Sullivan, Jim, 2:98
256 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Summereld Elementary School,

5:35 36
Sun, 1:5, 2:49, 2:59, 2:107
SunCatcher solar disk thermal system, 2:41 42, 2:43f
Suncor (Sunoco) Energy Inc, 1:216,
2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
SunEdison, 5:35
SunPower solar array, 2:18f
Surface mining: environmental
issues and, 1:108; reclamation and,
1:107 8; shallow coal, 1:109
Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act, 1:107
Sustainable development: biofuels in,
5:120 22; construction, 5:82; with
CSP, 5:113; dening, 5:100; energy
eciency and, 5:107; geothermal
energy in, 5:109 10; goals of,
5:100 101; green school building
for, 5:26; hydroelectric power in,
5:108 9, 5:108f; hydrogen fuel cells
in, 5:116 19; nuclear energy in,
5:110 12, 5:111f; reading materials
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; renewable energy powering future of, 5:107 22;
solar energy in, 5:112 15; system
changing in, 5:105 6; wind energy
in, 5:115 16; World Summit on,
5:101f
Sustainable Energy Park, 4:23
Sweden: biomass energy source in,
4:88; geothermal heat pumps
in, 4:72; wave energy used in,

3:116 17
Sweep Twist Adaptive Rotor (STAR),
3:9
Sweet Bay, 5:105
Swept area, 3:8
Switchgrass, 4:82 83, 4:82f
Synthetic natural gas (Syngas),
1:125 28; global warming and,
1:128; hydrogen fuel cells and,
1:127 28
Tackling Climate Change in the US,
2:80
Taconite Ridge Wind Energy Center,
3:34
Takasago rapid-charging station,
5:73f
Tanzania, 4:102
TAPCHAN, 3:115, 3:116f
Tapered channel wave energy, 3:116f
Tarkington Elementary School, 1:26,
5:27f
Taupo Volcanic Zone, 4:44f
Tax revenue, 4:27
Technologies: Barrage, 3:107; bio,
5:123; biogas, 4:102 3; clean coal,
1:121 28; dye-sensitized, 2:11 12,
2:12f; Exide, 5:2; geothermal
energy, 4:18; Horizon Fuel Cell,
2:127, 5:69; hydrogen, 2:99 100;
hydrophobic nanocoating, 5:117f;
nano, 4:77, 5:114 15, 5:114f,
5:116; Nano Solar, 2:56; natural gas
drilling, 1:77; non-silicon-based,
2:11; nuclear energy, 1:151 52;
Ocean Power, 3:114; in OTEC,
3:119 22; passive solar, 2:60 61;
photovoltaic, 2:24 25, 2:24 26,
2:25, 2:30 31; Power, 2:83; Prism
Solar, 2:33; Quantum, 2:122; Raser,
4:19f, 4:20; science and, 1:218,
2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190; sequestration, 1:125; tidal, 3:124 25; tidal
Index a 257
fence, 3:107; tidal power, 3:107 8;

Vestas Wind, 3:61; Wakonda, 2:33.
See also Photovoltaic technology
Tehachapi Pass, 3:32
Telecommunications, 2:119 20
Televisions, 5:54
Temperature: earths interior, 4:3, 4:4;
earths underground, 4:57; hydrogen and, 2:87; kinetic energy and,
1:6; solar collectors and, 1:12; solar
panels inuenced by, 3:64f; water
dierences in, 1:15
Tennessee Valley Authority Act, 3:78,
3:79
Terminator devices, 3:115 16
Terrain, for microhydroelectric power
plants, 3:93
Tesla, Nicola, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Tesla Motors, 5:71 72
Tessera Solar, 2:41
Texas: Austin, 5:91; carbon footprint
reduction in, 5:11; environmentally responsible design projects in,
1:55f; wind energy in, 3:30 32,
3:54; wind farms in, 3:32 33
Texas Interconnection, 5:119
Texas State Technical College, 3:47
Thackeray, Michael, 1:207, 2:177,
3:175, 4:177, 5:179
Thailand, 4:39 40, 4:87
Thames and Cosmos solar oven, 2:73f
Thermal decomposition, 1:74
Thermal energy, 1:6, 3:118 23, 4:15
Thermal energy storage system, 2:39
Thermal recovery, of oil, 1:45
Thermochemical hydrogen, 2:92
Thermo power plant, 4:19f
Thick-lm silicon cells, 2:10
Thin-lm lithium-ion battery, 5:123,
5:123f
Thin-lm solar cells, 2:9 10, 2:9f
Thompson, Asa, 4:5
Three Gorges dam project, 3:83 85,

3:84f
Three Mile Island, 1:132, 5:111
Tidal fence technologies, 3:107
Tidal mill, 3:106
Tidal power, 3:103 4; benets of,
3:112; in China, 3:110; countries
using, 3:109 11; economics of,
3:111; energy, 1:xvi xvii, 2:xvi xvii,
3:xvi xvii, 4:xvi xvii, 5:xvi xvii;
environmental issues in, 3:112 13;
in France, 1:xvi xvii, 2:xvi xvii,
3:xvi xvii, 3:109, 3:109f, 4:xvi xvii,
5:xvi xvii; functioning of, 3:106;
Golden Gate Bridge and, 3:111,
3:112f; history of, 3:106; hydroelectric energy created by, 3:104; in
New Zealand, 3:110 11; potential
sites of, 3:111; in Rance estuary,
3:106; in South Korea, 3:110;
technology types in, 3:107 8; tide
dierences required for, 3:105f; in
US, 3:108 9
Tidal technologies, 3:124 25
Tidal turbines, 3:107, 3:107f
Tides, 3:104 5, 3:105f
Time line, of energy, 1:197 201,
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73
Tirevold, Jim, 3:19 23
Titanium dioxide, 2:13
Tiwi, 4:41
Toledo Zoo, 4:67
Toluene, 1:53
Toshiba Corporation, 4:35, 5:118f
Tower, 3:11
Toyota, 2:86, 2:114, 5:69, 5:119;
FCHV of, 2:109; RAV4, 5:18f
Traeger, Tom, 2:18 21
Trac jams, 1:7f
Transformers, step-up, 1:17
Transmission grid: for electricity,
1:17; electric power, 3:25; renewable energy, 2:28 29; for solar
258 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
energy, 2:28 29; wind energy

limitations in, 3:68 69; of wind
turbines, 3:9 11
Transportation: of coal, 1:112 13;
fuel cell applications for, 2:107 16;
hydrogen fuel cell application for,
5:117 18; hydrogen fuel cells specialty, 2:113 14; pipeline, 1:77 78
Transuranic nuclear waste (TRU),
1:146 47
Trash into Trees program, 5:91
Trash-to-energy plants, 1:13
Tree hugger jobs, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
Trees, capturing carbon dioxide, 5:1,
5:91
TRU. See Transuranic nuclear waste
Trucking, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
Tucson, Arizona, 5:17
Turbines, 3:81 82, 3:90, 3:92 93
Turkey, 2:116, 4:41
Twenhofel Middle School, 5:32
20% Wind Energy by 2030, 3:17,
3:24
21st Century Green High Performing Public Schools Facilities Act,
5:27 28
TXU Energy Solar Academy, 2:52,
2:54
Ulba Metallurgical Plant, 1:141f
Underground mining, 1:108 9
Underwater seabed turbines, 3:108
Underwater turbines, 3:110

United Arab Emirates, 5:92 93
United Kingdom, 2:118; FCVs in,
2:110; geothermal power plant in,
4:41 42; natural gas consumption
of, 1:84; wind farms in, 3:58 59
United Nations Convention on Climate Change, 1:32f
United States (US): biodiesel in,
5:122; biofuel consumed in, 1:61;
biomass percentage used in, 4:85;
CO2 emissions of, 1:120f; coal
industry of, 1:113 15, 1:115f,
1:117; crude oil imports of,
1:54 56; economic stimulus Bill
of, 1:33; electrical grid system
improvement needed in, 5:119;
electrical grid system of, 2:29; electricity infrastructure modernizing
of, 3:68 69; energy consumption
of, 1:19f; energy history of, 1:3 4,
1:4t; energy supply of, 1:14f; FCVs
in, 2:107 9; geothermal companies
in, 4:20; geothermal energy in,
1:xvii, 2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii, 4:13 20,
4:31, 5:xvii, 5:110f; geothermal
heat pumps installed capacity in,
4:70; geothermal heat pump use
of, 4:59, 4:70 73; geothermal
resources in, 5:110f; green cities
in, 5:89 92, 5:92t; greenhouse gas
emissions reduction target of, 5:16;
hydroelectric energy in, 3:74 77,
3:74f; hydrogen fuel cell buses in,
2:111; hydrogen fuel cell funding
cut by, 2:86; microhydroelectric
power plants potential in, 3:96,
3:98; natural gas consumption
of, 1:83; new oil elds in, 1:46;
Northeastern, 3:36 37; nuclear
energy in, 1:132 33, 1:137, 5:112;
nuclear reactors in, 1:136; oil imports of, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173; oil shale deposits in, 1:57f;
Index a 259
petroleum consumed in, 1:60;

petroleum imported by, 1:41; rened products importing of, 1:59;
solar energy projects of, 2:21 23;
solar energy used in, 2:17 21;
solar installations in, 2:3 4; solar
radiation across, 2:5; tidal power
in, 3:108 9; waste vegetable oil
in, 4:114; wind energy capacity
of, 3:17 18, 5:115; wind energy
production of, 3:29 38. See also
specic states
United States Geological Survey
(USGS), 1:167, 2:137, 3:135,
4:137, 5:139
Uranium: energy created by, 1:139;
nuclear fuel mining of, 1:138 40;
oxide U-235, 1:140 41; pellets,
1:141; processing, 1:140; U-238,
1:144
US. See United States
USDA Southern Research Station,
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
USGBC. See US Green Building
Council
US Green Building Council
(USGBC), 5:26 27, 5:36, 5:42
USGS. See United States Geological
Survey
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 20
Utility bills, 5:36
Utility company, 3:20 21
Utility grid: connecting to, 2:14 15,
3:43; solar energy and, 2:14 15,
2:28
Van Buren Elementary School, 5:11
Vegetable oil, 4:113; biodiesel as,
4:116f; as fuel, 4:114; vehicles powered by, 4:122 25; waste, 4:114,
4:123
Veggie Van, 4:127
Vehicles: biodiesel powered,
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75; electric,
5:18f; eet, 1:85 86, 1:90; fuelcell, 5:69 70; fuel-cell hybrid,
2:109; gasoline use of,
1:41; green, 5:68 76; hydrogen,
2:116; plug-in electric car conversion of, 5:125 26; school,
4:117 20; solar powered,
2:45 46; sulfur oxides emissions
of, 4:117; using natural gas,
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75;
vegetable oil powering, 4:122 25.
See also Electric vehicles; Fuel
cell vehicles
Velling Mrsk-Tndpibe wind power
plant, 3:59
Verdant Power, 3:104
Vermont, 5:10
Verne, Jules, 2:85
Vertical-axis turbines, 3:13 14, 3:13f,
3:14 15
Vertical ground loops, 4:64
Vestas Wind Technology, 3:61
Vidaca, Jasmine, 1:50
Vietnam, 4:87
Villaraigosa, Antonio, 4:34
Virginia: biodiesel school buses in,
4:120; carbon footprint reduction
in, 5:11
Vocational information, 1:212, 2:182,
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
VOCs. See Volatile organic
compounds
Voith Hydro, 3:74
Voith Siemens Hydro Power Plant,
5:108f
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
1:97, 1:119
Volcanoes, 4:7f, 4:33, 4:35, 4:37, 4:40,
4:44
Volkswagen, 2:111
Wakonda Technologies, 2:33
Waldpolenz Solar Park, 2:25
Walters, Bob, 1:86 89, 1:87f
260 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Washington: carbon footprint reduction in, 5:11; Seattle, 5:89f; wind

farms in, 3:36
Waste, 5:51
Waste veggie oil (WVO), 4:123
Water: collection, 2:63; conservation of,
2:65; cooling buildings with, 4:64;
temperature dierences in, 1:15
Waterfront Oce Building, 4:70
Water Furnace, 4:75
Water heaters: conventional, 5:67f;
geothermal heat pump, 4:62 63
Watermill, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
Watt, James, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
Watts Bar Unit 1, 5:113
Wave energy, 3:104; AquaBuoy
converting, 3:117f; benets and
challenges of, 3:118; converter,
3:115; countries using, 3:116 18;
harnessing, 3:113 16; Norway
using, 3:117 18; from oceans,
3:113 18; oshore generation
systems for, 3:114; onshore systems for, 3:114 16; Portugal using,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; Sweden
using, 3:116 17; tapered channel,
3:116f
Waves, 3:113
Wessington Springs Wind Farm, 3:36
Western Interconnection, 5:119
Westinghouse Electric Company,

1:145
Westlake, Mark, 2:43 46, 2:44f
Weston Solutions, 5:40
West Virginia, 5:32
Westwood Elementary School,
5:28 31
Wetland water treatment systems,
1:111
Wet-milling process, 4:95, 4:95f
Who Killed the Electric Car, 5:71
Wibberding, Lonnie, 5:61
Wilkinson, Martin, 3:34
Williston Northampton School,
4:66f, 4:68
Wilmington oil eld, 1:55
Wind energy, 1:xv xvi, 1:12, 2:xv xvi,
2:21, 3:xv xvi, 4:xv xvi, 5:xv xvi;
benets and issues with, 3:18; in
California, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
4:170, 5:172; challenges facing,
3:24; compresses-air storage with,
3:69 70; cost of, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68;
Denmarks production of, 3:56 58,
3:58f, 5:115; DOE report on, 3:17,
3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 18;
electricity generated by, 3:38; energy storage and, 3:69; in Europe,
1:xv xvi, 2:xv xvi, 3:xv xvi, 3:57,
4:xv xvi, 5:xv xvi; farmers and,
3:38, 3:39; future of, 3:24; global
capacity of, 3:56; history of, 3:2 3;
in India, 3:59 60; KidWind project and, 3:47 51; nanotechnology
used in, 5:116; in Northeast US,
3:36 37; oshore power plants for,
3:62 64; from Portsmouth Abbey
monastery, 3:37; in Portugal, 3:59;
production, 3:29 38; reading materials on, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
5:133; Russias potential of, 3:62;
in schools, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
small residential systems using,
Index a 261
3:40 44; Southeast Asia sites for,

3:61; in Spain, 3:59; Spirit Lake
Community School District using,
3:1, 5:35; in sustainable development, 5:115 16; in Texas, 3:30 32;
transmission limitations of,
3:68 69; US capacity of, 3:17 18,
5:115; US production of, 3:29 38;
wind speed determining, 3:5 6
Wind Energy for Homeowners, 3:26,
3:72
Wind farms, 3:15; Altamont Pass,
3:32, 3:33f; Bualo Ridge, 3:34;
business of, 3:39 40; in Colorado,
3:34; compressed air storage for,
3:31 32; electric power transmission system for, 3:25; farmers and,
3:39; Fenton, 3:34; in Germany,
3:53, 3:57; Greensburg, 3:34; High
Winds Energy Center, 3:32 33;
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, 3:31, 3:31f; in Kansas, 3:34; in
Minnesota, 3:34; in Missouri, 3:36;
Rock Port, Missouri with, 3:29; at
sea, 3:57; in South Dakota, 3:36;
in Texas, 3:32 33; in United
Kingdom, 3:58 59; in Washington,
3:36; Wessington Springs, 3:36
Wind for Schools program, 3:44,
3:46, 3:46f
Wind generators, 3:51
Windmills, 3:2, 3:26
Windows, 5:33, 5:51, 5:52f
Wind Power in the United States, 3:30
Wind Resource Assessment Handbook,
3:72
Winds: basics of, 3:3 5; direction and
speed of, 3:5; global, 3:3f
Wind speed, 3:5 6, 3:8 9
Wind turbines, 1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi,
4:xvi, 5:xvi; airborne, 3:62; Bahrain World Trade Center using,
3:55 56, 3:55f; bats killed by, 3:60;
benets and issues with, 3:22 23;

blade design of, 3:9; in China,
1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:60f, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173; companies supplying, 3:20; components of, 3:10;
cut-in speed of, 3:21; Darrieus,
3:13 14; deepwater oating, 3:63;
dening, 3:7; electricity generated
by, 3:16, 3:21 22; energy production of, 3:42; FloDesign, 3:56;
future uses of, 3:72; gearbox of,
3:9 11; generators of, 3:9 10; for
homes, 5:63; horizontal-axis turbine, 3:12 13, 3:13f; maintenance,
3:41; manufacturers, 3:16; new v.
old, 3:33; Pickens plan of, 3:27;
for residential systems, 3:40 42;
residential systems maintenance
of, 3:41; revenues from, 3:38; for
schools, 3:16 23; Skystream 3.7,
3:46f; small, 3:15; Spirit Lake
Community School District
with, 5:36f; Texas State Technical
College and, 3:47; transmission and
gearbox of, 3:9 11; vertical-axis
turbine, 3:13 15, 3:13f;
worlds rst, 3:2; yawing of,
3:11 12
Wind vane, 3:11
Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 67
Wood, gasication of, 4:97
Wood alcohol, 2:89
Wood-burning boilers, 4:105
Wood-burning cooking stove, 4:88
Woods, Mel, 2:18
World Commission on Environment
and Development, 5:100
World Nuclear Association, 5:112
World oil, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 4:160,
5:162
World production, of petroleum,
5:xi xii
262 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
World Resource Institute, 1:167,

2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139
World Summit on Sustainable Development, 5:101f
Worldwide Fuel Cell Industry, 2:106
Worldwide uses: of energy, 1:19 21;
of nuclear energy, 1:136 38
Wrangell Mountains, 4:18
WVO. See Waste veggie oil
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4
Xeriscape, 5:87
Xtreme Power and Clairvoyant Energy, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186,
5:188
Yangtze River, 3:83, 3:84f, 3:85
Yawing, of wind turbines, 3:11 12
Yellowcake, 1:140
Yellowstone aquifer, 4:67
Yellowstone National Park, 4:4, 4:4f,
4:9, 4:52
Yestermorrow Design/Build School,
2:33
Youth Awards for Energy Achievement, 3:67 68
Yucca Mountain, 1:148 49
Zero-carbon energy source,
1:131 32
Zero emissions, 1:122, 5:73 74,
5:94
About the Author

JOHN F. MONGILLO is presently a middle-school science teacher at
Mercymount Country Day School in Cumberland, Rhode Island. He
has a BS in general education, a BS in special education, and an MS in
science education. John has been a coauthor and author of several Greenwood reference books, including Teen Guides to Environmental Science,
Environmental Activists, Encyclopedia of Environmental Science, and Nanotechnology 101. He is also a coauthor of Reading about Science, a sevenbook series published by Phoenix Learning Resources. He is a member
of the National Science Teachers Association and the Autism Society of
America. John drives a 1998 Saturn four-door sedan that was converted
into a 100 percent electric plug-in vehicle by two of his students and a
team of family members and technicians.
A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 2: Solar Energy and

Hydrogen Fuel Cells
John F. Mongillo

Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66
2011
621.042dc22
2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11
1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter 1
ix
xiii
Photovoltaic Solar Cells

Where Is the Largest Solar Installation
in the United States?
How Much Solar Energy Is Available across
the United States?
A Brief History of Solar Energy
What Are Some Uses for Photovoltaic Cells?
What Materials Are Used to Make Photovoltaic Cells?
Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
A New Generation of Solar Cells
Development of Non-Silicon-Based Technologies
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Technology
Photovoltaic Cells Come in Many Sizes and Shapes
Solar Storage
Photovoltaic Connections to a Utility Grid and Net Metering
U.S. Schools Using Solar Energy
Solar Cities throughout the United States
U.S. Solar Energy Projects in the News
1
3
4
5
6
6
7
8
11
11
12
13
14
16
17
21
vi a Contents
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Solar Farms for the Southwestern States

Global Photovoltaic Technology Leaders
Benets of Solar Energy
Limiting Factors of Solar Energy
Economics of Solar Energy
The Future of Photovoltaics: Will It Be the Major
Global Industry of the Century?
Interview
Tom Traeger
23
24
26
27
30
Concentrating Solar Power
35
Three Kinds of Concentrating Solar Power

The Future for Concentrating Solar Power
What Are the Environmental Impacts of CSP Plants?
Interviews
Mark Westlake
David Chen
36
50
50
Passive Solar Energy and Active Solar Power Energy
59
Solar Wall: Passive Solar Technology

Solar Energy: Some Basic Science
Passive and Active Solar Heating Systems
Solar Hot-Water Units
Solar Ponds
Interview
Stephanie Harman
60
61
66
75
80
80
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
85
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Some Basics on Hydrogen
What Is a Fuel Cell?
Brief History of Hydrogen Time Line
Present Use
How Is Hydrogen Produced?
The Future of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
What Companies Make Hydrogen Fuel Cells?
Interview
Ross McCurdy
30
18
43
52
62
85
87
87
90
90
91
100
102
94
Contents a vii
Chapter 5
Fuel Cells for Transportation and Homes
105
The Growth of Fuel Cells

Fuel-Cell Applications: Transportation
Residential Applications: Using Fuel Cells in Homes
Industrial Applications for Stationary Power Generation
Other Uses for Fuel Cells
Benets
Some Concerns about Fuel Cells
Hydrogen Economy: The Future
Establish Fuel-Cell Education in Your School
106
107
117
119
119
121
121
124
125
129
135
Energy Data
139
167
Proles
173
179
183
187
Index
189
About the Author
233
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a
xiv a Introduction

21st century.
Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction

Introduction a xvii

Petroleum
Russia, 13 percent
Iran, 5.4 percent
China, 5.1 percent


Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy
Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
xx a Introduction
usesunshineis free.
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy
one in France.

Geothermal
xxiv a Introduction
Energys Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
Photovoltaic Solar Cells
Id put my money on the sun and solar energy. What a source of

power! I hope we dont have to wait until oil and coal run out before
we tackle that.
Thomas Edison, in conversation with Henry Ford
and Harvey Firestone, 1931
energy as a renewable energy resource for heat and electricity. The three
key solar technologies include:
photovoltaic cells, commonly called solar cells
concentrating solar power systems
special solar collectors for space heating and hot water
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, made of semiconductors such as crystalline silicon or various thin-lm materials, convert sunlight directly into electricity.
You probably have seen these photovoltaic cells attached to roofs of homes,
at ground level near buildings, or installed on high towers along major
highways.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use reective materials
to concentrate the suns heat energy. In this system, the high-temperature
heat produced by solar energy is eventually used to drive a steam generator to produce electricity. Is this type of CSP technology located in your
neighborhood? Probably not. This system is installed on large tracts of land
in mostly rural areas.
Low-temperature solar collectors take two formsactive and passive
solar energy systemsand are used to absorb the suns heat or thermal
energy. The thermal energy is used directly for space heating or hot water
for homes and businesses. You may have seen solar collectors installed on
the roofs of homes. Solar collectors, however, are used only for hot water
needs and not for electrical energy needs. It is the photovoltaic or solar cell
panels that change sunlight directly into electricity.
Many experts believe that a major switch to these kinds of solar energy
technologies is the best solution for reducing fossil fuel use and emissions.
Many solar energy companies in the United States and around the world
are researching, planning, and using technologies to harness the suns
energy to generate electricity for businesses, homes, schools, and large
communities.
This chapter discusses photovoltaics, commonly called solar cells. Chapters 2 and 3 discuss concentrating solar power systems and passive and
active solar energy systems, respectively.
Simply stated, photovoltaic cells convert light energy into electrical energy. The electrical energy then can be used for a number of tasks, such as
pumping water for raising livestock, turning on lights, charging batteries
for solar racing cars and even go-karts, and heating and cooling a home.
Photovoltaics have so many uses that they already touch your life in some
way. However, to use solar cells eciently, you need to live in areas where
much sunlight is available throughout the year.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1839 the French physicist Edmond Becquerel observed that when certain materials absorbed light, the materials generated electricity. Becquerel also recorded that the amount of electricity varied with the intensity of the light. Despite
these early findings by Becquerel, photovoltaic research did not begin until the
late 1950s. NASA first used photovoltaics in 1958 to power the radio of the U.S.
Vanguard I space satellite with less than one watt of electricity.
Photovoltaic Solar Cells a 3
WHERE IS THE LARGEST SOLAR INSTALLATION

IN THE UNITED STATES?
The largest photovoltaic solar installation in the United States is located on
the Nellis Air Force Base outside Las Vegas, Nevada. This installation near
the airstrip is also one of the largest of its kind in the world. The large solar
panels, spread along a large land area, are designed to generate more than
30 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. Pivoting slightly during
the daylight hours, the solar panels never lose the location of the sun; they
are equipped with special tracking tools that move and turn the mounted
panels to follow the suns direction.
Presidential Visit to Nellis Air Force Base
President Barack Obama visited the Nellis Air Force base in 2009. About
the solar installation, with its 72,000 solar panels on 140 acres of land,
President Obama said,
Thats the equivalent of powering about 13,200 homes during the
day. Its a project that took about half a year to complete, created 200
President Barack Obama, Colonel

Dave Belote, and Senator Harry
Reid tour Nellis Air Force Base in
Nevada in May 2009. Nellis contains the largest array of photovoltaic solar panels in the Western
Hemisphere. The more than 72,000
solar panels are estimated to save
the base approximately $1 million a
year in energy costs. (U.S. Air Force
photo by Airman 1st Class Nadine Y.
Barclay)
jobs, and will save the U.S. Air Force, which is the largest consumer
of energy in the federal government, nearly $1 million a year. It will
also reduce harmful carbon pollution by 24,000 tons a year, which
is the equivalent of removing 4,000 cars from our roads. Most importantly, this base serves as a shining example of whats possible
when we harness the power of clean, renewable energy to build a new,
rmer foundation for economic growth.
HOW MUCH SOLAR ENERGY IS AVAILABLE
ACROSS THE UNITED STATES?
We all know that plenty of sunlight reaches Earth; however, it is distributed unevenly throughout the dierent regions of the world. For example,
if you live at the equator (0 latitude), you will receive more solar radiation
than someone living farther away in the southern or northern latitudes.
Additionally, in most places the amount of sunlight an area receives can
change during the seasons because of the rotation of Earths axis and its
orbit around the sun.
Lets look at one example. The amount of solar rays falling per square
yard in El Paso, Texas, in June is typically much greater than the amount of
suns rays falling on the same footage in Rutland, Vermont, in December.
How much sunlight reaches a region is also aected by the time of day, the
climate, and the cloud cover. Therefore, in the United States and in other
countries, the amount of energy that is available for solar power will vary
according to where you live.
To nd out how much solar energy is available in your state, see the U.S.
solar map in this chapter.
FEATURE
College Installs a Solar System
Chevron Energy Solutions is helping the Contra Costa Community College District
in Northern California to save energy and cut greenhouse gas emissions. The
3.2-megawatt solar system and other improvements make the colleges three campuses and district office more energy efficient. It is the largest solar power installation ever built at an institution of higher learning in North America.
To view a related video, go to http://www.willyoujoinus.com/commitment/whatwere
doing/wwd4/.
This map shows the amount of solar radiation received across the United
States during the month of June. Notice the sections of the United States that
receive the largest amount of radiation during this time. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy)
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOLAR ENERGY

The early Greeks and Romans used passive solar energy to warm up the
rooms in their homes. The Romans covered south-facing openings in the
inside walls with glass or other transparent materials to keep in the heat,
particularly during the winter months.
In the 1830s the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar box,
similar to todays solar oven, on a trip to Africa to cook his food during his
stay. Later in the 19th century, European scientists developed large coneshaped collectors that were used to boil ammonia for use in refrigeration
plants and for other products.
In the United States, John Ericsson did much research to harness solar
power. He designed the parabolic trough collector, which operates much
like the parabolic trough collectors we have today. (Parabolic trough collectors are discussed further in chapter 2.)
William Adams used mirrors and the energy of the sun to help power
a steam engine during the 1870s. His design, called the power tower concept, is still in use in the 21st century. (Solar power towers are discussed in
chapter 2.)
In the 1950s Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller, and Daryl Chaplin of
Bell Laboratories (now AT&T Labs) discovered the use of silicon as a
semiconductor. In the 21st century, Silicon, an element, is utilized as a

major ingredient in the production of solar cells and solar panels. In 1953
the same three scientists developed the rst silicon solar cell. The cell generated small measure of electric current. In the 1950s and 1960s, satellites
and spacecrafts used solar panels for electricity. In the early 21st century
the photovoltaic market is growing by 30 percent per year, as the costs of
manufacturing the cells decrease.
WHAT ARE SOME USES FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS?
According to research, about 40 percent of all photovoltaic cells sold are
used for producing electrical power for homes and for pumping water
in remote areas. About 35 percent of them are used in transmitting and
communication operations. Many lighthouses, oshore petroleum drilling
operations, highway signs, and radio and telephone transmitters are also
powered by solar panels.
WHAT MATERIALS ARE USED TO MAKE
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS?
Solar cells are made from many dierent semiconductors. A semiconductor is a material that has the properties of an insulator as well as those
of an excellent conductor. Some of the semiconductors used for making
solar cells include silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium diselenide, and
cadmium telluride. All of these materials are suited to the development of
solar cells to conduct electricity.
To view a video that provides an overview of the Center for Photovoltaics
and its research, go to http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_photovoltaics.html.
FEATURE
Solar-Powered Hong Kong Ferry Boats
In 2009 solar-powered boats in Hong Kong transported passengers across the
Hong Kong Harbor. According to reports, the four solar-powered ferries used about
75 percent solar power and 25 percent liquid petroleum gas, emitting half the
amount of carbon dioxide usually emitted by a typical ferry. According to the ferryboat operators, the ferries saved money in addition to reducing carbon dioxide
emissions.
CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS

Silicon (Si) is a semiconductor and the most common and important element in computer chip and solar technologies. It is a semimetallic, chemical element that crystallizes in a cubic shape similar to the pattern of a
diamond. Silicon crystals are found in sand and quartz and are used extensively in the manufacturing of solar cells.
How Do Solar Cells Work?
Most solar photovoltaic cells are made from two layers of crystalline silicon that have been chemically treated using a process called doping. The
doping process gives one silicon layer a negative charge (N) and the other
a positive charge (P). A solar cell is essentially a PN junction sandwiched
between two layers of semiconductor materials.
The process of producing electricity from a solar cell begins with sunlight.
When the particles of light strike a solar cell, they cause electrons to be ejected
from the silicon atoms. The electrons move freely from the negative layer to
the positive layer through metal terminals producing electricity. A four-inch
cell can produce about one watt of direct current. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Now how does the solar cell work? The process of producing electricity
from a solar cell begins with sunlight, which contains energy in the form of
photons or particles of light. When photons strike a solar cell, they cause
electrons to be ejected from the silicon atoms located near the junction.
An electron is a subatomic particle with a negative charge. The stream of
ejected electrons can move freely from the negative layer to the positive
layer through the metal terminals.
How much electricity is generated from a solar cell? The typical fourinch solar cell can produce about one watt of direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to sunlight. To generate more electricity, you need to
wire together many solar cells in a panel called a solar array that is encased
in a watertight container for weather protection. If you need to produce
a greater amount of electricity, then the panels, in turn, can be wired together. These kinds of solar panels are placed on the roofs of homes and
businesses to generate electricity.
A NEW GENERATION OF SOLAR CELLS
In 2010 many institutions and companies are developing, testing, and
manufacturing a new generation of solar cells. Traditional solar cells are
made from crystalline silicon, which has been in high demand, at times
FEATURE
Native American Tribes Provide Renewable Energy Workshops
Several Native American tribes are interested in renewable energy sources such
solar energy. One organization working with Native American communities is Solar
Energy International (SEI). The organization provides renewable energy training
and workshops and has been a partner with Honor the Earth (HTE), which provides
grant funding for renewable energy projects on native lands.
Native communities are often faced with the false choice of either developing
energy resources or protecting ecosystems. Solar power, like other renewables,
represents an opportunity to not have to choose one or the other, says Winona
LaDuke, executive director of HTE. Matt Harris, SEIs program coordinator, also
states that renewable energy can bring food, fuel, and economic security back
to tribal lands.
Would you like to know more about Solar Energy International? Go to their Web
site: http://www.solarenergy.org/.
DID YOU KNOW?

Silicon is the second most abundant element after oxygen. It makes up 25.7 percent
of Earths crust by mass.
resulting in a shortage of crystalline silicon supply throughout the world,

and which is a high-cost material to purchase. Therefore, the solar photovoltaic industry is researching and developing non-silicon-based technology, including thin-lm solar cells.
Thin-Film Solar Cells
Solar engineers refer to second-generation solar cells as thin-lm solar
cells. Materials used in the production of the thin lms include semiconductor materials, such as copper indium diselenide (CuInSe2 or CIS),
gallium arsenide, and cadmium telluride.
Engineer Steve Robbins displays a sheet of thin film solar cells at the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado, in March 2009.
Thin film solar panels are relatively low in cost and their flexible design makes
them highly adaptable. (John Moore/Getty Images)
The term thin lm refers not to the thinness of the lm, but to the
manufacturing process used to produce the solar cells. Thin-lm cells are
deposited in very thin, consecutive layers of atoms, molecules, or ions onto
wafer-like material. The nished solar cell is only a few micrometers or
nanometers thick.
Thick versus Thin: Any Differences?
Thin-lm cells have some advantages over the thick-lm silicon cells. For
example, less material is needed in the manufacturing of thin-lm cells.
A thin cell is usually only 110 micrometers thick, whereas thick crystalline lms typically are 100300 micrometers thick and have to be cut from
ribbons.
Also, thin-lm cells can usually be manufactured in a continuous, automated production process. Automated processes can assure improved
product quality, lower operating costs, and better safety conditions. Finally,
the thin-lm cells can be deposited on exible materials such as ultra thin
glass, stainless steel, or plastic in any shape. Because of their exibility,
thin-lm solar cells can be used as rooftop shingles, on the exterior part of
a building or facade, or in the glazing for skylights.
How Do Thin-Film Solar Cells Produce Electricity?
Under a microscope the thin-lm cells have two layers sandwiched together. The top layer is made of a dierent semiconductor material than
the material used for the bottom semiconductor layer. The top layer is
called an N-typethe negative charge. Chemicals in this layer allow the
sunlight through to the absorbing layer, called the P-typethe positive
charge. When the sunlight passes through a conducting chemical on the
surface, the sunlight makes contact with a series of chemicals (i.e., indium,
copper, gallium, and diselenide) that allow electrons to ow through a wire
to create electricity from the N-type and P-type.
DID YOU KNOW?

A nanometer (nm) is an SI unit of 10-9 meters, or one-billionth of a meter. At this
scale, we are talking about the size of atoms and molecules. The width of your nail
on your little finger is about 10 million nanometers across.
DEVELOPMENT OF NON-SILICON-BASED TECHNOLOGIES

In the early 21st century, more and more global companies are conducting
thin-lm research and technology. One solar research group reported that
the global solar market could grow from $13 billion to $32 billion by 2012.
During this time, the thin-lm market would expand by approximately
45 percent a year. In 2010 the thin-lm market makes up only about
10 percent of the solar market, but it is growing fast.
DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL TECHNOLOGY
Dyes are commonly used to color materials. The early Romans used dyes
to color hair. Dyes can be extracted from a variety of objects such as leaves,
owers, berries, and the roots of plants. Now they can be used to make
solar cells.
In the 1990s Michael Grtzel invented the dye-sensitized solar cell.
These unique cells have the potential to be a low-cost and environmental
friendly alternative to expensive silicon solar cells. The dye-sensitized
cells imitate the way that plants and certain algae convert sunlight into
energya process more commonly called photosynthesis. Using this
technology, the cells are manufactured on a porous lm that is comprised of tiny (nanometer-sized) white pigment particles made from titanium dioxide. These pigment particles are covered with a layer of dye
and are immersed in an electrolyte solution, a chemical that can make a
FEATURE
Pet Owners Build Solar-Powered Doghouses
Some pet owners are building solar-powered doghouses. Solar doghouses are
designed to capture the suns warmth in the winter and to reflect sunlight in the
summer for cooling.
In 2002 the Florida Solar Energy Center team won an Orlando Science Center
contest for its most scientifically designed dog house by building the K-9 Comfort
Cottage. The teams doghouse utilized solar energy and design and building strategies. According to the Florida Solar Energy Center, photovoltaic sheets were used
for the sides, and three other solar panels were built on a white reflective roof. The
solar panels powered a dog porch light, a ventilation fan, and an overhead ceiling
fan. The K-9 Comfort Cottage was designed for a hot, humid climate, but the team
also provided solar doghouse plans for use in cold climates.
An employee of Sony Corporation,

a leading manufacturer of electronics and video, displays a prototype
model of the dye-sensitized solar
cell. The cell generates a maximum
power of 3040mmW to sound a
Walkman digital audio player. The
Sony dye-sensitized solar power
cell is flexible and made of a lightweight film. The background stained
glass window is made of a solar
power cell. (Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/
Getty Images)
substance electrically conductive. When solar radiation strikes the dye,

it produces a negative charge in the pigment particles and a positive
charge into the electrolyte, resulting in the conversion of sunlight into
electrical energy in an electrical circuit.
Dye-sensitized cells are inexpensive and easy to manufacture into exible sheets or even coatings. Another benet with these kinds of cells is
that they can withstand long exposures to light and heat compared with
traditional silicon-based solar cells. Dye-sensitized cells have shown a sunlight conversion eciency of about 10 percent; still less than the eciency
of silicon cell technology.
A drawback to the dye-sensitized cell technology is the electrolyte solution, which is made of volatile organic solvents and must be carefully
sealed. However, research is being conducted to resolve this problem.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS COME IN MANY
SIZES AND SHAPES
Photovoltaic cells come in many sizes and shapesfrom smaller than a
postage stamp to several inches across. Each cell is capable of producing
one to two watts of power. Although this is not enough to power most
appliances, cells can be linked together in modules. Modules store photovoltaic cells in a weatherproof container and may be up to several feet
long and a few feet wide. Depending on how much energy is needed, the
modules can also be linked together to provide higher voltages. Photovoltaic power plants use a few thousand modules to generate electricity
for household or business uses. Because photovoltaic systems come in
small and large sizes and shapes, they are able to meet almost any electric power need, whether in a small house or in a large community of
homes.
The modules, in turn, can be combined and connected to form photovoltaic arrays of dierent sizes and power output. These kinds of arrays can
be seen on the Nellis Air Force Base and on large solar farms.
Power of a Solar Array
Electrical power is measured in watts. A watt is a measurement of total
electrical power: Volts Amps Watts. For electrical power, one watt is
equal to one ampere of current per second.
The power output of a single solar cell or an array of solar cells can be
measured in watts, watt-hours, kilowatt-hours, kilowatt-hours per day, or
even megawatts. A megawatt will produce electricity for 400900 homes
per year. Utility power plants usually measure their output in megawatts.
The megawatt is equal to one million watts, or 106 watts.
SOLAR STORAGE
The biggest problem of solar power technologies is how to store the power
generated for those times when sunlight is unavailable. Currently, most
FEATURE
Making Solar Cells from Fruits
Did you know that you could use fruits for making solar cells? Well, you can. In a
research study, several students at Rowan University (Glassboro, NJ) are using
fruit such as blackberries, blueberries, oranges, and grapes to produce solar energy. The students process the dye from the fruit to create solar cells. The dye is
placed on a conductive glass. This special glass has the property to conduct electricity. The glass is then coated with a film of titanium dioxide, a material found in
several products, including toothpaste and white paint. The titanium dioxide bonds
the dye to the glass. Finally, the researchers add a special electrolyte to the dye
on the glass. When the sunlight strikes the dye on the glass, a chemical reaction
takes place, causing the electrons to travel in a circuit to produce a tiny electric
current.
FEATURE
Buckley Air Force Base
The Buckley Air Force Base is the first site in the Air Force Space Command to
go solar. The base has already installed two small solar-power arrays. In 2009 the
Buckley Air Force Air Base/460th Space Wing planned an additional 5,040 solar
panels that, when completed, will cover six acres and generate up to 1.2 megawatts of electricity. The solar array will generate about 5 percent of Buckleys electricity when it is operating at full capacity.
solar power plants do not have the capability to store excess energy from
sunny days to be used on cloudy days. One option is to use a storage battery bank that will collect and store power anytime the system is producing
more energy than is needed.
Photovoltaic to Battery Storage
A storage battery is an excellent system for supplying electricity when and
where it is needed on non-sunny days when solar power is not available.
Photovoltaic systems with a backup battery storage unit are used to provide electricity for power tools, lights, home appliances, telephones, and
televisions. Photovoltaic/battery systems work well in remote areas where
utility power is unavailable or at a distance that is so far away that it would
be too costly to install utility transmission lines to a building.
Although batteries make photovoltaic systems more useful, they also
require some maintenance. The batteries used in photovoltaic systems are
referred to as deep-cycling batteries, the kinds that are used on many golf
carts. The batteries are bigger than the typical car battery. These kinds of
batteries allow more stored energy for use each day.
Batteries designed for photovoltaic projects need to be handled with
care. The uid needs to be checked in unsealed batteries periodically, and
batteries must be protected from extremely cold weather.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CONNECTIONS TO A UTILITY
GRID AND NET METERING
Although some homeowners have only a photovoltaic system attached to
their home, many solar-powered homes and businesses are connected to
A battery-based storage system is a simple and quiet option for emergency

backup power for a home or business during electrical power outages. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
transmission power lines outside their homes and businesses. The transmission lines are part of a grid system owned by a utility company. Using
grid-connected photovoltaic power can have economic as well as environmental advantages for the homeowner.
Because such homeowners are using much of their electricity from their
own photovoltaic system, the amount of electricity they have to purchase
from the utility company each month is reduced. In this cooperative arrangement, the homeowners get some of their power from their photovoltaic systems and some from the utility companys grid.
What Is Net Metering?
Net metering is a simple way of metering the energy consumed and produced at a home or business that has its own renewable energy generator,
such as a solar energy system.
Net metering enables homeowners to use their own generation of
electricity to oset their consumption over a billing period by allowing
their electric meters to turn backward when they generate electricity in
excess of their demand. This program means that customers receive retail
prices from their electrical utility company for the excess electricity they
Some of the largest solar photovoltaic power plants are located in Canada,
Spain, Germany, and in Florida in the United States. This illustration presents
a brief explanation of how these power plants produce electricity. (Illustrator:
Jeff Dixon)
generate. A retail price is the price at which a utility company sells the
electrical power to a homeowner or other consumer.
Without net metering, a second meter is usually installed to measure
the electricity that ows back to the provider, a utility company that purchases the power at a rate much lower than the retail rate. As of 2010, net
metering for homeowners is available in 42 states.
U.S. SCHOOLS USING SOLAR ENERGY
According to Vicki Mastaitis of the Interstate Renewable Energy Coalition, in 2010 more than 400 schools in the United States have photovoltaic
systems on their buildings. The typical grid-tied photovoltaic system installed in a school is one or two kilowatts. These systems function primarily
as demonstration systems to promote solar energy.
Some schools have solar arrays that can produce between four and
eight kilowatt-hours daily. This is enough power to run 10 computers and
printers. In some cases, schools have installed photovoltaic systems as large

as 100 kilowatts, which make a more signicant contribution to reducing
the buildings overall electric load.
Organizations such as the U.S. Department of Energy, NASA, and
the National Science Teachers Association are developing instructional
resource materials and holding conferences on solar energy. Several utility companies in 25 states now sponsor some kind of school solar energy
program.
California
The Athenian School in Danville, California, is planning to install a
220-kilowatt photovoltaic system. The solar-powered system, when in operation, will supply approximately 50 percent of the schools annual electricity and will include 1,300 ground-mounted solar panels installed on
the school grounds.
The San Domenico School in Northern California has installed a 412kilowatt solar energy system. The new solar energy system is expected to
save about 85 percent of the schools electricity costs and reduce their carbon emissions.
New York
A. A. Kingston Middle School in Potsdam, New York, has installed a photovoltaic system that includes solar panels and an inverter that converts
the DC power from the solar array to alternating current (AC) power
needed for school uses. The system also has a data collection system and
a monitoring system. Special electronic sensors measure electricity as well
as weather data such as air temperature, wind speed, and solar radiation.
The photovoltaic and data acquisition system provides a learning energy
environment for students and teachers.
SOLAR CITIES THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
Besides U.S. school districts, a number of cities are working on solar energy
programs for their communities. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
selected 13 Solar America Cities in June 2007 and an additional 12 cities
in March 2008 to help lay the foundation for a solar energy program that
can serve as a model for cities around the nation. The DOE used a special
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Tom Traeger, High School Science Teacher, La Canada High
School in Southern California
Go-Green Project: The Installation of Solar Panels on Schools Roof
Describe your teaching assignment.
I currently teach earth sciences to grades 912 at La Canada High School in Southern California. I have two levels that I teach. One is earth science for 9th graders,
and the other course is geology for grades 1012. Geology is a capstone course
and is more academically rigorous, given that it receives University of California
lab science credit.
I grew up in La Crescenta, California, and I graduated from Crescenta Valley High
School in 1989. I then attended Glendale Community College and got an associates
Tom Traeger of La Caada High School in Southern California poses next to

the 1.38 kilowatt SunPower solar array on the roof of the schools Information Resource Center. This solar lab was purchased with funding from the
BP Corporations A+ for Energy grant in 2008. The BP Corporation, personal
donations from parent Mel Woods and the schools Green Club, and installation work contributed by Phat Energy of La Crescenta, California, made
this project possible. (Photo by Sheila Paccone)
degree in aviation and transportation-pilot training. Later on, I attended University

of California, Santa Barbara, and received my teaching credentials in geosciences
and physics, along with a masters in education.
school?
My high school activities were nonexistent because I needed to work from age 16
on. I would have to say that my favorite subject in high school was auto shop because it was hands-on. I was not an academic in high school, and my grade point
average upon leaving high school was average at best. This warranted attending a
community college before getting my bachelors degree.
I took a course at community college in physical geography. I discovered that
I really liked the subject. I then aspired to be a professional pilot and took numerous
courses toward an associates degree in aviation. I worked full-time at the Burbank
Airport for a small cargo airline until I transferred to UC Santa Barbara in 1997.
I majored in physical geography. I had no idea what I would do when I left college.
I saw an advertisement for a fellowship in math and science teaching during my
senior year in college and became involved in a program that gave me experience
with teaching in a local junior high school.
Describe the project or program.
This project focuses on school and public awareness concerning the need to pursue alternative energy resources such as solar power. With BPs help, I intended
to implement the installation of a one-kilowatt array of photovoltaic cells on our
school roof. This was a central point on campus where information about solar
energy was conveyed to observers through a control unit. I taught lessons on
solar energy and the variables that affect sun angle and atmospheric conditions in
my earth science classes. Lessons on the electromagnetic spectrum, electricity,
and magnetism were taught to physics classes.
This project was also a joint collaboration with our schools environmental science Green Club. The Green Club is a group of highly motivated students who are
interested in making our world a healthy and sustainable place to live. As such,
they are motivated to educate people about alternative energy resources, such as
solar power.
In our display area, we had raw data on display, such as how much power is
being produced at given times of the day. A display about the basic structure of
the sun and electromagnetic radiation also accompanied the display. The science
of photovoltaic cells was on the display, highlighting the anthropogenic emissions
of greenhouse gases and how much the photovoltaic arrays save with respect to
greenhouse gas emissions. Through an ongoing project that will benefit the school
for years to come, students, staff, and community members will have a better understanding of the role that solar power can play in their lives.
The monetary cost savings and the environmental savings with respect to
greenhouse emissions were discussed with all groups. It was the intent of this
project to raise awareness that we can all make a difference with respect to
lowering energy consumption and increasing energy conservation. A focus on the

differences between renewable and nonrenewable energy was addressed.
A student from our schools Green Club came to me because he had heard that
I had previously secured another BP grant in 2006. He had heard that BP was giving
$10,000 grants to teachers who developed programs to teach about energy concepts, and he asked me to write a grant to obtain solar panels for our school. It was
this students enthusiasm that prompted me to write the grant, given that I have always been a proponent of renewable energy, especially solar. In other words, I had
thought about writing another BP grant for solar energy, but it was this students
enthusiasm that forced me to actually go through with it.
This project is of utmost importance in a world that is facing $20 per gallon gasoline, as some estimates predict will occur within the next 20 years. It comes on
the crest of the Obama administrations push to free the United States from dependence on foreign sources of petroleum. It also educates people on the need to
address climate change by shifting our energy needs to sustainable carbon-free
sources of renewable energy.
BPs web site was very helpful for outlining the cost analysis for the solar panels. We
also used a few of the carbon calculation web sites to show students how much carbon their households produce in a given year. The National Renewable Energy Labs
web site was also very helpful for giving background on photovoltaics and the output
that could be expected, through their online application known as PV Watts.
One aspect of our project that will be coming online this year is a logging program
that will be able to show in real time the current energy production of our solar
panels. The program, known as the Phat Logger, taps into the inverter to give
cumulative data on energy production as time-series data that will be downloadable from the Internet. Any teacher anywhere will be able to use our solar panels
inverters data at any time.
Discuss some of the students contributions to this project.
Our project got off to a slow start as a result of some bureaucratic paperwork issues between the school district, the solar retailer, and the local energy company.
It took us six months to overcome the paperwork issues so that we could finally
turn on the panels. Students from the Green Club worked with the installer during
the initial site selection for the panels. The Green Club then designed a display to
go in our Information Resource Centers display case to educate the public about
solar energy and the solar panels that were installed on the roof of the Information
Resource Center.

Because of the unforeseen paperwork issues, our project took over a year to come
to fruition. I will be implementing the intended learning exercises in my own class
this coming school year, and I would be happy to share the results of these activities at a later date.
I have thought about expanding the project to include wind energy. I would like to
install a wind turbine or turbines on our schools roof to show students other forms
of renewable energy. This would be quite difficult to accomplish because I have
found out from this project that making any modifications to buildings or structures
requires a series of inspections and approvals from government agencies that
leave a frustrating bureaucratic paper trail. As such, I may write a grant to obtain a
school-wide site license for astronomy software that will allow students to predict
and plot the suns path throughout the year. I would also like to expand on my 2006
project to start having students take aerosol atmosphere optical thickness data to
help them explore the atmospheric parameters that control the amount of sunlight
reaching the solar panels.
selection process for choosing the 25 Solar America Cities, which had to
have a population of 100,000 people or more and needed to demonstrate
their commitment to citywide adoption of solar energy.
The Solar America Cities have several goals, including
integrating solar technology into city energy planning

streamlining city-level regulations and practices
promoting solar technology among residents and local businesses
serving as a model for other cities interested in promoting the use of
solar energy technologies
Some of the 25 cities committed to solar energy technologies that were

selected by the Department of Energy included Ann Arbor, Michigan;
Salt Lake City, Utah; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Berkeley, California; Boston, Massachusetts; Denver, Colorado; Knoxville, Tennessee; Milwaukee,
Wisconsin; New Orleans, Louisiana; San Francisco, California; Tucson,
Arizona; New York, New York; and Houston, Texas.
U.S. SOLAR ENERGY PROJECTS IN THE NEWS
Besides the several large cities committed to solar technologies, there are
also a number of U.S. states planning and installing solar energy projects.
Here are just of few of them.
Florida: In the fall of 2009, President Obama visited the DeSoto Next
Generation Solar Energy Center in DeSoto County, Florida. The solar
plant, located in the southwest area of Florida, has more than 90,500 photovoltaic cells that can generate 40,000 megawatts of electricity. The new
center can supply enough power to serve about 3,000 homes yearly.
The DeSoto solar plant is now the largest solar photovoltaic plant in
the country. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
Florida facility will prevent the emission of more than 500,000 tons of
greenhouse gases over a 30-year period.
Florida Power & Light and a land developer are planning to build a
solar-powered city called the Babcock Ranch. The solar facility is being
built near Fort Myers, Florida, and the 17,000-acre community will include 20,000 homes, small shops, and oces. All of the electricity for the
community will come from a 75-megawatt power plant.
California: In 2009 First Solar, Inc., and NRG Energy, Inc., wholesale power generation companies, announced the start of what will be
the largest photovoltaic solar project in California. The solar energy plant
The Desoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center in Arcadia, Florida, uses
more than 90,000 photovoltaic panels to turn the suns rays into electrical
power for more than 3,000 homes. (AP Photo/Christine Armario)
will be located in Blythe, a few hundred miles east of Los Angeles, and
when in operation, the solar plant will supply electricity for almost 17,000
homes.
The city of Berkeley, California, has established a program that helps
city residents nance their solar installations. The program allows homeowners who select and purchase a solar installation for their home to get a
payback. Payback will be the prot from homeowners investments equal
to the initial costs of their system in less than ve years. Californias goal
for 2010 was to have 20 percent of its electricity come from renewable
sources, with a goal of 33 percent by 2020.
Massachusetts: A Massachusetts electric power utility company has purchased land in Pittseld to develop a solar plant. When in operation, the
1.8-megawatt solar plant will generate enough electricity to provide heat
for approximately 1,800 homes.
Missouri: The voters in Missouri passed a law calling for 15 percent of
the states electricity to come from renewable sources by 2021. Of this
percentage, 2 percent of the states total electricity consumption must be
generated by solar power by 2021.
Ohio: Ohio ocials have a solar plan that is expected to result in 820
megawatts of solar capacity by 2024. The states goal is to receive 20 percent of its electricity from renewable sources by 2022, including 2 percent
from solar.
SOLAR FARMS FOR THE SOUTHWESTERN STATES
The United States has 250,000 square miles of land in the southwestern states with the potential for solar energy projects such as solar power
plants. This amount of land, according to government studies, is more than
enough for large solar installations without the need to disturb environmentally sensitive areas and population centers.
Many energy developers and state governments in the Southwest are
interested in developing solar projects in this area of the United States.
Huge tracts of land, many square miles, would need to be covered with
solar photovoltaic panels. Much of this land would be available for solar
installations because the land is not privately owned; it is public state land.
For example, more than 80 percent of the land area in Arizona is publicly
owned. So acquiring the land would not be a major drawback or issue for
large installations of solar power energy in the Southwest.
GLOBAL PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY LEADERS

The European and Asian photovoltaic markets are consistently growing,
led by China, Spain, and Germany. Following is a review of some of the
global photovoltaic technology leaders.
China
As of 2010 China is the leading manufacturer of solar cells in the
world. China claims to have more than 400 photovoltaic companies and
manufacturesapproximately 18 percent of photovoltaic products worldwide. In 2007 China produced nearly half of the worlds production of solar
panels, which were mostly exported to other countries. At home, China
has installed about 80 megawatts of photovoltaics. Also, home-installed
solar water-heating units are used extensively throughout the country.
Spain
Spain is a major country investing in and installing solar energy. According
to a draft of a report released by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for
the 21st Century (REN21), Spain now leads the world in added photovoltaic capacity. According to the report, Spain added 1.7 million kilowatts of
capacity in 2008, followed by Germany at 1.5 million kilowatts.
Throughout the country, there are several photovoltaic power plants.
One of Spains earliest went into operation in September 2007 in the town
of Beneixama. The 20-megawatt photovoltaic power plant produces electricity to supply 12,000 nearby homes.
However, the countrys largest photovoltaic plant is the Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park in Olmedilla de Alarcn. Built in 2008, the solar plant uses
more than 162,000 solar at photovoltaic panels to generate 60 megawatts,
which is enough electricity to power more than 40,000 homes.
Another large photovoltaic plant is the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park,
which generates 50 megawatts, enough electricity for the household needs
of 40,000 homes.
Spain also has invested in concentrating solar power technologies, such
as solar towers. This type of solar technology is discussed further in chapter 2.
Germany
There are now more than 300,000 buildings with photovoltaic systems in
Germany. One of the largest solar parks in Germany is in Bavaria. This
People visit the Santa Coloma de Gramenet cemetery outside Barcelona, Spain.
The city council installed 462 solar panels high above the tops of the grave
sites. The energy panels produce enough yearly energy to power 60 homes.
(AP Photo/Manu Fernandez)
facility is a ground-mounted 50-megawatt photovoltaic unit that can generate enough electricity for 15,000 homes.
Another facility is the Waldpolenz Solar Park, installed east of Leipzig
in Germany. This plant, consisting of more than 500,000 thin-lm solar
panels, generates 40 megawatts of electricity, enough power for the needs
of 40,000 households.
Australia
As of 2010, the Australians are planning to build a super 154-megawatt
photovoltaic solar power station in Victoria. If all goes well, the solar
power station will be the biggest photovoltaic power station in the world.
The plans call for the power station project to generate electricity for more
than 40,000 homes.
Japan
Many home solar systems have been installed in Japan. Solar-powered
units rated at three kilowatts are common, but newer systems of more
than ve kilowatts are beginning to be installed. These solar systems are

used not only in homes but also in businesses, lighthouses, and remote
areas. The Japanese governments goal is to have 30 percent of all households using solar panels by 2030. If the goal is accomplished, the number of solar-powered households in Japan will increase to approximately
14 million.
Africa
Most areas in South Africa can average more than 2,500 hours of sunshine
per year. This amount of solar radiation is ideal for solar installations in
many African locations. Kenya is one of the worlds leaders in the number
of solar power systems installed per capita.
Other Nations
Brazil, Italy, Korea, India, Taiwan, and Saudi Arabia are developing solar
energy projects as well. In all, more than 80 countries are making plans to
use solar energy as part of their renewable energy portfolios, which also
include wind, biofuels, geothermal energy, tidal power, and wave power.
BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is renewable, reliable, and completely silent, and it is more
environmentally friendly than fossil fuels. Solar cells do not release any
emissions into the air. Because there are no moving parts, solar panels can
generate electricity for thousands of hours with little or no maintenance.
As mentioned previously, solar panels in the home can be tied into
a utility companys grid system or be completely self-sucient. Homeowners can also sell excess electricity to most power utility companies,
who will buy or credit the homeowners for the extra electricity they are
producing.
DID YOU KNOW?

The Sharp Corp. and other Japanese manufacturers produce solar power equipment, most of which is sold to countries overseas.
FEATURE
Japans Ships Are Going Solar Too
In 2008 the Auriga Leader, the worlds first cargo ship assisted by some solar power,
took to the seas in Japan. The huge cargo ship is equipped with 328 solar panels.
The Auriga Leader is capable of carrying 6,400 automobiles. Company officials said
the 60,213-ton, 660-foot-long ship is the first large vessel in the world with a solarbased propulsion system.
The German government has encouraged many citizens to install solar panels
for their homes, businesses, and farms. Germany plans to produce 30 percent of
its electricity from renewable sources by 2020. (Otmar Smit/Dreamstime.com)
LIMITING FACTORS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Some limiting factors in using solar energy technologies include the
following:
1. Solar power does not work during overcast weather or at night. For
backup storage, batteries are expensive and can be inecient, and
because of this there is a need for alternative storage systems for solar
power.
2. The nations electrical grid system, particularly in the western states

and in the Southwest, does not have the capacity to distribute large
amounts of electricity from solar energy plants. Many of the existing transmission power lines are not in the right location. Some are
located in isolated areas that are spread out too far away from large
power plants.
Energy Storage Systems
To tackle the storage problem, scientists are looking at various alternative
energy storage systems. One kind is the compressed-air energy storage
system.
Compressed-air energy storage has a lot of potential. How does it work?
The electricity from the photovoltaic plant can be used to compress large
amounts of air and then pump it into underground caverns, abandoned
mines, aquifers, and depleted natural gas wells. On a less sunny day, the
pressurized air in the cavern is released, and the high-powered gas is utilized to turn a turbine that generates electricity. Compressed-air energy
storage plants have been operating very well in Huntorf, Germany, since
1978 and in a McIntosh, Alabama, plant since 1991.
Another kind of energy storage system is the molten salt program,
which is featured in chapter 2.
Transmission for Renewable Energy Resources
Many energy experts agree that the United States lacks a modern interstate
transmission grid to deliver renewable sources of electricity to consumers
in highly populated areas of the country. These experts believe that if the
country is going to achieve more clean energy sources from solar power in
the future years, then new investments are needed to improve and update
the transmission infrastructure. Inadequate transmission lines are a problem for the wind, hydropower, and geothermal industries as well.
Installing new grids will not be easy. Distributing solar power (and
wind power too) to remote areas will require adding many transmission
gridlines. The existing U.S. transmission grid stretches out to more than
164,000 miles of transmission lines, but more up-to-date transmission
lines are needed.
The current transmission grid system of low-voltage AC lines also loses
too much energy over extended distances. One answer to this problem is to
U.S. Power Transmission Grid. The national transmission grid is a network of

approximately 180,000 miles of high voltage transmission lines, transferring
electrical energy from power plants to substations and then to homes and
businesses. The lines are operated by several power companies. (Source:
Federal Emergency Management Agency)
include a new high-voltage, direct-current (HVDC) power transmission

grid in any future plans. Studies by Oak Ridge National Laboratory conclude that long-distance HVDC lines lose far less energy than AC lines
do over equivalent spans. In summary, if the United States is planning to
double the production of renewable energy sources in another decade or
so, much investment is needed to upgrade the existing transmission grid.
For Some, No Large Solar Energy Land Projects
There are some environmentalists who oppose constructing large-scale
solar and even wind projects on undeveloped land. They propose that
solar and wind power should be developed in the urban areas that need
the power or on land that has already been degraded, such as brownelds
or old mine sites. Their vision is one of solar rooftops rather than large
tracts of desert land turned into huge solar or wind power production
facilities.
FEATURE
Photovoltaic Panel Disposal and Recycling
One environmental issue associated with solar power is that some toxic chemicals
are used in the manufacturing of photovoltaic panels. Another issue is the disposal
of them at the end of their usefulness. As of 2010 only a small number of photovoltaic panels are disposed of each year, so it is currently a minor issue. However, the
industry is already looking ahead toward recycling methods and plans for future
photovoltaic panels.
ECONOMICS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Global installations of solar photovoltaic projects reached approximately
6.0 gigawatts in 2008, during which time Europe accounted for 82 percent
of world demand. As mentioned previously, China, Germany, Spain, and
the United States are major leaders in the solar energy marketplace. There
is also rapid growth in Korea, Italy, and Japan. In fact, in 2008, 81 countries
contributed to the world market of photovoltaic systems.
According to the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
solar power productions costs can be reduced by 20 percent every time the
demand for solar cells doubles. In other words, product costs come down
when production increases because of more demand for the product.
As an example, commercial demands for solar cells in the United States
have been increasing at a rate of 25 percent a year. Such lower cost estimates, if accurate, show that solar power could be a competitive source of
power to the U.S. grid. However, some energy experts believe that without
government leadership and subsidies, it will take much longer for the process of changemaybe as long as 50 years or so.
THE FUTURE OF PHOTOVOLTAICS: WILL IT BE
THE MAJOR GLOBAL INDUSTRY OF THE CENTURY?
According to economists, the photovoltaic industry continues to be poised
for signicant growth. They report that large manufacturers of photovoltaics are reducing costs and at the same time increasing volume, which can in
turn stimulate demand from customers. The price per watt of solar panels
increased starting in 2003 because the supplies of silicon were limited. Silicon, which is obtained from quartz, accounts for as much as 30 percent of
the cost of a making a solar panel. In 2003 the price of a kilogram of silicon
used for solar cells was less than $30. By 2007 the price had increased substantially to $400 per kilogram. As a result, the silicon shortages raised prices
of photovoltaic solar cells. However, since 2007 the average price per watt of
solar panels has been dropping. One reason is that the processing and manufacturing of the cells have become more ecient. Most economists agree
that the solar prices will continue to drop. If so, then the photovoltaic industry may likely be the major growth industry for the next several decades.
Forsyth, T. L., M. Pedden, and T. Gagliano. The Eects of Net Metering on
the Use of Small-Scale Wind Systems in the United States. Golden, CO:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2002. NREL/TP-50032471.
According to the Prometheus Institute, the price per watt of solar panels is
dropping after several years of rising costs. (Source: Prometheus Institute)
DID YOU KNOW?

The Solar America Initiative (SAI) has a goal of making solar electricity from photovoltaic cost-competitive with conventional grid electricity by 2015. SAI works to
achieve the goal of lower-cost solar energy through partnerships between the U.S.
Department of Energy and industry; universities; federal, state, and local governments; and nongovernmental agencies.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Hesse, P. Connecting a Small-Scale Renewable Energy System to an Electric
Transmission System. Golden, CO: Energy Eciency and Renewable
Energy Clearinghouse, 2000.
Starrs, T. Net Metering: New Opportunities for Home Power. Washington,
D.C.: Renewable Energy Policy Project, 1996.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Find out how Nellis Air Force Base near Las Vegas uses a solar
array to power the base and some surrounding communities. Taking
environment and structures around you into consideration, explore
whether your community could do something similar.
2. Go to the following Web site to learn more about how U.S. communities are going green: http://solaramericacommunities.energy.gov.
Design and write a brochure that describes how one city is realizing
the benets of solar energy.
3. If you like to experiment and invent things, take a look at the inventions these students did for some interesting ideas: http//www.
popsci.com/winners.
4. Obtain a solar cell from an old calculator or toy. Connect the solar
cell to a digital multimeter, which will read in volts and in amps. The
output of the solar cell will be about one volt. Place the solar cell and
multimeter in various amounts of light, such as near a window and in
other places around a room with varying light intensity. Record the
voltages. Do the same outdoors. Record the readings. Using both sets
of readings, determine how many solar cells it would take to power a
six-volt remote control car inside and out.
WEB SITES
www.un.org/pubs
The United Nations online publication The Promise of Solar Energy describes solar energy technology as one of the least carbonintensive means of electricity generation. This technology can help
mitigate climate change while stimulating economies and creating

employment opportunities and more secure grid systems.
www.solarenergy.org
The International Solar Energy Society is a global organization dedicated to the advancement and utilization of solar energy.
www.discoversolarenergy.com
Discover Solar Energy is a comprehensive resource with thousands
of links to solar energy information.
http://www.ases.org
The American Solar Energy Society was established in 1954
and is the nations leading association of solar professionals and
advocates.
http://www.borregosolar.com/.
Borrego Solar Systems, Inc., specializes in commercial and publicsector turnkey, grid-connected solar electric systems, with more than
25 years of experience and a portfolio of more than 1,000 solar photovoltaic projects.
http://wakondatech.com
Wakonda Technologies is a manufacturer in Fairport, New York, that
produces thin-lm solar cells.
http://prismsolar.com.
Prism Solar Technologies is a developer in Lake Karine, New York,
of holographic solar concentrators that can concentrate light into a
photovoltaic to generate more electricity and less waste heat.
http://www.yestermorrow.org/.
Yestermorrow Design/Build School is a design studio in Warren,
Vermont, oering more than 150 hands-on courses per year in design, construction, woodworking, and architectural craft and other
courses that concentrate in sustainable design.
www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/education
The Florida Solar Energy Center provides solar energy units for
grades K12 and oers lesson plans as well.
www.globallearningnj.org/Solar1.htm
Located in New Jersey, Global Learning, Inc., has compiled many lessons and units for exploring solar energy. Topics range from schools
using solar energy to ideas for science projects.
www.nrel.gov/csp/maps.html
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) provides a variety of maps showing solar intensity in the United States.
VIDEOS
understanding of energy topics and issues. The author has made a consistent eort to include up-to-date Web sites; however, over time, some Web
sites may move or no longer be available. Viewing some of these videos
may require special software called plug-ins. Therefore, you may need to
download that software to view the videos. You also may need to upgrade
your player to the most current version.
History of Solar Power: To read about the Brief History of Solar
Power, go to http://www.ideamarketers.com/?articleid=521314. Alter
natively, view a video narrated by John Schaeer, a solar power/
renewable energy pioneer: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHC
mLpOtD9c&feature=channel (00:53 seconds).
Photovoltaic TechnologiesIntroduction: This one-minute video
from the U.S. Department of Energy describes how a solar panel
converts sunlight into electricity: http://www.freecleansolar.com/
solarpanelvideolibrary.php.
Photovoltaic TechnologiesMaking and Testing Solar Panels:
A Discovery Channel video on solar panels: http://go-solar.org/
how-solar-panels-are-made-video (04:36 minutes).
Photovoltaic TechnologiesPN laminates (Household Uses): Installing clean, reliable, ination-proof solar power is easier than ever;
to learn more about the process, history, application, and energy
conversion, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYJe12X6T50
(02:05 minutes).
Solar Energy (Active) United Arab EmiratesSolar Islands: Sponsored by Switzerland, the United Aram Emirates have just nished a prototype of a solar island made of thermal modules that
tracks the sun and is projected to generate one gigawatt of energy.
Watch the animated promotional videohttp://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=D1XyR3YOVZQ (02:46 minutes)and read the article:
http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/981/.
Active Solar Water Heaters: A short animated video using schematics
to describe how an active solar water-heating system works. For more,
go to http://www.engineering.com/Videos/VideoPlayer/tabid/4627/
VideoId/648/Active-Solar-Water-Heater.aspx (01:50 minutes).
Chapter 2
Concentrating
Solar Power
According to a timeline developed by the Department of Energy, as early

as 212 BC, the Greek scientist, Archimedes, used the reective properties
of bronze shields to focus sunlight and to set re to wooden ships from
the Roman Empire which were besieging Syracuse. (Although no proof
of such a feat exists, the Greek navy recreated the experiment in 1973 and
successfully set re to a wooden boat at a distance of 50 meters.) Archimedess use of the reective properties of materials to focus sunlight on a
target is very similar to the concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies
we use in the 21st century.
This chapter discusses the dierent kinds of CSP technologies. Concentrating solar power technologies use heliostats. Heliostats are mechanical
devices that include special mirrors that move and turn so as to keep reecting concentrated sunlight toward a target, such as a receiver, where the
solar energy is converted to heat. This heat energy then is used to produce
steam that powers a steam turbine or heat engine to generate electricity. The
Department of Energy states that concentrating solar power can be a major
contributor to solving our nations energy problems now and in the future.
Unlike solar photovoltaics, which can generate electricity from often
scattered and diused sunlight, CSP needs desert-like conditions with
bright, daily hours of a lot of sunlight. The inland areas of Australia,
the southwestern deserts of the United States, the Sahara desert of
North Africa, and the southern part of Spain are considered some of the
worlds best locations for installing CSP plants.
THREE KINDS OF CONCENTRATING
SOLAR POWER
Concentrating solar power technologies use heliostats to reect and focus
sunlight onto a receiver. As mentioned previously, the receiver absorbs the
solar energy and converts it to heat energy to drive a turbine or generator.
The three major kinds of CSP technologies include the parabolic trough
system, the solar dish system, and the solar tower system.
Parabolic Trough System
The Department of Energy describes a parabolic trough collector as a long
parabolic-shaped reector that focuses the suns rays on a receiver pipe
located at the focus of the parabola. The collector tilts with the sun as the
sun moves from east to west during the day, so that the suns rays are always
focused on the receiver.
The parabolic-shaped trough can focus the sun at 30 to 100 times its
normal intensity on the receiver pipe. The pipe is located along the focal line
of the trough. Here temperatures can reach over 750 degrees Fahrenheit.
Looking over a large solar eld, you will see many parallel rows of solar
parabolic trough collectors facing in a north-south direction. The parabolic trough system includes a working uid that is heated as it circulates
through the receiver pipes. The uid is then returned to a series of heat exchangers at a central location. Here, the hot uid circulates through pipes
where it heats water to generate high-pressure, superheated steam. The
steam is then fed to a conventional steam turbine and generator to produce
electricity. When the hot uid passes through the heat exchangers, it cools
down and is then recirculated through the solar eld to heat up again.
Parabolic trough power plants are designed to usually operate at full
power using solar energy alone. However, on days when it is cloudy or
when solar power conditions are low, fossil fuelpowered combustion generators can supplement the solar output.
Large Parabolic Trough Solar Plants
The success of the parabolic trough technology is due to the ecient
and well-managed operation of several solar power plants in the Mojave
Concentrating Solar Power a 37
FEATURE
Modesto, California
A large food processing company in Modesto, California, installed parabolic trough
collectors covering an area of about four acres. The trough collectors operate at
temperatures up to 480 degrees Fahrenheit to deliver high-temperature pressurized water used to generate steam. The steam is used to heat cooking oil for frying
a variety of foods.
A parabolic trough power plants solar field consists of a large array of tracking parabolic trough solar collectors. In the system, a fluid runs through a special tube to absorb the concentrated sunlight. The temperature of the fluid can
reach several hundred degrees Celsius, providing heat energy to operate a
turbine generator. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Desert, which supply electrical power to thousands of consumers. Solar

Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to nine solar power
plants in the Mojave Desert that were built in the 1980s. These plants
have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts, making them the largest solar
power installation in the world. The 350-plus megawatts can supply more
than 450,000 people with their electricity needs.
DID YOU KNOW?

The first parabolic trough plant in Europe was built in Spain. The solar plant produces 50 megawatts of energy.
Nevada Solar One

The Nevada Solar One is one of the parabolic trough thermal plants in the
Mojave Desert. According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Acciona Energys Nevada Solar One is the third largest CSP plant in the
world and the rst plant built in the United States since 1999. Located in
Boulder City, Nevada, about 40 miles southeast of Las Vegas, this parabolic trough system has been operating since June 2007. The $260 million
plant has a nominal production capacity of 64 megawatts with a maximum
These parabolic troughs are located at the Accionas Solar One facility in
Nevada. Acciona Solar Power utilizes concentrating solar power (CSP) technology in its power plants. Power plants that use CSP technology, like Nevada
Solar One, are referred to as solar thermal electric (STE) power plants because
the collected thermal energy is converted into electricity. (Steve Marcus/
Reuters/Corbis)
capacity of 70 megawatts. All of the plants electricity, which can power

more than 14,000 households annually, is being sold to Nevada Energy
under a long-term power purchase agreement.
Arizona
Abengoa Solar of Spain has signed an agreement with an electric utility
company in Arizona to build and operate what may be the largest solar
power plant in the world. The plant will be installed about 60 miles southwest of Phoenix, Arizona, near Gila Bend. The name of the solar plant is
Solana, meaning a sunny place in Spanish.
When installed in 2011, the solar plant will run two 140-megawatt
steam generators for a total capacity of 280 megawatts. This solar eld will
cover a surface of around 1,900 acres, almost three square miles.
Storage Using Molten Salt
Several solar parabolic trough plants, as well as plants using other CSP
technologies, have installed a thermal energy storage system. The energy
storage system comes in handy in the evening hours and on cloudy days
when electricity is needed. Simply stated, the storage system consists of
large insulated tanks lled with hot molten salt. When needed, the stored
heated molten salt is circulated through the plant, where its heat produces
steam in a steam generator system to produce electricity.
Solar Dish-Engine System
The second type of CSP systems is the dish-engine system. According to
the Department of Energy, a solar dish-engine system uses concentrating
solar collectors that track the sun. The solar collectors always point straight
at the sun and concentrate sunlight onto a thermal receiver. The receiver
absorbs and collects the heat and transfers it to the heat engine generator
to produce electricity.
DID YOU KNOW?

The geometry of the parabolic shape can be seen in satellite dishes, in radio towers,
and, yes, even in solar cookers around the world.
VIDEO
To view the Abengoa Solar site, go to http://pesn.com/2008/02/21/9500472_
Abengoa_worlds_largest_solar_plant/.
The most common type of heat engine used today in dish-engine systems is the Stirling engine. The Stirling engine uses the uid heated by the
receiver to move pistons and create mechanical power. This uid becomes
hot, reaching temperatures higher than 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit. The action of the hot uid is then used to provide mechanical power to run a
The Stirling Engine
The Stirling Engine Society of the United States reports that the modern
Stirling is a clean and ecient engine, given that the heat used in driving
Brent Van Arsdell, an aeronautical

engineer from San Diego, holds his
Low Delta T, model MM6, Stirling
engine. The Stirling engine is powered by any temperature difference
or heat source. Here, the heat from
his hands and the cool air cause
the engine to turn the fly wheel. (AP
Photo/Lenny Ignelzi)
FEATURE
Solar Power, Research, and Development
Abengoa Solar has a team of people in the United States and Spain dedicated to
researching, developing, and improving solar technologies. In December 2007 the
U.S. Department of Energy selected Abengoa Solar for three research and developments projects to improve trough technology.
the pistons is supplied from outside the engine and is transferred through
special heat exchangers to the piston that provides mechanical energy. In
a sense it works like a steam engine in that all of the engines heat ows
in and out through the engine wall. In the process there are no pollutants
such as nitrogen oxides.
The external combustion feature of the Stirling engine allows it to operate using a variety of fuels, such as natural gas, gasoline, and ethanol 85.
The Stirling engine is also completely quiet when in operation.
Advantages of Stirling Engines
The design and working of the Stirling requires no valves such as
those found in gas-powered engines.
Stirling engines do not require any kind of air supply, and also, they
operate without making any noise.
Because a continuous process of fuel combustion is used in the
Stirling engine, it produces very little emissions.
Microturbines for Generating Power
In addition to the Stirling engine, microturbines are also being evaluated for
use in the solar dish thermal system. Microturbines are small, fuel-burning
turbines suitable for many applications where electricity is needed. These
microturbines, which are similar to those found in jet engines, would also
be used to drive electrical generators. Microturbines can produce between
25 and 500 kilowatts of power. Microturbines are used mostly as a stand-by
power source to help reduce electricity demands during peak periods.
The SunCatcher Solar Dish Thermal System
A more ecient solar thermal system has been developed by Tessera Solar
and built by Stirling Energy Systems at the Sandia National Laboratories
National Thermal Test Facility in Albuquerque, New Mexico. According to
their studies, the SunCatcher captures solar energy at about 30.0 percent,
DID YOU KNOW?

The Stirling engine was first developed and patented by Reverend Robert Stirling
in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1816. The engine runs using a variety of fuel sources.
Several companies now develop Stirling engines.
VIDEO
See a video on the Fresnel Stirling solar-powered engine at http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=fUrB7KRvxUk&feature=fvw.
the highest ever achieved by this technology. The SunCatcher has several
dishes that can collect enough heat energy to run a Stirling engine that
generates 25 kilowatts of electric power when in operation. By 2014 the
system will provide 1,600 megawatts of power to residents and businesses
in Southern California.
The Benets of the Solar Dish-Engine Systems
Solar dish-engine systems are being developed for use in many global markets because they are highly ecient. One bonus of this system is that
individual units, ranging in size from 9 to 25 kilowatts, can operate independent of power grids in remote, rural sunny locations to pump water or
to provide electricity for people living in these areas.
Solar Power Tower Systems
The third type of CSP technology is the solar power tower system. As described by the Energy Information Administration, a solar power tower
or central receiver generates electricity from sunlight by focusing concentrated solar energy on a tower-mounted heat exchanger (receiver). This
system uses hundreds to thousands of at sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats to reect and concentrate the suns energy onto a central receiver
tower. The energy can be concentrated as much as 1,500 times that of the
energy coming in from the sun.
VIDEO
Solar Energy (Active) in New Mexico and CaliforniaSun Catchers. Driven by
efficient Stirling engines, solar dishes, like sunflowers, are used to track the sun
throughout the day and capture solar energy for consumer end use. Learn more
about solar dishes in the following two short video clips: http://videos.howstuff
works.com/discovery/30088-really-big-things-solar-power-plant-video.htm (01:43
minutes) and http://videos.howstuffworks.com/planet-green/30320-g-word-suncatchers-video.htm (02:22 minutes).
The Stirling Energy Systems SunCatcher consists of parabolic solar dishes

located at the Sandia National Laboratories Solar Thermal Test Facility in
Albuquerque, New Mexico. The SunCatcher is a 25-kilowatt electric solar
dish Stirling system that uses the energy from the sun and converts it into
grid-quality energy. (AP Photo/Sandia National Laboratories)
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Mark Westlake, High School Physics Instructor, Saint Thomas
Academy, Minnesota
Go-Green Project: School Builds Solar-Powered Racing Cars
Describe your teaching position.
I have been teaching physics and honors physics at Saint Thomas Academy for
20 years. I have a BA degree in physics/chemistry and secondary education from
the University of Minnesota and an MA in learning technology from the University
of Saint Thomas. Recent awards include the TEKNE award from the Minnesota
High Tech Association for Innovation in STEM Education and a $10,000 grant from
the Lemelson-MIT InvenTeam program.
Where did you grow up?
I grew up in Detroit, Michigan, and lived there until I was 14. We moved to the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan where I attended Eben High School. At Eben I had an outstanding math/science teacher named Dan Walch. He was firm but fair and always
made class interesting. Mr. Walch helped me get a summer science internship at
Mark Westlake and his students at the Saint Thomas Academy in Minnesota have built full-sized solar-powered cars for racing events. In this photo,
the Saint Thomas Academy modular solar car is charging the onboard batteries from the solar array in preparation for the following days travels.
(Courtesy Saint Thomas Academy Experimental Vehicle Team)
Northern Michigan University between my junior and senior years. At that point in
my life, I was pretty sure I was going to be a chemical engineer.
The truth is that I never wanted to be a teacher. My whole life people would say,
You should be a teacher. However, time in the lab during college made me realize
that research was not my cup of tea and that perhaps I was a natural teacher. The
opportunity to share the science I love with students has made every day a joy.
Tell us about the Saint Thomas Academy Experimental Vehicle Team Program.
The Saint Thomas Academy Experimental Vehicle Team was created in an effort
to take students out of the textbook and provide budding engineers with real-life
problem-solving activities. Students are pushed to realize that science is not always easy, that it does not always work, and that the answers are not always at
the back of the book. Although most high school science ends up in a students
backpack for the bus ride home, the Experimental Vehicle Team tests its science in
the schools parking lot.
In the past 10 years, students on the team have designed, built, tested, and competed with small one-person vehicles that are as varied as the contests they were
built for. The team has put its inventive talents to use in Supermileage, the Electrathon, the World Human Powered Ice Race, the Solar Bike Rayce, the National
Indoor Electric Ice Vehicle Challenge, and the Dell-Winston Solar Car Challenge.
The backbone of its success is research, and the team is tireless about its work in
the library. The students, like Newton, have stood on the shoulders of giants, and,
like Edison, know a thousand things that dont work.
What did you and your students have to do to prepare for National Solar Bike
Rayce, held in 2004?
Our participation in the National Solar Bike Rayce in 2004 started us down a long
(and sometimes expensive!) road. Our first solar bike was a hybrid of human, electric, and solar power and was built for a 100-kilometer race. Using 36 pounds of
lead-acid batteries, a 1,000-watt Heinzmann electric hub motor, and a collection of
prefabricated solar panels, we set off to Heartland Raceway in Topeka, Kansas.
The bike averaged 30 miles per hour for the entire 62 miles and surprised everyone (including us!). We knew we were working with an interesting technology.
We have returned to the race two other times, each time with new and improved
versions of our first solar project.
In 2004, Dr. Lehman Marks invited us to build a car for the 2005 Dell-Winston
School Solar Challenge.
Describe the Dell-Winston School Solar Challenge.
This is the high school version of the North American Solar Challenge. Students
build full-sized, road-worthy solar cars for a cross-country or closed-course race
truly a challenging design project for your very best students. This is the test of an
engineering programlogistically the most challenging of any of the events. Web
site: www.winstonsolar.org/race/.
Where do these events take place?
On odd-numbered years, we start in Round Rock, Texas, and travel on public roads
to a set destination. This past years race ended at the Jet Propulsion Lab in Pasadena, California. Even-numbered years have teams racing at Texas Motor Speedway for a closed-course event.
How many days does it take to complete a race?
Cross-country races typically involve 10 days of commitment (not including travel to
and from). The race at Texas Motor Speedway is 5 days of time. Racing is in July.
Who can enter these events?
High schools and vocational schools from all across the country. Last years
event had schools from New York, California, Texas, Mississippi, Minnesota, and
Colorado.
How many participants are there?
Around 13 teams.
What work goes into building a solar-powered vehicle?
Our first solar car turned out to be a much bigger project than any of us had imagined.
Most teams have their solar array built for them, but we decided to build our own
from raw solar cells. The advantage is a huge savings in cost and a chance to learn
a new skill. Little did we know how challenging building the array would be! Close to
500 individual 0.5-volt, 3-amp, mono-crystalline silicon solar cells needed to be wired
into strings of six and then linked together on the surface of the car. The biggest problem with solar cells is how fragile they arepicture a very thin layer of glass.
Solar cells break all the time and then need to be laboriously replaced. One bad
cell can turn off a large portion of the solar array! After seven months of electric work,
we ended up with a relatively good solar array that produced close to 700 watts of
electrical energy. The solar array charges on-board batteries and drives a rare-earth
pancake-style electric motor. The motor can produce up to 8 horsepower, although
we rarely needed more than one horsepower to travel from Texas to California. Racing across the country on less energy than a hair dryer was truly an adventure!
While the solar array was being wired, the rest of the team was busy building
the frame, suspension, and body of the vehicle. The frame is constructed out of
4130 Chromoly steel and is mitered and TIG welded together. The suspension is a
standard double A-arm set up with a coil-over shock.
Steering is set up tank style with push-pull levers located on each side of the
driver. Moving the steering to the side allowed the driver to lie flat in the car without
needing to look over a steering wheel.
Describe how the body of the car is made.
The body of the car was by far the biggest part of the project. Making a vehicle
the size of a solar car takes about eight months of work. The body is a carbon
fiber, Kevlar, urethane foam sandwich that is laid up in a full-sized fiberglass mold
and vacuum-bagged at about one atmosphere of pressure. This produces a light,
stiff shell that provides an aerodynamic edge and offers a certain amount of additional protection to the driver. The body starts out as a full-sized model of the car
that is made out of sheets of polyurethane foam, sheetrock mud, body filler, and
anything else we could find to help make the mirrored image of the final project.
After months of shaping and sanding, fiberglass molds of the model were made and
served to shape the final carbon fiber parts.
What are the costs of building a solar-powered vehicle?
Ouch! This one is expensive. Our budget was $30,000 for the car and travel. The
vehicle cost $14,000 to build (and ours was one of the least expensive at the contest). Some teams have over $30,000 invested in the car alone. Business sponsors
covered most of our costs.
What are the pros and cons of traveling to and from these events?
Pros: Truly a world-class project. Building a full-sized solar car will push your top
students to a new level. Teamwork is not only necessary; it is a prerequisite. Competition is extremely organized.
Cons: Travel. Expensive. Sleepwho needs sleep? Everything is big. Logistically challenging.
Please summarize the experiences of the students who take part in this event.
Traveling across the country with 14 high school students is a trip of a lifetime and a
logistical nightmare. Different hotels every night, racing deadlines, heat, and technical responsibilities add up to super-busy days! The students were great, settled into
roles, and went about their work with NASCAR-like precision. The team got along
great, even in the midst of extreme temperatures and crazy deadlines. The joy felt
when the group finished at the Jet Propulsion Lab in Pasadena was immeasurable!
For power towers to be economical, however, they must be sizable, so

this is a technology that bears promise mostly in the context of large power
plants. Engineers are still in the comparatively early stages of developing
solar power tower systems, but several test facilities are in operation around
the world. Individual commercial plants can be built to produce anywhere
from 50 to 200 megawatts of electricity.
Spains Solar Tower
The solar tower built in Spain is an excellent example of one kind of CSP.
In 2009 Spain installed the largest solar tower in the world with a capacity of 20 megawatts. The approximate 530-foot-high solar tower, located
near Seville, has the capacity to supply electricity to 10,000 homes. In this
system, the heliostats concentrate and focus the sunlight onto a special
receiver installed in the tower. When the heat builds up in the receiver it
creates steam, which turns a turbine to generate electricity. To get an idea
of the size of this solar power system, consider that the land area contains
about 1,290 heliostats, and each heliostat has a surface area of 1,300 square
feet, the size of a small house. Spain is already fourth in the world in its use
of solar power and second in Europe behind Germany. There are several
hundred Spanish companies working in solar energy technologies.
Solar Two
Solar Two, near Barstow, California, has successfully demonstrated the
ability to produce electricity consistently during cloudy weather and at
night. In one demonstration, it delivered power to the grid 24 hours per day
for nearly 7 straight days before cloudy weather interrupted operation.
The success of Solar Two has motivated worldwide interest in power
towers. As Solar Two completed operations, an international group of solar
industry leaders was formed to pursue power tower plants worldwide, especially in Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and Italy. According to the group, the
rst commercial power tower plant is planned to be four times the size of
Solar Two. The industry is also actively pursuing opportunities to build a
similar plant in the southwest desert of the United States.
The solar tower plant near Seville, Spain, has two types of concentrating
solar power. One kind is an array of heliostats (steel reflectors) that concentrate sunlight on a solar thermal receiver. The second kind found on the other
side of the tower are heliostats, which concentrate sunlight on photovoltaic
panels. The solar tower produces enough electricity to power 10,000 homes.
(Darren Baker/Dreamstime.com)
Hot Salt Storage

The unique feature of Solar Two is that it also uses molten salt to capture
and store the suns heat. Engineers at Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, took the technical lead in developing molten-salt
technology for solar plants and provided the technical expertise required
for Solar Two.
Molten liquid salt is used in solar power tower systems because it provides an ecient method for storing thermal energy. It is nonammable
and nontoxic when it is not molten.
The salt melts at 430 degrees Fahrenheit and is kept liquid at 550 degrees in an insulated cold storage tank. The salt is then pumped to the
top of a solar power tower. Here the concentrated sunlight heats the salt
to a temperature of 1,050 degrees Fahrenheit in a special receiver. The
In a molten-salt solar power tower, cold salt is pumped to the top of the tower.
In the tower the cold salt is heated and returned to the hot tank. When power is
needed, the hot salt is pumped through the steam generator producing steam
and driving the turbine generator to produce electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
receiver is composed of thin-walled stainless steel tubes. The heated salt

then ows back down to a second insulated hot storage tank. When electricity is needed from the plant, the hot salt in the storage tank is pumped
to a conventional steam-generating system to produce superheated steam
for a turbine/generator for electricity output.
What Are the Benets of Solar Power Towers?
Solar power towers oer large-scale, distributed solutions to global energy
needs, particularly for peaking power. Like all solar technologies, they are
DID YOU KNOW?

According to experts, the energy from sunlight striking the Earths surface for just
40 minutes is equivalent to all of the global energy consumption for the year.
fueled by sunshine and do not release greenhouse gases. Like other CSP
technologies, they are able to store solar energy and dispatch electricity to
the grid when neededeven at night or during cloudy weather. A single
100-megawatt power tower with 12 hours of storage needs only 1,000 acres
of otherwise nonproductive land to supply enough electricity for 50,000
homes. In the sunny Southwest, there are millions of acres available for the
production of solar power.
THE FUTURE FOR CONCENTRATING

SOLAR POWER
What is the future for CSP technologies? Solar advocates have increased
their forecasts for the amount of electricity that could be supplied by CSP.
They report that CSPr may be able to deliver up to 7 percent of the electricity demand worldwide by 2030.
A Bright Future for the Western States?

Concentrating solar power technologies can be a major contributor to the
nations future energy, particularly in the western United States. The population in the western states continues to grow, and the energy demands
will also continue to increase. Therefore, the solar power technologies are a
viable energy choice for the West.
WHAT ARE THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

OF CSP PLANTS?
According to the Department of Energy, CSP plants have few environmental impacts; however, land use is the primary one. Although a CSP
plants footprint, or the amount of land it occupies, is larger than that of
a fossil fuel plant, the two actually use about the same amount of land. Fossil fuel plants require a signicant amount of land for exploration, mining,
and road-building purposes. Concentrating solar power plants have the
advantage in that they produce no environmental contaminants or greenhouse gases.
One key competitive advantage of CSP systems is that they closely resemble most of the nations current power plants in some important ways.
For example, much of the equipment and machinery now used for conventional, centralized power plants running on fossil fuels can also be used to
operate CSP plants.
Concentrating solar power can make a signicant contribution to the
increasing need for aordable electricity in California and other sunshine states. According to the Department of Energy, the nine Solar
Energy Generating Station (SEGS) plants in Southern California were
constructed in less than a year each, and the nal two plants each had a
capacity of 80 megawatts. The SEGS plants have already demonstrated
a production capacity of 200 megawatts per year. Energy developers
and experts believe that with implementation of this technology in the
southwestern United States, more than 20,000 megawatts could be online by 2020.
This is the Solar Energy Generating Station (SEGS) at Kramer Junction in

Californias Mojave Desert. This facility is known as SEGS 3 through 7,
and is one of three separate sites within 40 miles of one another that make
up a total of nine solar fields in the SEGS. Together these three facilities can
generate about 354 megawatts at peak output. (Minghua Nie/Dreamstime
.com)
INTERVIEW
The National Energy Education Development (NEED) Project gave the publisher permission to reprint the following energy career interview from its newsletter, Career
Currents.
The NEED Project is a nonprofit education association providing professional
development, innovative materials correlated to the National Science Education
Content Standards, and ongoing support and recognition to educators nationwide.
David Chen is the program manager of the TXU Energy Solar Academy for TXU
Energy in Dallas, Texas. The TXU Energy Solar Academy programs teach students
about energy and electricity generation while introducing students to the power
of the sun. TXU Energy and NEED came together to provide award-winning resources, the power of a local solar installation, and the high-quality teacher support and resources available from NEED.
David Chen has an MBA from McCombs Business School, University of Texas,
Austin, and a BBA from Ross Business School, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor.
CC: Hi, David. Thanks for chatting with us. Can you tell us about your job as a
program manager?
David: As program manager for TXU Energy Solar Academy, I work with NEED
to help select, approach, and manage the schools receiving a TXU Energy Solar
Academy donation. I also coordinate TXU Energy resources to provide the support
required to help NEED and TXU Energy Solar Academy succeed. I serve doubleduty by helping the TXU Product Innovations Team model the financial potential
of new products in the energy efficiency and demand-side management space.
The skills required in this role are organization, creative problem solving, financial
understanding, and team building.
Mr. David Chen is the program manager

of the TXU Energy Solar Academy for TXU
Energy in Dallas, Texas. (Courtesy David
Chen)
CC: How did you choose this career in the energy industry?
David: I started as a Consultant at Accenture for five years. I spent some time as a
Contractor and a Book Seller before deciding to return to school and earn my MBA.
The Texas electricity market is truly deregulated and provides a lot of interesting
challenges and opportunities. It presents tremendous risks but also offers tremendous opportunities. TXU Energy, being the largest electricity retailer in this market,
allows me to really see how a big utility company transforms into a nimble retailer.
It was this curiosity that led me here.
CC: What subjects, courses, internships, or special training were instrumental in
helping you gain your current position?
David: I took a lot of entrepreneurship courses that taught me about identifying
problems, finding solutions, developing creative ways to test for the best possible
solution, and framing all of that in a way that helps to build a strong business case.
The lessons I learned in those courses helped me to bring some order to my thought
process and gave me the tools I use every day in communicating with my bosses.
CC: What do you think of the industry now that you work in it? Would you follow
the same career path again?
David: This industry has met my expectations. Every day is different and Ive had
many personal and professional growth opportunities. I would definitely pick this
industry and TXU Energy again.
CC: What challenges do you face in the energy industry?
David: This is a very dynamic industry that is always changing. It is hard to identify
what challenges we might face too far in the future. One problem is that Texas reliance on natural gas will put upward pressure on prices in the future. We will need
to educate our customers on how to conserve and manage their monthly usage
more effectively to keep their bills down. This means constantly engaging the customer and showing them the impact of their decisions. The environment presents
another problem. Its not enough for companies to change their production process. We, as consumers, must also look at how we live and change our habits to
reduce our impact on the world around us.
CC: What are some benefits to working in the energy industry?
David: Right now, the energy industry is on the edge of a lot of technological
advances. Investment in this area is increasing because of the environment and
high-energy prices. Working here, at this time, allows me to be a part of this transformation. As a retailer, I get to help commercialize many of these products and
gain experience with market development.
CC: What is a typical day of work like for you?
David: As soon as I get to work, I spend the first 30 minutes planning my day,
answering emails and voicemails. I spend about 20 percent of my day in meetings and the rest of the time receiving status reports, prioritizing deliverables,
and pitching in where Im needed. As a Financial Associate, I spend a lot of time

collecting market assumptions and researching probabilities so I can model how
the different assumptions and market changes impact the profitability of the
company.
CC: What are the most rewarding and most surprising aspects of your job?
David: The most rewarding part of my job is the people I get to meet and work with.
The most surprising part of my job is the humanity of the people who work here.
CC: How does your job affect the public?
David: My main task is to help identify and build the business case for products
that help to advance the market in regards to alternative and renewable energy
solutions. I find ways to introduce next generation, environmentally friendly consumer products into the community in a way that impacts the most people. The
TXU Energy Solar Academy is one such example. I have the fortune of championing
this solar education program to build understanding in the Texas market. Hopefully, through our efforts, we will see a greater demand for solar technologies and
a more educated Texas student population that will want to research and work in
this area.
CC: What do you expect to be doing in 510 years?
David: I want to own my own business, hopefully involving green energy space.
CC: What is the most exciting technological tool you have used?
David: TXU Energys Power Monitor is pretty cool. You can plug anything into any
outlet or turn anything on in your house and immediately see how much electricity its using. It approximates how much your bill will be and how much electricity
costs at that moment. Ive tested other meters and theyve got delays on them. This
is the most accurate one Ive seen.
CC: What advice can you give to a young person considering a career in the energy
industry?
David: This is a wide open industry with many career paths to take. You can be
an Engineer who creates new products that help solve the worlds problems, or
you may choose to become a Marketer who figures out the best way to show
the product to the customer and tell them how the product will impact their
lives. You can be a Financial Analyst whose work figures out what that product
will cost and how much it should be priced. Whatever you decide, I think the
most important thing to remember is that companies in the energy industry need
problem solvers. They need people who can isolate problems and find the best
solutions.
CC: Thanks for your time, David.

Ewing, Rex A. Got Sun? Go Solar: Harness Natures Free Energy to Heat and
Power Your Grid-Tied Home. Masonville, CO: PixyJack Press, 2009.
SOMETHING TO DO
Compare and contrast photovoltaic solar technology with the method
called concentrating solar power. You can learn about this by searching the
Internet for eSolar, a company funded by Google, in addition to browsing
the eSolar Web site: http://www.esolar.com.
WEB SITES
www1.eere.energy.gov/solar
This is the Web site of the U.S. Department of Energy: Oce of
Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Solar Energy
Technologies. As Americas need for energy grows, the Department
of Energy is meeting the challenge by establishing clean fuel initiatives to make the most of traditional fossil fuels while investing in
cutting edge research to develop sustainable sources.
www.abengoasolar.com.
Abengoa Solar, headquartered in Granada, Spain, constructs solar
power plants (tower, trough, and photovoltaic) and customized
installations (hot water and air production, heating, and air conditioning).
http://videos.howstuworks.com/multi-media-productions/1128-solarenergy-systems-video.htm.
Multiple videos and external links to all things related to energy are
available from HowStuWorks.
www.consumerenergy.org
The Consumer Energy Center oers the public a one-stop site on
the Internet for the latest information about energy resources and
how to use them in homes, work, and vehicles.
www.discoversolarenergy.com/solar/videos-photov.htm
Discover Solar Energy is a comprehensive resource with links to
9,000+ Web sites.
http://www.solarenergy.org/students-and-educators
For 20 years, Solar Energy International has been dedicated to providing hands-on and online solar training and renewable energy education in wind, micro-hydro, sustainable building, and developing
world technologies.
www.nanosolar.com
Nano Solar Technologys mission is to reinvent the design and manufacturing of photovoltaics to create low-cost solar cells and panels.
VIDEOS
understanding of energy topics and issues. The author has made a consistent eort to include up-to-date web sites. However, over time, some web
download that software to view the videos. You may need to upgrade your
player to the most current version.
History: To read about the brief history of solar power, go to http://
www.ideamarketers.com/?articleid=521314. Alternatively, view a
video narrated by John Schaeer; a solar power/renewable energy
pioneer: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHCmLpOtD9c&feat
ure=channel (00:53 seconds).
Solar Energy (Active) in New Mexico and CaliforniaSun Catchers: Driven by ecient Stirling engines, solar dishes, like sunowers, are used to track the sun throughout the day and capture solar
energy for consumer end use. Learn more about solar dishes in
the following two short video clips: http://videos.howstuworks.
com/discovery/30088-really-big-things-solar-power-plant-video.
htm (01:43 minutes) and http://videos.howstuworks.com/planetgreen/30320-g-word-sun-catchers-video.htm (02:22 minutes).
Solar Energy (Passive) in AustraliaSolar Tower: To learn more
about one Australian mans quest to change his nations dependence on coal, by building the worlds largest solar power plant
using breakthrough technology and a mirror six times larger than
New Yorks Central Park, go to http://greenenergytv.com/Watch.

aspx?v=1679e293afdd55f8 (05:04 minutes).
Solar Energy (Passive) in CanadaSolar Furnace: A brilliant Newfoundlander found a simple solution for cutting energy bills by
1520 percent with recycled soda cans. To learn more about this innovative and remarkably cheap do-it-yourself solution to harness solar energy, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRZvAAqzXIw
(03:48 minutes).
Chapter 3
Passive Solar Energy

and Active Solar
Power Energy
According to the California Solar Center, Clarence Kemp, a United States

inventor from Baltimore, patented the worlds rst solar water heater in
1891. Kemp patented a way to combine the old practice of exposing metal
tanks to the sun with the scientic principle of the hot box, thereby increasing the tanks capability to collect and retain solar heat. He called
his new solar water heater the Climaxthe worlds rst commercial solar
water heater.
The rst two chapters in this book discussed two major solar technologiesphotovoltaics and concentrating solar power. This chapter discusses
how passive solar and active solar energy technology systems can also be
used to meet heat, hot water, and cooling needs in homes and schools.
In short, passive solar technologies are methods of using sunlight for
useful energy without use of active mechanical systems. Active solar technologies, on the other hand, use mechanical systems such as fans to provide
solar energy. A solar wall is a good example of passive solar technology.
DID YOU KNOW?

Solar stems from the Latin word for sunand it is a powerful source of energy.
In fact, the sunlight that shines on the Earth in less than one hour could meet world
energy demands for an entire year!
SOLAR WALL: PASSIVE

SOLAR TECHNOLOGY
Do you know what a solar wall is? The St. Anthony High School in Minnesota has one, and it is an excellent working example of passive solar
technology.
The schools solar wall is basically a wall of dark, perforated aluminum
paneling attached to a south-facing wall of the penthouse perched on top
of the school. The panels, heated by the sun, collect fresh air being drawn
into the buildings heating system and trap it just long enough to preheat
it. The panels warm outside airfor example, 10 degrees Fahrenheit in
Januaryto something much closer to room temperature, helping to
The St. Anthony High School solar wall. The St. AnthonyNew Brighton
School District became the first Minnesota school district to install a solar
wall application, which is a passive solar collector that absorbs the suns radiant energy. The solar wall is basically a wall of dark, perforated aluminum
paneling attached to a south-facing wall perched atop the school. The panels,
heated by the sun, draw fresh air into the buildings heating system, trapping
it just long enough to preheat it to warm the building. (Courtesy McKinstry
Company)
Passive Solar Energy and Active Solar Power Energy a 61
reduce the demand on the high schools heating system. Early reports are
that the solar wall may deliver as much as $5,000 in energy savings annually, directly resulting from the solar wall. The savings will be used for
classroom materials and supplies. In addition to providing a sustainable
way to deliver heat to the building, the project can be used to enhance the
schools energy curriculum. The project provides real-world data for the
students at St. Anthony High School to analyze and can motivate their interests in the math and science behind the technologies of the 21st century,
according to school ocials.
SOLAR ENERGY: SOME BASIC SCIENCE
The sun has produced energy for billions of years. Indirect uses of solar
energy include wind, ocean waves, and biomass, for example. Except for
geothermal energy, which is developed within Earths core, all renewable
energies are derived from the sun.
Solar Radiation
How much solar radiation reaches Earths surface, particularly where you
live? You need to know the answer to this question when organizing, planning, and developing solar power technology projects such as solar walls,
solar heating and cooling systems, photovoltaics, concentrating solar power
systems, and even for constructing a solar oven.
According to science research, about 20 percent of the incoming radiation is absorbed directly by the atmosphere and therefore does not reach
Earths surface. Earths clouds reect another 30 percent of the radiation
back into space. This leaves a little over 45 percent of the suns radiation
reaching the surface of Earth.
DID YOU KNOW?

Radiation is energy that comes from a source, such as the sun, and travels through
space. Radiation and radioactivity occur naturally in the physical world. All living
beings require some kinds of radiation just to live. Light and heat, for example, are
two basic forms of radiation necessary for all life on Earth.
Most of the energy Earth receives from the sun travels to us in the form
of visible light, infrared radiation, and ultraviolet radiation. When Earths
surface is heated, it radiates much of the energy back into the atmosphere
as infrared radiation, which heats the atmospheric gases. The gases form a
blanket-like cover that holds the heat in Earths atmosphere. The process
by which the gases retain heat in the atmosphere keeps the planet habitable
for all living organisms and is called the greenhouse eect: A greenhouse, as
you know, has a glass roof that allows the ultraviolet or short waves to
come in. The short waves are slowed down by the glass and absorbed by the
soil and plants inside the greenhouse as thermal energy. The heat is now
trapped inside the greenhouse. The greenhouse is an excellent example of
passive solar energy.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Stephanie Harman, Science Teacher, Maumee Valley Country
Day School, Toledo, Ohio
Go-Green Project: Biomass Solar Greenhouse
Describe your current position.
I am a seventh- and eighth-grade science teacher at Maumee Valley Country Day
School. Located in Toledo, Ohio, Maumee Valley Country Day School, established
in 1884, is an independent school serving over 450 students from preschool through
grade 12. I have been teaching middle school science at Maumee Valley since
2007. Before teaching at Maumee Valley, I taught elementary science lab at a public school in Michigan. I have a masters in science education from Walden University. Along with teaching, I am the head of the Science Learning and Leadership
Team, a committee that focuses on 21st-century education.
Where did you grow up and what schools did you attend?
I grew up in Farmington Hills, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. I went to Farmington Hills Harrison High School, where I took just about every Advanced Placement
class they had to offer. After high school, I went to the University of Michigan
where I studied engineering. From there, I went to Eastern Michigan University
where I received a bachelors of science in education. I completed my masters
degree from Walden University in 2008.
I have always had a brain for math and science, so I really enjoyed these classes
in high school. I was able to take AP Calculus and AP Physics, which really helped
me get a head start in college. Believe it or not, working out challenging physics
Students in Stephanie Harmans class set up rain barrels to collect water

for plants in the garden and greenhouses. Special hoses are later connected to the rain barrels to help maintain a constant supply of water to the
plants. (Courtesy Stephanie Harman)
problems was something that I really enjoyed. I knew that I would eventually do
something with science at that point.
What colleges did you attend, and what was your major field?
I started college at the University of Michigan, where I was accepted into their
engineering program. I planned on following in my older brothers footsteps and
declared aerospace engineering as my major. However, about 96 credits into it,
I realized that engineering was not what I really wanted to do. I decided to take
a completely different path and enrolled in Eastern Michigan University, one of
the best education programs in the country. At Eastern Michigan, I majored in elementary science and minored in math. Later on, I preferred middle school science
teaching, so I completed a masters program at Walden University. The focus of my
masters work was inquiry-based science education.
My passion for learning and my understanding of science really prompted me to
pursue a career in science education. I have always felt that I relate well to children, so I knew that being in a classroom was where I belonged. My father taught
middle school physical education for 36 years, and seeing firsthand the difference
he made in so many students lives was very powerful for me. Children need strong
mentors in their lives, and I really felt that I had something to offer children in terms
of being a role model and motivator.
Describe the Biomass Solar Greenhouse Project.
The project the students and I are working on is titled Biomass Solar Greenhouse. This project is partially funded by a $10,000 BP A+ for Energy Grant. The
ultimate goal of this project is to sustain a greenhouse and garden on campus,
using only renewable resources, that can service the community. Furthermore, this
is a student-driven project, which crosses multiple disciplines and divisions.
Biomass
The first step of the project was to set up a school-wide composting program.
Maumee Valley Country Day School services three-year-olds all the way up
through high school students, so this was a challenging goal to undertake. Fortunately, my middle school students were more than willing to head up this project
and make it their own. We started the compost project only in the middle school,
educating these students to be the custodians of this project. The students set up
a compost barrel in the dining hall and started collecting compost during our lunch
hour. From there, the middle schoolers started educating the lower school about
compost. Students made posters to place around the school and visited the lower
school during their town meetings to help in this process. It wasnt long before
the lower school was composting as well. Through education, public service announcements, and practice, we eventually had the entire school composting. The
students even started having our school chef contribute his kitchen waste to the
bin. Buying our Roly Pig composter (www.rolypig.com) was one of the best ideas
that came from this part of the project. The younger students really enjoy feeding
the pig, and the Roly Pig has made a dirty job a lot more fun and exciting. This
grassroots campaign for school-wide composting was an invaluable experience
for these middle school students, and some have even taken it one step further and
started composting at home.
Solar Greenhouse
Once the Roly Pig was producing nutrient-rich soil, we needed a place to put it. The
greenhouse was the next part of the project. As architects and building planners
were visiting the Maumee Valley campus to plan and build our new upper school,
the middle school students were creating their own blueprints and building plans
for our greenhouse. Over the course of several weekends, middle school students,
parents, teachers, and administrators all pitched in to build our beautiful greenhouse. We established the Garden Club in the middle school, where the students
decided what they wanted to plant, how to plant it, and what we should do with the
crops. The students decided that we should plant vegetables for our school chef
and also for the local soup kitchen. Additionally, we were able to make a connection with the local parks and obtain endangered plant species seeds to cultivate
for the Toledo Area Metroparks. Throughout the planning and planting process,
the students really got to understand firsthand how growing their own food helps
to combat the energy crisis. They also found out that establishing and maintaining
a greenhouse and garden is a lot of work. The students learned concepts such as
companion species, such as tomatoes and marigolds to help deter pests organically. A fence also had to be constructed because Maumee Valley is situated on
72 wooded acres inhabited by deer, rabbits, groundhogs, and other species, who
would enjoy eating our vegetables.
Water
The students learned through the gardening process that watering plants consumes tremendous amounts of resources, including water. For this reason, they
decided to place rain barrels on campus to collect water for the garden and
greenhouse. They quickly found out that drawing water from the rain barrels in
watering cans and distributing water that way was inefficient and extremely timeconsuming. They solved this problem by connecting soaker hoses to the rain barrels to help maintain a constant supply of water to the plants. We were able to discuss irrigation systems used on large farms and how that affects the watersheds
surrounding the farm.
How did you get interested in selecting this project?
Currently, Maumee Valley Country Day School is in the process of building a new
upper school. This new structure will be LEED certified. LEED is an internationally recognized green building certification system, providing third-party verification that a building or community was designed and built using strategies aimed
at improving performance across all the metrics that matter most: energy savings,
water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality,
and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their impacts (http://www.usgbc.
org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1988). Obviously, this project has the whole
Maumee Valley Community thinking green. Tearing down the old upper school
meant that we would be losing our existing greenhouse. Thinking this would be
a true loss to the community, we decided to build a new one in the middle school.
However, we did not want our greenhouse to have an adverse affect on our energy
and resource consumption, and that was how compost, rain barrels, and community involvement became a part of the project. The BP A+ for Energy Grant was a
perfect opportunity to help fund this project and educate our students about energy issues.
North Coast Wind and Solar, 577 Foundation, BP A+ for Energy, The NEED Project,
Boy Scouts of America, ToledoGrows, Center for Innovative Food and Technologies, Seagate Food Bank, Cherry Street Mission, and Rolypig.com.
The best advice that I can give to other teachers is to go for it! I have been amazed
by my students throughout this entire process and cannot believe how hard they
have worked. Also, there are many grant opportunities out there to help fund projects relating to energy.
Although the establishment of the greenhouse and gardens was a one-year commitment, the middle school will continue to improve upon and maintain them each
year. Every new class will have the opportunity to decide what is planted and how
these plants will be used. Furthermore, I have received another $10,000 BP A+ for
Energy grant to incorporate a self-sustained heating system for the greenhouse
and wind turbines for the school. A former middle school student will be designing and implementing the greenhouse heating system as part of his Eagle Scout
experience.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

Many civilizations, such as the Romans, have used the greenhouse eect
to warm their homes and buildings. One way to keep a house or building
warm is to use a passive solar heating system. The passive solar heating
system relies much on the greenhouse eect to trap heat inside a building.
This is similar to how a closed automobile traps heat when parked in an
unobstructed area on a sunny day.
Another way to heat a home is to use an active solar heating system.
This system is dierent from the passive solar heating system because it
requires the use of specic equipment and devices such as fans and other
tools to help direct heat.
Passive Solar Heating Systems
A passive solar heating system uses the greenhouse eect for the heating and cooling of interior living spaces. It takes advantage of the suns
heat and light without using mechanical equipment, so it has few moving parts and requires a minimal amount of maintenance over the lifetime of the system.
To get the maximum amount of energy from the sun, the house or
building has to be in the right place and take advantage of the local climate. For example, buildings designed to make use of passive solar heating
generally are constructed so that most of the windows in the buildings are
placed on a south-facing side. Why? South-facing windows are exposed
to the greatest number of hours of daily sunlight throughout the year. As
sunlight enters the building through the windows and reaches the interior
walls, oors, and furnishings of the room, it is converted to thermal energy
or heat. The resulting heat energy is then slowly released back into the
rooms of the building. At night, when no sunlight is available, window
Passive solar technologies capture sunlight for energy without the use of
mechanical and electrical devices. Passive solar design can reduce energy
demands for lighting, winter heating, and summer cooling. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
shades are used to cover the windows to prevent the heat energy from
escaping from the room to the outside areas.
Depending on where you live, passive solar heating systems may not
completely eliminate the need for additional supplementary fossil-fuel
heating systems or renewable energy sources. However, studies have reported that, on average, the use of passive solar heating strategies in homes
can reduce heat and electric utility costs by as much as 2030 percent.
How a Passive Solar Home Design Works
How heat moves throughout a home or building and how it can be stored
are important factors in a home or building with passive solar heating. According to the Department of Energys Oce of Energy Eciency and
Renewable Energy, heat is transferred in three waysconduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction. When there is a direct transfer of heat from one substance
to another, it is called conduction. Walking on beach sand on a hot day is
a good example of what conduction is as you try to skip along quickly on
the hot sand to your destination. Solids made of metal conduct heat very
well.
Convection. The transfer of heat by the movement of a uid such as
water or gas is called convection. Cooler and denser air sinks toward the
ground, while the warmer and less dense air moves upward. Some passive
solar homes use convection currents to carry solar heat from a warmed
south wall into the buildings cooler interior rooms. Radiators in homes are
used to set up convection currents for heating purposes.
Radiation. As mentioned previously, radiation is energy that comes
from a source, such as the sun, and travels through space. The radiant heat
moves through the air from warmer objects to cooler ones. Homes and
buildings designed for passive solar heat rely on radiation penetrating into
the home from windows. The buildings that maximize solar radiation are
those with south-facing windows. Again, just like with the greenhouse
eect, the glass windows allow the ultraviolet or short waves to come into
a room. When this happens, the ultraviolet waves are slowed down by the
glass and absorbed by the walls, carpets, oors, and other solid materials
in the house. This action results in infrared or thermal energy that cannot
escape back into the outdoor environment. The heat is now trapped. The
house is warm.
In summary, architects and builders who construct buildings using passive solar design implement in their plans the three ways that heat is transferred from one place to another.
Builders also make use of thermal mass, which refers to the ability of
materials to absorb sunlight and store heat. In simpler terms, thermal mass
is any kind of construction material that includes masonry materials, such
as concrete, stones, brick, and tile. These materials, including even the use
of water, have been successfully used as thermal mass because they collect,
store, and distribute heat. The more thermal mass inside a home or building, the more potential heat that can be used and stored.
Some homes designed for passive solar heating have thermal walls. The
thermal walls, built from solid material such as concrete blocks, are located
on the south-facing side of a building. Special glass windows are installed
on the outside wall. The suns rays penetrate through the glass, heating the
wall. As the wall warms up, the heat reaches the interior wall and then
radiates into the rooms.
Schools Make Use of Passive Solar Design
Passive solar design is ideal for providing space heat for schools. Most of
the energy demands of a school, such as heating and cooling, occur during the daytime. This is the time of day when a school can maximize solar
energy for its heating, cooling, and lighting needs.
According to the magazine School Planning & Management, in order to
design and use passive solar heating in a building, there are certain stages
in the planning that need to be reviewed. Some of the planning stages
include:
1. Locate a building site at a south to southeast position. Buildings
designed for passive solar use large south-facing windows, and the
longest walls run from east to west.
2. Design a oor plan to allow for eective sun penetration in the winter.
3. Construct the building with high thermal mass materials such as
concrete, brick, and stone that can be warmed by the sun during cool
weather.
4. Use sun-shading devices and or plant trees to keep the building in
the shade during warm seasons. Windows must have low inltration
and high R-values. Insulated shutters or shades also help to limit
heat loss.
5. Passive solar design buildings can reduce intense summer solar heat
by using natural ventilation and roof overhangs to block the suns
strongest rays during the hot season. Most passive systems, however, have to be assisted with fans, ducts, and blowers to circulate
the heat.
To get a free subscription to School Planning & Management go to http://
www.peterli.com/spm/index.shtm.
Benets and Advantages of Passive Solar Buildings
Passive solar design and architecture can be applied to buildings in almost
any part of the United States. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, passive solar design:
Is energy ecient, reducing a buildings energy demands for lighting,
winter heating, and summer cooling.
Captures sunlight without additional investments in mechanical and
electrical devices such as pumps, fans, and electrical controls.
Can reduce heating bills by as much as 50 percent.
Reduces greenhouse gases because it relies on solar energy, a renewable, nonpolluting resource.
The Need for Good Planning

Planning and designing a passive solar building requires good choices in
building materials, especially window glass. For example, according to solar
contractors and builders, passive solar homes are often built using inferior
glass windows that are not applicable for solar energy. However, choosing
glass for passive solar designs is not easy. The best choice of glass depends
on which side of the building (east, west, north, or south) the glass is installed on. Know your glass before you buy.
Active Solar Heating Systems
The design of an active solar system is a bit more complicated than that of
a passive solar system. Active solar technologies usually consist of equipment, such as a fan or a pump, which are needed to direct and move heat
throughout the rooms in a home.
FEATURE
Solar Ovens
Do you know what a solar oven is? A solar oven is a cooking stove that uses passive solar heating technology.
How Does a Solar Oven Work?
A solar oven cooks by absorbing the rays from the sun and turning them into heat
energy. No fossil fuels are needed to operate this oven. The sun is the fuel source.
In some solar ovens, a pot or container is placed inside a glass or plastic cover.
The tight cover allows just a little bit of space to retain the heat. The reflectors
on the solar oven focus the sunlight toward the pot or other cooking utensil. In
time, the temperature rises in the solar oven. The basic solar oven can reach about
300 degrees Fahrenheit, and the most efficient one can cook at much higher temperatures. Of course, the solar oven will not work at night or on a cloudy day, given
that it relies on sunlight to work.
The most common type of solar oven is the box-shaped type. Box solar ovens
are not difficult to make, and if you wish, you can purchase one. These kinds of
ovens can be made from wood, cardboard, plastic, or metal. Basically, they are
a box inside which the dark-colored cooking pot of food is placed. The top of the
box is a reflector that can be adjusted to direct the suns rays into the inside of
the oven. To keep the temperature nice and hot, box ovens need to be moved as
the sun changes its position and angle.
Another kind of solar oven is the parabolic solar oven, also called a concentrator.
These parabolic solar ovens can reach temperatures ranging from 400 degrees Fahrenheit to more than 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. They are large, curved, and concave
and are constructed of very shiny metal reflectors. The dark pot fits in the middle. Usually, parabolic ovens can be rotated to catch the best of the suns angles for cooking.
However, they get so hot that it is important to have only trained people using them.
Another type of solar oven is called a panel oven, which combines the box oven
and the parabolic oven designs. It has a cavity, like a box oven, where the cooking
pot goes. It also has a curved reflector, like the parabolic oven, to collect and point
the sunlight.
One of the most popular solar ovens is the Kyoto Box oven. This oven is used by
the millions of people throughout the world who rely on wood stoves for cooking
and for sterilizing water for drinking purposes. The Kyoto Box consists of a cardboard box with a black inside liner and an outer box covered with a silver foil that
concentrates enough sunlight to cook food and boil water.
The Benefits of Solar Ovens
Fifty-two percent of trees cut globally are used as fuel to cook food, according to
a United Nations report. Ample supplies of fuelwood are now becoming scarce for
many people who live in parts of Africa and in other countries. Every day thousands
of families, mostly women, spend a good part of their day searching and gathering
small brush, crop residues, and dung to use as cooking fuel. In these countries, the
use of solar ovens to cook and boil water would be a very effective and efficient
alternative to using wood-fired stoves and ovens.
Some of the benefits of solar ovens include the following:
You do not need any fuel for cooking or boiling water.
You can build a solar oven kit in a short time, and it is inexpensive to
operate.
You can use solar ovens outdoors in areas where lighting a fire is a high
risk.
You can breathe easily without having to cook over a smoky, wood fire.
Solar Cooking Saves Lives in Darfur Refugee Camps
According to GreenJoyment, over 10,000 solar ovens made from aluminum foil,
cardboard and plastic bags are saving lives in the Darfur refugee camps. The refugees construct the solar ovens from the donated supplies and use them to prepare
midday and evening meals. The goal of the project sponsored by the Solar Cookers International, Jewish World Watch, and the Dutch foundation KoZon, was to
protect the Darfuri women who would have, otherwise, had to leave the relative
safety of the camp to gather firewood. An added benefit for the refugees is that if
the women spend less time tending to fires they have more time to grow healthy
vegetables and make handicrafts that can be exported to further support their
families.
If you are interested in learning more about this program go to http://www.
greenjoyment.com.
Fast Solar Cooking in China
Many people in China use hundreds of thousands of parabolic cookers, mainly for
cooking on a large scale. The parabolic cookers, mentioned previously, are similar
to solar ovens, but they require more time to build. Safety is also an issue because
of the high temperatures these cookers produce.
Solar Cooking with Steam in India
The Solar Kitchen in Auroville, India, uses a special solar bowl to prepare more than
1,000 meals a day! Like solar ovens, the solar bowls use reflectors to focus light
into the bowl to produce steam at 270 degrees Fahrenheit. In some places in India,
people use only solar cooking technology to cook all the meals during the day.
DID YOU KNOW?

Solar ovens can be used to boil water for drinking purposes. The drinking of contaminated water has caused illnesses and deaths in many regions of the world
where potable water is not available.
The Thames and Cosmos solar oven will cook small quantities of food such
as dried rice (pictured in a glass jar with water). According to the manufacturer, under optimum conditions the rice and water will begin boiling in about
30 minutes. This experiment was conducted by a student in the ninth grade.
(Courtesy Grant Dunbar)
Basic Types of Active Systems

There are two basic types of active solar heating systems based on
the type of uid: liquid or air. Both uids are heated in solar energy
collectors.
Solar Energy Collectors
The solar collector is used to collect and absorb sunlight and change
it to heat in a box-like enclosed structure that is usually placed on the
roof, facing south. The collector is composed of one or two panels of
glass or plastic, a blackened absorber plate in the liner of the box to
attract heat, and a row of metal tubes fastened to the black plate that
contains uid.
All of these parts are built into a weatherproof box. Sunlight entering
the glass or plastic panes is absorbed and converted to heat energy by the
absorber plate. The metal tubes absorb this heat and transfer it to the uid
Evacuated tube solar collectors are very efficient and can achieve very high
temperatures. Each tube contains a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube
attached to a fin. The fins coating absorbs solar energy but inhibits radiative
heat loss. These collectors are used more frequently in commercial applications rather than residential. (Jorge Salcedo/Dreamstime.com)
they contain. The heated gas or liquid then passes on to a storage system,
usually a hot water insulated tank to prevent heat loss.
The next part of the system is the transport system, which is composed
of a network of pipes and pumps or fans. The transport system circulates
heated water in a network of pipes, from the storage tank to all the rooms
located throughout a building.
If needed, pumps can be used to help distribute the heated water or air
through the pipes. The heated water can then be used for household needs
such as washing clothes and taking showers.
Fans may be used to direct the released heat to needed areas. Once the
heat carried by the liquid is given o, the water returns to the storage tank
to be reheated.
Similar to the passive solar heating system, a backup heating unit may
also be part of an active system. The backup system is used during the cold
periods of the year or during several days of cloudy weather when there is
a constant demand for hot water and heat.
SOLAR HOT-WATER UNITS

Yesterdays Solar Water Heaters
According to the California Solar Center,
In the nineteenth century, no easy way existed to heat water. People
generally used a cook stove for this purpose. Wood had to be chopped
or heavy hods of coal lifted, then the fuel had to be kindled and the
re periodically stocked. In cities, the wealthier heated their water
with gas manufactured from coal. Still, the fuel didnt burn clean and
the heater had to be lit each time someone wanted to heat water. If
someone forgot to extinguish the ame, the tank would blow up.
To add to the problem of heating water, in many areas, wood
or coal or coal-gas cost a lot and many times could not be easily
obtained. To circumvent these problems, many handy farmers or
prospectors or other outdoors men devised a much safer, easier,
and cheaper way to heat waterplacing into the sun a metal water
tank painted black to absorb as much solar energy as possible. These
were the rst solar water heaters on record. ( http://www.california
solarcenter.org/history_solarthermal.html )
Todays Solar Water Heaters
Today, many countries use solar hot-water systems for a wide variety of
purposes, including hot water for household needs and for heating swimming pools.
solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost-eective way to generate
usesunshineis free. The Department of Energy describes the common types of domestic solar hot-water systems as follows.
Two Systems for Hot Water
Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive, but the most
common are active ones. Active systems rely on pumps to move the liquid
between the collector and the storage tank, while passive systems rely on
gravity to circulate the water as it is heated. There are dierent kinds of
solar collectors for residential applications, including the following.
Active solar water heating systems have circulating pumps and controls while
passive solar water heaters do not. Solar water heating systems almost always
require a backup system for cloudy days and times of increased demand.
Flat-Plate Collector
According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the most common collector is called a at-plate collector. Mounted on the roof, it consists of a thin, at, rectangular box with a transparent cover that faces the
sun. Small tubes run through the box and carry the uideither water
or other uid, such as an antifreeze solutionto be heated. The tubes are
attached to an absorber plate, which is painted black to absorb the heat.
As heat builds up in the collector, it heats the uid passing through the
tubes.
The glazed at-plate collectors are insulated, weatherproofed boxes that
contain a dark absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic (polymer)
covers. The unglazed at-plate collectors are typically used for solar pool
heating. These collectors have a dark absorber plate, made of metal or polymer, without a cover or enclosure.
Passive solar water heaters use the greenhouse effect for heating and cooling
of the interior living space of a home. This system does not have any mechanical devices. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Integral Collector-Storage Systems

Integral collector-storage systems, also known as ICS, have one or more
black tanks or tubes in an insulated, glazed box. Cold water rst passes
through the solar collector, which preheats the water that is circulated to a
conventional backup water heater as a source of hot water. These systems
should be installed only in mild-freeze climates because the outdoor pipes
could freeze in severe, cold weather.
Storage Tanks
Most solar water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar storage tanks have an additional outlet and inlet connected to and from the
collector. In two-tank systems, the solar water heater preheats water before
it enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank systems, the back-up
heater is combined with the solar storage in one tank.
The Economics of a Solar Water Heater

Solar water heating systems usually cost more to purchase and install than
conventional water heating systems. However, a solar water heater can
usually save a homeowner energy costs over time.
The Department of Energys Oce of Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy states that what you can save on energy costs depends on the
following:
The amount of hot water you use

Your systems performance
Your geographic location and solar resource
Available nancing and incentives
The cost of conventional fuels (natural gas, oil, and electricity)
The cost of the fuel you use for your backup water heating system, if
you have one
Government sources state that, on average, if a homeowner installs a

solar water heater, the water heating bills could be reduced by 5080 percent. Also, the homeowner is protected from future fuel shortages and
price hikes by using solar energy.
Global Installation of Solar Hot-Water Heaters
Solar water-heating systems are very popular in countries with plenty of
daylight solar radiation. Some of these countries include Cyprus, Israel,
Greece, Japan, Austria, and China. At least 30 million Chinese households
now have solar hot-water heaters, making China the number one user. In
2009 the country accounted for approximately 80 percent of the worlds
market of solar hot-water heaters. The high-tech rooftop solar heaters provide water for cooking, bathing, and washing.
FEATURE
Hot Water Heaters in California
The state government of California has approved a $350 million program to subsidize the installation of solar water heaters to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The program will spend millions of dollars to replace hot water heaters that
use natural gas and electricity.
According to one report, there are more than 25 million rooftop solar heaters
in China. The cost of each solar heater is under $200. (Naqiewei/Dreamstime.
com)
According to the Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI),

in the United States there are 1.5 million solar water heaters already
in use in U.S. homes and businesses. Solar water heater systems can
work in any climate and EESI estimates that 40 percent of all U.S.
homes have sucient access to sunlight so that 29 million additional
solar water heaters could be installed right now. In 2005 the United
States began oering homeowners tax credits for installing solar hotwater heaters.
What Are the Costs of Solar Water Heaters?
According to the EESI, residential solar water heater systems cost between $1,500 and $3,500, compared to $150 to $450 for electric and gas
heaters. With savings in electricity or natural gas, solar water heaters pay
for themselves within four to eight years. Solar water heaters last between
15 and 40 yearsthe same as conventional systemsso after that initial
payback period is up, zero energy cost essentially means having free hot
water for years to come.
FEATURE
Students Design and Build Solar Water Heaters for Developing Countries
At several colleges worldwide, engineering students are designing and building
solar water heaters for African villages. For example, in 2009 the Minnesota State
University Media Relations Department reported that mechanical engineering
students in Ghana and the United States were designing and building inexpensive
solar-powered water heaters made with tire inner tubes, rubber sheets and other
locally available African materials. Their work was supported in part by a grant
from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, in its People, Prosperity and Planet
national design competition. The effort built on years of partnership between Minnesota State University, Mankato and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology in Ghana on shared projects and faculty interaction.
AMERICAN SOLAR ENERGY SOCIETY

Established in 1954, the American Solar Energy Society (ASES) is a
nonprot organization dedicated to increasing the use of solar energy,
energy eciency, and other sustainable technologies in the United
States.
According to the American Solar Energy Societys Web site, the organization leads national eorts to promote solar energy education, public outreach, and advocacy. ASES publishes the award-winning SOLAR
TODAY magazine, organizes and presents the ASES National Solar Conference, and leads the ASES National Solar Tourthe largest solar energy
event in the world, as well as other powerful programs.
In 2007, the American Solar Energy Society published the groundbreaking Green-Collar Jobs report, which showed that renewable energy and energy eciency sectors generate 9 million jobs and nearly $1 trillion in annual
revenue in the U.S. The second report, Tackling Climate Change in the U.S.,
demonstrated how renewable energy and energy eciency could provide the
carbon emissions reductions needed to mitigate climate change. More than
11,000 members now support ASES across the nation.
SOLAR PONDS
A solar pond is another solar energy technology that collects and stores
sunlight in a body of water for the purpose of providing renewable energy.
In this technology, the sunlight is captured, heated, and stored in the
bottom layer of a body of water where the water has a high salt content.
The stored salt water can attain temperatures high enough to generate
electricity and to heat buildings. Solar pond technology does not damage
the environment or produce waste materials.
Generally, the solar salt pond has three main layers. The surface layer
is cold and has relatively little salt content or salinity. The bottom layer is
hot, up to 212 degrees Fahrenheit, and is very salty. Separating the top and
bottom layers is the important gradient zone.
The gradient zone is between 3 and 6 feet deep. In a heat transfer process called convection, uids such as water and air rise when heated. Therefore, the hot water at the bottom of the pond would rise to the surface, but
the middle gradient zone stops this process. The water in the gradient zone
stays put. It cannot rise to the surface because the surface water has a low
salt content and is therefore lighter. The water in the gradient zone cannot
sink to the lower level either because the bottom water is denser. In summary, the gradient zone reduces convection.
Solar ponds can heat up over time when large quantities of salt are dissolved in the hot, bottom layer of water. The salty bottom layer becomes
too dense to rise to the surface and cool. The hot water is trapped from
which useful heat may be withdrawn or stored for later use.
Solar ponds can provide a supplemental energy source for electrical production and heat for thermal desalination and space heating. Solar ponds
can also provide heat for the production of chemicals, foods, textiles, and
other industrial products and for the separation of crude oil from brine
in oil recovery operations. Another use of solar ponds includes protecting
sh from cold kill in aquaculture applications. The ponds can also be receptacles, or storage containers, for brine disposal from by-product wastes
from crude oil production and from power plant cooling towers systems in
which brine disposal is a problem.
Operated by the University of Texas at El Paso, the El Paso Solar Pond
is a research, development, and demonstration project funded by the United
States Bureau of Reclamation and the state of Texas. The solar pond, located on the property of a food canning company, has been operated since
1985, when it became the rst in the world to deliver industrial process
heat to a commercial manufacturer. A year later, it earned the distinction
of becoming the rst electric powergenerating solar pond facility in the
United States, and then in 1987 it became the nations rst solar pond
powered water-desalting facility.
According to experts, solar pond technology has the potential

especially for areas in which there is a unique combination of solar energy, salt, and brackish waterto become a viable energy source. In the
southwestern area of the United States, experts believe the potential for
salt-gradient solar technology is immense. In this location, there is an
abundance of underground salt resources, brackish water, and natural salt
lakes, which represent a potentially signicant, untapped resource.
Wind, Hydropower, and Other Alternative Energy Sources. Ocala, FL:
Atlantic, 2008.
Kachadorian, James. The Passive Solar House: The Complete Guide to Heating
and Cooling Your Home. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green,
2006.
2001.
Smith, Trevor. Renewable Energy Resources. Mankato, MN: Weigl, 2003.
SOMETHING TO DO
Explore passive solarbuilding design activities, sponsored by the Department of Energy, Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy, at https://
www.eecbg.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/29267-4.1.pdf.
WEB SITES
www.solar-energy-power.net
Solar Energy Review is a comprehensive Web site on solar energy
and solar power systems. Its purpose is to share their members engineering and commercial experiences in renewable energy projects.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/27954.pdf
The Department of Energys Oce of Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy Passive Design for the Home illustrates how passive
solar design works.
http://techpulse360.com/2009/09/02/japans-solar-energy-space-station
Solar energy space station: Thirty years from now, will Japan be the
rst country to utilize solar radiation and microwave technology to
beam back energy from space?
www.ises.org
The International Solar Energy Society promotes the development
and use of renewable energy. It is dedicated to the advancement and
utilization of solar energy.
www.un.org/pubs
The United Nations online publication The Promise of Solar Energy
describes solar energy technology as one of the least carbon-intensive
means of electricity generation. This technology can help mitigate
climate change while stimulating economies and creating employment opportunities and a more secure grid system.
www.passivesolar.sustainableresources.com
Passive Solar Design provides information on passive solar design
construction including guidelines, technology, supplies, and cost and
regulatory factors.
www.power-technology.com
Power Technology creates an alphabetical list of power contractors
and suppliers and produces a catalogue of products and services.
VIDEOS
U.S.The Future: Experts have suggested that solar-powered energy
can become a signicant and cost-ecient replacement for fossil
fuels, but will the government help? To learn more, go to http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=w-fhs1ceke0 (02:40 minutes).
SpainSolar Tower: A technician in Madrid describes how hot air
rising up from the bottom of a 600-foot tall chimney can run an
installed turbine at the top to generate electricity. Go to http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=XCGVTYtJEFk.
Israel: An Israeli company has made strides in oering cost-eective

solar energy. To learn more about the political, global, and environmental advantages and disadvantages, go to http://www.metacafe.
com/watch/2753605/israeli_town_inaugurates_rst_commercial_
solar_farm/ (02:26 minutes) and/or http://www.metacafe.com/watch/
yt-_O47RiYJiKI/truly_amazing_advanced_solar_cell_from_israel/
(03:47 minutes).
Chapter 4
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen
and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or together, will furnish
an inexhaustible source of heat and light, of an intensity of which
coal is not capable.
Jules Verne, The Mysterious Island (1874)
HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS
There is much talk today about using hydrogen fuels cells to power the
next line of automobiles and other vehicles. Yes, hydrogen is a clean, renewable energy source, but there are a number of hurdles in the planning
and building of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. Some of the hurdles include
the high costs of materials to build these cars and the lack of a network of
hydrogen refueling stations that will be necessary once these vehicles are
on the road.
At a press brieng in 2009 on the proposed governments budget for the
scal year, Energy Secretary Steven Chu stated that these hurdles, along
with a need for better fuel tanks and technology to make large amounts of
hydrogen from sources other than natural gas, limited the fuel cell technologys appeal for vehicle production. Therefore, Chu said the department
would concentrate on projects such as hydrogen power for buildings because it was unlikely the fuel could be widely deployed for vehicles anytime
soon. As a result, U.S. Energy Department funding for hydrogen-related

projects was scheduled to be cut by 60 percent for the next scal year under
budget plans presented by President Barack Obama. Some government
funding for hydrogen fuel programs was later restored.
Although the United States has cut back a bit on fuel-cell vehicle technology, not all automobile companies are doing the same. Automakers in
Germany, South Korea, and Japan are expanding their fuel-cell programs.
Presently, California has the largest eet of hydrogen fuel-cell models and
money to develop more hydrogen stations. Toyota plans to sell fuel-cell cars
in 2015, and South Koreas Hyundai Motor Co. and Germanys Daimler
AG automaker also are planning to sell hydrogen vehicles. However, it
may be decades before hydrogen power is as conventional as the reneries
and the local gas stations we have today.
Refer to chapter 5 for more information on the applications of hydrogen fuel cells for the transportation sector.
In 2008 Honda unveiled the FCX Clarity, an advanced fuel cell electric vehicle
featuring a fuel cell stack. Powered by Hondas V Flow fuel cell stack, the FCX
has made important major improvements in driving range and power. Fuel cell
electric vehicles produce no harmful emissions. (AP Photo/Koji Sasahara)
Hydrogen Fuel Cells a 87
SOME BASICS ON HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in Earths crust. It is number 1 on
the periodic table of elements and is a colorless and odorless gas found in
water and all organic matter, including acids. Hydrogen makes up 75 percent of all the mass in the universe. Hydrogen isotopes include deuterium
and tritium. Hydrogen is found naturally on Earth but only in compounds
that are formed with other elements, such as oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.
For example, hydrogen combined with oxygen is water (H2O). When hydrogen is combined with carbon, dierent compounds are formed, such as
methane (CH4), coal, and petroleum.
Because hydrogen does not occur freely on Earth, breaking it free from
other compounds is not easy. Presently, hydrogen can be produced by separating various fossil fuels such as coal, methane, natural gas, and petroleum.
In fact, thousands of tons of hydrogen are produced daily in natural gas
reneries. Hydrogen can also be separated from water by using electricity
in a process known as electrolysis. The process of electrolysis can be fueled
from fossil fuels, and from renewable sources such as solar energy, wind
energy, or geothermal energy.
WHAT IS A FUEL CELL?
According to the Department of Energy, a fuel cell is a device that uses
hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create electricity through
an electrochemical process. Fuel cells have several benets over conventional fossil fuel technologies currently used in many power plants and
passenger vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cells produce much smaller quantities
of greenhouse gases and none of the air pollutants that create smog and
cause health problems. In fact, if pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells
will emit only heat and water as byproducts.
DID YOU KNOW?

Hydrogen forms about 11 percent by weight of water (H2O) and is not very reactive
at room temperatures. However, at high temperatures hydrogen burns vigorously
and often explosively.
How Does a Fuel Cell Work?

Simply stated, a single hydrogen fuel cell consists of an electrolyte. An
electrolyte is a chemical solution that has the ability to conduct an electric current. The fuel cell also has two electrodes: an anode and a cathode.
The electrolyte causes the charged ions to move from one electrode to the
other. During the chemical action, the ions, passing between the anode
and the cathode, produce electricity.
DID YOU KNOW?

In general, an ion is an atom or a molecule that has gained or lost one or more
electrons.
VIDEO
If you are interested in a more detailed description of how a fuel cell works, go
to the following Department of Energy video, Fuel Cell Animation: http://www1.
eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcell_animation.html.
Different Kinds of Fuel Cells

According to the Department of Energy, there are several types of fuel
cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications. They include polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cells, direct methanol fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, and
Although there are dierent fuel cell types, all fuel cells work similarly.
For example, the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are particularly suitable for transportation vehicles, such as cars and buses. The
polymer electrolyte membrane is also called a proton exchange membrane.
The PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of dierent materials.
They include electrodes (anode and cathode) and a polymer electrolyte
membrane.
A Major Drawback of Fuel Cells
One of the drawbacks of using these fuel cells in vehicles is hydrogen
storage. According to the Department of Energy, most fuel cell vehicles
(FCVs) powered by pure hydrogen must store the hydrogen on-board as
a compressed gas in pressurized tanks. Due to the low-energy density of
FEATURE
Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) are powered by pure methanol. Methanol is
also known as wood alcohol. The methanol is mixed with steam and fed directly
to the fuel cell. Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage
problems typical of some fuel cells because methanol has a higher energy density
than hydrogenthough less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier
to transport and supply to the public using the countrys current infrastructure of
service stations because it is a liquid, like gasoline.
hydrogen, it is dicult to store enough hydrogen on-board to allow vehicles to travel the same distance as gasoline-powered vehicles before refueling, typically 300400 miles.
BRIEF HISTORY OF HYDROGEN TIME LINE
1766
1788
1800
1958
1959
1990
1991
1994
2001
Hydrogen was discovered as an element by the British scientist

Henry Cavendish. He proved that water is composed of hydrogen
and oxygen gases.
French scientist Antoine Lavoisier named the gas hydrogen. The
word hydrogen is from the Greek words hydro and genes, meaning water and born of.
Two English scientists, William Nicholson and Sir Anthony
Carlisle, applied an electric current to a glass of water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases. The method they used is
electrolysis.
The United States formed the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). NASAs space program uses liquid hydrogen for rocket propulsion.
Francis T. Bacon, an English scientist, built the rst working hydrogen fuel cell. His ve-kilowatt fuel cell was able to power a
welding machine.
The worlds rst solar-powered hydrogen production plant became
operational in southern Germany.
Georgetown University scientists tested three fuel-cell vehicles as
part of a Generation I Bus Program.
Daimler Benz presented the NECAR I (New Electric Car) at a
show in Germany. This was the automakers rst hydrogen fuelcell vehicle.
Ballard Power Systems launched the PEM fuel cell system, which
was designed for integration into a wide variety of industrial and
consumer end-product applications.
PRESENT USE
Today, hydrogen is used primarily in the production of ammonia, which

is a major ingredient of fertilizer. Hydrogen is also used in petroleum reneries to remove sulfur in the rening of gasoline. Food manufacturers
use some hydrogen in a process called hydrogenation; this process is used
to convert oils into margarine. Presently, hydrogen fuel cells are used in
NASAs space program to provide heat, electricity, and drinking water for
astronauts. In the future, hydrogen fuel cells could be used to fuel vehicles
and aircraft and to provide power for our homes and oces.
HOW IS HYDROGEN PRODUCED?
The simplest and most common element, hydrogen is all around us but
always as a compound with other elements; hydrogen does not exist on
Earth as a gas and must be separated from other elements. To make it usable in fuel cells, an energy source is needed to extract the hydrogen from
the fossil fuel, biomass, water, or other compound in which it is found. The
two most common methods for producing hydrogen are steam reforming
and electrolysis. But new technologies are being developed all the time to
produce hydrogen, including the thermochemical hydrogen process and
methods involving algae.
Steam Reformation
Today, steam reformation from natural gas is used for most of the hydrogen production in the United States. Steam reforming is an inexpensive
method of producing hydrogen. Steam reformation is used in industries
to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane (CH4), a fossil fuel. However, this manufacturing process releases carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas emission.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is a process that breaks up hydrogen and oxygen in water. It
uses electricity, passing through an electrolytic solution or other material,
to cause a reaction that breaks up the chemical bonds. This process, also
called water splitting, results in no emissions, but it is a very expensive
method of producing hydrogen.
DID YOU KNOW?

The millions of tons of hydrogen that are produced in the United States today are
enough to power 2030 million cars or 58 million homes. Nearly all of this hydrogen
is produced in just three states, California, Louisiana, and Texas, where hydrogen is
used by industry in oil refining, in the treatment of metals, and in processing food.
There are several methods to produce electrolysis. The best is to use renewable energy sources such as solar and wind. The electrolyzer is a device used
to separate hydrogen and oxygen from water. The hydrogen can be stored and
later used to produce hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles or for manufacturing fuel
cells to provide electricity for homes and businesses. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Thermochemical Hydrogen
The thermochemical hydrogen process includes heating biomass (or fossil
fuels) with limited or no oxygen present. This process can gasify it into a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide known as synthesis gas or syngas. Syngas can then be chemically converted to produce hydrogen.
Algae for Hydrogen Production
Researchers have found a way in which algae can be used to produce hydrogen gas. The single-cell green alga C. reinhartii is commonly found in
soils and produces small quantities of hydrogen when it is deprived of
oxygen. So under anaerobic conditions, this kind of alga can generate its
energy from fermentation. Fermentation is the process in which a cell or
alga obtains energy from the breakdown of food molecules in the absence
of oxygen.
During fermentation, hydrogen is released though the action of electrons. The electrons are generated by the breakdown of organic compounds
Bioreactors are special containers for growing organisms such as bacteria or

yeast. Bioreactors are used in the biotechnological production of substances
such as pharmaceuticals or for the bioconversion of organic waste. In this
photo, the bioreactors contain cultures of hydrogen-producing microscopic
algae. Scientists have known that certain species of algae can produce hydrogen in anaerobic conditions. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
or the splitting of water by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process by

which plant leaves make carbohydrates using sunlight, carbon dioxide, and
water. But not many of these electrons go into the production of hydrogen.
A major research study is underway to develop experiments to increase this
small portion of electrons for the production of more hydrogen.
DID YOU KNOW?

High-oil algae can be grown specifically for the purpose of wide-scale biodiesel
production. In fact, one government agency predicted that algae farms could supply enough biodiesel to replace petroleum as a transportation fuel in the United
States and as a home heating oil. More research is needed in this field.
Savannah River National Laboratory

A team of researchers at the Savannah River National Laboratory in the
state of South Carolina is studying how blue-green algae have the ability
to produce hydrogen. According to these researchers and others, biological
hydrogen production by blue-green algae is highly attractive because it:
uses a renewable resource requiring only water, sunlight, air, and trace
mineral salts
does not use or produce hazardous materials
is carbon-neutral or even carbon-negative process (absorbing carbon,
rather than producing it)
One long-term goal is to develop strains of algae that would grow in
mass cultures to produce enormous quantities of hydrogen gas. Scientists
agree that hydrogen can be produced at large central locations or at small
plants for local use. Every region of the country has some resource that
can be used to make hydrogen. However, more research will be needed in
algae-based production to achieve the goal.
FEATURE
The First Hydrogen Power Plant
Italy is planning the worlds first hydrogen power plant, which is scheduled to be
built near Venice. The hydrogen, produced at a petrochemical plant, will be transported from specially built pipelines to the hydrogen power plant. Upon completion,
the hydrogen power plant will provide electrical power to 20,000 households and
will produce no undesirable greenhouse gases.
INTERVIEW
The University of Connecticut program includes small fuel-cell model cars, but in
the summer of 2009, I interviewed Ross McCurdy and his students, who were building a full-sized two-passenger, hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle in a garage.
Green Advocate: Ross McCurdy, High School Science Teacher, Ponaganset, Rhode
Island
Go-Green Project: Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicle
Describe your present position.
I am a high school science teacher at Ponaganset High School in Glocester, Rhode
Island. I started my teaching career about 11 years ago, teaching mostly freshman
physical science and some biology. I am now teaching chemistry and a course that
we developed at the school called Fuel Cell Systems and Renewable Energy.
This course started with an interest in the environment and the need for clean,
sustainable energy technologies and actually came about through our schools fuel
cellpowered rock and roll band.
I grew up and attended K12 public schools in Attleboro, Massachusetts.
What college did you attend, and what was your major field?
Immediately after high school at the age of 17, I went into the U.S. Air Force and
went to the Defense Language Institute in San Antonio, Texas. This was a big
move for me as I had never been in the southern United States and had never
even been on airplane prior to the flight that took me to basic training. After
basic training, I took a class that nobody going into the military would ever expect: a five-week course on English grammar to prepare students for the Defense
Language Institute. I was then selected to attend Russian language school for
47 weeks. As for many young people, the military was a major wake-up call for me.
The military schools use a practice called washing out. What this means is either you meet the necessary grades, typically a C or higher, or you get booted out
of the school. This was not treated as a punishment; many students who washed
Two of Ross McCurdys students, Chris Charest (left) and Zane Lewis, drive
the hydrogen fuel cell Model T they built in McCurdys class at Ponaganset
High School. The street-legal hot rod is powered by a 12 kilowatt hydrogenics fuel cell, and the only emission is pure water. (Courtesy Ross McCurdy)
out of a certain military school were then placed in a different military school in
another good occupation that was better suited to them. After getting out of the
Air Force, I was ready for a major change and found it as a bass player in the rock
and roll world.
When I was ready to continue my education, Rhode Island College was there
for me. I received a degree in biology with teacher certification and later became
certified to teach chemistry and earned my masters degree in science education,
all at Rhode Island College.
My father was a middle school science teacher, which I am sure was a major influence on me. I actually started at Rhode Island College thinking of being a history
major; fortunately for me, my college advisor, biologist Dr. Matsumoto, steered me
into science and biology.
Describe the goal of your project.
Our goal was the building of a full-size, street-legal, fuel-cell vehicle capable of
cruising at the speed of normal traffic.
How did you get started?
We needed a lightweight vehicle that was relatively easy to work with, something
that was cool-looking and significant in some way. One student suggested the idea
of using a T-Bucket. I asked him what a T-Bucket was. He said it was the hot rod
version of the old 1923 Ford Model T roadster. I thought this was great; it was historically significant, lightweight, and the first vehicle that was mass-produced. We
purchased the T-Bucket at a cost of $7,500.
Further research revealed that a Model Tstyle vehicle was a great platform for
many reasons. The original Model Ts had only 20 horsepower and a top speed of
40 miles per hour and these vehicles are simpleeasy to get parts for and work
on. The Model T is historically significant as the vehicle that made the automobile
affordable to the masses, and best of all, these cars are really cool!
After acquiring the Model T, what was next in your plans for the hydrogen fuel
cell project?
It was decided to implement two phases for the project. Phase I was to replace
the gasoline power engine in the Model T with an electric motor drive system. The
conversion of the vehicle to battery electric power required using a dozen Optima
12-volt deep-cycle batteries for an estimated range of 20 miles.
Phase II included the integration of a fuel cell, with the goal of achieving a range
of over 100 miles, enabling our Model T to drive as long as we have hydrogen in
our tanks.
What kind of electric motor did you use?
We are using an Advanced DC 4001 30 HP (continuous) electric motor. It is a very
common motor designed for electric vehicles, a workhorse motor. This motor is
connected to a motor controller mounted on the Ts firewall.
What is the controller used for?

The controller acts much like a giant dimmer switch between the batteries and the
motor. You step on the gas pedal, and the controller gives a certain amount of
power to the electric motor. During the battery-only Phase I, we were using a Curtis
1231C 500 amp controller, which is common in electric vehicles.
What kind of batteries do you use to supplement the fuel cell?
For Phase I, conversion to battery electric power, we were using a dozen of the
Optima D34/78 yellow-top, deep-cycle batteries wired in series for a 144-volt system. Since our Hydrogenics HyPM 12 kW fuel cell puts out around 48 volts DC,
we have changed our controller and battery system to work with the 48 volts the
fuel cell puts out. We are now using an Alltrax 4865 controller that we purchased
from Bob Batson at Electric Vehicles of America. We are also using only four of
the Optima batteries now. These are wired in series for 48 volts, and these batteries serve as a buffer between the fuel cell and motor, helping to provide quicker
acceleration.
Do you have a charger for these batteries?
Yes, we were using a Lester and a Zivan NG3 charger with the 144-volt system.
With the current 48-volt system, our Hydrogenics fuel cell keeps the battery pack
charged. We have also recently acquired a Manzanita PFC 40 charger, which can
use a wide range of input voltage such as 120 volts or 240 volts and can also charge
battery systems from 12 volts up to 450 volts.
How did you obtain the fuel cell?
Acquiring a fuel cell is always the biggest challenge in a fuel-cell vehicle project.
Over the years our fuel cellpowered band Protium has performed at a lot of fuel
cell conferences, and we have had the good fortune to meet key people in the fuel
cell industry. These people had seen the band and knew our reputation of working
hard on big projects to achieve success, and the folks at Hydrogenics believed in
our fuel-cell Model T project and our students. They helped us out in a big way with
a partial sponsorship for their HyPM 12 kW fuel cell. This fuel cell weighs a little
over 200 pounds and puts out 12,000 watts for an amazing power-to-weight ratio, a
powerful, super-small package ideal for our application.
What was the cost of the fuel cell, and how did you decide what you wanted?
The typical price for a fuel cell is approximately $5,000 per kW, but this can vary
widely. There are only about three companies in the world that I know of who manufacture and have available a fuel cell that is suitable for our Model T. The most
powerful of these is the Hydrogenics HyPM 12 kW, which we are fortunate to have
for our fuel-cell Model T project. With this fuel cell, we estimated a cruising speed
of 40 mph with fuel cell power alone. During initial road testing, we reached 39 mph,
so we are pretty much there and are confident we will reach the 40 mph range with
more road tests. Interestingly, this is about the same as the 40 mph top speed for
the original Model T.
What kinds of brakes are on the fuel cell vehicle?

Our T is equipped with manual hydraulic brakes with disk brakes on the front
wheels and drum brakes on the back wheels. The back drum brakes are the same
ones that were on the Model T when we purchased it, and we upgraded the front
brakes with the best disks and calipers that we could fit. We also upgraded the
wheels and put on new tires. Through a BF Goodrich sponsorship, we put on Radial
T/A tires, which look great. The car also handles much better with the Radial T/As
on it, which replaced the old motorcycle tires that were on the front and quite common for the T-Bucket hot rods.
What was the budget, and how was the fuel cell fundedin total cost?
Virtually all the funding came from outside grants. Today, schools have no money,
and lately, things are even worse. Much of the funding came from Rhode Island
grantsfrom Rhode Island Resource Recovery and the state energy officeand
we also received major funding from the Fuel Cell Test and Evaluation Center. This
came about through a serendipitous meeting with Fuel Cell Program Manager
Dr. Michael Binder, who discovered our fuel cell band Protium at the Connecticut
Clean Energy Fuel Cell Summit back in 2003. People and organizations that believe in
the value of these renewable energy projects and our students have made all these
projects possible. One of the biggest keys to success with our Fuel Cell Model T
project has been teamwork between our students, sponsors, people in the fuel cell
industry, and our parent volunteers Mike Lewis, Jim Sullivan, and John Murphy.
When did you get the registration for the vehicle?
We first registered our Model T back in November 2005. We drove it around for a
few months on gasoline power to provide initial baseline performance data and to
promote the project, and then we started taking it apart in March of 2006 to convert
it to electric power.
What are your future plans for the hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle?
We have achieved our goals for Phase I, battery electric power, and for Phase II,
conversion to hydrogen fuel-cell power. Now we want to refine and improve our
fuel-cell Model T and use this vehicle to teach our current and future students
in fuel cell class. We are working to get a DC-DC up-converter, which will allow
us to use a higher voltage controller with our fuel cell; this will give us more
power and enable us to add batteries for a fuel cellbattery electric hybrid. We
can also experiment with different controller systems, battery systems, and other
components.
With our Hydrogenics HyPM 12 kW fuel cell fully integrated, weve done some
initial road testing and are now taking it to some interesting events and festivals, including the Rhode Island Makers Fair and the Apeiron Sustainable Living Festival.
We are planning to road test it on longer trips and are considering the possibility of
taking it on a 400-mile drive to Washington, D.C. That may take us a while because
there is still plenty of road testing to be done locally, and we will have to work out
the logistics of hydrogen refueling and other aspects of a relatively long trip.
Building Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Are Not New for Mr. McCurdy and His
Students
Mr. McCurdy and his students have a solid background in building hydrogen fuelcell vehicles. Before Mr. McCurdy built the present hydrogen fuel-cell car described in the earlier interview, he and his students designed and built a much
smaller version. I asked Mr. McCurdy to report his experience with the first hydrogen fuel cell that he and his students built:
My high school students and I designed and built a hydrogen fuel cell
powered quadracycle vehicle called the Fuel Cell Quadracycle (FCQ).
It was thought to be Rhode Islands first fuel-cell vehicle, designed
and built by us at the Ponaganset High School in Glocester, Rhode
Island.
The quadracycle vehicle had a one-horsepower electric motor. The
hydrogen tank was strapped to the back of the vehicle and connected
to the fuel cell. A converter was installed that changed AC power to
DC power, which was then connected to the motor. The vehicle could
run on the fuel cell power alone, but batteries were used to help extend the vehicles range and improve the smoothness of the ride.
The FCQ was a four-passenger model with a 750-watt, 24-volt electric motor and controller drive system. The system was designed to
operate with two deep-cycle 12-volt batteries wired in series to get
the necessary 24 volts. The FCQ is able to cruise at 12+ mph with two
people, with an estimated range of 20 miles on fuel cell power alone
and 40 miles as a fuel cellbattery hybrid. The whole car was worth
about $4,800 before we mounted the fuel cell. The 1 kW Airgen fuel
cell we used to power it cost about $5,500.
After they developed this fuel-cell vehicle, Mr. McCurdy and his students had
bigger plans and purchased a Model T (see earlier interview).
FEATURE
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
As part of the U.S. Department of Energys (DOE) Hydrogen Program, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducts research on advanced technologies to produce, store, and safely use hydrogen made from renewable resources
such as sunlight, biomass, and biological organisms. The goal is to help industry
develop technologies to produce, store, transport, and use hydrogen in quantities large enough, and at costs cheap enough, to compete with traditional energy
sources such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
The NREL states that hydrogen is more versatile and has more uses than electricity. These uses include providing energy for businesses, factories, electric
utilities, homes, vehicles, and airplanes. Hydrogen is also a domestically produced
energy source that could help reduce the United States reliance on foreign oil.
However, researchers must overcome several obstacles if hydrogen is to become a major energy resource. Lets look at some of the obstacles.
Hydrogen is currently more expensive than traditional energy sources
The amount of energy needed to produce hydrogen must improve
The infrastructure to efficiently transport and distribute hydrogen must
be developed
Most of the hydrogen used as an energy source would be used for transportation where it will help reduce pollution. Internal combustion engines can be fueled with pure hydrogen, or hydrogen blended with natural gas. Vehicles can also
be powered with hydrogen fuel cells, which are three times more efficient than a
gasoline powered engine. Fuel cells can also supply heat and electricity for homes
and buildings. The overall goal of the DOEs Hydrogen Program was to replace the
amount of conventional energy consumed by 24 million households with hydrogen
by the year 2010. Its goal in 2030 is to replace conventional energy to 10 million
households with hydrogen.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1972 students at the University of California at Los Angeles retrofitted the internal combustion engine of a Gremlin automobile to run on hydrogen fuel supplied
from a storage tank. The students entered the 1972 Urban Vehicle Design Competition and won first prize for having low tailpipe emissions.
THE FUTURE OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS

Hydrogen has great potential as a nonrenewable clean energy fuel. Many
new facilities and systems must be built to produce hydrogen, store it, and
make it economically feasible.
The Department of Energy is working closely with national laboratories,
universities, and industry partners to overcome critical technical barriers to
fuel-cell commercialization. Current research focuses on the development
of reliable, low-cost, high-performance fuel-cell system components for
transportation and building applications.
Probably the biggest challenge to hydrogen is that it must be costcompetitive with conventional fuels on a cost-per-mile basis in order to
succeed in the commercial marketplace. Therefore, the goal is to make hydrogen fuel-cell costs competitive with other nonrenewable or renewable
fuels.
Hydrogen Economy
As stated previously, a hydrogen economy is going to need an infrastructure to deliver hydrogen from where it is produced to the service end, such
as a refueling station. Such an infrastructure would include the pipelines,
trucks, storage facilities, compressors, and dispensers involved in the process of delivering fuel.
However, a reliable and low-cost hydrogen distribution network will
take time to develop. Today, there are only a limited number of hydrogen
pipeline networks in the United States to supply hydrogen to the rening
industry. Nevertheless, as the demand for hydrogen grows, industry will no
doubt nd ways to develop an eective delivery and distribution network.
FEATURE
Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Model Racing Cars
The University of Connecticuts School of Engineering is very interested in helping students understand the hydrogen economy and how
a fuel cell works. In their program students design, build and race
hydrogen fuel cell model cars steered by guide wires. Each 23 members team is provided a fuel cell kit. Students are encouraged to use
math and science principles, together with their creativity, in a fun,
hands-on educational program that stimulates enthusiasm for science
at a crucial stage in their education.
The hands-on design is also different from textbook problem solving or even traditional science labs. Students can see for themselves
how changes in design are reflected in car performance. Teachers
and coaches have the opportunity to guide their students through a
process similar to those used by professional design engineers.
The goals of the program are as follows:
Present science concepts in a fun and exciting way.

Give students a chance to interact with engineers and scientists.
Stimulate creative thinking through a hands-on design project.
Help students to experience the satisfaction of creating a working
machine and the excitement of entering it in a competition.
The objective of the hydrogen fuel cell car competition is to design

and build a vehicle that will complete a race in the shortest possible
time. The fuel cell enables the student to produce hydrogen from a
solar cell, a 46 volt DC power source. During the race the hydrogen
and oxygen will be used to produce electricity to power the car.
WHAT COMPANIES MAKE HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS?

Ballard Power Systems designs, develops, and manufactures cleanenergy hydrogen fuel cells, including zero-emission PEM fuel cells.
Another company, Hydrogenics, has successfully applied hydrogen
power to mobile applications such as forklifts, buses, and other eet
and utility vehicles.
The Pacic Fuel Cell Company utilizes nanotechnology to manufacture fuel cell components. The company designs and develops nanocarbon-based MEAs (nanoMea) and graphite-based bipolar plates
(BPP). Pacic Fuel Cell can provide fuel-cell components to fuel-cell
system manufacturers who are building fuel cells for cell phones, laptop computers, digital cameras, power tools, portable power generators, and stationary generators.
Mitsubishi builds automotive PEM engines.
DuPont scientists are participating in several government programs
supporting fuel cell and membrane research, application, and materials development.
2007.
SOMETHING TO DO
Is it possible to break water? In a sense, thats what electrolysis does. Electrolysis uses electricity to split water into its two ingredients: hydrogen and
oxygen. Try it out with a battery and a couple of pencils! (Adult supervision required.) You will need the following:
6-volt or 9-volt battery

2 alligator clip leads or insulated wire
Beaker or glass
Piece of thin cardboard or cardstock
For instructions, go to the following Web site: http://www.hometrain

ingtools.com/article.asp?ai=1531&bhcd2=1252763651.
WEB SITES
www.fuelcells.org/basics
Fuel Cells Basics Applications present examples of fuel cells in a
vast number of applications including stationary systems in nursing
homes, schools, power plants, telecommunications, transportation,
auxiliary power units, portable power, and consumer electronics.
www.afdc.energy.gov
The Alternative Fuels and Advanced Data Center provides a wide
range of information and resources to enable the use of alternate
fuels in automotive fuels and services.
www.nfcrc.uci.edu
The National Fuel Cell Research Centers goal is to facilitate and accelerate the development of fuel cell technology and fuel cell systems
and to educate and to develop resources for the fuel cell industry.
http://www.fuelcells.org/about/mission.html
Fuel Cells 2000 is an activity of the Breakthrough Technologies Institute, a nonprot independent, educational organization that identies and promotes environmental and energy technologies that can
improve the human condition.
http://www.nrel.gov/learning
The National Renewable Energy Laboratorys (NREL) Web site
describes NRELs research in renewable energy technologies and
also provides information on energy eciency and various applications of renewable energy. There are a variety of educational resources that can help you learn about renewable energy sources and
technologies.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells
The Fuel Cell Technologies Program is a comprehensive portfolio of

activities that address the full range of barriers facing the development and deployment of hydrogen and fuel cells with the ultimate
goals of decreasing our dependence on oil, reducing carbon emissions, and enabling clean, reliable power generation.
http://www.eere.energy.gov
invests in clean energy technologies that strengthen the economy,
protect the environment, and reduce dependence on foreign oil.
VIDEOS
Fuel Cell Production/Delivery/Infrastructure: Watch this short but
thoroughly informative animation describing how hydrogen fuel
cells work on HowStuWorks: http://videos.howstuworks.com/
ballard/651-ballard-shows-how-a-fuel-cell-works-video.htm (03:42
minutes).
Fords Fuel Cell Record Breaker: Read about Fords 200-mph, 770-hp
hydrogen fuel-cell record-breaker at http://www.popularmechanics.
com/blogs/automotive_news/4220281.html (with 40-second video).
Hydrogen. A web site with multiple videos on how to produce fuel
cells. Of particular importance is the reversible fuel-cell demonstration: http://peswiki.com/index.php/Videos:Hydrogen#Fuel_Cells
(04:00 minutes).
U.S. Research on Wind Power and Fuel Cells: The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and Xcel Energy recently launched
a wind-to-hydrogen (Wind2H2) project: http://www.nrel.gov/hydro
gen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html.
Chapter 5
Fuel Cells for

Transportation
and Homes
In Madrid, Spain, the Boeing Research & Technology Europe team modied the propulsion system of a two-seated airplane in a special way. The
plane was powered by a hybrid propulsion system consisting of a hydrogen
fuel cell and lithium-ion batteries.
The team made three test ights around an aireld, near Madrid. During one ight, the pilot maneuvered the plane to an altitude of 3,300 feet
above sea level. To reach this altitude, the pilot used the power from the
battery and the hydrogen fuel cell. However, after reaching the altitude,
the pilot disconnected the batteries and ew the plane at a speed of
62 miles per hour for approximately 20 minutes on power generated solely
by the fuel cell. Of course, this was a short test ight, but it does demonstrate how fuel cells can provide renewable energy even for future aircraft
propulsion.
Hydrogen fuel cells are used in a variety of ways. These fuel cells are
now powering bicycles, boats, trains, planes, scooters, forklifts, and even
buses. Iceland, for example, has several fuel-cell buses that take passengers
around its towns and cities.
Police stations, hospitals, banks, wastewater treatment plants, and telecommunication companies use fuel cells for cellular phones and radios.
Fuel cells also have been installed in 911 towers. Other fuel-cell applications include vending machines, laptop computers, and other portable
electronics. The potential for using fuel cells is endless.
Boeings experimental aircraft is powered by hydrogen fuel cells. The plane

is seen at its airfield in Ocana, Spain, on April 3, 2008. In one test, the plane
climbed to an altitude of 3,000 feet. (Philippe Desmazes/AFP/Getty Images)
This chapter discusses fuel-cell applications in transportation, particularly automobiles, and in homes, businesses, and consumer products.
THE GROWTH OF FUEL CELLS
The fuel-cell industry in 2007 reported that there had been substantial job
growth and gains in sales and research according to the Worldwide Fuel
Cell Industry Survey. The Worldwide Fuel Cell Industry is a collaborative
eort by the leading fuel cell industry associations in the United States,
Canada, Europe and Japan to increase awareness of the industrys progress
and achievements. Participating companies in the survey reported a
22 percent gain in fuel-cell-specic employment to 8,647 employees.
FEATURE
Small Fuel Cells
Read about how U.S. chemical engineers have produced a small fuel cell (3mm)
with the capability to revolutionize greener gadgets: http://news.techworld.com/
green-it/109312/engineers-create-worlds-smallest-fuel-cell/.
Fuel Cells for Transportation and Homes a 107
The survey went on to state that global sales were up 10 percent to

$387 million, with fuel-cell research spending at about $829 million. One
executive reported that this data clearly show that the fuel-cell industry is
gaining commercial acceptance in key markets.
The United States and other countries are continuing to explore fuel-cell
technology and applications because of fuel cells benets. Fuel cells are clean,
ecient, and economical, and they can provide heat and electrical power.
Because the fuel cell has no moving parts, it runs with no noise. Fuel
cells can operate on a variety of fuels, such as natural gas, hydrogen, and
propane, and they emit less carbon dioxide per kilowatt hour than fossil
fuelpowered engines.
FUEL-CELL APPLICATIONS: TRANSPORTATION
As mentioned previously, the worlds leading automakers are working on
alternative technologies using fuel cells for cars, buses, and trucks. As of
2010, Pike Research, a market research and consulting rm that focuses
on global clean technology markets, conducted a study that predicts that
670,000 fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs) will sell annually by 2020. The U.S. Fuel
Cell Council has reported that FCVs will be more ecient than a gasoline
internal combustion engine and will be able to utilize hydrogen from a
variety of fuels. Although there are several dierent types of fuel cells, as
mentioned in chapter 4, the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells
are now used in most fuel-cell cars and buses. Some of these fuel cells have
electric capacities of 5075 kilowatts, which is enough to power these prototype vehicles. Another kind of fuel cell, the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC),
is also being tested on cars and trucks.
Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Cars
United States
As of 2010 there are several hundred hydrogen FCVs in the United
States. Most of these vehicles are buses and automobiles that are powered
DID YOU KNOW?

The sun is basically a giant ball of hydrogen gas undergoing fusion into helium gas
and giving off vast amounts of energy in the process.
by electric motors using hydrogen gas or hydrogen liquid fuels stored on

board in tanks. Only a few of the fuel vehicles today can burn pure hydrogen directly.
In 2002 the Department of Energy launched the Freedom CAR (Cooperative Automotive Research) Program, a partnership with the U.S.
Council for Automotive Research, with the intent to alleviate the nations
growing dependence on imported oil by advancing the high-technology
research needed to produce hydrogen FCVs.
Alex Keros, a General Motors senior engineer, demonstrates how to fill up a

General Motors Chevrolet Equinox fuel-cell electric SUV with hydrogen. The
fill-up process took place at Californias first hydrogen refueling station during
a dedication ceremony in Los Angeles. (AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes)
DID YOU KNOW?

The United States has been involved in hydrogen research and development since
the late 1950s. Liquid hydrogen was first used to power the National Aeronautic
and Space Administrations (NASA) spacecrafts.
Several automakers in the United States have designed, built, and tested
FCVs. General Motors has established extensive hydrogen fuel-cell research and development facilities in both the United States and Europe. In
2008 they built the Chevy Equinox Fuel Cell, an electric vehicle powered
by the GM fourth-generation fuel-cell system. The eet has been tested in
New York City; Washington, D.C.; and Southern California. The Chevy
Equinox Fuel Cell will go nearly 150 miles per ll-up.
In 2007 the Ford 999 became the worlds rst production vehiclebased fuel-cell race car. The vehicle reached approximately 207 miles
per hour on the track. The car was designed and built by Ford engineers
in collaboration with Ohio State University and Roush. The Roush
Company sells automobile performance parts, vehicles, and engines.
Ballard Power Systems supplied the 400 kilowatt hydrogen fuel cells.
The Ford vehicle demonstrated the potential of fuel-cell technology in
automobiles.
Japan
Since the 1980s Japan has been a leader in hydrogen fuel-cell research and
technology. In 1992 Japan organized the International Clean Energy Network Using Hydrogen Conversion. This was a 10-year program designed
to focus research and development eorts on hydrogen technologies. Many
Japanese automakers have already designed, build, and tested FCVs.
Japanese car manufacturer Honda has begun the rst commercial production of a zero-emission, hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicle. The name
of the vehicle is Honda FCX. The newly developed Honda FC Stack and
ultra-capacitor combine to power the motor, with onboard high-pressure
hydrogen tanks for fuel storage. A fuel cell vehicle is powered by an electric
motor running on electricity generated by a fuel stack, which uses hydrogen as its energy source. The FCX makes use of high-pressure hydrogen
fuel tanks capable of storing a large volume of hydrogen in a small space.
Honda claims the vehicle oers three times better fuel eciency than a
traditional, gasoline-powered car.
Automaker Toyota also has an FCV. The Toyota fuel-cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV) is based on the Highlander sport utility vehicle model. The
newer version is more fuel ecient because of a new high-performance
fuel-cell stack, better brakes, and more auxiliary systems. The hydrogen
tank developed by Toyota allows the new FCHV to drive 516 miles before
refueling.
United Kingdom
A new automobile company, Riversimple, in the United Kingdom designed
and built a prototype hydrogen FCV that is about the size of a golf cart.
The body of the car is built with carbon composites, each wheel is powered
by its own electric motor, and special capacitors store energy when the car
brakes. The car has a range of about 200 miles and a top speed of about
50 miles per hour. The car company plans to build refueling stations in
major city areas.
Germany
In Germany, Daimler automotive company announced the start of a small
series production of fuel-cell cars from the middle of 2009. Daimler is
looking to reach annual production numbers of 100,000 vehicles in four
to ve years at a cost comparable to hybrid cars. A major German fueling
The Riversimple hydrogen car was unveiled in London, England, in 2009. The
car accelerates to 50 miles per hour using hydrogen derived from natural gas,
and the eight-gallon tank and six-kilowatt fuel cell give the small vehicle a
range in excess of 200 miles. The Riversimples exhaust emissions are zero.
(Andy Rain/epa/Corbis)
station operator has opened a hydrogen lling station at Stuttgart Airport.

According to reports, most major automakers in Germany are investing in
fuel-cell technology.
As one example, Mercedes, a major German automaker, has 100 test
vehicles, which would be the worlds largest eet of FCVs. The auto company is currently working on fuel cellpowered cars that could be manufactured in limited numbers from 2010 and in larger numbers by 2015.
Other German manufacturers, such as Volkswagen, are less committed
to the production of future fuel-cell models. Volkswagen believes that fuelcell cars will be more saleable after 2020.
South Korea
According to Hyundai Motor Company, they plan to present their rst hydrogen fuel-cell car starting in 2012. This will be three years after Hyundai
introduced its rst gas-electric hybrid, the Avante compact car, in 2009.
Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Buses
United States
Globally, numerous transit systems are putting hydrogen fuel-cell buses on
their roads to demonstrate a pollution-free, quiet urban public transportation system. San Francisco International Airport received a state grant to
build a refueling station for cars and buses that run on hydrogen. The airport
station will serve a small number of local vehicles powered by fuel cells.
The transit system in the San Francisco Bay area has three hydrogen
fuel cellpowered hybrid buses operating and is gearing up for more. As a
result, these buses have reduced local pollution and greenhouse gas emissions and are more energy ecient than diesel buses.
Canada
The worlds largest number of hydrogen fuel-cell buses operating in one
location may be in British Colombia, Canada. The local transportation
company has about 20 buses that use fuel-cell technology. In 2004 the
Canadian government announced funding for the Canadian Hydrogen
Highway. The highway will be built between Vancouver and Whistler,
British Columbia. In 2010 hydrogen buses were used at the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics.
San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom steps off of a hydrogen fuel-cell zeroemission bus at the San Francisco Recycling and Disposal Center. A fuel cell
is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen fuel and oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water. The electricity produced powers the buses.
(AP Photo/Jeff Chiu)
Iceland
Iceland plans to be the worlds rst hydrogen-economy country. The goal is
to begin operation of a small eet of hydrogen fuel-cell buses that run on
renewably produced hydrogen. Because Iceland has an abundant supply of
renewable geothermal and hydroelectric power to produce hydrogen, the
buses will be fueled by hydrogen electrolyzed from water. A refueling station is already in operation in Reykjavik.
Other European Countries
European countries have been involved in hydrogen and fuel-cell research
and development since 1988. Currently, the countries in the European
Union (EU) have more than 70 ongoing hydrogen fuel-cell research and
development projects. The EU is also supporting the Clean Urban Transport
for Europe (CUTE) demonstration project. In this fuel-cell technology
project, CUTE will be putting on the road a eet of 27 hydrogen-powered
buses serving nine cities in Europe. This project also has funding for the
development and maintenance of a hydrogen distribution infrastructure
and highway to support the buses and other FCVs.
Other Countries
China, Australia, and Brazil are among other countries looking at fuelcell technology for transportation. For example, the Brazilian government
hopes that its new fuel-cell bus project will increase the demand for fuelcell buses in Brazil.
Hydrogen Injection for Diesel Trucks
Trucking and shipping companies, FedEx among them, together have now
logged tens of millions of miles using hydrogen injection systems. The hydrogen injection system can be installed on many of todays heavy diesel
trucks. The injection system draws a small amount of electricity from the
truck engines alternator, which breaks up water held in a small container
to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases. The hydrogen and oxygen gases
are both injected along with the diesel fuel into the engine. The result is a
signicant reduction in air-polluting emissions and greenhouse gases. The
system also reduces fuel consumption by 10 percent or more, and there is
an average 5 percent increase in horsepower.
Forklifts and Other Specialty Transportation
Special vehicles, such as airport luggage tugs and forklifts, are also providing a market for hydrogen fuel cells. These hydrogen-fueled vehicles are
particularly valued in locations where elimination of emissions is critical,
such as enclosed warehouses. A hydrogen-powered tug or forklift requires
only a minute or two to refuel, compared to many times that for battery
swapping and charging. The use of hydrogen improves operating eciencies and costs too.
Scooters
Even though they are small, many scooters emit a lot of tailpipe emissions,
particularly the two-stroke gasoline-powered engine types. These twostroke scooters produce more hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions than a heavy diesel truck. However, fuel-cell scooters running on
hydrogen eliminate emissions. Now in India and elsewhere in Asia, companies are helping people convert their gas-powered scooters to hydrogen
fuelpowered scooters to help reduce emissions in their local areas.
The High Cost of Building Hydrogen
Fuel-Cell Vehicles
Designing and manufacturing a small number of hydrogen FCVs can be
quite costly for automakers. In some cases, the cost for building just one
vehicle can reach almost one million dollars. However, high costs have not
discouraged one automaker. Toyota plans to sell its rst FCV for approximately $50,000 in 2015. If this can happen, fuel-cell cars may be more
economical to purchase.
Still Too Few Places to Refuel Hydrogen
Fuel-Cell Vehicles
Besides the cost challenges, another concern is the lack of hydrogen refueling stations. Taking short trips around town is ne with a hydrogen FCV.
But for long trips, drivers need to have refueling stations along the byways
and highways.
Norway
One country, Norway, is making a major eort to add hydrogen refueling
stations along its major highways. In 2009 Norway opened a 300-mile
hydrogen highway between its capital city Oslo and the North Sea oil
city of Stavanger. A Norwegian oil and gas producer has built several
hydrogen lling stations between the two cities just for cars with fuel
cells. Future plans for the highway include extending it into the rest of
Scandinavia. A highway hydrogen autobahn is being planned in northern
Germany.
New York
In July 2009, Shell Hydrogen Fuel opened New York Citys rst hydrogen fueling station for cars. Located at the John F. Kennedy Airport, the
station has a single hydrogen dispenser available 24 hours a day. At the
time of opening, there was no charge for refueling. The reason is that most
drivers of such cars participated in Project Driveway, a General Motors
Norway has made a major effort to add hydrogen refueling stations along a
300-mile major highway from Oslo to Stavanger.
demonstration project for fuel-cell cars. In the New York City area, as of
2009, there were three hydrogen refueling stations available for drivers.
Other Places
Japan and parts of California already have some hydrogen highways for
refueling fuel-cell cars. In California there are some 38 independent hydrogen fuel stations located around the state as part of a network created
by the nonprot California Fuel Cell Partnership. The California Fuel Cell
Partnership is a consortium of automakers, state and federal agencies, and
other parties interested in furthering hydrogen fuel-cell technologies.
FEATURE
The California Fuel Cell Partnership
The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP) is a collaboration of 33 member organizations, including auto manufacturers, energy providers, government agencies,
and fuel-cell technology companies, that work together to promote the commercialization of hydrogen FCVs.
The CaFCP has several goals. The goals include promoting FCVs as a means of
moving toward a sustainable energy future, to increase energy efficiency, and to
reduce or eliminate air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
In April 1999 the CaFCP set out to explore and facilitate the path to commercialization and increase awareness of fuel cells for transportation. Since then, the
partnership has made significant progress demonstrating FCV technology and fuel
alternatives. The next phase will span the years 2008 to 2012, a period that one
CaFCP member calls the rehearsal for commercial. More fuel-cell passenger
cars and buses will be on the roads in Northern and Southern California, fueling
at networks of hydrogen stations. Through 2012, the organizations members will
work together to move fuel-cell technology to the next level by accomplishing the
following goals:
Identify and address market opportunities and challenges.

Promote a safe, customer-friendly refueling experience.
Work toward a common fuel-delivery architecture.
Provide information and hands-on experience.
FEATURE
Turkish Students Build Hydrogen Vehicle
Turkish students at Sakarya University have developed the SAHIMO hydrogen car.
The vehicle can travel a distance of approximately 340 miles on one-fourth of a
gallon of hydrogen. This means that the vehicle is capable of traveling from the
eastern coast of Turkey to the western area, a distance of about 1,000 miles, using
just three-fourths of a gallon of hydrogen.
The group that developed the SAHIMO hydrogen car is the Sakarya University
Advanced Technologies Implementation Group (SAITEM). The team is made up
mostly of students who provided the technical and mechanical work. The SAHIMO
hydrogen car took third place in the 2009 European Shell Eco Marathon.
The body of the SAHIMO hydrogen car is made up of 90 percent carbon fiber,
and the small vehicle is very light, weighing only 230 pounds. What was the cost to
build the SAHIMO? The answer: $170,000.
RESIDENTIAL APPLICATIONS: USING FUEL

CELLS IN HOMES
According to Allied Business Intelligence (ABI), the current $40 million
stationary fuel-cell market will grow to more than $10 billion by 2010.
ABI Research is a market intelligence company specializing in global
emerging technologies.
Fuel cells are currently being developed in sizes appropriate for home
use and other residential applications. Residential fuel-cell systems can be
operated to provide primary or backup power for the home. The fuel cells
can run independently or in parallel to an existing power grid.
A fuel-cell power system for a residence could be located in the basement or backyard, taking up about as much space as an ordinary refrigerator and providing clean, quiet, reliable power. Fuel-cell systems use fuel
reformers. Fuel reforming is a method of producing hydrogen from a variety of fossil fuel sources, such as natural gas pipelines and propane distribution systems. Consumers may also be able to sell excess power produced
by their fuel-cell units back to their electric utility companies.
Installation of Fuel-Cell Power in Homes
The potential for using fuel-cell power in homes and commercial buildings
is very promising. In fact, some countries have already started testing the
use of fuel technology in providing heat and hot water systems for homes.
How Does the System Work?
Natural gas from an existing gas main is piped into the fuel-cell unit in the
house. When the gas is turned on, it passes through a steam reformer that
generates hydrogen. The hydrogen is then combined with oxygen in a fuelcell unit that produces both electricity and heat. Although creating the hydrogen from the natural gas does produce some carbon dioxide, using the
fuel cell reduces overall household emissions by 40 percent in comparison
with using 100 percent natural gas.
DID YOU KNOW?

In Germany, 96 fuel cell units were installed in homes during 2010 as part of a
large-scale demonstration of the technology.
England
The rst permanent hydrogen-powered home that was connected to a
transmission grid was built in England. The small bookshelf-sized fuel-cell
unit is capable of meeting about 75 percent of total energy demand, both
electricity and heat, for the household.
Japan
In 2009 the hydrogen fuel cell became available for homes in Japan. Each
installed fuel-cell unit provides approximately 70 percent of the energy
needs for a 1,300-square-foot house occupied by four people.
Presently, there are more than 1,000,000 homes in Japan that get their
electricity and warm water from hydrogen fuel-cell units. Developers say
fuel cells that use natural gas to get hydrogen produce one-third less of the
pollution that causes global warming than conventional electricity generation does.
Masanori Naruse points to a newly installed home fuel-cell cogeneration system and a water heater at his home near Tokyo, Japan. Developers say fuel
cells for homes like Naruses produce one-third less of the gases that cause
global warming than conventional electricity generation does for the same
amount of energy. (AP Photo/Junji Kurokawa)
The Japanese home fuel cell works like the one used in the house in
England. In these homes, between 500 watts and 1 kilowatt of electricity are generated, with enough thermal heat to warm a tank of water for
household uses. Energy ocials believe that a small home would be able to
receive enough electricity and warm water from a fuel cell to be even more
ecient than with traditional energy sources.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS FOR STATIONARY
POWER GENERATION
Globally, there are more than 250 stationary fuel-cell systems generating
power for large companies and businesses. The fuel-cell types include the
familiar PEM fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), SOFCs, and
molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC).
A stationary fuel-cell system can provide many advantages to industrial
companies, hospitals, data processing centers, and semiconductor computerchip manufacturers. As an example, presently, if there is a power failure in
these facilities, all production stops, products can be ruined, and patient care
can suer. Using fuel cells will provide a dependable and reliable source of
power when a conventional electric power-grid connection fails.
Another plus in using a stationary fuel-cell system is that it generates
waste heat. The waste heat can be collected in a storage tank and used
to provide heating and cooling or even to turn steam turbine generators
for additional electricity. When both electricity and waste heat are used
together, it is known as cogeneration. And as mentioned previously, stationary fuel-cell systems have the ability to utilize dierent fuels, such as
natural gas or coal gas, for the hydrogen needed to produce electricity.
OTHER USES FOR FUEL CELLS
Telecommunications
Fuel cells are currently being used to support more than 400 cell phone
towers across the United States. The devastating power of Hurricane Katrina oers one powerful lesson in the importance of energy to communications during emergencies. Legislation passed since Katrina requires all
cell phone towers to carry eight hours of backup power, and some wireless
providers have turned to fuel cells as their backup source, judging them
to be more eective and perhaps less expensive over the lifetime of the
system. Fuel cells can also replace batteries to provide enough power to
provide one to ve kilowatts for telecommunication locations in remote
areas. In summary, fuel-cell systems can provide clean, reliable o-grid
electricity and have been proven to be 99.99 percent reliable.
Portable Power for Consumers
Many miniature fuel cells can also operate using methanol. Methanol is a
wood alcohol also used in a variety of products such as wiper uid for automobile windshields. In tests, miniature fuel cells have powered cell phones
for 30 days without recharging and laptops for 20 hours. Other applications for miniature fuel cells include video recorders, portable power tools,
pagers, and even hearing aids, smoke detectors, and burglar alarms.
A methanol fuel cell is displayed at

the Second International Hydrogen
and Fuel Cell Expo in Tokyo, Japan,
in 2006. The methanol is shown in
the right cylinder. The solid methanol
solves the safety and mobility concerns for appliances that use Direct
Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC), particularly future models of mobile phones.
The solid methanol can be carried in
the small cartridge displayed in the
foreground of the photo. (AP Photo/
Katsumi Kasahara)
DID YOU KNOW?

The organic waste products and the untreated effluent found in landfills and wastewater treatment plants can be processed to generate methane gas, a hydrogenrich fuel.
BENEFITS
Environmental
Fuel cells do not produce the same kind of air-polluting emissions that
are generated by fossil-fuel power plants. There are no sulfur oxides or
nitrogen oxides emitted from fuel cells. The greenhouse gas carbon dioxide
is a small byproduct of using a fuel-cell system, but the carbon dioxide air
emissions are so low from a fuel-cell system that government permits are
rarely needed to install fuel-cell units. Also, a fuel-cell system generates
much more electricity with less carbon dioxide emissions than conventional generators of similar size.
Hydrogen produced by electrolysis and generated from renewable
sources would be the ideal environmental benet. In that case, the outputs
of fuel cells would be electricity, heat, and water vapor. Also, in addition
to low noxious air emissions, fuel cells can produce electrical and thermal
energy with much less noise than standard generators. Therefore, installing fuel-cell systems near large populated cities or using them indoors in
hospitals and homes has the advantage of reducing noise levels.
Other Benefits
The ability of fuel cells to produce continuous power makes fuel cells
well suited for supporting and protecting hardware and software security programs and applications. There is no loss of security in electronic
documents and les because the power output of fuel cells is free from
voltage disturbances such as sags, spikes, and brownouts in transmission
grid lines.
In addition, the fuel-cell system does not contain any moving parts.
Therefore, there are no mechanical breakdowns as with using traditional
generators.
SOME CONCERNS ABOUT FUEL CELLS
However, before widespread use of fuel cells can happen, several obstacles
need to be overcome. Two general obstacles are expense and reliability and
durability:
Expense. The biggest hurdle for fuel cells is cost. Although some fuelcell systems are in use today, very few are currently cost eective. For
stationary fuel cells, typical capital costs for installed systems exceed
$5,000 per kilowatt.
Reliability and durability. Certain fuel-cell system components
such as the cell stack, which can require a costly replacement every
one to ve years depending on the modelmust be developed to
have a longer lifespan or to be easily and cheaply replaced.
In the case of hydrogen FCVs in particular, probably some of the hurdles
that stand in the way of mass production and widespread consumer uses
are the high cost of producing fuel cells. This problem is due to the lack of
an adequate hydrogen refueling network or infrastructure. Once FCVs go
into production, there will be a need for many hydrogen refueling stations
to service the vehicles on short and long journeys. Fuel cells may also need
to be designed smaller than their present size. A smaller size might allow
the FCV to go further on a gallon of hydrogen fuel.
Presently, 95 percent of the hydrogen available in the United States is
produced by using fossil fuels or from electrolytic processes also produced
from fossil fuels. So the next major task is to use renewable energy sources,
such as solar, wind, and others, rather than the fossil fuels to provide the
energy in processing hydrogen fuel in the future.
Another Challenge: Storing Hydrogen Gas
Hydrogen, a low-density gas at room temperature, is dicult to store.
Because of hydrogens very low natural density, storing the gas requires
a large tank. The tanks are very heavy. For example, a safety tank holding
6.6 pounds of hydrogen would weigh 880 pounds, cutting into fuel economy. Tanks of this size are impractical for vehicles and many other uses. So
dierent methods of storing hydrogen are needed, including compressed
gas and liquid hydrogen tanks.
Quantum Technologies and others are developing carbon ber
reinforced, 5,000-psi and 10,000-psi compressed hydrogen gas tanks,
and prototypes are already in use in hydrogen-powered vehicles. The
amount and pressure of stored hydrogen in a vehicle is a key factor in
determining that vehicles driving range, but for now, equipping a vehicle with a high-pressure tank can be achieved only at a great expense
and with the loss of valuable storage space within the vehicle. Therefore, more advances in compression technologies will be required to
Hydrogen Storage Tanks. Hydrogen is a leading alternative fuel for vehicles,

and the byproducts of its combustion are nonpolluting. (iStockphoto)
improve eciencies and to reduce the cost of producing high-pressure

hydrogen.
Liquid Hydrogen Tanks
The energy density of hydrogen can be improved by storing hydrogen in
a liquid state. Liquid hydrogen tanks can store more hydrogen in a given
volume than compressed gas tanks. The liquid hydrogen tanks are commonly made of aluminum or stainless steel alloys and are used to supply hydrogen gas to a fuel cell. Liquid tanks are being demonstrated in
hydrogen-powered vehicles.
The Department of Energy is presently focused on further development of high-pressure (10,000 psi) composite tanks, liquid hydrogen
tanks, and other advanced concepts for storing hydrogen as a compressed gas for on-board vehicles. The Department of Energy is also
investigating both compressed-hydrogen and liqueed-hydrogen storage systems for o-board storage at future hydrogen fueling stations
for FCVs.
FEATURE
International Partnership for a Hydrogen Economy
In November 2003, energy ministers from 16 countries joined to create the International Partnership for a Hydrogen Economy (IPHE). This was an important global
effort to maximize collaborative partnerships among countries and to promote
sharing of experiential and research results.
FEATURE
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical
Committee on Hydrogen Technologies
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee on
Hydrogen Technologies is a special organization. It focuses on the standardization of systems and devices for the production, storage, transportation, measurement, and use of hydrogen. The 15 participating countries work toward developing
consensus codes and standards for hydrogen. The ISO also produces technical
reports on the hazards associated with the use of hydrogen with the objective of
improving safety measures and contributing to hydrogens successful use in energy applications for transportation, home and office heating, and the generation
of electricity.
HYDROGEN ECONOMY: THE FUTURE

The U.S. Department of Energy reports that fuel cells are an important
enabling technology for the hydrogen economy: Fuel cells have the potential to revolutionize the way we power our nation, oering cleaner,
more-ecient alternatives to the combustion of gasoline and other fossil
fuels. Fuel cells have the potential to replace the internal-combustion
engine in vehicles and provide power in stationary and portable power
applications because they are energy-ecient, clean, and fuel-exible.
Hydrogen or any hydrogen-rich fuel can be used by this emerging
technology.
The Department of Energy is working closely with national laboratories, universities, and industry partners to develop reliable, low-cost, highperformance fuel-cell system components for transportation and buildings
applications and to set the standards for the safe use of hydrogen.
ESTABLISH FUEL-CELL EDUCATION IN YOUR SCHOOL

I asked high school science teacher Ross McCurdy (whose interview appears in chapter 4) to discuss how a school can provide fuel-cell education
in schools. Here are his comments:
Some good news: you do not need big dollars in grant funding to
have fun teaching students about fuel cells (although it can certainly
help). Fuel cell learning can take place or begin on a low budget or
no budget. One example is a cheap electrolysis demonstration: in a
glass of tap water, add a pinch or two of table salt and drop in a 9-volt
battery; hydrogen bubbles will form on the negative battery terminal,
and oxygen bubbles will form on the positive terminal. The reaction
that takes place in a fuel cell is the same, only in reverse.
The Internet is a great source of information with clips on how
fuel cells work, types of fuel cells, applications, and so on. A part of
the learning that can be very rewarding is student research projects
where they write a paper and/or give a presentation. It is amazing
what the students nd and how much the teachers actually learn
from the assignment. Students naturally seem to gravitate toward
areas of fuel cells that interest them; one of our hard-core 4H agricultural type students discovered a fuel cell tractor that was built in
the 1950s!
For relatively inexpensive hands-on fuel cell gear, the Heliocentris
Solar Hydrogen Fuel Cell kit is a great place to start. For around
$300, the system will demonstrate solar energy, electrolytic hydrogen
production, and fuel cell power; will measure amps and volts; and
comes with a set of books lled with information and experiments.
On the West Coast, Bonneville Power Administration oers free
teacher workshops where they provide some great hands-on lesson
plans and give a Heliocentris fuel cell kit to the participating teachers
to take back to their schools. This is a great program that will hopefully be made available to teachers around the country.
So now you might be thinking, the kits are nice, but how can we
get bigger fuel cells? If your school has a bigger budget than ours,
encouraging the department head and principal to fund more sizable
purchases may be possible. If your school is like most, that avenue
may not be an option. Your state energy oce may be a good source
for fuel cell funding and is a good place to start. Many states include a
small additional charge on everyones electric bill that is used to fund

renewable energy and education projects such as fuel cell education.
Other educational grants provide opportunities, and benevolent
private corporations can be another potential source of funding.
A private company benets by donating through tax deductions
and, perhaps more importantly, good public relations. Donating
funds or equipment to teach students about cutting-edge renewable energy is good news and reects well on the companies doing
it. It is essential to have clear, attainable, and worthwhile goals
when seeking funds, and when funds are awarded, be sure to keep
the donating organization updated with positive results of the
program.
Be sure to have fun with the fuel cell teaching and learning. The
lessons can be as involved or as simple as you care to make them and
can take a single class period, a few days, a week, or longer, depending
on what you want to do and how you want to do it.
FEATURE
Students Science Kit for Solar Hydrogen Technology
Ross McCurdy mentioned the Heliocentris fuel cell in his comments on implementing fuel-cell education in schools. The Dr FuelCell Science Kit is an extensive
experiment set for the subject of renewable energies. Flexible components, 20 preconfigured experiments, and detailed supplementary material make it a complete
solution for teaching physics and chemistry in grades 912. The package includes
a solar panel, an electrolyzer with two graduated storage cylinders, a fuel cell,
and a load measurement box. A methanol fuel cell and a take-apart fuel cell are
optional. The solar panel produces energy for the electrolyzer. The generated hydrogen is stored intermediately in graduated storage cylinders and converted to
electric power by the fuel cell. The load measurement box is used to simulate consumers and to measure electric current and voltage. All technical components can
also be used and examined separately.
SOMETHING TO DO
Make a hydrogen fuel-cell model car. There are several companies that
manufacture hydrogen fuel-cell model cars. Two of them include Discover This (http://www.discoverthis.com) and SciKits (http://www.scikits.
com).
If you are interested in hydrogen fuel-cell competition, contact the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, which hosts the U.S. Department of
Energys Junior Solar Sprint/Hydrogen Fuel Cell ( JSS/HFC) Car Competitions in some regions of the United States. There may be other organizations in your state that have fuel-cell model car racing competitions as well.
WEB SITES
http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hydrogen.shtml
The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Eciency, and Renewable
Energy provides an excellent source for hydrogen fuel economy information detailing the benets and challenges of various fuel sources
for internal combustion engines and electric power motors.
www.horizonfuelcell.com
Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies goal is to introduce, on a global
scale, clean hydrogen cell power as a low-cost, renewable resource
to power consumer electronics, emergency power systems, stationary
back-up power, and clean transportation solutions.
www.fuelcells/org/ced/education
The Online Fuel Cell Information Resource provides a variety of
resources for students interested in fuel cell and hydrogen science
projects, information for research on hydrogen fuel cells, and links for
teachers to lesson plans, experiments, and grants.
http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/
The hydrogen and fuel-cell research at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory contributes to the growing role that advanced technologies play in addressing the nations energy challenges.
www.clean-air.org/mission
The American Hydrogen Associations goal is to work with environmental groups, industry, communities, and schools to promote
an understanding of hydrogen technology and a marketplace for

pollution-free hydrogen energy.
VIDEOS
SpainHydrogen-Powered Plane: Follow Boeings exploits in testing its rst manned aircraft to be partially fuelled by hydrogen cells:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XzeCQblYHic (01:58 minutes).
U.S. NavyIon Tiger: To learn more about the Oce of Naval
Researchs work on unmanned air vehicles that are quieter and
greener than current combat options, go to http://www.engadget.
com/2009/04/17/video-navy-uav-uses-hydrogen-fuel-cells-forgreener-surveillanc/ (02:30 minutes).
JapanLife with a Home Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Take a tour through
the Kawamoris house and see a brief interview about the hydrogen
fuel cell that powers the familys home: http://www.odemagazine.
com/doc/62/video-kawamoris-fuel-cell/ (02:31 minutes).
BOOKS AND
a

www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
2003.
2003.
2002.
2008.
2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.

2007.
awea.org.
2006.
the Pacic, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.
2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
19492008
140 a Energy Data
TABLE 1

Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Coal
11,980,905
12,347,109
12,552,996
11,306,479
11,372,684
9,714,667
11,167,259
11,349,723
10,820,631
9,533,287
9,518,353
9,837,785
9,623,351
9,906,454
10,412,538
10,964,385
11,580,608
12,143,080
11,913,750
12,330,677
12,381,540
12,264,528
11,598,411
12,076,917
12,971,490
12,662,878
12,662,786
13,584,067
13,922,103
13,765,575
15,039,586
15,422,809
15,907,526
15,321,581
15,894,442
17,070,622
17,478,428
17,260,405
18,008,451
18,846,312
19,069,762
19,172,635
18,991,670
19,122,471
19,835,148
19,909,463
20,088,727
21,001,914
Coal
Coke Net
Importsb
6,671
992
21,452
11,879
9,002
6,746
10,044
13,020
17,459
6,721
8,358
5,630
7,886
5,506
7,390
10,441
18,451
24,949
15,326
17,310
36,109
57,660
33,108
25,966
7,465
56,098
13,541
99
14,582
124,719
62,843
35,018
15,946
21,650
15,624
11,482
13,491
16,740
8,630
39,556
30,405
4,786
9,697
34,621
27,106
58,330
61,058
22,816
Natural Gasc
5,145,142
5,968,371
7,048,518
7,549,621
7,906,645
8,330,202
8,997,935
9,613,975
10,190,753
10,663,199
11,717,422
12,385,366
12,926,392
13,730,841
14,403,306
15,287,850
15,768,667
16,995,332
17,944,788
19,209,656
20,677,984
21,794,707
22,469,052
22,698,190
22,512,399
21,732,488
19,947,883
20,345,426
19,930,513
20,000,400
20,665,817
20,235,459
19,747,309
18,356,222
17,220,836
18,393,613
17,703,482
16,591,364
17,639,801
18,448,393
19,601,689
19,603,168
20,032,957
20,713,632
21,228,902
21,728,065
22,671,138
23,084,647
Petroleumd
11,882,722
13,315,484
14,428,043
14,955,682
15,555,829
15,839,176
17,254,955
17,937,473
17,931,667
18,526,937
19,322,650
19,919,230
20,216,387
21,048,981
21,700,828
22,301,257
23,245,680
24,400,523
25,283,661
26,979,447
28,338,336
29,520,695
30,561,290
32,946,738
34,839,926
33,454,627
32,730,587
35,174,688
37,122,168
37,965,295
37,123,381
34,202,356
31,931,050 [R]
30,231,608 [R]
30,053,921 [R]
31,051,327
30,922,149 [R]
32,196,080
32,865,053 [R]
34,221,992 [R]
34,211,114
33,552,534
32,845,361
33,526,585 [R]
33,744,490 [R]
34,561,665
34,436,967 [R]
35,673,290 [R]
Total
29,002,099
31,631,956
34,008,105
33,799,903
34,826,156
33,877,300
37,410,105
38,888,151
38,925,592
38,716,702
40,550,068
42,136,751
42,758,243
44,680,770
46,509,283
48,543,050
50,576,504
53,513,987
55,126,873
58,502,470
61,361,751
63,522,269
64,595,645
67,695,880
70,316,351
67,906,091
65,354,796
69,104,082
70,989,367
71,855,989
72,891,627
69,825,607
67,569,939
63,887,761
63,153,575
66,504,079
66,090,567
66,031,109
68,521,935
71,556,253
72,912,970
72,333,123
71,879,686
73,397,310
74,835,647
76,257,523
77,257,890
79,782,668
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
112
1,915
2,187
6,026
19,678
26,394
38,147
39,819
43,164
64,158
88,456
141,534
153,722
239,347
412,939
583,752
910,177
1,272,083
1,899,798
2,111,121
2,701,762
3,024,126
2,775,827
2,739,169
3,007,589
3,131,148
3,202,549
3,552,531
4,075,563
4,380,109
4,753,933
5,586,968
5,602,161
6,104,350
6,422,132
6,479,206
6,410,499
6,693,877
7,075,436
7,086,674
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Energy Data a 141
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PV
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Wind
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Biomass
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554
6,034,459
6,562,330
6,523,526
6,186,780
6,224,827
5,741,161
5,570,238
6,393,667
6,208,290
6,240,085
5,995,131
6,264,397
6,157,054
6,706,907
7,169,179
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Importsb
5,420
6,094
7,461
7,740
6,852
7,983
13,879
15,519
12,288
11,320
12,127
15,474
7,689
1,829
334
6,671
482
3,725
1,020
2,152
3,656
6,688
12,046
26,227
48,715
43,311
21,103
29,378
59,422
67,318
69,381
71,399
113,406
100,026
120,547
135,323
139,655
122,481
158,101
108,399
37,450
7,888
66,965
86,733
94,910
152,937
133,856
137,144
Total
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
142 a Energy Data
TABLE 1
(Continued )
Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Coal
Coke Net
Year
Coal
Importsb
1997 21,445,411
46,450
1998 21,655,744
67,084
1999 21,622,544
57,685
2000 22,579,528
65,348
2001 21,914,268
29,264
2002 21,903,989
60,760
2003 22,320,928
50,518
2004 22,466,195
137,739
2005 22,796,543
44,194
2006 22,447,160
60,810
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197
2008 P 22,420,827
40,771
Natural Gasc
23,222,718
22,830,226
22,909,227
23,823,978
22,772,558
23,558,419
22,897,268
22,931,481
22,583,385
22,223,903 [R]
23,627,629 [R]
23,837,695
Petroleumd
36,159,835 [R]
36,816,619
37,838,081 [R]
38,264,303 [R]
38,186,476 [R]
38,226,666 [R]
38,809,183 [R]
40,294,351
40,393,325
39,958,151 [R]
39,773,213 [R]
37,136,675
Total
80,874,414
81,369,672
82,427,536
84,733,157
82,902,566
83,749,834
84,077,896
85,829,766
85,817,446
84,690,024
86,175,506
83,435,968
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
6,596,992
7,067,809
7,610,256
7,862,349
8,032,697
8,143,089
7,958,858
8,221,985
8,160,028
8,213,839
8,457,783 [R]
8,455,236
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Energy Data a 143
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PV
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
Wind
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Biomass
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
7,178,202
6,657,589
6,680,737
6,264,394
5,315,670
5,893,795
6,149,881
6,260,276
6,422,883
6,908,484
6,813,935
7,300,048
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Total
Importsb
116,203
94,765,811 [R]
88,224
95,183,293 [R]
98,924
96,817,452 [R]
115,199
98,975,100 [R]
75,156
96,326,089 [R]
71,595
97,858,314 [R]
21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
38,597
100,350,624 [R]
84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
62,849
99,875,196 [R]
106,632
101,553,855 [R]
112,381
99,303,634
144 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Biofuelsb
Totalc
Energyd
NA
1,549,262
2,973,984
NA
1,562,307
2,977,718
NA
1,534,669
2,958,464
NA
1,474,369
2,940,181
NA
1,418,601
2,831,460
NA
1,394,327
2,754,099
NA
1,424,143
2,783,987
NA
1,415,871
2,850,582
NA
1,333,581
2,849,194
NA
1,323,123
2,915,090
NA
1,352,874
2,901,339
NA
1,319,870
2,928,619
NA
1,294,762
2,953,406
NA
1,300,242
3,118,714
NA
1,323,316
3,098,396
NA
1,336,802
3,227,637
NA
1,334,761
3,398,036
NA
1,368,985
3,434,674
NA
1,340,249
3,693,799
NA
1,419,495
3,777,541
NA
1,440,487
4,101,751
NA
1,430,962
4,075,857
NA
1,432,323
4,268,335
NA
1,503,065
4,398,409
NA
1,529,068
4,433,121
NA
1,539,657
4,769,395
NA
1,498,734
4,723,494
NA
1,713,373
4,767,792
NA
1,838,332
4,249,002
NA
2,037,605
5,038,938
NA
2,151,906
5,166,379
NA
2,475,500
5,485,420
12,979
[R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
35,106
[R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
64,432
[R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
78,880
[R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
95,052
[R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R]
192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R]
144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R]
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Geo-thermalf
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PVg
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Energy Data a 145
Windh
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Woodi
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,428,649
1,430,229
1,500,992
1,527,012
1,537,755
1,496,928
1,711,484
1,836,524
2,036,150
2,149,854
2,473,861
2,495,563
2,510,048
2,684,271
2,685,817
2,686,765
2,562,134
2,463,159
2,576,663
2,679,623
2,216,165
2,214,083
2,313,471
2,259,774
2,323,820
2,369,869
2,437,027
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2,313
NA
2,094
NA
2,073
NA
2,056
NA
1,902
NA
1,806
NA
1,889
NA
1,808
NA
1,455
NA
2,052
NA
1,639
NA
88,000
12,979
[R]
119,000
35,106
[R]
157,000
64,432
[R]
208,000
78,880
[R]
236,317
95,052
[R]
262,861
109,285
[R]
289,000
125,229
[R]
315,328
126,589
[R]
354,357
127,936
[R]
408,078
113,129
[R]
439,715
130,612
[R]
473,201
147,965
[R]
479,336 [R]
172,512
[R]
515,324
192,236
[R]
531,476 [R]
203,875
[R]
576,990
145,703
[R]
Total
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554 [R]
6,034,459 [R]
6,562,330 [R]
6,523,526 [R]
6,186,780 [R]
6,224,827 [R]
5,741,161 [R]
5,570,238 [R]
6,393,667 [R]
6,208,290 [R]
6,240,085 [R]
5,995,131 [R]
6,264,397 [R]
6,157,054 [R]
6,706,907 [R]
7,169,179 [R]
146 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
(Continued )
Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Energyd
Year
Biofuelsb
Totalc
1997
190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R]
1998
206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R]
1999
215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R]
2000
237,904
3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R]
2001
259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R]
2002
314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R]
2003
411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R]
2004
500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R]
2005
580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R]
2006
743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R]
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R]
2008P 1,428,745
3,899,915
7,315,711
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Geo-thermalf
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PVg
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
g
fuels).
Energy Data a 147
Windh
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Woodi
2,370,991
2,184,160
2,214,167
2,261,715
2,005,833
1,995,283
2,002,040
2,121,251
2,136,351
2,151,731
2,142,417
2,040,616
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
550,602 [R]
187,375
[R]
542,295
205,137
[R]
540,156
213,232
[R]
510,800 [R]
240,523
363,874
257,769
[R]
402,006
309,456
[R]
401,347
413,217
[R]
389,044 [R]
512,571
[R]
403,219 [R]
593,576
[R]
414,226 [R]
794,656
[R]
430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R]
430,554
1,413,082
Total
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
7,178,202 [R]
6,657,589 [R]
6,680,737 [R]
6,264,394 [R]
5,315,670 [R]
5,893,795 [R]
6,149,881 [R]
6,260,276 [R]
6,422,883 [R]
6,908,484 [R]
6,813,935 [R]
7,300,048
148 a Energy Data
TABLE 3

End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Primary
4,475,121
4,847,590
5,124,031
5,178,644
5,074,890
5,286,016
5,633,095
5,866,467
5,771,579
6,155,096
6,223,822
6,688,963
6,814,611
7,122,112
7,135,126
7,161,257
7,328,128
7,549,262
7,740,902
7,963,327
8,276,760
8,352,750
8,456,799
8,655,327
8,250,226
7,927,553
8,005,740
8,408,252
8,207,376
8,272,389
7,933,806
7,453,254
7,057,589
7,154,067
6,840,628
7,220,681
7,160,776
6,921,722
6,940,917
7,372,024
7,586,093
6,570,463
6,758,442
6,963,482
7,155,529
6,990,569
6,946,268
7,471,455
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
5,613,938
6,006,806
6,399,747
6,580,694
6,581,124
6,869,767
7,303,271
7,689,809
7,739,679
8,230,400
8,447,378
9,077,668
9,325,376
9,825,201
10,034,384
10,290,804
10,688,770
11,218,183
11,669,926
12,368,421
13,205,347
13,798,057
14,277,629
14,890,531
14,929,771
14,683,314
14,841,755
15,440,661
15,688,729
16,155,929
15,841,970
15,786,781
15,295,246
15,557,340
15,456,669
15,998,041
16,088,348
16,029,197
16,321,196
17,186,278
17,858,128
17,014,681
17,490,321
17,426,920
18,288,984
18,181,216
18,577,978
19,562,439
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
2,660,963
2,824,267
2,727,158
2,661,902
2,500,330
2,444,814
2,547,641
2,592,274
2,434,391
2,541,202
2,630,274
2,702,042
2,743,974
2,901,109
2,896,921
2,949,284
3,150,462
3,383,741
3,738,448
3,866,000
4,045,666
4,196,051
4,282,718
4,369,078
4,381,061
4,221,192
4,022,853
4,332,587
4,217,258
4,268,843
4,333,251
4,074,270
3,805,343
3,835,241
3,806,026
3,968,567
3,694,740
3,656,730
3,736,106
3,957,548
4,004,442
3,858,007
3,905,836
3,951,199
3,933,859
3,978,979
4,063,119
4,234,533
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
3,660,910
3,883,472
3,862,700
3,862,377
3,758,937
3,720,157
3,881,530
4,008,279
3,945,887
4,103,153
4,353,069
4,588,973
4,706,925
5,013,919
5,226,862
5,438,649
5,819,530
6,299,383
6,870,845
7,296,778
7,795,301
8,307,155
8,681,492
9,144,775
9,506,982
9,362,537
9,465,906
10,035,225
10,177,267
10,480,604
10,626,851
10,562,769
10,601,863
10,847,354
10,922,977
11,436,092
11,443,724
11,603,742
11,943,383
12,575,483
13,202,580
13,332,926
13,512,501
13,453,951
13,835,823
14,111,283
14,697,525
15,181,207
Industrialb
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
12,626,532
13,881,079
15,118,070
14,661,778
15,328,413
14,305,657
16,090,702
16,562,350
16,512,867
15,797,985
16,518,951
16,977,066
16,993,115
17,589,807
18,365,964
19,426,503
20,123,911
21,029,715
21,012,628
21,872,069
22,653,721
22,974,833
22,732,356
23,532,489
24,740,862
23,816,329
21,454,213
22,685,371
23,192,694
23,276,491
24,211,500
22,610,288
21,338,216
19,075,786
18,578,019
20,197,515
19,467,805
19,098,662
19,977,070
20,884,381
20,897,403
21,208,225
20,854,317
21,786,666
21,784,999
22,422,272
22,747,660
23,443,770
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 149
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
14,716,733
16,232,875
17,669,234
17,301,575
18,200,961
17,146,242
19,472,329
20,196,256
20,204,730
19,306,571
20,315,979
20,823,424
20,936,742
21,768,109
22,729,891
24,089,579
25,074,894
26,397,297
26,615,564
27,888,371
29,114,339
29,641,226
29,600,938
30,952,764
32,652,616
31,818,721
29,447,184
31,429,542
32,306,559
32,733,452
33,962,118
32,077,090
30,756,076
27,656,788
27,481,484
29,624,598
28,877,080
28,333,363
29,443,635
30,738,557
31,397,833
31,895,492
31,486,967
32,661,236
32,721,292
33,607,366
34,046,786
34,988,791
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
7,879,581
8,383,528
8,933,753
8,907,235
9,030,518
8,823,059
9,475,032
9,791,039
9,837,442
9,952,797
10,298,441
10,560,452
10,734,679
11,185,922
11,621,165
11,964,508
12,400,149
13,069,166
13,718,214
14,831,020
15,470,880
16,061,232
16,693,481
17,681,086
18,576,065
18,085,915
18,209,133
19,065,144
19,784,143
20,580,415
20,436,369
19,658,353
19,476,200
19,050,580
19,132,451
19,606,799
20,040,687
20,739,703
21,419,125
22,266,855
22,424,597
22,366,185
22,065,034
22,363,309
22,716,447
23,311,806
23,793,148
24,383,906
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
7,990,087
8,492,594
9,042,162
9,003,096
9,123,484
8,903,125
9,550,811
9,860,083
9,897,017
10,004,893
10,349,357
10,596,801
10,770,077
11,220,519
11,654,898
11,998,284
12,433,906
13,101,884
13,752,106
14,865,583
15,506,152
16,097,603
16,729,212
17,716,273
18,611,660
18,119,206
18,243,706
19,099,331
19,819,581
20,614,766
20,470,711
19,696,034
19,512,537
19,087,723
19,175,075
19,653,933
20,087,315
20,788,771
21,469,449
22,318,176
22,478,708
22,419,888
22,118,484
22,415,918
22,769,843
23,367,224
23,848,651
24,438,890
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Primary
Itemf
4,339,470
165
4,679,283
21
5,070,830
188
5,338,183
82
5,730,355
39
5,779,745
91
6,461,471
30
6,942,296
174
7,231,035
128
7,197,936
11
7,794,295
61
8,158,344
3
8,452,741
103
9,028,798
42
9,626,860
124
10,315,765
140
11,014,449
121
11,984,863
203
12,698,249
333
13,886,738
238
15,174,112
260
16,259,175
119
17,123,917
307
18,466,362
75
19,752,816
7,334 [R]
19,932,789
7,102 [R]
20,306,611
640 [R]
21,513,405
7,613 [R]
22,590,665
7,418 [R]
23,586,613
1,619 [R]
23,986,723
1,564
24,326,509
1,080 [R]
24,488,373
2,766 [R]
24,033,531
4,189 [R]
24,679,081
2,796 [R]
25,719,102
2,794 [R]
26,132,459
3,903 [R]
26,338,257
3,452
27,104,445
2,533 [R]
28,337,687
3,364 [R]
30,024,713 [4]
8,999 [R]
30,660,106
9,335 [R]
31,024,645
595 [R]
30,893,368
355 [R]
32,025,108
10,490 [R]
32,563,463
5,698
33,620,747
3,148 [R]
34,637,665
4,336 [R]
Totalg
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
150 a Energy Data
TABLE 3
(Continued )
End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008 P
Primary
7,039,505
6,423,825
6,783,779
7,168,979
6,878,917
6,938,187
7,251,896
7,019,274
6,920,879
6,190,514
6,625,793
6,778,379
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
19,025,680
19,020,712
19,620,860
20,487,621
20,106,132
20,873,763
21,208,021
21,177,889
21,697,240
20,769,777
21,619,373
21,636,900
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
4,256,507
3,963,729
4,007,378
4,227,143
4,036,108
4,099,189
4,238,672
4,180,422
4,013,701
3,703,258
3,895,928
3,972,150
Industrialb
e
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
15,693,953
15,979,296
16,383,617
17,176,087
17,141,259
17,366,740
17,351,447
17,664,445
17,875,276
17,723,994
18,287,222
18,541,387
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
23,721,864
23,210,838
22,990,578
22,870,804
21,835,587
21,857,313
21,575,582
22,454,620
21,465,855
21,632,057
21,454,002
20,630,137
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
c
d
power producers.
f
g

Energy Data a 151
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
35,288,218
34,928,190
34,855,491
34,757,478
32,806,204
32,764,483
32,649,843
33,609,067
32,545,253
32,541,235
32,523,120
31,210,299
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
24,697,145
25,203,168
25,893,727
26,491,500
26,215,564
26,787,738
26,927,646
27,820,116
28,279,693
28,761,209
29,046,175
27,842,133
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
24,751,817
25,258,473
25,951,203
26,551,610
26,278,577
26,848,508
27,002,137
27,899,279
28,361,295
28,840,577
29,134,189
27,924,560
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
35,044,648
36,385,110
37,135,709
38,214,371
37,365,995
38,171,067
38,217,654
38,876,247
39,798,935
39,588,544
40,542,007
40,090,347
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Itemf
6,142 [R]
3,378 [R]
6,281 [R]
2,304 [R]
6,084 [R]
4,820 [R]
2,908 [R]
55 [R]
5,694 [R]
385 [R]
10,049 [R]
9,512
Totalg
94,765,811
95,183,293
96,817,452
98,975,100
96,326,089
97,858,314
98,208,541
100,350,624
100,484,758
99,875,196
101,553,855
99,303,634
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
152 a Energy Data
TABLE 4
Year
Appliance

Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Wood
Central Systemc
Window/wall unitc
None
Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Refrigeratord
One
Two or more
Separate freezer
Clothes washer
Clothes dryerTotal
Natural gas
Electric
Dishwasher
Range/stove/oven
Natural gas
Electric
Microwave oven
Television
One or two
Three or more
Personal computer
One
Two or more
1978
1979
1980
1982
1984
1987
77
78
82
83
84
1981
86
91
55
16
4
20
2
3
55
17
5
17
4
2
55
18
5
15
6
2
56
17
4
14
6
3
57
16
5
13
7
3
55
17
5
12
7
3
55
20
5
12
6
3
23
33
44
24
31
45
27
30
43
27
31
42
28
30
42
30
30
40
34
30
36
55
33
4
8
0
55
33
4
7
0
54
32
4
9
1
55
33
4
7
1
56
32
4
7
1
54
33
4
6
1
54
35
3
6
1
100
86
14
35
74
59
14
45
35
99
48
53
8
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
38
74
61
14
47
37
99
46
57
14
98
85
14
NA
NA
NA
100
87
13
38
73
61
16
45
37
100
46
56
17
98
84
14
NA
NA
NA
100
86
13
37
71
60
15
45
36
99
47
56
21
98
83
15
NA
NA
NA
100
88
12
37
73
62
16
46
38
99
46
57
34
98
80
18
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
34
75
66
15
51
43
99
43
60
61
98
75
23
NA
NA
NA
Retail electricity.

Energy Data a 153
Year
1990
1993
Change
1997
2001
2005
94
97
101
55
23
5
11
4
2
53
26
5
11
3
2
52
29
5
9
2
2
39
29
32
44
25
32
47
25
28
55
23
23
59
25
16
32
5
27
53
37
3
5
1
53
38
3
5
1
52
39
3
5
1
54
38
3
4
0
53
39
4
4
0
1
7
0
5
1
100
84
15
34
76
69
16
53
45
100
42
59
79
99
71
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
35
77
70
14
57
45
100
33
63
84
99
70
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
33
77
71
15
55
50
99
35
62
83
99
69
29
35
29
6
100
83
17
32
79
74
16
57
53
100
35
62
86
99
63
36
56
42
15
100
78
22
32
83
79
17
61
58
99
35
62
88
99
56
43
68
45
23
0
8
8
6
9
18
3
14
21
0
11
5
74
1
29
29
NA
NA
NA
[R]
[R]
[R]
107
1980 to 2005
[R]
[R]
[R]
55
29
5
7
2
2
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
111
29
52
30
5
7
3
3
3
12
0
8
3
1
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
154 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
Region and Country

North America
1997
1998
113.13
1999
113.53
Mexico
5.68
5.96
6.04
6.32
94.77
95.18
96.82
98.98
.02
.02
.02
.02
19.45
20.12
20.27
20.84
Argentina
2.47
2.58
Brazil
7.86
8.12
Venezuela
2.66
2.85
[R]
12.96
118.26
12.67
Other
12.37
115.82
Canada
United States
[R]
2000
[R]
2.61
[R]
8.27
[R]
2.67
[R]
2.73
6.57
12.95
8.55
[R]
2.77
Other
6.46
Europe a
79.87
[R]
80.44
[R]
80.51
6.67
[R]
81.53
6.85
[R]
Belgium
2.65
[R]
2.70
[R]
2.66
[R]
2.73
[R]
France
10.36
10.58
10.71
10.85
Germany
14.26
14.36
14.34
14.13
Italy
7.22
7.43
7.56
7.63
Netherlands
3.70
3.70
3.69
3.79
Poland
4.09
3.85
3.98
3.62
Spain
4.76
4.99
5.26
Sweden
2.32
Turkey
2.93
United Kingdom
[R]
[R]
2.40
[R]
3.00
2.37
5.62
[R]
2.91
9.75
9.74
Other
17.74
17.72
Eurasia b
39.02
[R]
38.73
Russia
25.81
[R]
25.93
Ukraine
6.07
5.85
5.76
5.75
Uzbekistan
1.88
1.84
1.86
1.94
Other
5.26
5.11
5.19
5.45
15.61
16.28
16.62
17.32
Iran
4.43
4.58
4.83
5.01
Saudi Arabia
4.37
4.54
4.60
4.85
Other
6.81
7.15
7.18
11.40
11.30
1.79
1.85
Middle East
Africa
Egypt
[R]
2.27
[R]
3.16
9.79
[R]
9.72
17.47
[R]
17.87
[R]
39.83
[R]
40.61
[R]
[R]
27.01
[R]
27.47
[R]
[R]
[R]
11.62
[R]
[R]
7.46
[R]
1.92
12.03
[R]
2.00
South Africa
4.56
4.35
4.46
4.59
Other
5.05
5.10
[R]
5.23
5.44
[R]
101.98
[R]
105.28
107.33
[R]
Asia and Oceaniaa

Australia
102.89
[R]
[R]
4.56
4.59
4.82
4.85
China
37.91
37.32
37.23
37.18
India
11.64
12.17
12.99
13.46
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
3.66
21.91
1.67
3.56
[R]
21.52
1.69
3.91
[R]
21.97
1.74
[R]
4.06
[R]
22.43
1.87
[R]
Energy Data a 155
2001
2002
115.36
12.76
2003
117.25
[R]
2004
118.20
2005
120.74
13.13
[R]
13.56
[R]
13.84
6.26
6.25
[R]
6.42
[R]
96.33
97.86
98.21
2006 P
121.62
[R]
121.18
14.23
[R]
6.53
6.86
[R]
13.95
7.36
100.35
100.51
[R]
99.86
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
21.16
21.12
21.61
22.44
23.40
24.18
2.61
8.47
[R]
2.48
[R]
2.67
8.58
[R]
8.69
2.78
[R]
9.02
[R]
2.95
[R]
3.15
9.37
[R]
9.64
[R]
3.19
86.18
[R]
86.42
2.78
[R]
2.75
11.36
[R]
11.44
3.03
2.93
2.72
2.93
3.12
7.05
7.13
7.54
7.71
7.96
82.77
[R]
2.70
[R]
82.50
[R]
2.68
[R]
84.24
[R]
85.70
[R]
[R]
8.20
2.78
[R]
2.81
11.00
11.11
[R]
11.39
14.33
14.59
[R]
14.74
[R]
14.50
[R]
14.63
7.70
7.99
[R]
8.08
[R]
8.14
[R]
8.07
3.93
3.94
4.00
4.11
4.23
[R]
4.14
3.45
3.44
3.60
3.70
3.68
[R]
3.86
5.87
5.95
6.26
6.39
[R]
6.51
[R]
6.51
2.30
[R]
11.08
14.62
7.67
2.40
[R]
[R]
2.89
2.27
[R]
3.15
2.17
[R]
3.32
3.51
2.33
[R]
2.22
3.73
[R]
3.91
9.86
[R]
9.72
[R]
9.86
[R]
9.88
[R]
9.92
[R]
9.80
18.28
[R]
18.33
[R]
18.56
[R]
18.77
[R]
19.01
[R]
19.10
40.94
[R]
41.59
[R]
43.37
[R]
44.69
[R]
45.79
[R]
45.88
27.72
[R]
27.93
[R]
28.77
[R]
29.60
[R]
30.06
[R]
30.39
5.87
5.64
5.82
6.28
6.26
6.32
[R]
2.03
2.08
2.10
2.22
2.13
[R]
2.21
7.27
[R]
7.41
5.55
[R]
5.75
[R]
6.22
[R]
6.62
[R]
17.95
18.98
19.76
20.89
22.75
[R]
23.81
5.39
5.89
6.18
6.39
7.22
[R]
7.69
5.14
5.38
5.76
6.21
6.59
[R]
6.89
7.42
7.71
7.82
8.29
8.93
[R]
9.23
13.36
[R]
13.97
14.54
[R]
14.50
2.44
[R]
2.59
2.73
[R]
2.54
5.21
5.12
[R]
5.18
12.63
[R]
12.72
2.23
[R]
2.26
4.66
[R]
4.54
4.88
[R]
5.74
[R]
5.91
[R]
6.04
[R]
6.18
[R]
6.69
[R]
6.77
111.34
[R]
116.41
[R]
125.48
[R]
138.71
[R]
147.78
[R]
156.31
5.14
[R]
5.26
[R]
5.57
[R]
5.61
[R]
43.30
[R]
50.62
[R]
59.99
[R]
66.80
[R]
73.81
17.68
5.02
39.44
5.13
13.94
13.84
14.29
15.54
[R]
16.34
[R]
4.46
4.64
4.56
[R]
4.88
[R]
4.91
[R]
4.15
22.15
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.79
2.58
[R]
2.56
22.24
2.11
[R]
22.15
2.18
[R]
2.42
2.66
156 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
(Continued )
Region and Country

South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Other
World
1997
7.41
3.21
2.60
8.34
381.35
1998
[R]
6.83
3.40
2.44
8.47
[R]
382.38
1999
[R]
7.55
3.55
2.50
9.01
[R]
389.95
2000
[R]
7.89
3.77
2.58
9.23
[R]
[R]
397.93
[R]
eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm). World primary energy consumption includes consumption of petroleum
products (including natural-gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel), dry natural gas, and coal (including net
imports of coal coke) and the consumption of net electricity generated from nuclear electric power, hydroelectric power,
wood, waste, geothermal, solar, and wind. It also includes, for the United States, the consumption of renewable energy
by the end-use sectors. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. For related information,
see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Energy Data a 157
2001
8.10
3.86
2.70
9.47
402.15
2002
2003
[R]
[R]
8.39
4.02
2.94
9.80
[R]
410.56
2004
[R]
[R]
8.64
4.21
3.22
10.23
[R]
8.91
4.36
3.45
10.92
[R]
426.02
[R]
447.15
2005
[R]
2006 P
[R]
[R]
9.23
4.43
3.67
11.52
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
9.45
4.57
3.74
11.97
[R]
462.06
[R]
472.27
158 a Energy Data
TABLE 6

Crude Oil
Oil & Gas Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
211.6
178.6a
11.7
21.3
57.5
25.2b
11.1
21.3
309.8
58.2
13.9
237.7
314.1
58.3
18.1
237.7

Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Peru
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela
Otherc
109.9
2.6
.5
12.2
.2
1.5
.1
4.5
.4
.7
87.0
.2
104.8
2.7
.5
12.5
.0
1.5
.7
4.8
.4
.6
81.0
.2
261.8
15.8
26.5
12.3
3.5
4.3
2.5
NA
11.9
18.8
166.3
(s)
247.0
16.5
28.0
12.9
1.0
6.7
.8
.3
12.0
16.7
152.0
(s)
Europed
Austria
Croatia
Denmark
Germany
Hungary
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Romania
Serbia
United Kingdom
Otherc
14.3
.1
.1
1.2
.4
(s)
.4
.1
6.9
.1
.6
.1
3.6
.8
13.8
.1
.1
1.1
.2
.1
.4
.2
6.7
.2
.5
NR
3.6
.7
172.0
.6
1.0
2.5
9.0
.3
3.3
50.0
79.1
5.8
2.2
1.7
14.6
1.9
169.0
1.1
1.1
2.6
5.2
.6
3.0
48.8
81.7
4.7
4.2
NR
14.0
2.1
Eurasiae
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Otherc
98.9
7.0
30.0
60.0
.6
.4
.6
.3
126.0
NR
NR
76.0
NR
NR
NR
50.0
2,014.8
30.0
100.0
1,680.0
100.0
39.0
65.0
.8
2,104.0
NR
NR
1,654.0
NR
NR
NR
450.0
Energy Data a 159
Crude Oil
Oil & Gas
Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
Middle East
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwaitf
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabiaf
Syria
Yemen
Otherc
748.3
.1
138.4
115.0
104.0
5.5
15.2
266.8
2.5
97.8
3.0
(s)
727.3
NR
137.0
126.0
99.4
5.7
20.0
264.8
2.9
68.1
2.7
.7
2,548.9
3.3
948.2
111.9
56.0
30.0
905.3
253.1
8.5
214.4
16.9
1.3
2,570.2
NR
985.0
91.0
66.3
32.0
903.2
254.0
12.1
196.3
16.8
13.6
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Cameroon
Congo (Brazzaville)
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Libya
Mozambique
Nigeria
Sudan
Tunisia
Otherc
114.8
12.2
9.0
.2
1.6
3.7
1.1
2.0
41.5
.0
36.2
5.0
.4
1.9
114.7
11.9
9.5
NR
1.9
3.7
1.7
3.2
36.5
.0
37.2
6.7
.6
1.8
489.6
159.0
9.5
4.8
3.2
58.5
1.3
1.0
50.1
4.5
184.0
3.0
2.3
7.6
504.2
160.0
5.7
NR
4.1
68.5
3.4
2.5
52.8
.0
184.5
4.0
3.5
15.4
Asia and Oceaniad

Australia
Bangladesh
Brunei
Burma
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
New Zealand
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Thailand
Vietnam
Otherc
34.3
1.5
(s)
1.1
.1
16.0
5.6
4.4
(s)
4.0
.1
.3
.1
.5
.6
.2
40.0
4.2
NR
1.1
.2
18.1
4.0
4.5
NR
5.5
.1
.3
.2
.4
1.3
.2
415.4
30.0
5.0
13.8
10.0
80.0
38.0
93.9
.7
83.0
1.0
28.0
8.0
11.7
6.8
5.5
527.6
151.9
NR
11.0
15.0
61.8
31.8
92.0
NR
88.0
2.0
29.8
14.7
11.2
8.2
10.2
1,332.0
1,184.2
6,212.3
6,436.0
World
160 a Energy Data

a
oil sands.
Bbbl [billion barrels]. Albertas estimates of established oil sands reserves of 174 Bbbl are not proved; that would
c
Arabia.
TABLE 7
Region and Country

North America
Canada
Greenland
Mexico
United Statesa
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Peru
Other
Europeb
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Turkey
United Kingdom
Other
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
126,271
3,826
0
948
121,496
7,969
0
34
7,251
154
529
9,296
6
1,844
7
168
0
219
6,627
13
0
171
241
145,206
3,425
202
387
141,193
9,973
7,791
1,268
420
0
494
41,485
2,195
3,117
15,299
7,227
4,299
3,420
1,642
452
2,000
0
1,834
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
271,477
7,251
202
1,335
262,689
17,941
7,791
1,302
7,671
154
1,023
50,781
2,200
4,962
15,306
7,394
4,299
3,640
8,270
465
2,000
171
2,076
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 161
TABLE 7
(Continued )
Region and Country

Eurasiac
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Other
Middle East
Iran
Africa
Botswana
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Other
Asia and Oceaniab
Australia
China
India
Indonesia
North Korea
Pakistan
Thailand
Other
World
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
103,186
31,052
54,110
16,922
1,102
0
1,528
1,528
54,488
44
52,911
553
980
169,994
40,896
68,564
57,585
1,897
331
1
0
721
472,731
145,931
3,450
118,964
20,417
2,205
895
0
0
192
0
0
0
192
113,813
43,541
57,651
4,694
2,874
331
2,184
1,493
1,046
456,599
[R]
[R]
Total
249,117
34,502
173,074
37,339
3,307
895
1,528
1,528
54,680
44
52,911
553
1,172
283,807
84,437
126,215
62,278
4,771
661
2,185
1,493
1,767
929,331
[R]
R = Revised.
162 a Energy Data
TABLE 8

Region and Country

North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
Other
1997
1998
1999
2000
6,492
[R]
6,547
[R]
6,615
[R]
6,810
[R]
549
[R]
554
[R]
568
[R]
565
[R]
350
[R]
372
[R]
364
[R]
383
[R]
5,592
[R]
5,620
[R]
5,682
[R]
5,860
[R]
1
950
1
[R]
975
[R]
984
[R]
993
[R]
136
[R]
140
[R]
138
[R]
[R]
325
[R]
336
[R]
345
[R]
[R]
142
Argentina
130
Brazil
326
Venezuela
135
Other
359
[R]
372
[R]
374
[R]
375
Europeb
4,503
[R]
4,487
[R]
4,436
[R]
4,500
[R]
Belgium
146
[R]
151
[R]
143
[R]
149
[R]
France
385
[R]
410
[R]
404
[R]
402
[R]
Germany
889
[R]
872
[R]
841
[R]
857
[R]
Italy
425
[R]
441
[R]
441
[R]
448
[R]
Netherlands
240
[R]
242
[R]
239
[R]
252
[R]
Poland
339
[R]
316
[R]
329
[R]
295
[R]
Romania
120
[R]
101
[R]
91
Spain
272
[R]
282
[R]
309
[R]
327
[R]
Turkey
182
[R]
184
[R]
182
[R]
202
[R]
United Kingdom
569
[R]
564
[R]
559
[R]
561
[R]
Other
935
[R]
924
[R]
898
[R]
913
[R]
Eurasiac
2,244
[R]
2,235
[R]
2,320
[R]
2,356
[R]
120
[R]
116
[R]
133
[R]
143
[R]
1,483
[R]
1,482
[R]
1,560
[R]
1,582
[R]
344
[R]
333
[R]
328
[R]
327
[R]
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
133
134
93
Uzbekistan
103
102
[R]
103
Other
194
[R]
201
[R]
195
[R]
197
989
[R]
1,019
[R]
1,057
[R]
1,094
[R]
291
[R]
295
[R]
317
[R]
321
[R]
Middle East
Iran
106
[R]
Saudi Arabia
255
[R]
258
[R]
264
[R]
291
[R]
Other
443
[R]
467
[R]
475
[R]
483
[R]
[R]
Africa
872
[R]
861
[R]
877
[R]
892
Egypt
112
[R]
115
[R]
117
[R]
119
South Africa
388
[R]
370
[R]
381
[R]
392
[R]
Other
371
[R]
376
[R]
378
[R]
381
[R]
7,197
[R]
7,035
[R]
7,247
[R]
7,366
[R]
334
[R]
340
[R]
359
[R]
360
[R]
Asia and Oceaniac

Australia
China
3,133
[R]
3,029
[R]
2,992
[R]
2,967
[R]
India
878
[R]
914
[R]
971
[R]
1,012
[R]
247
[R]
241
[R]
266
[R]
274
[R]
1,161
[R]
1,116
[R]
1,158
[R]
1,204
[R]
Indonesia
Japan
Energy Data a 163
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
6,697
[R]
6,782
[R]
6,870
[R]
6,970
[R]
7,034
[R]
6,954
554
[R]
573
[R]
602
[R]
615
[R]
632
[R]
614
380
[R]
384
385
[R]
407
[R]
436
5,762
[R]
5,824
[R]
5,969
[R]
5,994
[R]
5,903
1,016
[R]
128
349
149
389
[R]
5,878
1,005
[R]
1,023
[R]
1,066
[R]
1,111
[R]
1,138
[R]
121
[R]
134
[R]
141
[R]
152
[R]
162
[R]
347
[R]
346
[R]
356
[R]
371
[R]
377
[R]
147
[R]
134
[R]
143
[R]
150
[R]
152
390
[R]
408
[R]
426
[R]
438
389
447
4,559
[R]
4,532
[R]
4,679
[R]
4,713
[R]
4,717
[R]
4,721
146
[R]
143
[R]
151
[R]
154
[R]
151
[R]
148
406
[R]
402
[R]
409
[R]
416
[R]
414
[R]
418
878
[R]
857
[R]
874
[R]
872
[R]
853
[R]
858
445
[R]
453
[R]
475
[R]
470
[R]
473
[R]
468
278
[R]
259
[R]
261
[R]
271
[R]
273
[R]
260
279
[R]
276
[R]
289
[R]
295
[R]
290
[R]
303
102
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
98
[R]
99
332
[R]
349
[R]
357
[R]
371
[R]
384
[R]
373
184
[R]
195
[R]
207
[R]
211
[R]
231
[R]
236
575
[R]
564
[R]
575
[R]
582
[R]
585
[R]
586
934
[R]
934
[R]
980
[R]
972
[R]
966
[R]
973
2,332
[R]
2,354
[R]
2,471
[R]
2,529
[R]
2,600
[R]
2,601
[R]
148
[R]
154
[R]
166
1,571
[R]
1,572
[R]
1,627
319
[R]
327
[R]
357
114
[R]
115
206
111
184
185
[R]
203
[R]
213
1,663
[R]
1,699
[R]
1,704
[R]
347
[R]
350
[R]
329
[R]
122
[R]
117
[R]
121
[R]
212
[R]
231
[R]
233
[R]
188
1,119
[R]
1,175
[R]
1,240
[R]
1,330
[R]
1,444
[R]
1,505
334
[R]
365
[R]
387
[R]
407
[R]
446
[R]
471
301
[R]
312
[R]
347
[R]
389
[R]
406
[R]
424
483
[R]
499
[R]
506
[R]
535
[R]
593
[R]
610
923
[R]
924
[R]
975
[R]
1,025
[R]
1,062
[R]
1,057
130
[R]
134
[R]
144
[R]
153
[R]
161
[R]
152
399
[R]
385
[R]
418
[R]
448
[R]
438
[R]
444
394
[R]
405
[R]
413
[R]
424
[R]
463
[R]
461
7,608
[R]
8,050
[R]
8,806
[R]
9,821
[R]
10,517
[R]
11,220
374
[R]
383
[R]
381
[R]
391
[R]
417
[R]
417
3,108
[R]
3,441
[R]
4,062
[R]
4,847
[R]
5,429
[R]
6,018
1,035
[R]
1,034
[R]
1,048
[R]
1,151
[R]
1,194
[R]
1,293
300
[R]
315
[R]
305
[R]
323
[R]
324
[R]
280
1,197
[R]
1,203
[R]
1,253
[R]
1,258
[R]
1,250
[R]
1,247
164 a Energy Data
TABLE 8
(Continued )
Region and Country
1997
Malaysia
102
South Korea
435
Taiwan
1998
1999
2000
103
[R]
107
[R]
112
[R]
[R]
375
[R]
433
[R]
446
[R]
210
[R]
225
[R]
224
[R]
252
[R]
Thailand
177
[R]
162
[R]
171
[R]
162
[R]
Other
520
[R]
530
[R]
567
[R]
578
[R]
23,247
[R]
23,160
[R]
23,535
[R]
24,011
[R]
World
a
cfm). Data include carbon dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel energy consumption and natural-gas flaring. Totals may not
equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related information, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/
international.
Energy Data a 165
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
125
[R]
134
[R]
150
[R]
166
[R]
160
[R]
164
452
[R]
468
[R]
478
[R]
489
[R]
497
[R]
515
249
[R]
274
[R]
290
[R]
287
[R]
290
[R]
300
172
[R]
187
[R]
206
[R]
226
[R]
243
[R]
245
594
[R]
612
[R]
633
[R]
683
[R]
714
[R]
741
24,253
[R]
24,823
[R]
26,064
[R]
27,453
[R]
28,485
[R]
29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:

3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a
3000 B.C.

2800
1100
various localities.
200
500 900
600
874
1400s
1626
1769
1800s
1800 1826
1816
1830 1839
1860
18701880

trains.
conrmed.
and transmission.
transportation.
1878
18811887
1883
18831884
1885
1888
1890s
1900
19001910
19061970
gas and air.
purposes.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
1910
1920
1940s1960s
1942
1950
1956
Mid-1950s
1957
1958
1961
1973
1986
1987
1990

large numbers.
War II.
source.

1997
2005
standard.
2007
2008
for the rst time.
for the rst time.
2009
2010
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
174 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
CONRAD, WILLIAM
DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 175
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
176 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 177
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a

and recruiters.

positions.
businesses.
GREEN CAREERS GUIDE
economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS
GREEN ENERGY JOBS
GREEN JOBS NETWORK
WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.
WWW.DOE.GOV

WWW.KAHKE.COM

AND MANUFACTURERS
a
altarockenergy.com
FARMINGTON, CT
SAN FRANCISCO, CA
BREVARD, NC
dupont.com

FEIBURG, GERMANY
IBM, SAN JOSE, CA
www.acciona-na.com

energysiemens.com
suncor.com
DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function
Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell
Geochemical cycles
Grades 912
Population growth
Natural resources
History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f
Abate, Dee, 5:39
Abengoa Solar, 1:213, 2:40, 2:55,
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Abu Dhabi, 5:92 93, 5:93f, 5:129
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
1:109 11, 1:110f
Active yawing, 3:12
Adams, William, 1:198, 1:203, 2:5,
2:168, 2:173, 3:166, 3:171, 4:168,
4:173, 5:170, 5:175

5:38f
motor, 2:96
Aeroturbine, 3:14
Afghanistan, 3:94
eld, 4:43
5:29 30
190 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Aleman, Angel, 1:50
2:92 94
2:117, 5:118
3:33f
3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Alternate Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 5:127
Center, 2:103, 4:105
1:129
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170
5:37
1:100, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137

2:127
5:91
1:157, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137
1:66
3:169, 4:89, 4:171, 5:120, 5:173
(ASES), 1:35, 1:165, 1:209, 2:33,
2:80, 2:135, 2:179, 3:133, 3:177,
4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
(AWEA), 1:165, 2:135, 3:2, 3:26,
3:133, 4:135, 5:137
Anode, 2:88
Refuge
5:52 53; fuel use and, 1:178t 179t,
2:148t 149t, 3:146t 147t,
4:148t 149t, 5:150t 151t
Aquaculture, 4:50
Arch dam, 3:80
Archimedes, 2:35
5:88 89; for green roof, 5:81 82
(ANWR), 1:61
Index a 191

Tucson, 5:17
Arkansas, 4:5, 4:118, 5:91, 5:91f
Society
5:41
Association of American State Geologists, 1:67
Atoms, 2:10
Austin, Texas, 5:91
2:25
AutoDesk, 5:18
1:213 14, 2:183 84, 3:181 82,
4:183 84, 5:185 86
Association
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f
B20 fuel, 4:119f, 4:120
Babcock Ranch, 2:22
Bacon, Francis T., 1:203, 2:90, 2:173,
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Bacteria, 4:103
Baez, Ana, 1:50
3:55 56, 3:55f
Bantam, Doug, 4:1

(Wibberding), 5:61
Bates, John, 5:123
Bats, 3:60
of, 5:122 23; NiMH, 5:122 23;
Bay Localize, 1:28
Bay of Fundy, 3:110
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Belize, 4:34
Belote, Dave, 2:3f
Benz, Daimler, 2:90
Benzene, 1:53
Biliran, 4:33
4:22, 4:40f
Biodiesel, 1:48, 1:49, 1:51, 1:53 54,
4:127 28; advantages of, 4:121;
192 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

using, 4:117 20, 4:119, 4:119f;
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75
Biodigester, 4:98, 4:99f, 4:101
Bioethanol, 4:91 92
Biofuel, 1:xvii, 1:14, 2:xvii, 3:xvii,
4:xvii, 4:89 90, 5:xvii; algae used
5:123; buses, 5:7, 5:8f; dening,
of, 4:102 3; CO2 from, 4:96; cow
Biojet, 4:107
Biomass, 1:13 14, 2:64 65; Asian
energy source of, 4:89; benets
of, 4:103 4; dening, 4:81 82;

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
4:82 83, 4:82f; types of, 4:81f; US
2:64
Bioreactors, 2:93f
4:42
Bitumen, 1:58, 1:59
5:25 26
Blade design, 3:9
Blenders, 1:53 54
5:121 22, 5:121f, 5:128
3:14
BMW Mini E, 5:72
2:105, 2:106f
1:143f
Index a 193

Brazil, 2:113, 3:86 87
2:103
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Brush, Charles F., 1:199, 1:203, 2:169,
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173,
5:171, 5:175
Bunsen, Robert, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Burdin, Claude, 3:7
farms, 3:39 40
Butane, 1:74, 1:76
Buttress dam, 3:80
C. reinhartii, 2:92

eciency
Caithness/COC, 4:20
2:17; wind energy in, 1:200, 2:170,
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:115 16
3:32
(CYES), 1:30
Calorie, 1:18
Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
Canola, 4:115
Caprocks, 1:74
Carbon, 1:94, 5:7
1:122 23, 1:124f
Carbon cycle, 4:91f
194 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
1:119 20, 1:120f; emissions

emissions of, 1:192 95, 2:162 65,
3:160 63, 4:162 65, 5:5, 5:105,
2:179 82, 3:177 80, 4:179 82,
5:181 84

Carrier Corp., 1:214, 2:184, 3:182,
4:184, 5:186
Cathode, 2:88
Cattle, 1:76
Mechanism
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
bulb
Chaplin, Daryl, 2:5
Charcoal, 4:102
Chen, David, 2:52 54, 2:52f
Chernobyl plant, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
4:170, 5:172
Chevron, 1:67, 4:41
1:214, 2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Chevy Volt, 5:71
of, 1:114, 1:116; Dongtan, 5:94;
Index a 195

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
in, 1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:61f, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
4:102
Chu, Steven, 1:125, 1:131, 2:85, 3:73,
4:80, 4:89, 5:108, 5:111, 5:120,
5:129
2:17 21
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
4:115 16
2:135, 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
1:122

(CDM), 4:51
Clean Edge jobs, 1:209, 2:179, 3:177,
4:179, 5:181
4:126
(CUTE), 2:112
1:22 24; reducing, 1:25 33;
1:32f
pump (GCHP), 4:68
Coal, 1:xii, 1:10, 2:xii, 3:xii, 4:xii,
5:xii; ash slurry, 1:112; bargeload
uses of, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
1:109 11, 1:128 29; exporters of,
1:116 17, 1:117t; formation of,
1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
future of, 1:128 29; gasication, 1:125 28, 1:126f; Germany
and, 1:115 16, 5:106; history of,
of, 1:190t 191t, 2:160t 161t,
196 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,

1:113 15, 1:115f, 1:117; Utah state
5:39
in, 3:34
Columbia, 1:101

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
wind turbines, 3:10
farms, 3:31 32
using, 1:93f
Computers, 5:54
1:xiv, 1:12, 2:xiv, 2:1, 2:35, 2:38f,
3:xiv, 4:xiv, 5:xiv; environmental impacts of, 2:50 51; future
of, 2:50 51; land use of, 2:50;
5:113; types of, 2:36 47
Condoor, Sridhar, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
Conduction, 2:68
(CRS), 3:24, 3:30
Conlogue, Fred, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
1:67, 3:67
Conrad, William, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
3:68
Index a 197
2:xiii; household electricity, 5:49f;

2:4
Controller, 3:11
Control rods, 1:142
Convection, 2:68
Coolants, 1:141 42
Copenhagen, 3:58f
Corn kernels, 4:94f
(CAFE), 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
wind energy, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68
Costa Rica, 4:43 44

3:116 18
Cow manure, 4:98
Service
of, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
5:160t 161t; imports of, 1:xi xii,
2:xi xii, 3:xi xii, 4:xi xii, 5:xi xii;
1:46 47; US imports of, 1:54 56
Cubic foot, 1:18
for Europe
Cut-in speeds, 3:21
Services
Daimler AG, 2:86, 5:119
Dam gates, 3:81
3:78 80; types of, 3:80
Darajat, 4:41
Davy, Humphrey, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:63
Delaware, 3:37
198 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:105
Dell-Winston School Solar Challenge, 2:45
3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138;
vacancies in, 1:212, 2:182, 3:180,
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:174, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Energy Center, 1:xiii, 2:xiii, 2:22,
2:22f, 3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii
Desuperheater, 4:69
Diesel, Rudolf, 1:47, 1:48, 1:199,
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169,
5:171

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
cells
Doping process, 2:7
Drake, Edwin L., 1:67, 1:204, 2:174,
3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:44 45; rig, 1:44f
4:8 9, 4:8f
Headquarters, 5:87
DuPont, 2:102
Durability, 4:70
DVD players, 5:54
2:12f
Index a 199

1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190;
Econar, 4:75
3:16 18
Eco-roofs, 5:65
Ecoversity, 4:127
Edison, Thomas, 1:199, 2:1, 2:169,
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
3:166, 4:168, 5:170
Renewable Energy
Centers
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Einstein, Albert, 1:199, 1:204, 2:169,
2:174, 3:167, 3:172, 4:169, 4:174,
5:171, 5:176

grid; Utility grid
1:114f; energy and, 1:16 17;
3:16, 3:41; homes use of, 3:44,
3:90, 5:48, 5:49f; household
3:16, 3:21 22
Electric motor, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:110
3:25
America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
4:135, 5:77, 5:126, 5:137
200 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
to, 5:125 26; green, 5:71 74;

5:72
Electrolysis, 2:87, 2:91 92, 2:92f
Electrolyte, 2:88
Electrons, 2:92
CO2, 1:95f, 1:119 20, 1:120f; CO2
4:117; US CO2, 1:120f; zero, 1:122,
dioxide
Enel, 4:20

1:24, 1:36 37; future of, 5:129;
3:181 84, 4:183 86, 5:185 88;
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:7 9; Savers, 4:54, 4:76; security,
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73; US history of, 1:3 4,
Energy audits, 5:20, 5:24, 5:54 55
4:118
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; in schools,
1:26 28
and, 5:102; future of, 1:21 22;
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
Index a 201
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,

2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
4:150t 153t, 5:152t 155t; by
sector, 1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t; of US, 1:19f
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; school
Energy (EERE), 1:36, 2:104, 4:76,
4:105, 5:22, 5:128
(EFRC), 1:33
EnergyGuide, 5:50f
Act of 2007, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f,
5:55
4:12 13, 4:41, 4:46 47, 4:47f,
4:48f
Division, 5:22

and, 1:22 24; of coal, 1:109 11,
station, 1:119 20; of CSP, 2:50 51;
1:108; in tidal power, 3:112 13
(EPA), 1:97, 1:166, 2:136, 3:134,
Frontier by, 4:69
Agency
Energy Council
Ericsson, John, 1:198, 1:205, 2:5,
2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
4:175, 5:170, 5:177
Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
4:175, 5:177
Ethane, 1:74 75
202 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Ethylene, 1:53
Europe: air-to-water heat pumps in,
4:72 73; hot dry rock project of,
4:48 49; hydrogen fuel cell research of, 2:112 13; wind energy
in, 1:xv xvi, 2:xv xvi, 3:xv xvi,
3:57, 4:xv xvi, 5:xv xvi
Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, 5:77
(EREC), 3:98
3:59
Exxon Mobil, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
Faraday, Michael, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Faya, Antnio, 3:87
2:170, 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
Fermentation, 2:92, 4:94 95, 4:100
Fermi, Enrico, 1:134, 1:200, 1:205,
2:170, 2:175, 3:168, 3:173, 4:170,
4:175, 5:172, 5:177
Finland, 4:88
Fish farms, 4:17, 4:19, 4:50, 4:51f
Fish ladders, 3:97f
4:10f
1:151 52
2:33
1:111
1:121 22
Food Lion, 5:105
Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Ford 999, 2:109
Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
5:72, 5:86, 5:172, 5:188
Forebay, 3:92f
Index a 203
Forklifts, 2:113
4:66 67
Activities, 5:128
consumption of, 2:xiii; emission
2:129 30, 3:127 28, 4:129 30,
5:131 32
tidal power energy in, 1:xvi xvii,
2:xvi xvii, 3:xvi xvii, 3:109, 3:109f,
4:xvi xvii, 5:xvi xvii
4:185, 5:187
Freons, 1:74
Frisch, Otto, 1:134
Fritts, Charles, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177
1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,

world use of, 1:8f
Fuel Cell 2000, 2:103
2:109
about, 2:121 23; cost of, 2:97,
small, 2:106, 2:120, 2:120f; solid
2:104
2:98
2:99, 2:107, 2:108f, 5:69 70; cost
of, 2:114; in Germany, 2:110 11; in
2:107 9
Fuel economy, 1:51
Fuel rods, 1:140 41, 1:141f
Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 72, 4:102
3:173, 4:175, 5:177
204 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Fuller, Calvin, 1:205, 2:5, 2:175,

3:173, 4:175, 5:177
Fumaroles, 4:52
Furling, 3:8
FutureGen, 1:123
Gabcikovo Dam, 3:98
Garden roofs, 5:65, 5:78, 5:84
Garner, Mark, 3:74, 5:108, 5:108f
1:62
Gasholder, 4:98
for, 4:79; coal, 1:125 28, 1:126f;
of wood, 4:97
Gasohol, 4:92
Gasoline, 1:41, 1:47, 4:93f, 4:96
1:91
Gasper, Peter, 3:87
5:125 26
3:183, 4:185, 5:187

5:122
Geology, 4:63
GEO Mission, 4:54
GeoThermal, 4:54
4:8 13; in El Salvador, 4:42 43;
4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
4:5 6; in Iceland, 1:197, 2:167,
3:165, 4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169;
Index a 205

and, 4:24; locations of, 4:6 7, 4:29;
4:15; in New Mexico, 4:17 18;
1:162, 2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134;
resources of, 4:41; in US, 1:xvii,
2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii, 4:13 20,
4:31, 5:xvii, 5:110f; US companies in, 4:20; used in Toledo Zoo,
4:67; uses for, 4:49 51; in Utah,
using, 4:66 67
1:35, 4:27 28
4:60 61, 4:61f; CO2 reduced

4:70 71; land use and, 4:63 64;
for, 4:63 64; in Sweden, 4:72; in
using, 4:62 63
4:29
4:27
4:67, 4:68, 5:104
3:174, 4:176, 5:178
1:115 16; FCVs in, 2:110 11;
206 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

3:53, 3:57
Geysers, 4:4 5, 4:52
The Geysers, 4:5 6, 4:8 9, 4:14, 4:14f
Gill, Dena, 3:65
5:120
1:103; of energy, 1:18 19, 1:20f,
1:184 87t, 2:154 57t, 3:152 55t,
4:154 57t, 5:156 59t; of natural
gas, 1:72 73, 1:94 95; wind energy
and, 3:56
2:162 65, 3:160 63, 4:162 65,
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 67
1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
1:79 81, 1:79f, 1:188t 189t,
2:158t 159t, 3:156t 157t,
4:158t 159t, 5:160t 161t

1:25 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
gas and, 1:128
Global winds, 3:3f
Glycerin, 4:112
in, 5:3 4; of NASCAR, 5:1 3
Gomez, Cesar, 1:50
Gore, Al, 5:129
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39;
US, 4:80
Grant, John D., 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Gravity dam, 3:80
Great Geysir, 4:37
School, 5:35
Green biz, 1:210, 2:180, 3:178, 4:180,
5:182
5:26 27
Index a 207

3:178, 4:180, 5:182
5:89 92, 5:92t
Green Club, 2:19 20
Green Cluster, 5:77
Green corps, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
Green-e, 3:97
3:179, 4:181, 5:183
1:30
4:50
2:77f, 5:4
of, 2:78, 5:16; emissions of, 4:69;
Greenpeace, 1:36
3:71
Snodgrass), 5:40

5:65 66, 5:65f; issues with, 5:87;
electric, 5:71 74
3:42f
Grove, William, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:120, 5:178
Guatemala, 4:34
Gunung Salak, 4:41
Guorui, Luo, 4:103
Guri Dam, 1:xvii, 2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii,
5:xvii
Hahn, Otto, 1:134
Halliday, Daniel, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Center, 3:34
208 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:103f
Harris, Matt, 2:8
Hawaii, 4:16 17
the Head, 3:91 92
Heat, 1:6 8
Heating system, 4:22 23, 4:50, 5:25
Heat pumps, 1:13
Cell kit, 2:125
5:10f
4:72
Herschel, John, 2:5
(HLRW), 1:34
High pressure, 3:4
wastes
Hobby Lobby, 5:61

5:56 57; energy saving, 5:47 48;
in, 1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,
5:150t 151t; of future, 5:46 47;
for, 5:63
Hoover Dam, 1:17f, 3:76 77
Hopi Indians, 1:104
2:127, 5:69
3:13f, 3:40 41
Index a 209

3:31, 3:31f
Hot dry rock, 4:12 13, 4:12f,
project of, 4:48 49
Human health, 4:76
Hybrid cars, 5:68, 5:69t, 5:78
Hydroelectric energy, 1:xvi, 1:12 13,
2:xvi, 3:xvi, 4:xvi, 5:xvi; advantages
3:85 86; dams built for, 3:78 80;
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133;
3:74 77, 3:74f
3:86 87, 3:86f; in Italy, 2:94;
3:89 90; types of, 3:80 81, 3:82f

using, 2:110, 2:110f, 5:69; storage,
2:90 91; vehicle, 2:116
1:15, 2:xv, 2:85 86, 2:128, 3:xv,
2:105; buses using, 2:111 13,
2:100 101; in Germany, 2:117;
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; sales growth
210 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

vehicles
Hydrology, 4:63
5:69, 5:119
Energy Agency
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
energy in, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165,
4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169; geothermal
systems
plants in, 4:15 16
combined cycle
Association
Illinois, 4:119 20
5:12f
5:xi xii
3:80, 3:82f
3:59 60
Indiana, 4:68, 4:120
1:115
steel, 1:20 21; US coal, 1:113 15,
Cell, 2:106
Insulation, 5:52
(ICS), 2:77
cycle (IGCC), 1:122
Gas Vehicles, 1:100
(IAEA), 1:135 36, 1:166, 2:136,
3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 211

and Dams, 3:99
2:124
2:33, 2:83
Coalition, 2:16
Ions, 2:88
Iowa, 5:35
4:71
Energy Agency
3:86 87, 3:86f
James, David, 4:127
Jiu River, 3:88 89

Kalina system, 4:49
Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
Kazimi, Mujid, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Kelp, 1:98
in, 5:32
Kenya, 4:43
Keros, Alex, 2:108f
Kerosene, 1:53
Kibaki, Mwai, 4:43
Kill A Watt, 5:62
1:6
Krocker, J. D., 4:6
5:106
Kyoto Protocol, 1997, 1:32 33, 1:201,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:16, 5:105 6,
5:106f, 5:173
212 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
LaDuke, Winona, 2:8

1:97 98, 2:120, 4:97; nitrogen
energy, 5:56 57
energy and, 2:29
3:109f
3:100
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also
LEED certication

5:102 5
Lewis, Mike, 2:98
Lewis, Zane, 2:95f, 4:110f, 4:111
4:33
Life science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
facilities
Limestone, 1:42
1:85
1:150f
Lithium, 5:124
Local winds, 3:4
1:122 23
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:13, 4:136,
5:138
Louisiana, 4:112
(LIH), 3:97
1:145 46
Low pressure, 3:4
1:12
Index a 213

Luminant, 3:31
Program, 5:62
Mak-Ban, 4:41
Malaysia, 4:87
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
5:173; in energy, 1:213 16,
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
Mariculture, 3:123
Marine plants, 1:98
Maryland, 5:35
4:67 68
Mayer, John, 5:8f
5:16
5:70
McCurdy, Ross, 2:94 99, 2:125,

2:126, 4:110 11
cells
4:119f
5:70f
5:71
Methane, 1:74 75, 1:75f, 4:96; cattle
1:96 97
Methanol, 2:89, 2:120, 2:120f
Mexico, 4:34 35
Michigan, 4:72
3:89 90, 3:91f; China using,
Microturbines, 2:41
4:80f
Middle East, 1:79f
Migratory sh, 3:87
Military, US, 1:137
214 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

1:138 40
project, 5:9, 5:10f
4:43
Mississippi, 4:72
Mojave Desert, 2:36 38, 2:51, 3:32,
4:11
Molecules, 2:10
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119
Montana, 4:20
5:83
Motion, 1:6
2:168, 2:176, 3:166, 3:174, 4:168,
4:176, 5:170, 5:178
4:108
Mt. Washington, 3:5
3:81
Murphy, John, 2:98
Musk, Elon, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Nacelle, 3:11
5:117f
Nanometers, 2:10
Nanosolar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
5:114f, 5:116
2:90, 5:120
4:117, 4:127
4:73
2:52, 3:64 68; mission of, 3:66;
3:66 67
Index a 215

2:103
(NGSA), 1:100
Guide, 5:90
1:36, 3:100
2:33, 2:99 100, 2:103, 2:127,
2:136, 3:14, 3:44, 3:134, 4:118,
4:136, 5:109, 5:115, 5:138
1:217 18, 2:187 88, 3:185 86,
4:187 88, 5:189 90
(NWTC), 3:52
Authority, 3:119
Natural gas, 1:xii, 1:9 10, 1:71 72,
1:71; Chinas use of, 1:197, 2:167,
1:101; consumers of, 1:82 85;
of, 1:74 75; drilling for, 1:76 77;
consumption of, 1:72 73, 1:94 95;
1:79f, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,

and, 1:94; history of, 1:73 74;
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75; advantages
safety of, 1:92
(NRRI), 4:83
Nauen, Andreas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
Reserves, 1:58
Nebraska, 4:68
NECAR 1, 2:90
2:13
Energy Association
Netherlands, 1:84
Net metering, 2:15 16, 3:43, 3:71
University Program
216 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Nevada, 4:15
2:185, 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Newell, Craig, 3:20
New Jersey, 4:118, 5:35 36
New Mexico, 4:17 18
New York, 2:17, 2:114 15, 5:34, 5:82
New York gym, 5:9
3:110 11
Association
Niagara Falls, 3:76
(NiMH), 5:122 23
Nielsen, Carl, 4:6
battery
Resource Service

1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84
North Dakota, 4:72
North Sea, 1:80f
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
3:117 18
Commission
of, 1:132 33; in countries, 5:112;
1:137 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 41,
on, 1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
4:129 30, 5:131 32; in sustainable
Index a 217

source, 1:131 32
1:152, 1:157
(NEUP), 1:131, 5:111
3:168, 4:170, 5:172; Browns Ferry,
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173;
US, 1:136
(NRC), 1:134, 1:147, 1:157, 1:166,
2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
1:146 47
1:150, 5:123
1:131, 1:148, 2:3, 2:3f, 2:86, 3:xiii,
4:xiii, 4:80, 5:xiii, 5:108f, 5:110 11,
5:124, 5:129

(ORPC), 3:124
3:113 18
(OTEC), 1:15, 3:104, 3:118 19,
3:120f; Africa and, 3:122;
Octane rating, 1:47
Development
Oerlikon Solar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
systems, 3:114
Ohio, 5:33
Ohms Law, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
218 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158,

4:160, 5:162
Oil sands, 1:58 59, 1:190, 2:160,
3:158, 4:160, 5:162
Olive oil, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
3:114 16
4:61 63, 4:62f
4:1 2, 4:20 23, 4:21f, 4:24f
4:24f
1:20f, 1:81

2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39
Ormat, 4:20
Company
3:115
Conversion
3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Oxygenates, 1:53
Pacic ocean, 4:6 7
Palapa, Rosy, 1:50
2:37f, 2:43f
Paraguay, 3:86 87
2:67 70, 2:67f; benets of, 2:70;
Index a 219
Paul, Stephen, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
reactor
Peak oil, 1:56, 1:69
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
1: 151
Peck, Rick, 5:13 15, 5:13f
3:92 93, 3:93f, 3:94
membrane
Center, 5:96
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169;
1:60 62; forming of, 1:41 42; as
2:119

uses for, 2:6
5:113
leaders in, 2:24 26
4:187, 5:189
Picohydro, 3:91
5:88
5:33
Poland, 1:116
(PEM), 1:xv, 2:xv, 2:89, 3:xv, 4:xv,
5:xv
Pools, 4:50 51
energy in, 3:59
PowerBuoy, 3:114
binary, 4:9 10, 4:9f, 4:22; CO2
220 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

also Geothermal
plants
Power strips, 5:54
Pressures, 4:3
1:144
Probst, Pete, 4:124
1:213 16, 2:183 86, 3:181 84,
4:183 86, 5:185 88
1:116; coal, 1:115 16, 1:116;
oil, 1:62; hydrogen, 2:91 100;
1:81 82; Polands coal, 1:116;

and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:29 38, 3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115;
1:59
Propane, 1:74 75, 1:76, 1:85
3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Quad, 1:18
Quebec, 3:86
Race cars, 4:107 8, 4:108f
Radiant energy, 1:5
4:16f
Rain barrels, 5:32
Index a 221

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; on fossil fuels,
1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; on nuclear
energy, 1:159 60, 2:129 30,
3:127 28, 4:129 30, 5:131 32; on
solar energy, 1:160 61, 2:130 31,
3:128 29, 4:130 31, 5:132 33; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
5:134 35; on wave energy, 1:161,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
5:133
1:107 8
1:190 91t, 2:160t 161t,
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,
5:162t 163t
1:149, 1:151; of PV, 2:30
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,
5:156t 159t
Regulator, 3:90
1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84; China
of, 5:124; for homes, 5:63 64;
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
(RReDC), 5:125
Renovation, 5:27 28
Revenues, 3:38
Reverb, 5:8f
Rhode Island, 3:37, 4:118 19, 5:126
2:98
Rice paddies, 1:76
222 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Ring of Fire, 4:6 7, 4:7f, 4:18, 4:31,
4:40, 4:44
1:29, 1:31
2:110f, 5:69
Robbins, Steve, 2:9
Rocket stoves, 4:88
Rojas, Fermin, 1:50
Romania, 3:88 89
Rotor blades, 3:7 9
5:31
Data Center
of, 3:62
2:44f

(SAITEM), 2:116
Salter, Steven, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
5:188
Sandstone, 1:42
2:111
2:25
Saturn, 5:71
2:94
Index a 223

wind energy in, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
in, 4:66
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188,
5:190
3:185, 4:187, 5:189
SciKits, 2:127
Scooters, 2:113 14
Scott, Paul, 5:18f
Training
Seaweed, 1:98
1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
5:146t 149t
Sedum, 5:39
Systems
Selsam, Douglas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
5:13 15, 5:13f
Sharp Corp., 2:26
1:135
plants, 3:95f
Siemens Corp., 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Silicon, 2:9
plants, 3:87
4:11
Small Business Guide to Energy Efciency, 5:23
Smaller homes, 5:55
plants, 3:89 90
Smith, David, 5:48
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
224 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:114 15; thin-lm, 2:9 10, 2:9f
5:64 65, 5:64f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185;
of, 2:4 5; benets of, 2:26 27;
2:17 21; collectors for, 2:73 74,
2:5 6, 2:56; for homes, 5:63 64;
2:130 31, 3:128 29, 4:130 31,

5:132 33; schools using, 2:16 17;
2:14 15, 2:28; videos for, 2:34. See
technology
(SEGS), 2:37, 2:51, 2:51f
Cosmos, 2:73f
Solar ovens, 2:71
3:64f
of Spain, 2:47
Solar Two, 2:47 50
Solar wall, 2:60 61
Index a 225

5:66 67; economics of, 2:78;
worlds rst, 2:59
Solatubes, 5:37
5:121
Solix Biofuels, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Solvents, 1:47
Sound, 1:6
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t
South America, 1:84
South Korea, 3:110
Soy crops, 4:125
4:69
Space science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
Spas, 4:50 51

Split systems, 4:59
Sridhar, K. R., 5:121 22, 5:121f
Sri Lanka, 3:95
4:98 102, 4:99f
Stanley, William, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Rotor
Storage tanks, 2:77
1:60f
(SEAT), 1:28
Students, 4:121
Sulfur dioxide, 1:53, 1:111, 1:119,
4:92
Sullivan, Jim, 2:98
226 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:35 36
Sun, 1:5, 2:49, 2:59, 2:107
2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
SunEdison, 5:35
1:107 8; shallow coal, 1:109
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
5:101f

3:116 17
3:9
Sweet Bay, 5:105
Swept area, 3:8
1:127 28
2:80
3:34
5:73f
Tanzania, 4:102
TAPCHAN, 3:115, 3:116f
5:27f
Tax revenue, 4:27
1:121 28; dye-sensitized, 2:11 12,
2:127, 5:69; hydrogen, 2:99 100;
nano, 4:77, 5:114 15, 5:114f,
3:119 22; passive solar, 2:60 61;
photovoltaic, 2:24 25, 2:24 26,
2:25, 2:30 31; Power, 2:83; Prism
4:19f, 4:20; science and, 1:218,
Index a 227

Televisions, 5:54
dierences in, 1:15
3:79
plants, 3:93
Tesla, Nicola, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Tessera Solar, 2:41
3:54; wind farms in, 3:32 33
3:175, 4:177, 5:179
Thailand, 4:39 40, 4:87
Thermal energy, 1:6, 3:118 23, 4:15
5:123f
Thompson, Asa, 4:5

3:84f
Tidal mill, 3:106
US, 3:108 9
Tides, 3:104 5, 3:105f
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73
Tiwi, 4:41
Toledo Zoo, 4:67
Toluene, 1:53
Tower, 3:11
Toyota, 2:86, 2:114, 5:69, 5:119;
FCHV of, 2:109; RAV4, 5:18f
Trac jams, 1:7f
228 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

turbines, 3:9 11
1:146 47
Tree hugger jobs, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
5:91
Trucking, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
Turbines, 3:81 82, 3:90, 3:92 93
Turkey, 2:116, 4:41
3:24
5:27 28
2:54

industry of, 1:113 15, 1:115f,
energy in, 1:132 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 229

of, 3:17 18, 5:115; wind energy
specic states
(USGS), 1:167, 2:137, 3:135,
4:137, 5:139
1:141; processing, 1:140; U-238,
1:144
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Council
(USGBC), 5:26 27, 5:36, 5:42
Survey
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 20
Utility bills, 5:36
2:28
4:123
Veggie Van, 4:127
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75; electric,
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75;
cell vehicles
plant, 3:59
Vermont, 5:10
Verne, Jules, 2:85
3:14 15
Vietnam, 4:87
in, 5:11
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
compounds
Voith Hydro, 3:74
5:108f
1:97, 1:119
Volcanoes, 4:7f, 4:33, 4:35, 4:37, 4:40,
4:44
Volkswagen, 2:111
Walters, Bob, 1:86 89, 1:87f
230 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

farms in, 3:36
Waste, 5:51
Water Furnace, 4:75
Watermill, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
Watt, James, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; Sweden
3:116f
Waves, 3:113

1:145
West Virginia, 5:32
5:28 31
1:111
4:66f, 4:68
California, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
3:69 70; cost of, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68;
3:58f, 5:115; DOE report on, 3:17,
3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 18;
in schools, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
Index a 231

3:68 69; US capacity of, 3:17 18,
3:72
3:32, 3:33f; Bualo Ridge, 3:34;
3:46, 3:46f
Windows, 5:33, 5:51, 5:52f
3:72
Wind speed, 3:5 6, 3:8 9
3:55 56, 3:55f; bats killed by, 3:60;

1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:60f, 3:169,
turbine, 3:13 15, 3:13f;
3:11 12
Wind vane, 3:11
Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 67
Wood alcohol, 2:89
Woods, Mel, 2:18
World oil, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 4:160,
5:162
5:xi xii
232 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4
Xeriscape, 5:87
5:188
Yellowcake, 1:140
4:9, 4:52
2:33
1:131 32
5:94
About the Author

A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 3: Wind Energy,

Oceanic Energy, and
Hydropower
John F. Mongillo

Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66
2011
621.042dc22
2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11
1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments
Introduction
ix
xiii
Chapter 1 Wind Power

What Is Wind Power?
A Short History of Wind Energy for Power
What Are Winds? Some Basic Facts
Wind Direction and Wind Speed
Wind Speed Determines Wind Power
What Is a Wind Turbine?
Rotor Blades
How Do You Determine the Energy of the Rotor?
Transmission System and Gearbox
How Do the Blades Keep Facing the Changing Winds?
Two Kinds of Wind Generators
Large Turbines and Smaller Ones
Wind Turbine Manufacturers and Wind Plant Developers
The Economics of Wind Energy
Wind Energy Provides Ancillary Economic Benets
Wind Power Benets
Wind Power Issues
1
2
2
3
5
5
7
7
7
9
11
12
15
16
16
17
18
18
vi a Contents
The Future for Wind Power

Challenges Ahead
24
24
Interview
The Use of Wind Turbines, Spirit Lake, Iowa
Chapter 2 Wind Power in the United States

The United StatesA Leading Producer of Wind Power
Farmers and Wind Power Technology
The Business of Wind Farms
Home and Small Wind Energy Systems
Wind Energy for Schools
19
29
29
38
39
40
44
Interview
Michael Arquin
Chapter 3
47
Global Wind Power and the Future
55
Wind Power in Europe and Asia

Installing Oshore Wind Power Plants
Whats Ahead for Wind Power? A Global Challenge
for Europe and the United States
56
62
68
Interview
Chapter 4
Mary E. Spruill
64
Hydroelectric Power
73
Hydroelectric Power in the United States

What Is Hydroelectric Power?
Short History of Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric Power Dams
Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants
The Components of a Hydroelectric Power Plant
How Much Electricity Can a Hydroelectric
Plant Generate?
The Leading Hydroelectric Power Plants in the World
Microhydropower: Using Small-Scale Hydroelectric
Power Systems
Advantages of Hydroelectric Power
Disadvantages of Hydropower
Small Hydropower Organizations
74
77
78
78
80
81
83
83
89
95
96
98
Contents a vii
Chapter 5
Ocean Tidal Power, Ocean Wave Power,

and Ocean Thermal Energy
103
Tidal Power
Ocean Wave Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy
104
113
118
127
133
Energy Data
137
165
Proles
171
177
181
185
Index
187
About the Author
231
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a
xiv a Introduction

21st century.
Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction

Introduction a xvii

Petroleum
Russia, 13 percent
Iran, 5.4 percent
China, 5.1 percent


Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy
Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
xx a Introduction
usesunshineis free.
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy
one in France.

Geothermal
xxiv a Introduction
Energys Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
Wind Power
The rst school district in the nation to be powered entirely by wind energy is the Spirit Lake Community School District in northern Iowa.
The districts two tall wind turbines provide all the electricity for the
districts middle school, high school, district oces, maintenance building,
football eld, and baseball and softball elds. The good news is that both
turbines have been paid for.
Excess electricity is fed into the local utility system and has earned the
school $25,000 in its rst ve years of operation. In fact, the district counts
on the annual savings and income to improve education for the children of
the Spirit Lake Community School District.
The wind energy program in the Spirit Lake Community School District is just one of many success stories of schools, homes, and other institutions that are using wind power to produce energy.
VIDEO
For a collection of videos on wind energy, go to http://www.awea.org/newsroom/
video/.
DID YOU KNOW?

Several countries are developing and using wind power. Some of the major countries are China, Germany, India, Denmark, England, and Spain. In fact, as of 2010,
China was the leading manufacturer of wind turbines.
WHAT IS WIND POWER?

Wind power is an alternative energy resource that uses the kinetic energy
in moving air to generate electricity. At the end of 2008, the American
Wind Energy Association (AWEA) reported that wind projects installed
in the United States were expected to generate 52 million megawatt-hours
per year. This gure represents approximately 1.26 percent of the nations
electricity in that year. Although wind power currently produces less than
2 percent of the United States electrical demand, it is the fastest-growing
renewable energy resource, and the future looks even more promising.
The AWEA estimates that by the year 2025, wind power will produce
more than 10 percent of the electricity in the United States. Other estimates
are higher. The U.S. Department of Energy in 2008 reported that wind energy could generate 20 percent of the nations electricity demand by 2030.
A SHORT HISTORY OF WIND ENERGY FOR POWER
Wind energy is the kinetic energy of the movement of air and can be used
for many forms of power. For more than 5,000 years, civilizations have
harnessed wind energy power to do a variety of work. As an example, the
early Egyptians sailed up and down the Nile River aboard wind-powered
boats. Windmills in Persia, now Iran, and cities in the Middle East were
used to grind wheat and other grains for food production.
Later on, the Dutch in Holland improved the design of the windmill and
used its power for draining lakes and marshes to provide more acreage for
farming. Back in the states, American colonists used windmills to grind wheat
and corn, to pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills. The following abbreviated time line lists some of the wind technology events in recent decades:
1941
The worlds rst large wind turbine to produce electricity and

be hooked up and connected to a power grid was established in
Castleton, Vermont. The turbine had 75-foot blades and weighed
240 tons. Later, another wind turbine began producing electricity
in an area known as Grandpas Knob, also in Vermont.
Wind Power a 3
1970s In Ohio the National Aeronautic and Space Administration

(NASA) began research into large commercial multi-megawatt
wind turbines by installing and testing 13 experimental turbines
for research and development.
1980s The modern wind industry began in the 1980s. As of 2008, the
United States was a world leader in wind electricity generation.
WHAT ARE WINDS? SOME BASIC FACTS
Wind is a form of solar energy, and as a uid it can move easily from one
place to the next. You can dene wind also as the horizontal movement of
air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.
Global winds are large wind systems that circle Earth. These systems include
the trade winds, westerlies, and easterlies. These fast-moving global winds
blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere as the Earth rotates on its axis. (Source: National Park
Service)
Some regions of Earth, such as at the equator, receive direct rays from
the sun all year and are always warm. Other places, such as those near the
poles, receive indirect rays, so the atmosphere over these regions is cooler.
When air over a heated surface, such as near the equator, expands, it becomes less dense. As a result the air takes up less space. As the air becomes
less dense, the air pressure decreases. If cooler, high pressure, and dense air
is nearby, it ows underneath the warm, less dense air. When this action
happens, the warm air rises into the atmosphere. The up and down movements of the cold ow of air and the warm ow of air, together with the
rotation of Earth, are what cause the winds to blow and circulate around
all the continents of the globe.
Local winds are small wind systems, unlike the global winds. A local wind system, such as a sea breeze, is caused when cooler air from the sea flows over
warmer land near the coastline. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
DID YOU KNOW?

What are high and low pressure? Regions of cold, heavy air have high air pressure
and are referred to as highs. Regions of warm, light air have low pressure and
are referred to as lows.
Wind Power a 5
Global winds are large wind systems that circle Earth. The fast-moving
global wind systems blow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere as Earth rotates.
WIND DIRECTION AND WIND SPEED
The wind direction is the direction from which a wind originates. As an
example, winds from the north are called northerly winds. To determine
wind direction, you can use a weather vane or a windsock. Wind direction
is recorded in four major directions as north, east, south, and west. Weather
instruments used to measure wind speed and direction are called anemometers and wind vanes.
The Beaufort scale records wind speed. The scale was invented in 1805
by Admiral Beaufort, who established the scale to estimate wind speed
through observations of moving objects such as tree limbs and ags blowing in the wind. The Beaufort scale is a special measurement tool that uses
force numbers 0 12 to indicate wind speed. A gentle breeze on this scale
would be a force number 3 while a Beaufort number 9 would indicate a
strong gale force. Initially, the Beaufort scale was primarily used at sea, but
now it is used to measure wind on land. The unit of measurement for wind
speed is miles per hour, knots, or kilometers per hour.
WIND SPEED DETERMINES WIND POWER
Wind power is the conversion of kinetic wind energy into a form of clean,
renewable energy used to generate electricity. So how do you measure the
power of the wind? To determine energy output from a wind generator,
you need to know wind speed. The energy that the wind contains is a
function of the cube of its speed. For example, a 12 mile-per-hour wind
produces 70 percent more energy than a 10 mile-per-hour wind: the cube
of the 12 mile-per-hour wind (or 123) equals 1,728, and the cube of the
10 mile-per-hour wind (or 103) equals 1,000.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1934 scientists in the Mt. Washington Observatory in New Hampshire recorded
a wind speed of 231 miles per hour on Mt. Washington.
The Beaufort wind scale is a tool that uses numbers 0 12 to estimate wind
speed conditions. (Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association)
Wind Power a 7
WHAT IS A WIND TURBINE?

Wind turbines, also referred to as aerogenerators, are used to generate electricity from wind energy. Most often, wind turbines are located in lowland
rural areas that regularly receive steady winds of at least 14 miles per hour.
In these ideal locations, obstacles, such as high mountains, tall trees, and
buildings do not block the winds.
Wind turbines are made up of several componentsthe rotor and
blades, the transmission system, the gearbox and the generator, and the
yaw. The other parts of the wind turbine system include the nacelle,
tower, and electronic equipment. The parts of the system are designed
to work together to convert the mechanical motion of the wind into
electricity.
ROTOR BLADES
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor, which is the rotating
part of the wind turbine. Most turbines have three blades attached to a
hub. The pitch of the blades refers to the angle of the rotor blades as they
lift and rotate into the wind. Winds cause the rotation of the blades to
spin a shaft in a generator, which makes electricity. If the blades are all
positioned in the same direction, they will start to spin. Many rotor blades
are colored light gray to blend in with the scenery and have lengths ranging from 65 to 130 feet or more.
HOW DO YOU DETERMINE THE ENERGY
OF THE ROTOR?
The energy that is available to the wind turbine is proportional to the
swept area of the rotor. Now for the math. As the rotor spins, its blades
cover a circular disc during one rotation and can produce energy from the
DID YOU KNOW?

Claude Burdin (17881873) coined the term turbine from the Latin turbo, or vortex,
during an 1828 engineering competition. Benoit Fourneyron (18021867), a student
of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.
DID YOU KNOW?

Turning the rotor sideways to the wind to keep it from turning too fast when the
winds are strong is known as furling.
air molecules that pass through the circle. To nd the swept area, you need
to do some math, but it is not dicult.
Swept Area Mathematics Using
the Metric System
The swept area, or area of a circle, is equal to pi times the square of the
radius: 3.1415 r 2. Radius is one-half of the diameter. So if wind turbine
A has a rotor diameter of 100 meters, the radius would be 50 meters, and
the swept area would be approximately 7,853 square meters. This area
would be the size of 1.5 football elds!
Lets look at another example. Wind turbine B has a rotor diameter of
50 meters. Although the rotor diameter is only 1/2 of wind turbine A, the
swept area of wind turbine B is approximately 1,963 metersmuch less
than turbine A. As you can see, the swept area of wind turbine B is much
less than that of wind turbine A, and therefore, turbine A has more energy
potential than turbine B.
Wind Speed Is Important Too
Wind speed is also important in determining the amount of energy a
wind generator can convert to electricity. The amount of the winds energy
varies with the cube (the third power) of the average wind speed. This
means that a small increase in wind speed can produce a large increase
in power. For example, if wind speed were 10 kilometers per hour, the
potential power would have a speed factor of 1,000 (103). If wind speed
doubled to 20 kilometers per hour, the potential power would have a speed
factor of 8,000. A doubling of wind speed therefore leads to an eight-fold
increase in power.
The stronger the wind, the more eective the turbine. However, if the
wind is too strong, the turbine can be damaged. Additionally, the longer
the rotor blades, the more eective they are. Of course, if they are too long,
they can become dicult to manage because of their size and shape.
Wind Power a 9
FEATURE
Sandia Helps Develop New Wind Turbine Blade Design
According to researchers at the Sandia National Laboratories, in Albuquerque,
New Mexico, engineers have designed a new wind turbine blade. The design of the
new blade has the possibility of being more efficient than current blade designs.
Another plus is that the new blade can reduce the cost of energy of wind turbines
at land areas that have low wind speeds.
Named STAR for Sweep Twist Adaptive Rotor, the blade is the first of its kind
because it has a distinctive look. The blade has a gently curved tip, termed sweep,
which is specially designed for low-wind-speed land regions like the midwestern
United States. At these land sites, the annual average wind speed is 12 miles an
hour, measured at a height of 30 feet. The blade also improves energy because it
features a curvature toward the trailing edge of the blade. The curvature allows the
blade to twist more than traditional designs. This feature extends the lifespan of the
blade from being damaged by gusty and turbulent winds.
In summary, the swept area and wind speed determine much of the
turbines power. The design and manufacturing of wind turbines, and even
the selecting of a location for a wind turbine, depends much on the math
numbers of the swept area and the wind speed. Anyone considering installing a wind generator needs to do the math to determine whether the
project is feasible and worth the investment.
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM AND GEARBOX
The gearbox and the braking system are part of the transmission system.
Other parts include lubricating and cooling systems. This system is important because it prevents the turbine and other parts from overheating. The braking system is designed to lock the rotor when the turbine
is shut down.
Gearbox and Generator
Depending on the size of the wind turbine, there may be a gearbox between
the spinning rotor and the generator. The gearbox assists the generator in
spinning fast enough to make electricity for the transmission grid.
The gears give a wind turbine a mechanical advantage by turning slow
rotation of the blades, for example 16 revolutions per minute, into a much
Most wind turbines consist of several components that include rotor blades,
gearbox, generator, controller, yaw drive and motor, anemometer, wind vane,
and a transmission system. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
faster rotation in the generator, such as 1,600 revolutions per minute. That
is a ratio of 100:1. Turbines need a high gear ratio of 100:1 to be ecient.
For comparison, the gear ratio on a bicycle is probably around 3:1. The
generator produces alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be converted to direct current (DC) if needed.
Gearbox Issues
One of the heaviest and most expensive parts of a large wind turbine is the
gearbox. The gearbox on a wind turbine can require much maintenance,
so wind engineers are experimenting with direct-drive generators that
operate at lower rotational speeds and therefore do not need gearboxes.
Ideas to design wind turbines without gears may also reduce the amount
of maintenance for the generator and cut costs.
Wind Power a 11
Controller
The controller, just as the name implies, is used to control wind speeds. The
controller jumpstarts the operation of the wind turbine when wind speeds
reach from 8 to 16 miles per hour. The controller can also shut o the wind
generator when winds speeds reach 55 miles per hour. Speeds greater than
55 miles per hour can damage most wind turbines. The controller also
contains electronic equipment such as electrical cables.
Wind Vane
The wind vane measures wind direction and guides the yaw drive to position the turbine to face into the wind.
Nacelle
The housing for the major components is called the nacelle, which includes
the generator that converts the mechanical energy of moving wind into
electrical energy.
Tower
The tower can be the most expensive part of the turbine system. Towers are
made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers allow turbines to capture more energy and
generate more electricity. For example, at 120 feet or more above ground,
the winds are faster and less turbulent than wind currents at ground level.
Wind industry experts suggest that customers always purchase tall towers
because winds close to the ground are often weak and turbulent.
HOW DO THE BLADES KEEP FACING
THE CHANGING WINDS?
Most turbines today are built to be able to rotate into the wind. This system
for positioning the turbine is called yawing (not yawning). The blades
will not spin if the wind is coming from the side of the turbine. So it is
very important that the turbine be able to yaw. Passive yawing and active
yawing systems keep wind turbines in the correct position as the wind
changes direction. Most small wind turbines use passive, nonmechanical
yawing systems.
Passive Yawing
Passive yawing allows the force of the wind to push the turbine into the
best position to turn the blades. To do this, the turbine has a vane to position the rotor in a perpendicular direction to the wind.
Active Yawing
All large turbines use active yawing. These are the turbines you see on wind
farms. An anemometer and a wind vane are installed on top of the wind
turbine to electronically send a signal to the controller as to which way to
point the rotor. The yaw power mechanism turns the gears to point the
rotor into the direction of the wind.
Wind turbines are mounted on high towers to collect the most energy. At 100 feet or more above ground, wind turbines produce more
power because of the faster and less turbulent winds than at ground
level. Most wind installers recommend installing wind turbines on high
towers.
TWO KINDS OF WIND GENERATORS
Modern wind turbines are classied as either the horizontal-axis or the
vertical-axis design.
Horizontal-Axis Turbine
Horizontal-axis wind turbines are the major wind turbines used in the
world. Any tall wind turbine in your state will be this kind. The horizontalaxis turbines have either two or three blades that operate upwind, meaning
the blades face into the wind. The blades on horizontal-axis wind turbines
resemble airplane propellers and are designed long and wide to produce
hundreds of kilowatts of electricity. A typical horizontal wind turbine
can reach the height of more than 200 feet and have blades longer than
100 feet.
The spinning blades cause the generator to convert mechanical energy
into electricity, which is then distributed along transmission power lines
to consumers. Most horizontal-axis wind turbines produce electricity approximately 75 percent of the time at wind speeds of less than 10 miles
per hour.
Wind Power a 13
DID YOU KNOW?

Turbines with three blades are the most popular design. Turbines with two blades
turn more quickly and are lighter but are noisier than three-bladed turbines.
Modern wind turbines are classified as a horizontal axis variety (left) and a
vertical axis design (right). The major wind turbines used in the world are horizontal axis turbines. (iStockphoto)
Vertical-Axis Turbine
The vertical-axis design is called the Darrieus model, named after its
French inventor. Vertical-axis wind turbines have advantages and disadvantages, but overall they have not been as popular or as marketable as the
horizontal-axis wind turbines. Therefore, the vertical-axis wind turbines
make up only a very small percentage of the wind turbines sold and installed today. However, new ideas and technology for using vertical wind
machines are being planned. Vertical-axis wind generators have blades that
go from top to bottom. The most common type of Darrieus wind turbine
looks like a giant two-bladed eggbeater that can reach as high as 100 feet
when installed. Short vertical-axis wind turbines have been installed on
the at roofs of tall commercial buildings and some have been installed at
ground level. Visitors at the Randall Museum in San Francisco can view
an Aeroturbine installed in the museums courtyard. The Aeroturbine is
approximately 20 feet high within a 6 foot by 10 foot cage.
A New Kind of Vertical-Axis Turbine
The vertical-axis turbine is getting a new look. Bluenergy Solarwind
Turbine, Inc., developed a vertical-axis turbine with special wind vanes
containing solar energy cells. It is a double-helix vertical-axis turbine design. This is the rst hybrid system that will use both solar energy and wind
power to produce electricity. The solar cells coated with a special lm can
process sunlight from any angle. The lm is dirt-resistant, non-reective,
and impact-resistant. According to the company, using solar cells on the
wind vanes increases the power output of the wind turbine 30 35 percent
FEATURE
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the nations primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy-efficiency research and development.
NRELs wind research supports the U.S. Department of Energys Wind Energy
Technologies Program.
NREL focuses its research and development to advance national energy goals.
The goals include developing new technologies to change the way we use power
for our homes and businesses and fuel our cars. NRELs research and development
areas include renewable electricity, renewable fuels, and integrated energy system engineering and testing.
Funded by the U.S. Department of Energy Wind Energy Technologies Program,
the research programs have developed multi-megawatt wind turbines that produce
electricity. Researchers at the NWTC are working in partnership with industry to
develop larger, more efficient wind turbines for land-based and offshore installations, as well as more efficient, quieter small wind turbines for homes. The NRELs
Small Wind Turbine Research staff is independently testing small wind turbines to
help the wind industry provide consumers with more certified small wind turbine
systems. The National Wind Technology Center is located south of Boulder, Colorado. It provides library services and publishes newsletters in wind energy technologies. For more information, go to: http://www.nrel.gov/wind/nwtc.html.
Wind Power a 15
and allows electricity to be made even when the wind is calm. The turbine
design generates electricity in breezes as low as four miles per hour and
can produce power also in winds up to 90 miles per hour. However, wind
speeds at more than 50 miles per hour can be hazardous to some turbine
installations. The potential for this kind of turbine means that both wind
and sun energy can be used in one machine to produce electricity. And the
energy can be generated during all seasons throughout the year. To view
this kind of wind turbine that fuses solar energy and wind energy, go to
http://www.bluenergyusa.com/.
LARGE TURBINES AND SMALLER ONES
Large Wind Farms
You may have seen photographs of hundreds of wind turbines all aligned
in rows on large tracts of land. Such a large expansive area of tall turbines
is called a wind farm. A wind farm is located in an area that regularly receives sustained winds of at least 14 miles per hour and on land that is not
blocked by obstacles such as tall trees, high hills, or even mountains. The
electricity generated by the wind turbines is distributed along transmission
power lines to homes, schools, and businesses.
Small Turbines
Small wind turbines are usually built and installed in remote sites where
electricity from a transmission grid may not be available. Intermediate
wind turbines are often used for schools or as part of a hybrid system that
uses diesel generators as a supplementary power source to the wind generator. In chapter 2, small turbines and large wind farms are discussed in
more depth.
FEATURE
How Is Electricity Production and Consumption Measured?
Electricity production and consumption are measured in kilowatt-hours. A kilowatthour means 1 kilowatt (1,000 watts) of electricity produced or consumed for 1 hour.
One 50-watt light bulb left on for 20 hours consumes 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity
(50 watts 20 hours = 1,000 watt-hours = 1 kilowatt-hour).
DID YOU KNOW?

A 10-kilowatt wind turbine can generate about 10,000 kilowatt-hours annually at
a site with wind speeds averaging 12 miles per hour, which is enough energy to
power electrical needs for a typical household. The average U.S. household consumes about 10,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity each year.
WIND TURBINE MANUFACTURERS

AND WIND PLANT DEVELOPERS
According to the AWEA, wind industry manufacturing facilities in the
United States grew to more than 100 in 2007. Some of these manufacturing facilities are in the states of Illinois, Iowa, South Dakota, Texas,
Wisconsin, Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, North Carolina, New York, and
Oklahoma. The AWEA has compiled a list of U.S. manufacturers and
suppliers of wind turbines for use in residential, farm, and commercial/industrial applications. A few of the major wind turbine manufacturers and
suppliers in the United States include such companies as General Electric
(GE) Wind, Siemens, Vestas, Mitsubishi, Suzlon, and Gamesa.
THE ECONOMICS OF WIND ENERGY
The AWEA reports that the costs of wind energy over the past 20 years
have been reduced. Although wind energys costs will continue to decline
as the industry grows and matures, nancing the large wind farms will
require a major outlay of funding from energy investors.
Much of the challenge for these energy investors is that wind turbine
technology is a capital-intensive industry. The term capital-intensive refers
to a business process or an industry that requires large amounts of money
and other resources upfront to produce a product or service. A capital-
DID YOU KNOW?

The oil industry can be capital-intensive. For example, building an oil platform in
deep water offshore can cost billions of dollars, not just for the structure but also
for the pipelines needed to transport the crude oil and gas. All of this work has to
be completed before any profit is generated.
Wind Power a 17
intensive industry such as wind energy requires a substantial amount of

money and it may be some time before investors can make a prot from
their initial investment.
WIND ENERGY PROVIDES ANCILLARY
ECONOMIC BENEFITS
In 2008 the Department of Energy published a report titled 20% Wind
Energy by 2030. One of the major objectives of the report was to examine wind as one element of a portfolio of energy solutions responsive to
national needs in the areas of energy security, environmental integrity, and
economic development. Another objective was to change the way energy
leaders think about wind power.
The AWEA also commented on the economic benets of wind energy.
According to the AWEA, if we increase our nations wind energy capacity
to 20 percent by 2030, some of the benets will be to
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by a cumulative total of 7,600 million tons of carbon dioxide by 2030.
Expand manufacturing facilities to produce enough turbines and
components for the 20 percent wind program. The industry would require more than 30,000 direct manufacturing jobs across the nation.
As the manufacturing of wind turbines has increased, the cost to consumers

using wind energy has decreased. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy)
Benet the economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites
are found. Farmers and ranchers would continue to work the land
because the wind turbines use only a fraction of the land.
Reduce water consumption in the electric sector by four trillion gallons from 2007 to 2030.
WIND POWER BENEFITS
Wind energy is a renewable energy resource that does not produce emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gases. When compared to other
renewable energy technologies, wind energy is one of the lowest-priced
renewable resources available today. Wind costs have been estimated at
between four and six cents per kilowatt-hour, depending on the location
and wind speed. Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus
beneting the economy in rural areas where most of the best wind sites
are found.
WIND POWER ISSUES
Critics say that a modern wind farm is not attractive and that in some
locations a wind farm produces too much noise. However, in remote areas
where most wind farms are located, noise is not a major problem.
Following are some other issues with wind farm development:
Use of large tracts of land (the average wind farm requires 17 acres of
land to produce one megawatt of electricity).
Some erosion in desert areas.
Disturbances to wildlife habitats.
Bird and bat mortality caused by collisions with wind turbines.
Although a wind turbine is of low-frequency sound waves, it can be
noisy to some.
DID YOU KNOW?

In a wind farm the turbines have to be separated from each other to have space to
access unused wind.
Wind Power a 19
INTERVIEW
The following case study, using an interview format, describes how a school district decided to plan, finance, and install two wind turbines on a school site. The
publisher and the author are pleased that we have permission to reprint this interview by several members of the Spirit Lake Wind Project.
The Spirit Lake Community District in Spirit Lake, Iowa, has wind turbines
that have supplied electricity for the districts middle school, high school,
and other nearby buildings. Excess electricity is routed to the local utility
company. (Courtesy Spirit Lake Community School District)
The Use of Wind Turbines in the Spirit Lake, Iowa, School District: A Wind-Wind
Situation.
Jan Bolluyt 1, Tim Grieves 2, and Jim Tirevold 3
Physics Teacher
2
Superintendent
3
Director of Buildings and Grounds
Spirit Lake, Iowa Community School District
Editors Note: Jan Bolluyt served as the main contact at Spirit Lake High School
in the preparation of this article. He coordinated responses to the questions by
working with Dr. Tim Grieves and Jim Tirevold. The school district makes use of two
wind turbines. The first, smaller wind turbine stands 140 feet tall on a pad and pier
base and has an 87-foot rotor diameter. The later, larger wind turbine is 180 feet tall
1
on a Patrick and Henderson foundation with a 158-foot diameter rotor. Dr. DeWayne
Backhus, Chair of the Departments of Physical Sciences at Emporia State University, assisted with preparation of the questions.
Go to the Spirit Lake School District web site (http://www.spirit-lake.k12.ia.us) and
then click on wind energy for more information and a listing of additional resources.
1. What was the inspiration to have wind turbines built at the school site as an
alternate energy source?
The inspiration was sparked at a very windy flag football game that our school
board president, Craig Newell, D.D.S., and superintendent, Harold Overmann, attended. Newell commented that it would be exciting to be able to harness all the
wind energy and make it into something useful. Newell pursued the idea and researched the possibilities. He then reported his findings to the school board.
2. What was the general timeline from when the idea was a serious consideration
to completion of the second wind turbine?
The idea was presented at the September 1992, school board meeting, and the
second wind turbine was on line in October of 2001.
3. How many companies did you talk to before deciding on the wind turbines to
buy? Which company(ies) did you use?
The board determined the specifications that they found necessary for our elementary school building and based on the wind studies performed on the proposed
location. The bidding process was open. Three companies bid on the first (smaller)
wind turbine and two bid on the second (larger) wind turbine. The companies selected based on their bids and plans were Wind World and NEG Micon.
4. What were the lessons you learned in the process and which could/should be
utilized by others?
The main lesson that we learned was that persistence pays off. Our wind turbine
was the first school experiment in the state. Negotiations with our current utility
company, loan and grant applications, bidding procedures, wind studies, etc., were
all new to us and took much more time than they would today. None of them could
be avoided nor streamlined in the beginning. Schools with a plan to install their own
wind turbine(s) should check with others in their state while developing their plans.
A second lesson based on our experience is to recommend that a cost/benefit
study be conducted. Although a bond issue was not necessary in our case, such an
undertaking for a public school district needed justification from the get-go.
5. What issues were negotiated with the utility company (e.g., comment on cost
incurred for connecting to the utility, how much is paid the school as a generator
per kilowatt-hour (kWh) versus how much it costs per kilowatt hour to buy as a
consumer . . .)?
The final outcome of our negotiations with the utility company was monthly net
billing. This meant that meters were in place for both production and usage (consumption) at the school. Each month the total usage was subtracted from the production. If the outcome was positive, the utility company paid us at a rate of approximately 2 cents/kWh. If we used more than produced, we were billed at the
Wind Power a 21
current rate for our district (9.7 cents per kWh). Connection costs were part of the
bid and compliance with the utility company was done on an hourly rate charge.
Compliance involved compatibility of the wind energy generation interconnection
with the utility company distribution system. Specifically, this included the means
of connection to the grid, voltage fluctuation maximums, power load protection,
relays, etc.
6. What is the capacity (kilowatts) of the first, smaller wind turbine? . . . of the
larger wind turbine?
The first is a 250 kW turbine; it is producing approximately 300,000-kWh/ year. The
second is a 750 kW and is producing 1.7 MWh/year.
7. What are the cut-in speeds for each wind turbine?
For the smaller wind turbine the cut-in speed is approximately 8 mph with a range of
generation up to 50 mph. For the second it is 5 mph, with a range also up to 50 mph.
8. What are the generating capacities (kilowatts) of the wind turbines at the cut-in
speeds?
It is 19 kW for the smaller generator and 50 kW for the larger.
9. What are the generating capacities (kilowatts) of the wind turbines at their
peak wind speeds?
The generating capacities are 250 kW and 750 kW.
10. What percent of the time is each wind turbine at peak production?
This information is not available. Our wind feasibility study gave us predicted outputs, but I did not have access to that study. Also, our monthly data output is in total
production, not in instantaneous production. I do believe that we can print a graphic
production report that can be interpreted for such data, but we have not done so.
11. What percent of the time is there no generation?
Again, we have not collected that data. There is instrumentation available to record
this information, but we do not have it attached to either rotor.
12. Does the first, smaller wind turbine energize only the elementary building?
The yearly production of the smaller turbine is approximately the same as the kWh
consumption in a year by the elementary school building. It was designed to match
the usage of that building.
13. What is the typical kWh per year generation by the first wind turbine?
The production of the first, smaller wind turbine is 300,000 kWh.
14. What is the typical kWh per year generation by the second wind turbine?
The production is 1.7 MWh (mega-watt hours).
15. What load (percent of annual consumption) is the second, bigger wind turbine
providing for its consuming source?
The second generator produces approximately the same amount of electricity that is
used by the rest of the school district; we are at about 100% usage/production when
both wind turbines are included. We have an elementary building, middle school, high
school, district office, industrial technology building, and maintenance building that
are all included in the comparison of wind energy production and consumption.
16. Does the combined production meet the schools yearly demand?
At our current size, yes, it does meet the demand. All districts are dynamic. We
are currently finishing a middle school classroom addition and planning for a high
school auditorium and gymnasium complex. Those changes will increase our electrical needs beyond our current production. Some discussions are underway to
increase the capacity to meet demand.
17. How does the energy consumed by the district compare to energy produced by
the wind turbines? If the school district makes a profit on costs of wind turbines
and energy/power used versus energy/power produced, how does the money
saved or earned allow the school to do other things?
The two, currently, are almost the same. Because our payback is only 2 cents/kWh
and yet the cost of purchasing the same is now 9.7 cents/kWh, it would not pay for
us to go into the production of electricity for our utility company. We currently are
using what would be our estimated costs for electricity to pay off the loan on the
second generator. We feel that the cost savings is approximately $130,000.00 per
year allowing us to hire 2.5 more professionals on staff, or fund our programs to that
extent. When our loans are paid (23 years) and the cost of electricity increases,
our savings will also increase.
18. How has the presence of the wind turbines affected or impacted the K-12
curriculum?
It has affected the curriculum immensely. Wind energy-related topics are crosscurricular including, mathematics, science, government, language arts, art, etc.
We also include these topics at multiple grade levels. I could mention all the curricular changes that have taken place, but you do not have the space or the time.
I will mention a few to whet your appetite.
The first-grade class wrote a book about Curious George and the Wind
Turbine with each child writing and drawing a page using a question they
had as motivation. The entire class then combined them (check our web
page). The students visited the turbines and researched their answers. It
was impressive.
Our physics students teach the unit of electricity to the fourth-grade students each year. They use old telephone generators, VandeGraf generators, etc., to introduce the concepts of electricity. The question and answer
period always includes many questions about our wind generators.
The third-grade classes made wind toys and used the turbines as inspiration for a poem about wind energy.
In algebra class the data from the wind turbines is used as real data for
statistics, and the students derive the linear equations from a pollution
calculator using data that they input.
In physics class, the students build their own motors and generators after
touring the wind generators. They learned the practical side of electricity
Wind Power a 23
generation, calculated cost savings, learned about electrical grids,

brownouts, metering, and so much more.
The Spirit Lake High School government class was invited to the state legislature to discuss the implementation of wind energy for the Spirit Lake
Schools. Students have been included in all phases of implementation.
19. What are some typical lessons (brief descriptions)?
In addition to those mentioned earlier, here are some more examples:
Middle school mathematics students use similar triangles to estimate the
height of the wind turbines.
The statistics class uses monthly data for statistical analyses.
In business, students use the wind turbine data to determine cost savings, interest payments, etc.
In speech class students do persuasive speeches concerning the pros or
cons of wind energy production.
Computer class students design a web presence for school wind data.
CAD/CAM students design the wind turbine given its specifications.
In art students use perspective, vertical to horizontal proportions, drawing, lighting, and shadows.
For reading/writing, the wind turbines are used as the subject of a writing
assignment for different styles of writing such as Shakespearean, technical journal, etc.
20. Have perceived benefits (or problems) matched what has occurred? Provide
some details.
The problems that we perceived were as follows:
It is a visual eye-sore: We have found that a few people feel it is an eyesore, but most agree that the benefits are worth the visual effects when
compared to radio towers, telephone poles, billboards, etc. Some people
even like the look!
Sound pollution: That problem is moot. The decibel level is almost imperceptible unless you are listening for it and you are very close to the
turbine (30 db at 500 feet).
Bird kill: We have not found the bodies of any birds below either tower
since they were built. It seems apparent that they are able to easily avoid
the turning blades. In comparison, there have been four birds killed by the
picture windows in my house in the same amount of time!
Ice thrown from the blades: This problem has not occurred since the beginning, but we do not have any playground equipment in the immediate
area below the turbines. The velocity of the blades and the pull of gravity
would place the ice in the shadow area of the blades themselves.
21. If there was opposition to the wind turbines, what reasons were given for the
opposition?
We were not aware of much opposition to the wind turbines. It did not cost taxpayers any money what so ever, it was a reason for civic pride, it avoids pollution
associated with conventional electrical generation, etc. Most people considered

it a win-win (wind-wind) situation. The utility company carried double metering to
the fullest extent, as the generators could represent a threat to their profit margin.
Once all discussions and negotiations were finished, however, we do live in relative
harmony.
THE FUTURE FOR WIND POWER

As mentioned previously, wind power could provide 20 percent of U.S.
electricity needs by 2030, according to the 2008 Department of Energy
report titled 20% Wind Energy by 2030.
According to the report, reaching the 20 percent goal will require increasing wind power from its current production capacity of 16.8 gigawatts to
304 gigawatts by 2030. This is a huge increase. Despite the magnitude of that
challenge, most of the reports key ndings are encouraging. Notably, the
report concludes that 20 percent wind power can be reliably integrated into
the grid at a cost of less than 0.5 cents per kilowatt-hour, which compares
favorably to todays average retail price of electricity in the United States.
CHALLENGES AHEAD
The lack of new transmission grids will be a major challenge facing the U.S.
wind industry according to a Congressional Research Service (CRS) group
report published in 2008. The transmission system, those tall power lines we
see every day, are aging and are overloaded in some regions. Unfortunately,
the good sites for wind energy plants or wind farms are located either in isolated regions with limited available capacity on the transmission network or
are many miles from any existing transmission lines. Developing new transmission lines and planning and building the infrastructure necessary for the
new transmission lines can take many years, and the wind plant developers
in those regions may have to incur all construction costs or get subsidies
from local, state, and government funds. In 2008 new transmission lines
could cost from 1.5 to 2 million dollars per mile. The cost of the materials
and labor to build the new transmission lines will increase over time.
Another issue is that daily wind energy is not always available and that
its power cannot be stored. These issues make wind fundamentally dierent from conventional fossil-fuel power in its impact on transmission and
use. Therefore, the present, conventional transmission lines will need to be
replaced with new and more up-to-date transmission lines if we want to
use more wind power for electricity needs.
Wind Power a 25
In a wind farm, the electricity from each wind turbine is routed to a substation. At
the onsite substation, a step-up transformer increases the voltage for interconnection to a high voltage electric power transmission system. (iStockphoto)

American Wind Energy Association. Teachers Guide for Grades 612.
http://awea.org/pubs/documents/TeachersGuide.pdf.
Gipe, Paul. Wind Energy Comes of Age. Wiley Series in Sustainable Design.
New York: Wiley, 1995.
Matthew, Sathyajith. Wind Energy Fundamentals. New York: Springer, 2006.
Contact the Department of Energy for OE press release, the 20% Wind
Energy by 2030 Web site, EEREs Wind and Hydropower Technologies
Program Web site, and the full text of the report.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Although the construction of wind energy turbines increases every
year throughout the world, wind energy still provides only a small
fraction of the worlds energy needs. Explain why this is so.
2. Using a diagram of a wind turbine (aerogenerator), explain to your
class how wind is harnessed to generate electric power.
3. Trace the history of the use of wind power from its simple beginnings in Persia in about a.d. 500 to its current status as an important
renewable energy source for the modern world.
WEB SITES
http://www.mos.org/events_activities/podcasts
The Museums Wind Turbine Lab ( Podcast). Boston Museum of
Science. The Museums wind analyst Marian Tomusiak will talk all
about the Museums Wind Turbine Lab.
http://www.eren.doe.gov/wind/homeowner.html
Wind Energy for Homeowners provides resources that will help you
learn about small wind energy systems for the home.
http://www.awea.org/
The American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) is the national
trade association of Americas wind industry with more than 2,500
member companies, including global leaders in wind power and energy development, wind turbine manufacturing, and component and
service suppliers.
www.wwindea.org
The World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) is an international
nonprot association embracing the wind sector worldwide, with
members in 95 countries. WWEA works for the promotion and
worldwide deployment of wind energy technology.
http://learn.kidwind.org
KidWind provides workshops, models, and other materials for teachers who want hands-on activities in learning about wind energy.
VIDEOS
Wind Power a 27
Wind TurbinesThe Pickens Plan: This multimedia link reviews

the history of wind energy and includes T. Boone Pickenss video
comparing wind energy with the United States current dependence
on foreign oil: http://www.life123.com/home-garden/green-living/
wind-energy/history-of-wind-energy.shtml (4:18 minutes).
Wind TurbinesBristol, UK: To view a promotional time-lapse video
of an ecotricity wind turbine being built on reclaimed land, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxOYwWu7Xcc (1:02 minutes).
Wind Turbine: Are helix wind turbines safer, simpler, and more
energy-ecient than legacy wind turbines? To learn more, see the
following video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9SPAdOLk
(2:31 minutes).
Wind TurbinesSolar Wind Turbine: Encapsulated solar cells on a
double helix wind vane. View this remarkable Blue Energy video that
fuses solar energy and wind energyeciency meets art at its very
best: http://www.bluenergyusa.com/.
Wind TurbinesWind Spines: Is this vertical-axis turbine, inspired
by a 3,000-year-old Egyptian design, an aordable way to power
your own home? For more information, go to http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=fNudnI5tzf8 (2:01 minutes).
Chapter 2
Wind Power in the

United States
In 2008 the town of Rock Port, Missouri, with a population of a little more
than a thousand residents, became the rst 100 percent wind-powered
community in the United States. The wind farms turbines produce all of
the electricity needs for the towns homes and businesses. A map published
by the U.S. Department of Energy shows that the land area in and around
Rock Port has the states highest concentration of wind resources and is
very suitable for potential wind energy development.
Presently, the town uses approximately 13 million kilowatt-hours of
electricity a year. In the future, the towns turbines will generate 16 million
kilowatt-hours of electricity each year, which will be enough for the residents. Any excess wind power electricity will be sold to other communities
in the local area. The Rock Port wind farm is discussed in more detail later
in this chapter.
THE UNITED STATESA LEADING PRODUCER
OF WIND POWER
In 2008 the United States became one of the fastest-growing wind power
marketplaces in the world. That year, wind power accounted for approximately 40 percent of all new U.S. electric-generating capacity. The Department of Energy reported that wind power could meet 20 percent of all U.S.
electricity needs by 2030.
The global picture for other countries using more wind power looks very
promising, too. The Worldwatch Institute estimates that wind energy could
easily provide 2030 percent of the electricity needed by many countries.
Chapter 3 focuses on other countries investing in wind power resources.
The Congressional Research Service (CRS), in its published report
Wind Power in the United States, stated that as of 2008, Texas is the leading
wind state in the U.S. Texas, accounting for close to one-third of the nations total installed wind capacity, which is the equivalent of the electricity
needed to power more than one million Texas homes. A single megawatt
of wind energy can produce as much energy used by about 230 typical
Texas homes in a year.
Following Texas in wind power capacity are California, Minnesota,
Iowa, Washington, and Colorado. More wind power installations are being
built in the upper Midwest region of the United States as well, including
in the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, and North and South Dakota.
This region of the country has extensive ample wind resources and broad
acceptance of wind power installations from local farmers.
Both Colorado and the Pacic Northwest states of Washington and
Oregon have good wind resources, as well as several states in the northeast.
The southeastern region of the United States does not have much of the
necessary natural resources for wind energy plants.
Wind Energy in Texas
The Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in Texas is one of the worlds
largest wind farms with a total capacity of 735 megawatts. The wind farm
spreads across approximately 47,000 acres in Abilene, located in west central Texas.
Wind farms, as they are sometimes called, are large clusters of wind turbines used to produce electricity. A wind farm can have dozens and dozens
of wind turbines scattered over a large track of land.
VIDEO
Wind FarmsTexas Leads the Way: If Texas were an independent country, it would
be the worlds sixth-largest user of wind energy. To read more about the United
States front-runner, go to http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-10292699-54.html.
Wind Power in the United States a 31
The Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, spread across a vast area of West
Texas, is one of the largest wind farms in the world. Located on land in Taylor and Nolan Counties, Texas, the wind farm consists of several hundred wind
turbines that generate about 730 megawatts of power. (Neonriver/Dreamstime
.com)
In the fall of 2009, the Roscoe Wind Complex became the worlds largest wind farm. Located in Roscoe, Texas, a city with a population of about
1,300 people, the wind farm has 627 wind turbines that generate 781.5
megawatts (MW) of electricity. At full capacity, the wind farm, located in
an area of about 100,000 acres, can provide power to 260,000 homes.
The demand for additional wind power in Texas has grown so rapidly
that additional transmission lines are needed to distribute the thousands
of megawatts of energy to urban and rural areas in the state by 2012. The
new transmission infrastructure will allow all Texans to access the states
vast wind resources for their energy needs.
Shell WindEnergy, Inc., and Luminant, a subsidiary of TXU Corporation, have a joint agreement to build a 3,000-megawatt wind project in the
Texas Panhandle. According to the AWEA, this 3,000-megawatt wind
farm could power 900,000 average U.S. homes. When in operation, this
will be the largest wind farm in the United States and Europe.
The two companies are also exploring the use of compressed air storage
for wind farms. This is an interesting development that will make wind
turbine power more ecient. In a compressed air system, the surplus air,
produced by the wind turbine, is pumped into layers of porous sandstone
in an underground cavern. The dense rock in the underground cavern seals
in the compressed air. When more energy is needed to produce electricity,
the air in the large cavern ows out and up into a natural gasred turbine station at ground level. The gas-red turbine is a backup system for
use when wind energy is not available for the topside turbine. This hybrid
component of wind power and natural gas can produce a more ecient
electricity-producing system by using both wind resources and then natural gas as a backup component.
California
In 2006, California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed a greenhouse
gas law, which will commit California residents to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. The California Wind Energy
Association states that wind energy will help meet the challenge by contributing up to 20 percent of Californias energy output by 2020.
However, achieving 20 percent wind energy in California by 2020 requires a goal of 20,000 megawatts of wind capacity for the state, a major
increase in wind energy.
One of the largest wind farms in California is at Altamont Pass, which
is located east of San Francisco among a series of low hills that separate the
San Francisco Bay area from the San Joaquin Valley. Altamont Pass contains
the worlds largest concentration of wind turbines over a large landscape.
The Altamont Pass Wind Farm, one of the earliest wind farms in the
United States, has a cluster of approximately 6,000 wind turbines of various kinds. Starting in 2011, thousands of the older wind turbines in Altamont Pass will be replaced with new ones that produce more power and
kill fewer migratory birds.
Another wind farm, located at the Tehachapi Pass in the Mojave Desert
north of Los Angeles, generates enough electricity to meet the residential
needs of more than 500,000 Southern Californians. Another wind farm
is scheduled for completion in Tehachapi Pass. The new project will be
named Windswept.
High Winds Energy Center
The newest and, as of 2010, the largest wind farm in California is called
the High Winds Energy Center and is located between San Francisco and
The Altamont Pass Wind Farm in

California has more than 6,000 relatively small wind turbines of various
types. Established in 1971, Altamont
was once the largest wind farm in
the world in terms of capacity. (Terrance Emerson/Dreamstime.com)
Sacramento. The 90 turbines at the installation generate 162 megawatts of

electricity, enough to power 75,000 homes.
High Winds turbines have an advantage over the older turbines in California. High Winds turbines are taller, more powerful, and more ecient
than the older-generation ones and can generate more energy with fewer
wind turbines. For example, High Winds turbines produce almost two
megawatts. This is 18 times more than the 100-kilowatt turbines built 20
years earlier, according to the centers report. The older turbines also cannot rotate from one side to the other, which means these turbines are not
very ecient when the wind changes and blows in from another direction.
These older turbines can often remain idle until the wind directions become more favorable.
On the other hand, the High Winds turbines are built to rotate into
the wind and can operate at wind speeds from 8 to 55 miles per hour,
according to the wind power company. Another feature is that the High
Winds turbines rotate slowly, and as a result, fewer birds are caught in
these turbines. Like other wind energy programs, the High Winds project has received funding from government incentives and federal tax
credits.
Kansas
In 2009 the Greensburg community in Kansas was leveled by a massive
tornado. After the destruction, the city of Greensburg, the Kansas Power
Pool, and John Deere Renewables jointly announced plans to develop
the Greensburg Wind Farm. When in operation, the Greensburg Wind
Farm will consist of ten 1.25-megawatt wind turbines. When the project becomes operational, Greensburg will be able to supply 100% of the
citys homes and businesses with a clean, green energy source, said Martin
Wilkinson, senior vice president of John Deere Renewables. This project
will create jobs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Iowa
Wind power provides about 15 percent of the electricity generated in
Iowa. The Hancock County Wind Energy Center in Hancock County,
Iowa, has 148 Vestas V47 660-kilowatt wind turbines that generate a total
capacity of 97.68 megawatts. Based in Denmark, where Vestas manufactures its turbines, Vestas is the worlds leading supplier of wind power
equipment.
Minnesota
The wind farms in Minnesota provide more than 7 percent of the electricity used in the state. Some of the wind farms in Minnesota are the Bualo
Ridge Wind Farm and the Fenton Wind Farm. Another wind installation
is the Taconite Ridge Wind Energy Center in northeastern Minnesota,
which produces enough wind energy to power several thousand homes
annually. This wind farm, as well as others, will help meet the states plan
for at least 25 percent of Minnesotas total energy usage to come from
renewable sources by 2025.
Colorado
Currently, Colorado already has 12 wind farms. A new wind farm located
on 6,000 acres will be built near Burlington. When online, this wind farm,
using 34 turbines, will supply enough electricity to power approximately
14,000 households. In Brighton, Colorado, a new Vestas manufacturing
plant was opened in 2010 and is producing nacelle products. A typical
nacelle sits atop the tower of a wind turbine and houses the gearbox, generator, and brake system.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy)
FEATURE
Wind Power Is in the Schools, Too: Central High School Wind Project, Duluth,
Minnesota
Central High School in Duluth, Minnesota, has a new wind turbine on-site. Besides
contributing to science studies, the generator, on top of a 64-foot tower, will produce one kilowatt of energy. This is just enough electricity to power two lights
installed on the schools sign. The turbines electrical system has a backup storage
battery bank that will light up the sign when no wind is blowing. In science classes,
students will be able to gather, record, and analyze data produced by the turbine.
South Dakota
The Wessington Springs Wind Farm, in Wessington Springs, is now in
operation, has an estimated electricity production equivalent to the energy
used by approximately 17,000 residential homes. Each of the 34 turbines
has a height of 260 feet, and each one can produce 1.5 megawatts.
Washington
In the state of Washington, wind proponents are requiring electric utilities with 25,000 or more customers to generate 15 percent of their energy
needs from renewable resources by 2020. To help reach that goal, there
are sales tax exemptions and other incentives for potential customers who
want to install a wind turbine.
Missouri
As mentioned previously, Rock Port, Missouri, located in the northwestern corner of the state, became the rst city in the United States to be
100 percent powered by wind from wind turbines installed on farmlands
within the city limits.
The Northeast and Mid-Atlantic States
Several ocean states are looking at oshore wind energy as an attractive
option to generate electricity, particularly in the Northeast. There is plenty
of oshore wind potential located o the New England and mid-Atlantic
coasts.
The U.S. Department of the Interior is preparing to lease areas of the

outer continental shelf to companies that want to install oshore wind
turbines in the Northeast. The federal program is a major incentive plan to
help develop and install oshore wind energy installations.
In Delaware, wind energy developers are planning a wind power project
that would include installing approximately 60 oshore turbines several
miles from the states coastline. In Massachusetts, one wind developer is
proposing Americas rst oshore wind farm on Horseshoe Shoal in Nantucket Sound. The proposed wind farm of 130 wind turbines would be
installed several miles from the states coastal area.
Rhode Island and New Jersey are making plans to develop oshore wind
energy projects as well. In addition, New York City ocials are discussing projects and plans for erecting turbines in the Atlantic Ocean about
25 miles from the city.
Because the northeast region has high electricity prices, it may be a nancially good investment for wind power developers and for coastal cities.
The Northeast and the mid-Atlantic states have many large shoreline cities
with large populations that use much electricity.
FEATURE
Rhode Island
If you ever travel to Rhode Island, you need to stop and see the first wind power
turbine built in the state, installed at a monastery. The Portsmouth Abbey is a Benedictine monastery and prep school located in Portsmouth, Rhode Island. In March
2006 the monastery installed a Vestas V47 wind turbine on its property, assisted by
a grant from the Rhode Island Renewable Energy Fund.
According to the monasterys Web site, the Vestas 660-kilowatt wind turbine
generator was selected as the best choice for this project. The turbine has three,
77-foot carbon fiber blades installed on a 164-foot tapered tubular steel tower. The
rotor turns at a constant 28.5 revolutions per minute (rpm). The structure stands
at 240 feet from the ground to the tip of the highest blade. The turbine was installed and secured by a concrete foundation that was constructed in a 30-foot
deep hole. The tower is firmly bolted to 80, 1-inch diameter, 27-foot-long rods set
firmly into the foundation. The turbine was built approximately 750 feet from the
nearest neighbor.
The monastery reported that one year after the Vestas V47 turbine was installed,
it had generated nearly 1.3 million kilowatt-hours of clean electricity and had supplied almost 40 percent of the schools electrical energy use. An excellent start.
How safe is the wind turbine during high wind gusts at the school? The highest
documented wind gust was 67 miles per hour during the first year of operation. In
heavy winds, the turbine can pitch its blades to 90-degree angles to completely
stop spinning. Once wind speeds subside to about 45 miles per hour, the blades can
be rotated to start turning again.
According to the schools financial records, the total wind turbine revenues during its first year of operation were $222,710, including $64,661 in renewable energy
credits, $28,496 in wholesale electricity sold back to the grid, and $129,553 in retail
electricity displaced.
The power from the schools wind turbine reduces the load on the local utility
electrical distribution center. This helps to provide higher voltage and improved
power quality to the entire neighborhood during peak power periods.
FARMERS AND WIND POWER TECHNOLOGY

Since 2009, hundreds of wind turbines have appeared on large tracts of
farmlands in Oregon, Wyoming, and Washington. Many farmers have received compensation for leasing their land to wind farm developers. In Oregon, one wind power company is paying farmers for leasing 150,000 acres
of their land for installing wind turbines. Another developer has leased tens
of thousands of acres from several landowners in Oregon and Washington.
The payments can exceed $4,000 per wind turbine per year. In other cases,
some developers give farmers a percentage of the gross revenue collected
from their wind turbines. Other developers prefer a one-time fee or annual
payments. On the average, farmers usually sign a 20- to 50-year lease with
the wind developers for use of less than 5 percent of their land. According
to one farmer, wind farms might be the future for landowners who nd it
increasingly dicult to make a living from traditional farming.
A nonprot group called WinDustry assists farmers by informing them
about their rights when negotiating with wind developers. The group
maintains a national Web site to help farmers evaluate their lands wind
potential.
DID YOU KNOW?

The American Wind Energy Association calculates that the 60 billion kilowatt-hours
of electricity generated by wind power can be substituted for 91 million barrels of
oil, or 560 billion cubic feet of natural gas.
Wheat farmer John Hilderbrand stands near a wind turbine on his farmland
near Wasco, Oregon. Recently, dozens of wind turbines have appeared on
the rolling expanses of rural farmland in Oregon and Washington and scores
of farmers, including Hilderbrand, have made thousands of dollars by leasing
their land to wind farm developers. (AP Photo/Don Ryan)
Not all farmers are happy with nearby wind generators. Some farmers
are bothered by the thumping, rumbling sound of the blades. They say the
noise disturbs their sleep and impacts TV reception. Some local governments are working on zoning laws that would prevent commercial-size
turbines from being built more than 30 stories high.
THE BUSINESS OF WIND FARMS
Public electric utility companies do not own many wind power plants.
Instead, they are owned and operated by private corporations, known as
DID YOU KNOW?

Direct current (DC) is commonly seen in battery-operated devices such as games
and power equipment.
independent power producers, that sell the electricity generated by the

wind farms to electric utilities.
Those considering operating a wind power plant know that it is not as
simple as just installing a wind turbine in a windy place. Deciding where
to locate wind turbines requires careful panning. Also important is the
collection of data to analyze how quickly, how steadily, and how much the
wind blows. Because wind speed increases with altitude, the good sites for
wind plants are the tops of smooth, rounded hills; open plains; shorelines;
and between mountain gaps that produce wind funneling.
Wind speeds are very dierent throughout the country at various seasons of the year. As one example, in Tehachapi, California, the wind blows
more from April through October than it does in the winter. In a state
such as Montana the wind blows more during the winter months, when
homeowners need electricity to heat their homes. In Rhode Island, wind
blows more in the fall, winter, and spring than during the summer.
HOME AND SMALL WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS
In the United States, many homeowners are purchasing small wind turbines for their energy needs. Small turbines are dened as having rated capacities of 100 kilowatts or less. The small wind turbine market is expected
to continue to grow rapidly in the future.
Are you interested in small wind energy systems? A good start for
learning about small wind energy systems is securing a copy of Small Wind
Electric Systems: A U.S. Consumers Guide, published by the Department of
Energy. According to the publication, home wind energy systems generally comprise a rotor, generator (or alternator mounted on a frame), a
wind vane or tail, a tower wiring, and a balance of components that would
consist of controllers, inverters, and/or batteries. Through the spinning of
the blades, the rotor captures the kinetic energy of the wind and converts it
into rotary motion to drive the generator to produce electricity. The power
produced from a small 1,000-watt wind turbine could provide enough
power to provide electricity for a small home.
What Are the Components
of a Small Wind Turbine?
Most small turbines manufactured today are the horizontal-axis upwind
three-bladed machines. The amount of power produced in a small wind
According to the American Wind

Energy Association, an average
U.S. household uses about 10,655
kilowatt-hours of electricity each
year. A 10 kilowatt wind turbine
can generate about 10,000 kilowatthours annually at a site with wind
speeds averaging 12 miles per hour,
or about enough energy to power a
typical household. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
turbine is determined primarily by the diameter of its rotor. The diameter of the rotor denes its swept area and determines the power. Refer to
chapter 1 if you need to refresh your understanding of swept area.
As mentioned previously, wind speeds increase with height. Therefore,
the higher the tower, the more power a turbine can produce. For example,
if a 10-kilowatt generator is raised from a 60-foot tower to a 100-foot
tower, although the installation will cost more, the additional height can
produce 2530 percent more power. A high tower also cuts down on air
turbulence from obstructions such as hills, buildings, and trees.
Most home wind power systems use a guyed tower, which consists of a
lattice section, which is a framework structure of diagonally crossing wood
pieces. The rest of the system includes the pipe and supporting guy wires.
The wires keep the tower steady in strong winds and are easy to install.
Maintenance
Maintaining a wind turbine is important. Bolts and electrical connections
should be checked often, and guy wires should be inspected for proper
tension. Any wearing on the leading edge of the blades should be replaced.
After several years of wear, the blades and bearings may need to be replaced. Most turbine parts should last more than 20 years or longer according to wind power installers, with the right kind of maintenance, of
course.
How Much Energy Will the Small

Wind System Generate?
Most U.S. manufacturers rate their turbines by the amount of electrical
power they can safely produce at a particular wind speed. Usually the wind
speed selected is between 24 and 36 miles per hour. As mentioned previously, a 1,000-watt wind turbine can provide enough electrical power for
a small home.
The small wind turbines generate only direct current (DC) electricity.
This is ne for appliances that operate on direct current. However, to use
wind-powered electricity for larger appliances such as a refrigerator and
electric stoves, alternating current (AC) is needed. The installation of an
inverter in the system will convert the DC to AC.
Grid-Connected Systems
Some homeowners connect their wind turbine to the power transmission
grid of a utility company. In grid-connected systems, the only additional
equipment required is the inverter. The inverter makes the turbine electrically compatible with the utility grid.
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, a grid-connected system allows

you to power your home or small business with renewable energy during
those periods when the wind is blowing. Any excess electricity you produce is
fed back into the grid. When renewable resources are unavailable, electricity
from the grid supplies your needs, thus eliminating the expense of electricity
storage devices such as batteries. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Net Metering
Today, the majority of solar- and wind-powered homes are connected to
a utility through a meter. By connecting to a local grid system, homeowners have the option to reduce their electric bills by transmitting back to
the utility company any excess electric power their homes produce. This is
called net metering.
As you know, meters are used to measure electrical consumption in
kilowatt-hours. Your usage is recorded in a meter. Hooking up the meter to
a grid allows the homeowner to take part in a net metering program with
the utility company. Under net metering, homeowners receive a nancial
credit for at least a portion of the electricity they generate.
Why Is Net Metering Important?
The AWEA states three reasons why net metering is important. They report that:
First, because wind energy is an intermittent resource, customers may
not be using power as it is being generated, and net metering allows
them to receive full value for the electricity they produce without
installing expensive battery storage systems. This is important because it directly aects the economics and payback period for the
investment.
Second, net metering reduces the installation costs for the customer by eliminating the need for a second energy meter.
Third, net metering provides a simple, inexpensive, and easilyadministered mechanism for encouraging the use of small-scale wind
energy systems, which provide important local, national, and global
benets to the environment and the economy.
Currently, 30 states require at least some utility companies to oer net
metering for small wind systems. However the requirements vary from
state to state. Most state net metering rules were enacted by state utility
regulators, and these rules apply only to utilities whose rates and services
are regulated at the state level.
Does Your State Net Meter?
To see if your state oers net metering and to learn the specics of your
states program, log on to the U.S. Department of Energys Web site: http://
www.eere.energy.gov/state_energy/policy_content.cfm?policyid=26.
What Do Wind Systems Cost?

Interested in installing a wind system for your home? Before you start,
check your local zoning codes and permit costs. The cost depends on the
size of the wind generator and the service agreements with the manufacturer. An 80-foot tower with an inverter to convert DC to AC for home
use can range in cost from $15,000 to $50,000 for a 3-kilowatt to 10kilowatt wind turbine. The AWEA says that a typical home wind system
costs approximately $32,000 (10 kW); while a comparable photovoltaic
(PV) solar system would cost over $80,000.
Once you settle on the nal costs of installing a wind generator, then
it is time to review the length of the payback period. The payback period
is the time when you recoup your purchase costs of the system, when the
savings generated equal those costs.
WIND ENERGY FOR SCHOOLS
More than 80 schools across the country have installed some type of wind
turbine, according to Ian Baring-Gould. Baring-Gould is a senior engineer
in a wind technology center at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado.
A program called Wind for Schools, sponsored by the U.S. Department
of Energys Wind Powering America program at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, is aiming to bring smaller turbines to six states:
Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, and South Dakota. It is the
rst program to use smaller turbines with a mission of educating students
and the community about wind power, according to Baring-Gould. The
goal is to add wind turbines at about ve schools per year in each state, for
a total of about 30 per year overall, Baring-Gould says. The turbines will
be on towers up to 70 feet tall, and its projected that they will produce
around 3,000 to 4,000 kilowatt hours per year, which is generally enough
to provide only a fraction of a schools electric needs. The price of a wind
turbine will be about $6,000.
DID YOU KNOW?

What windmill size would be needed for a home? Homes typically use 8002,000
kilowatt-hours of electricity per month. Depending on the average wind speed in
the area, this will require a wind turbine rated in the range of 515 kilowatts.
FEATURE
Case Study
In chapter 1, you read about the Spirit Lake Wind Project. In the following case
study, printed with the approval of the Spirit Lake Wind Project Committee, you will
learn how the Spirit Lake Wind Project was planned and financed. The author and
publisher thank the Spirit Lake community for the information.
The Spirit Lake Community Schools began studying the use of wind as a renewable source of energy for the district in September of 1991. Early in the study a
partnership was formed with the Iowa Department of Natural Resources.
I. Over the course of the following year, data was collected to:
Measure the wind speed on the proposed site

Analyze the districts electrical costs
Get acquainted with wind turbine manufacturing, and
Understand both federal and state rules and regulations
II. Information was garnered through many sources including:

IES Utilities (Now Alliant Energy)
Existing wind turbine sites. The props turn whenever there is wind. It generates electricity after the generator turns at 1,790 rpm, which requires a
wind of around 7.5 mph at the 140 foot level.
III. Financing the Project.
In December 1992, the elementary school received a grant for $119,000 for one turbine to supply electrical energy. Specifications for the wind turbine were prepared
and three bids were received in the spring of 1993. The successful bidder was Minnesota Wind Power of Marshall, Minnesota with a bid to provide and install one
wind generator at a cost of $239,500.
To offset the additional cost not covered by the DOE grant, the project was
funded by a low interest loan through the Energy Council of the Department of
Natural Resources. On July 22, 1993, the wind turbine on the lawn of the Spirit Lake
Elementary School began producing electricity. Ninety months later, the schools
turbine had produced 1,570,000 kilowatt hours of electricity which would have cost
the district $124,900. This is enough electricity for 264 average Spirit Lake homes
for a year. In addition to providing all of the electricity for the 53,000 square foot
elementary school, it also produced a reimbursement from the utility company of
almost $25,000.
The final payment for the loan on turbine was made during 1998, 3.5 years ahead
of schedule. Today the almost $25,000 savings go to the schools instructional
program.
In July 2011, when both turbines have been paid for, the district will have about
$150,000 tax free income from the clean, renewable northwest Iowa wind to use to
improve education for the children of the Spirit Lake Community School District.
VIDEO
Wind Energy for Schools: To view the U.S. Department of Energysponsored site
regarding locations for the Wind for Schools project, go to http://www.windpower
ingamerica.gov/schools/projects.asp.
Boise State University and the Wind

for Schools Program
The Department of Energy has contacted six universities around the country to serve as Wind Application Centers as part of the Wind for Schools
program. At Boise State in Idaho, for example, engineering students will
visit rural Idaho classrooms each year and construct small 1.9-kilowatt
turbines for use in science classes.
The turbines, which will be from 35 to 70 feet tall, are being sold to the
university by Southwest Windpower of Flagsta, Arizona. Called the Sky
Stream 3.7, the small turbines do not generate enough power to operate
an entire school but are typically sold to homeowners who want to reduce
their electrical power bills.
Volunteers from H&H Utility Contractors hoist a Skystream 3.7 wind

turbine into place at Jerome Middle School in Idaho as part of the
National Renewable Energy Laboratorys Wind for Schools program.
(Stephanie Lively, Boise State University)
DID YOU KNOW?

Since 2004, more than 100,000 small wind turbines (10 megawatts each) have been
installed in Inner Mongolia, China. According to news stories, Chinese herdsmen
have wind-powered tents that power small household electrical appliances and
television sets. Twice a year, the nomadic Mongolian herdsmen pack up all their
belongings, including the wind turbine, and move to new lands.
Texas State Technical College

An energy utility company has formed a partnership with Texas State Technical College to educate and train students in wind turbine technology. The
program is an eort to meet the increased demand for highly skilled employees in the wind energy business in Texas and throughout the region.
As part of the partnership, the utility company will assist the college
with its curriculum by oering wind experts and paid internships. The
company will also work with the college to obtain the equipment and
other resources necessary for laboratory facilities. The college will identify
and recruit candidates for the program and provide service-learning opportunities in the community.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Michael Arquin, Director, KidWind
Go-Green Project: Wind Energy in Schools
Michael Arquin is the director of the KidWind Project located in St. Paul, Minnesota. The company is now a team of teachers, engineers, and scientists committed
to innovative energy education for the next generation. The KidWind Project has
trained more than 2,000 teachers in 25 states about wind energy.
How was the KidWind Project started?
I started KidWind in 2003 when I was a sixth-grade science teacher in California.
I had been doing quite a bit of work with my students on solar energy, doing the
Jr. Solar Sprint and other similar activities, and wanted one year to start teaching
about wind. I was kind of a renewable energy geek! I started to purchase some of
the wind energy materials that were available from other vendors and was really
unhappy with the high price and poor quality of products available. I started tinkering around with some new ways to get students engaged with wind energy, and
from there we were off and running.
Things really took off after I received a teacher fellowship at the Wright Center
for Science Education at Tufts University. During this fellowship I was able to develop my ideas more fully, do some writing, and get the materials out on the web to
share with as many teachers as possible. In the summer of 2004, we held our first
workshops for teachers.
The KidWind web site was launched in the same year, offering free lesson plans
and wind energy kits online. The first kit sold for $25 and was shipped from the
headquarters of my basement in Arlington, Massachusetts. Now we have a small
company with 10 employees whose primary focus is the production, development,
and dissemination of high-quality educational materials related to wind energy.
Although other companies try to compete with our products, we find our model
of open source curriculum development is really hard to beat. All of our print materials, lessons, and construction plans are freely downloadable from our web site.
We sell parts and kits so that you can spend only what you need to, and you can
call KidWind anytime for support. Many times the person who answers the phone
and deals with your questions is I!
What is your professional background?
My undergraduate degree was in environmental studies, and I guess you could
say I was an energy geek for a long time, attending all manner of energy fairs and
wind conferences. I was certified to teach general science and biology in New York
State. When I moved to California, I taught high school chemistry and computer
KidWind Project Director Michael Arquin teaches a wind energy science

teacher workshop. (Courtesy KidWind)
science for three years and then finally found my groove teaching middle school
life and physical sciences. Although I miss teaching in the classroom, I get a great
deal of satisfaction working closely with teachers to improve classroom instruction
related to renewable energy. I also love working with our team of WindMasters to
improve the quality and performance of our materials.
One thing to note is that although I have had classes in renewable energy, and
energy in general, most of my wind knowledge is self-taught. I was just really interested, and that motivated me to learn moreanyone can do this!
Why pick wind and not solar or some other alternative energy program for your
first enterprise?
As a teacher I often felt there were quite a bit of solar products and solar-based curricula on the market. When I started to look around for similar wind energy materials, I found a real lack of quality materials. So I started digging around and tinkering
with new ideas to make it easier to work with wind energy in the classroom. That
was five years ago! Now there are a variety of products out from other vendors
but we still feel we make products that are more useful for teachers, are better
supported, and are made in an environmentally sensitive manner (almost all of our
plastic items are made from recycled plastics in a plant that powered by wind!).
Recently we have been doing some development in lessons related to PV, solar
thermal, and fuel cell technologies, but wind energy is still our main area.
How many students and teachers have taken part in the KidWind project this
year? How many school districts participated in the program?
This is somewhat hard to pin down because tons of people use our web site given
that we have lots of free lessons, PowerPoint, and building plans available. Over
the last five years we have probably worked with at least 4,000 teachers in a variety of training formats who are going to bring this content back to the classroom.
These teachers are in 37 states and hundreds of school districts. We do a great
deal of concentrated work in New York, Texas, and North Dakota.
If each of those teachers works with 75100 students each year, then I guess
were talking about 350,000400,000 students each year who may be impacted. We
also work with thousands of students doing science fair projects. These are rough
numbers, but they are increasing every year, as people become interested in learning how wind energy works.
What are the age groups or grade levels of students and teachers?
We are primarily working with middle and high school students.
In your workshops how do you introduce wind energy to those who have little or
no background in wind power?
In most workshops we tend to start at rock bottom. I usually start a workshop
with a MacGyver-like activity where the teachers have to build a windmill that
can lifts some weights with a limited number of materials. With this activity
I can show them the complexity and simplicity of wind devices. Then we move
onto bringing their wind energy knowledge up to the modern age through lectures
and guest speakers. Most people have about a mid-80s idea of the technology,
but changes are happening very fast! We usually end the day exploring wind turbine blade design and electricity output. Teachers enter a competition to see who
can make the best blades and make the most power . . . this can get competitive.
Our workshops are most often free and supported by a variety of partners.
Workshop content is weighted more toward giving teachers the time and space
to explore and get comfortable with a few activities they can execute in the classroom. I want the teachers to leave the event and feel like this meets their needs in
teaching content and that they have the confidence to pull it off. We balance this
information with presentations that explore the promise and limits to wind energy
power production. Wind power is not free, and it has issues, but in our opinion, it
can be an important log on the energy production fire.
From your experiences in doing workshops, what do teachers ask for and need to
start a wind energy program?
Teachers want lessons/activities that
1. they are comfortable executing;
2. use simple, affordable, and robust materials;
3. help them teach the standards that they are required to address in their
classroom; and
4. expose their students to the possibilities and limitations of a renewable
energy future.
Every time we develop a new product or lesson, these are the goals I have
in mind.
What wind energy educational equipment (hardware) and materials (lesson
plans) would you suggest for the teacher and students who have little or no background in this energy field?
Well, I always like to start students on experimental wind turbines. I personally like
to start students out exploring wind energy with our WeightLifter turbine. Students
explore how blade design affects how much weight a windmill can lift. This mimics
the windmills of the past and also allows you to teach some of the theory without
teaching about electricity (voltage, amperage, etc.).
Once they have explored these ideas, you can move to the basic turbine and
explore how blades affect electricity production. Using these simple turbines, you
can explore experimental design, energy transformations, and even series and
parallel circuits by building small wind farms.
What equipment and materials would you suggest to teachers and students who
have a good basic understanding of wind energy but need a more challenging
activity to do?
As you get more advanced, we have devices such as the AL Turbine that add the
ability to change gearing and generator types. You can start to build generators
from the ground up and see how magnets and wire size can affect a generators
ability to produce electricity. You can also start combining our wind turbines with
fuel cells, solar panels, and water pumps to build hybrid generation systems. You
can also initiate projects where students explore installing a wind turbine at their
school. To do this, students need to collect and analyze wind data, understand how
much electricity their school uses, and see what kind of turbine might work well in
their area.
If you are a shop or technology teacher and are mechanically inclined, then
you can start to build some 100- to 500-watt devices from the ground up. We have
worked with a few schools that have done this, and although these projects are
very involved (four to six months long), they can be quite rewarding in terms of
what the students have to learn to get it done.
We have some links to projects like this on our web site, and I recommend a few
books to get startedHomebrew Wind Power by Dan Bartmann and Dan Fink and
Windpower Workshop by Hugh Piggott. But because these projects are involved,
there is nothing better than heading to a workshop where someone can show you
the ropes.
Are there any plans in the future to extend the program, and if so, how?
We are always developing new products and lessons to help explore wind energy.
We have a new experimental generator coming out this fall based on belts vibrating in the wind. It is very cool.
In the fall of 2009 we are going to release our WindWise Curriculum that we
have produced with our partner Pandion Systems. This middle and high school science curriculum covers a number of topics related to the biology, economics, and
public perception of wind power. We are really excited about this because it takes
a number of ideas we have had sitting on the table and gets them into classrooms.
In the summer of 2010, we also hope to launch the WindSenators program. This
training program seeks to expand our core of WindMaster teacher trainers to more
states by building a core of highly competent trainers. This weeklong workshop
will work with teachers to improve their understanding of wind energy science and
engineering along with exposing them to a wide variety of curricular vehicles that
can engage students in the classroom.
I also have dreams of launching a national KidWind Challenge where middle
and high school students interested in testing their engineering and scientific
prowess build and compete using small wind turbines that they have designed and
constructed. We did a pilot in New York that was successful and hope to hold another challenge in 2010.
VIDEO
How to Build a Homemade Wind Generator: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/
1782153/how_to_build_a_home_made_wind_generator/.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Gather research material (weather maps, physical features maps, special purpose maps and charts) showing wind conditions and physical characteristics of geographic regions of the United States and
develop a rationale for locating the most ideal placements for wind
turbine farms.
2. The American Wind Energy Association suggests the wind conditions in Texas, North and South Dakota, and Kansas can generate
enough wind energy for all of the United States. Is this claim plausible? Explain your reasons for agreeing or disagreeing.
3. Research and explain the phrase, As long as the sun shines, the wind
will blow as it applies to generating wind power. Consult the Teen
Guide to Environmental Sciences from Greenwood Press and the following Web sites: http://www.environment.nationalgeographic.com
and http://www.eia.doe.gov/neic.
awea.org.
Gipe, Paul. Wind Energy Comes of Age. Wiley Series in Sustainable Design.
New York: Wiley, 1995.
Righter, Robert W. Wind Energy in America: A History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996.
WEB SITES
http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_wind.html
The mission of the wind energy research conducted at the National Renewable Energy Laboratorys National Wind Technology Center (NWTC) is to collaborate with industry to further
wind technology and to accelerate its commercialization in the
marketplace.
http://www.ge.com
General Electric ranks number one in U.S. wind turbine sales and
is actually one of the largest suppliers of wind turbines in the world,
boasting more than 11,600 wind turbine installations that comprise
more than 18,000 megawatts of capacity. The company also just announced that it plans to introduce a 4 megawatt (MW ), gearless
wind turbine for oshore use.
http://www.windandwater.energy.gov
The U.S. Department of Energy Wind and Hydropower Technologies Wind and Water Power Program works to improve the performance, lower the costs, and accelerate the deployment of innovative
wind and waterpower technologies.
http://www.ewea.org/.
The European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) actively promotes
the utilization of wind power both in Europe and worldwide.
VIDEOS
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plugins. Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the videos. You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Wind Farms: To view the construction of Europes largest oshore
wind farm go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MjGh0bLnGx8&
feature=related (4:58 minutes).
Wind FarmsMade in Germany: Arguably the worlds biggest user
of wind power, Germany expands its dominance by building a wind
park out at sea. To view, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sd
Y8ADBN6hM&feature=related (5:01 minutes).
Jay Leno Builds a Wind Turbine on His Green Garage: Jay is interviewed by Popular Mechanics magazine. Watch as Jay gets ready to
install a state-of-the-art turbine on top of his shop. To view, go to
http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/jay-leno/green-garage/
4216780.
How to Build a Vertical Axis Wind Generator: This video, by Je Berezin, can assist you in constructing a large wind turbine made from
two 55-gallon plastic drums. Go to http://greenterrarma.com/
vawt-designs.html.
Wind Energy in West Texas, Wind Turbines: Watch how ranches in
west Texas counties are installing a large number of wind generators.
Although many will benet with the wind power gold rush, others
are not sure. Visit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFPj9frhKuo.
Altamont Pass Wind Farm: This video takes you on a car ride through
one of the largest wind farms in the United States. You can hear the
sounds of the wind turbines as you ride along. Many of the obsolete
wind turbines in this pass will be replaced or shut down by 2015. Go
to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5VsWZKFuEck.
Chapter 3
Global Wind Power

and the Future
The rst oce skyscraper to install large-scale wind turbines has been built
in the country of Bahrain, which consists of 33 islands in the Persian Gulf
o the east coast of Saudi Arabia. The skyscraper, called the Bahrain World
Trade Center, is in the nancial district of Manama, the nations capital.
Bahrains World Trade Center is

equipped with three wind turbines,
supplying 15 percent of the buildings
electricity. The 50-floor structure is
located in Manama, Bahrain. Built
in 2008, this is the only skyscraper in
the world to integrate wind turbines
into its twin-tower design. (iStockphoto)
VIDEO
Wind Turbines (Future Uses?): What has the industry learned from jet engines, and
is the FloDesign Turbine the next-generation wind turbine? To compare the new with
the old go to http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-9945005-54.html (4:59 minutes).
The Bahrain World Trade Center is 787 feet tall and has twin oce
towers. In between the two buildings are three wind turbines. The massive rotor blades of each turbine are 95 feet long. Each turbine has been
installed on its own specially strengthened bridge between the two towers.
For maximum electricity generation, the towers are shaped to draw more
wind between the two buildings.
The three wind turbines are expected to provide approximately 15 percent of the electrical energy needs for both oce towers. This is enough
energy to provide electricity in 300 homes for more than a year.
WIND POWER IN EUROPE AND ASIA
Chapter 2 reported on wind power in the United States. However, the development of wind power technology is not unique to America. Other countries
have wind power systems, and according to the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA), Denmark leads the world in wind energy production,
generating more than 20 percent of its electricity needs from wind energy.
This chapter will concentrate on wind power in Europe and Asia and summarize what is ahead for wind power in both Europe and the United States.
Most economists predict that the largest growth markets for wind turbines are in China, Germany, India, Spain, and Great Britain. In 2010
China became the number one manufacturer of wind turbines.
(Source: Global Wind Energy Council)
Global Wind Power and the Future a 57
DID YOU KNOW?

Many homeowners in Europe consider buying a windmill for their home as an
investment.
Europe is high on wind power. In fact, wind turbines generate more

electricity in Europe as an alternative source of energy than in the United
States. In 2010, 5 percent of Europes electricity came from wind turbines.
Approximately 10 percent of Europe today has wind turbines. And in the
next decade, according to statistics, 40 percent of the worlds wind farms
will be in Europe. By 2050 half of Europes electricity is expected to come
from wind. Besides wind farms, Europeans are also encouraged to invest
in wind power installations for their homes and businesses in an eort to
conserve energy resources.
Germany
Thousands of wind generators have been installed in Germanymore
than in any other country. According to gures from the German Wind
Energy Association, 18,685 wind power plants with a capacity of 20,622
megawatts were in operation at the end of 2006. These turbines generated
30.5 billion kilowatt hours of electricity in 2006, about ve percent of Germanys total electricity consumption.
The wind farms in Germany are located along the coastal areas in the
northwest portion of the country. There are now plans to construct several
large wind farms along the countrys North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts.
Denmark
The Scandinavian country of Denmark is the worlds largest supplier of
wind generators and ranks third in total wind-generating capacity.
VIDEO
Wind FarmsMade in Germany: One of the worlds biggest users of wind power, Germany has expanded its dominance by building a Wind Park out at sea. To view, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdY8ADBN6hM&feature=related (5:01 minutes).
The Danes were the rst people to regularly produce electricity using
wind power and by World War I had a network of wind turbines that
generated about 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. As of 2010 Denmark has
one of the largest concentrations of wind turbines. Each year in Denmark,
wind turbines generate approximately 20 percent of the Danes consumption of electricity.
A high percentage of the wind turbines installed in Denmark are single
units or are grouped in small clusters, rather than on large wind farms as in
the United States. Approximately 50,000 residents own a wind turbine or
own a share in a wind turbine cooperative.
The largest oshore wind farm in Denmark and in the world is Horns
Rev. The wind farm is located in the North Sea, about 712 miles o the
coast of Jutland. The wind farms 80 Vestas 2MW turbines supply the
electricity equivalent for 150,000 Danish households. The Vestas turbines
are manufactured in Denmark and the company has installed more than
40,000 of these wind turbines worldwide.
United Kingdom
The weather patterns and topography of the United Kingdom provide this
region with excellent potential wind resources. The development of wind
power as a source of electricity in Great Britain began in the early 1990s,
An offshore wind farm near Copenhagen, Denmark. In 2010 another

wind farm, Denmarks 12th, went
online. This wind farm will provide
the equivalent of 200,000 homes with
green energy according to the Danish Minister of Climate and Energy.
(Rodik/Dreamstime.com)
DID YOU KNOW?

Until the early 1990s, Denmarks Velling Mrsk-Tndpibe was Europes largest
wind power plant. The 100 turbines overlooking Ringkbing Fjord on the west coast
of the Jutland Peninsula stand in a geometric lineup on an old lakebed.
when 10 wind turbines were installed on a farm in Cornwall. Today, most

of the United Kingdoms wind plants are located in England and Wales.
In 2009 the government announced a plan to have wind farms provide
power for all the homes in the United Kingdom within 13 years. The government is also interested in oshore wind power plants near its coasts.
Spain
Spain, along with Germany and Denmark, is among the three largest generators of wind power in the European Union. In 2009 the government approved installation of oshore wind farms along the nations long coastline.
In fact, the coastline of Spain is ideal because it has strong and consistent
coastal wind patterns. When in operation, the new wind power plants will
provide 11 percent of Spains electrical needs. The countrys energy goal is
to triple the amount of energy it generates from renewable sources such as
wind and solar by 2020.
Portugal
Portugal is among the nations in Europe where wind energy is going to
expand the most over the coming years, according to the European Wind
Energy Association. The best places in Portugal for onshore wind farms
are often in mountainous regions with there is lots of wind energy.
A total of 120 wind turbines are located across the highlands of the
Upper Minho region of Portugal. When in full-time operation, the wind
farm is to provide enough electricity for more than a million people.
India
Another country that is moving quickly in the wind power eld is India,
one of the fastest-growing markets for wind energy.
Some of the rst wind turbines in India overlooked the Arabian Sea.
In June 2008 the government announced plans to use more sustainable
FEATURE
What Can Be Done to Deter Bats from Approaching Wind Turbines?
Each year in Europe and in the United States, large numbers of bats are killed when
they collide with turbine blades. In fact, more bats than birds are killed by wind
turbines, according to several research studies.
A research study conducted on a wind farm in Pennsylvania in 2009 documented
that shutting down the turbines during hours of low wind speed actually reduced
bat mortality by 5085 percent. More research and data collecting is continuing,
but the early results of the Pennsylvania bat study look promising in the effort to
protect these animals from harm.
In Europe, research studies concluded that a major reduction in bat activity
near wind turbines could be accomplished through use of a portable radar beam.
The radar beam is directed at the bats foraging sites near wind farms. In the study,
the electromagnetic radar signal reduced the foraging activity of bats within 90
feet of a turbine. The bats kept away when the radar signal was on. More work now
needs to be conducted by radar engineers, working in conjunction with bat biologists. The next step in the study will be to develop a portable radar system that can
be manipulated and moved around to produce a wider range of electromagnetic
signals to keep bats away from wind turbines.
energy sources; by 2020, renewable energy sources are to account for

20 percent of energy. The governments goal for 2030 is that 25 percent
of its energy needs will be generated by renewable energy sources such as
solar, hydropower, and wind power plants.
China
If you were to take a trip along the mountains near the southwestern Chinese town of Dali, you would see a dozen new wind turbines installed
at 9,800 feet. In 2010 China became the worlds largest manufacturer of
wind turbines. China depends on coal-red power plants for more than
70 percent of its energy. To help reduce its dependency on coal, China will
be working hard to try to generate 15 percent of its energy from renewable
sources by 2020. If the goal is reached, wind power generation will increase
from 30 to 100 gigawatts by that year. That is a lot of energy, so much that
these future wind power plants will provide the electricity needs for approximately 700,000 Chinese homes.
DID YOU KNOW?

As of 2010, China is also the worlds largest manufacturer of solar panels.
Workers in China prepare to lift a giant blade to be used as part of a wind turbine
at the Vestas Wind Technology factory in Tianjin, China, in 2010. Chinas market
for wind equipment is one of the worlds largest, spurred by a government campaign to promote renewable energy to clean up its battered environment and
curb surging demand for foreign oil and gas. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan)
Southeast Asia
Based on a World Bank wind study, there are good to excellent wind resource areas for large-scale wind generation in Southeast Asia. These areas
include the mountains of central and southern Vietnam, central Laos, and
central and western Thailand, as well as a few other locations. The coastal
areas of southern and south-central Vietnam are excellent sites for wind
energy because of strong, steady winds. East-central Thailand, western and
southern Cambodia, the northern and coastal southern Malay Peninsula,
south-central Laos and northern Vietnam have good to excellent wind
resources.
Russia
Russia has excellent potential wind power resources in several regions of
the country. These regions include St. Petersburg and Kulikovo in the Russian region of Kaliningrad, as well as the St. Petersburg and Leningrad
regions. All of these areas have substantial wind conditions necessary for
engineers to plan, develop, and install wind generators.
In 2008 a wind power plant was installed in the Arctic port of Murmansk. This installation is expected to produce 533,000 kilowatt-hours per
year. Several companies are currently installing wind turbines in Russia.
INSTALLING OFFSHORE WIND POWER PLANTS
Although 99 percent of the worlds wind power comes from turbines built
on land, several wind-farm developers are interested in installing oshore
wind power plants. These oshore plants can be used in deep water about
15 miles oshore. At this distance from shore, the winds are stronger and
steadier than sea breezes near the shoreline. According to a 2006 analysis
by the U.S. Department of Energy and other companies, oshore wind
resources on the Atlantic and Pacic coasts exceed the current electricity generation of the entire U.S. power industry. Another energy research
consultant group believes that oshore wind energy could reach thousands
of megawatts by 2020.
However, building foundations or platforms to support wind turbines
in water deeper than 60 feet is very expensive. But a few developers believe
FEATURE
Canada: Airborne Wind Turbines
As mentioned previously in this volume, wind conditions at ground level are an unreliable source of wind energy because of turbulence and lack of a constant wind
speed. However, at a height of 1,000 feet or more, there is a steady wind pattern in
many places in the world.
Several companies have designed large blimp-like aircraft that can carry a wind
turbine about 1,000 feet above Earth. Simply stated, the stationary floating blimp is
filled with helium and is tied down to electrical generators on the ground by a copper cable. As the high-flying turbine spins, its generator converts wind energy into
electrical energy. The electricity is distributed down a copper cable to ground level
for immediate use or to be stored in a battery storage unit for future use.
they can solve the problem by using oating platforms to hold the turbines. Besides the United States, Norway and other countries are also
developing oshore oating wind-turbine platforms. Floating turbines
can be assembled onshore and towed into position. One kind of platform
looks like a conventional oshore oil and gas platform. The tripod-shaped
framework is held in place by a huge stretch of chains hooked on to steel
or concrete anchors on the ocean oor. Installed on top of the platform is
an 80-kilowatt wind turbine that is equipped with special instruments to
record the wave and wind forces and to generate electricity.
The worlds first deepwater floating wind turbine was installed in the North Sea
off of the coast of Norway. A floating wind turbine design allows wind turbines
to be installed in offshore deep waters where winds move at high speeds. The
floating platform allows the turbine to generate electricity in water at depths
of several hundred feet and it does not need to be anchored to the oceans
bedrock. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
A major factor in implementing oshore turbines is the lack of specialty

built seafaring vessels and platforms needed for deep-water installations.
Modied barges can be used to set up oshore turbines, but not many of
them are built to support a ve-megawatt turbine, and it may take more
than a year to retrot a barge for an oshore platform.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Mary E. Spruill, Executive Director, the NEED Project
Go-Green Project: The NEED Project
Energy advocate Mary E. Spruill is the Executive Director of the National Energy Education Development (NEED) Project, a 30-year-old nonprofit organization
dedicated to the development and delivery of comprehensive, balanced energy
education curriculum and training in the nations schools. The NEED Project
serves schools in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, Saipan, and the Marianas Islands. NEED serves all grades
K12and works to support educational efforts at the community college and
technical school levels as well.
NEED facilitators pour ice water over a solar panel in order to test how
temperature affects the electrical output. (Courtesy The Need Project)

Prior to becoming Executive Director in 2007, I served as NEEDs program director
for 16 years, working with local, state, and national energy organizations and companies to support energy education in the classroom. I joined NEED in 1991 after
beginning with NEED as a student in eighth grade in Roanoke, Virginia. Many NEED
students are currently NEED teachers or NEED staffproving that NEEDs Kids
Teaching Kids approach encourages student leadership and a strong understanding of energy issues.
I grew up in Roanoke, Virginia, and attended Northside Junior High School and
Northside High Schoolboth NEED schools. In eighth grade my teachers, Mrs.
Charlotte Garst and Mrs. Dena Gill, selected a team of students to implement NEED
in the classroom. NEED programs were strong in the Roanoke County Schools and
were well supported at the time by American Electric Power/Appalachian Power
Company.
school?
To be honest, I enjoyed science and social studies the most. Thats part of why
I think energy is such an interesting topic today. It is the perfect blend of science
and social science. The connection between science and the making of public
policyespecially related to energy is very interesting to me. Our energy decisions and policies are not always based in sciencebut often in economics and
public opinion, too.
I attended George Mason University and received an undergraduate degree in international studies with a minor in global systems. I went to school to join the U.S.
Department of State Foreign Service Office. I took the exam, passed, got the job,
and then began to prepare to leave NEED and realized that this career is rewarding
and that there was so much that could be done in energy education if we were focused and working hard to do it. So I didnt leave to work in an embassy; I stayed at
NEED and am glad I made the decision. My masters degree is from George Mason
University as well, in public administration with a certificate in nonprofit management. The nongovernmental organization (NGO) sector is leading the way in energy, and having the skills to lead a nonprofit, and the knowledge of where to go for
support, was very important. NEED is about six times the size it was when I joined
the organization, and we have much more to accomplish and many more teachers
to train and students to reach.
What interested you in seeking a career in your discipline or vocation?
I enjoyed it. Energy allows me to use the skills I learned in undergrad to understand energy in a global way. It also allows me to understand the interconnection among energy sources, economics, and everyday life. The nonprofit sector is
always engaging and interestingalbeit challenging too. It isnt easy always being
on the begging side, looking for resources to provide teachers and students with
quality energy materials and training. There is always more demand for resources
and support than there is supply of funding.
Describe the mission of the National Energy Education Development project.
The mission of the National Energy Education Development Project is to promote
an energy-conscious and educated society by creating effective networks of students, educators, businesses, government, and community leaders to design and
deliver objective, multisided energy education programs. NEED works with energy
companies, agencies, and organizations to bring balanced energy programs to the
nations schools with a focus on strong teacher professional development, timely
and balanced curriculum materials, signature program capabilities, and turnkey
program management.
What kinds of materials, resources, or assistance do you offer teachers and students who want to learn more about energy programs? Please list some of your
web sites that students and teachers can explore.
NEED creates partnerships with all sorts of organizations, agencies, companies,
and schools to provide teacher training and curriculum materials. Teachers report
that they never learned about energy in their college classes, but many are faced
with teaching energy in the classroombecause it is occasionally in the state and
local science standards. Teachers like NEED training because it provides them the
science and the application of the knowledge and the technology. The materials
are up-to-date, teacher-friendly, and kid-oriented, and they really teach kids while
encouraging student leadership too. Our Career Currents newsletter provides
background on different energy sectors and the careers found in them. The Energy
Exchange newsletter provides lessons and activities and access to news and resources from NEED and our partners. NEED also works with the Energy Information
Administration on their Energy Kids pagewww.eia.doe.gov/kidsand the popular Energy Ant.
Explain the importance of the NEED energy program as it relates to real-world
issues.
NEED really is all about real-world issues. Like never before, the nation and the
world are focused on energy. The 2008 political race focused on energy, and the
media is focused on energyor at least was for a while with rising fuel prices,
but there is no other issue that is intertwined with all aspects of daily life. Without
energy, we have nothing. No commerce, no food, no transportation, no communication. It is the oxygen that fuels our lives, like the oxygen we breathe and the
water and food we consume to fuel our bodies. NEED students are learning about
energyits past, present, and future. They are learning about natural gas and the
exploration of oil and gas on the nations outer continental shelf and the installation
of wind turbines in the nations windiest regions. They learn that energy efficiency
is often the fastest and most cost-effective way to make the most of renewable
sources of electricity and that there are simple things that can be done to increase
energy efficiency while practicing conservation measures too. NEED students are
learning about decision making and how to process and screen all of the energy
information and misinformation present in the media and in their daily lives. If we
prepare students to think critically about energy and to apply their knowledge, our
real-world energy issues will be faced with intelligence and strategic thought.
Discuss the PG&E solar schools program and the grants they offer to teachers in
the California area.
The Pacific Gas and Electric Solar Schools program has reached over 4,000 educators since its inception. The program installs photovoltaic systems on schools,
provides teacher training workshops to train teachers to educate about the science of energy and renewable energy in their classrooms, and also offers Bright
Ideas grants for taking the knowledge from those workshops and applying it to
the classroomfor example, teaching about solar and other energy sources and
about energy efficiency, taking field trips, building gardens, and doing energy retrofits. The funding supports a classrooms bright idea, and thats the best way to
prepare students for tomorrowharness those bright ideas and support them.
Describe some of the workshops that NEED and ConocoPhillips provide for teachers and how teachers register for the workshops.
This workshop series presents a unique opportunity for classroom teachers (K12)
to learn about energy in a fun and exciting way! The seminars create awareness of
todays energy challenges and the importance of using energy wisely.
Participation in this workshop provides educators with more than $500 of curriculum and hands-on kits that teach about energy resources and energy transformations through hands-on activities.
Participants receive the NEED Science of Energy Kit, a basic NEED curriculum set, and a class set of NEEDs Energy Infobooks at grade level. Curriculum
and training are aligned with state education standards. Curriculum materials presented during the workshop include these curriculum guides:
NEED Science of EnergySecondary Guide
NEED Science of EnergyElementary Guide
Energy Enigma
Energy Games and Icebreakers
Monitoring and Mentoring Teacher Guide
Monitoring and Mentoring Student Guide
ConocoPhillips generously donated video services to create a series of NEED
online workshop segments. These segments highlight the lessons from the Science
of Energy. Teachers can visit www.need.org/conocophillips for more information
and to register for the workshops.
Tell us a little about the Youth Awards for Energy Achievement. How does a student submit an application for the youth award?
The 2010 Youth Awards for Energy Achievement is a celebration of NEEDs work
and recognizes the students and teachers who take NEED programs into their
classrooms, schools, and communities. Students and their teachers work throughout the year on classroom and community energy projects and gather their work
into a portfolio that they share with reviewers at the state and national levels.
A national review panel scores the projects based on energy content, outreach,
and student leadership, and schools are selected to attend the National Recognition Ceremonies in June in Washington, D.C., to network with other students and
teachers, to learn about new NEED activities, and to be rewarded for their hard
work for energy education. The program is more collaborative than individual.
Schools should visit www.need.org to learn more and to apply.
NEED expands each day, with new curriculum materials, new updates to existing
curricula, more teacher training, and new resources. Just like energy, NEED is always changing, always becoming more efficient, and always working to do more.
WHATS AHEAD FOR WIND POWER?

A GLOBAL CHALLENGE FOR EUROPE
AND THE UNITED STATES
The good news is that the world market for wind power will have grown by
155 percent by 2012, according to the Global Wind Energy Council. The
cost of energy from wind power projects has decreased substantially since
the 1980s. Among the reasons for the reduction in costs are technological
advances in designing more ecient wind generators and new technologies in blade design. With the reduction of costs, wind power will continue
to be a major player in the renewable energy eld.
However, transmission limitations and long-term storage systems will
need to be addressed for wind power growth to continue. Following is a
quick look at each challenge.
Transmission Limitations
Europe, similar to the United States, has power transmission concerns.
There are not enough energy grids to handle the additional power produced by more wind farms. In the United States, transmission constraints
are considered to be one of the biggest challenges facing the wind industry,
according to the Department of Energy.
Modernizing Americas electricity infrastructure is one of the U.S.
Department of Energys top priorities. The National Transmission
Grid Study made clear that without dramatic improvements and upgrades over the next decade our nations transmission system will fall
short of the reliability standards our economy requires, and will result
in higher electricity costs to consumers. The Departments research
into a variety of tools that will improve advanced system monitoring,
visualization, control, operations, and market structure will ultimately
modernize the electricity transmission infrastructure to ease congestion, allow for increases in demand, and provide a greater degree of
security.
However, it will be costly to improve the infrastructure of the nations
transmission grid. A 2006 estimate puts the cost of new transmission lines
at $1.5$2 million per mile, and the costs are going to increase in the
future.
How Is Wind Energy Stored?
Another concern, besides transmission constraints, is how to store excess
energy for when wind energy is not available. Using large backup battery
banks is one option for storing excess wind energy during windless days.
But you need a lot of them.
The deep-cycle batteries designed to store energy are the type of battery
best suited for renewable energy applications. This is a start. However, future battery technology has to include lightweight batteries with a longer
service life, higher reliability, and lower life-cycle cost than the present
ones, with no maintenance. Some of the companies developing new kinds
of batteries include American Electric Power and Siemens Wind Power.
Both are experimenting with large-scale batteries that could store a megawatt of energy.
Compressed-Air Energy Storage
Another promising technology option for wind energy storage is called
compressed-air energy storage. This technology has the potential to store
large quantities of wind energy.
As mentioned in chapter 2, in this technology the wind generators
would pump air into a cavern below Earth. This underground cavern,
sealed o with dense shale or other rock, would resemble a huge balloonshaped vessel lled with compressed air. When the demand for energy increases, the air would ow out of the cavern and be transported to an above
ground natural gasred turbine, where electricity would be generated. The
combination of a wind power energy source, a storage system, and the

natural gas backup system would provide a very ecient energy resource
for windless days.
Scientists at the Iowa Stored Energy Park in Dallas Center, Iowa, are
researching compressed energy storage technology. The science team is
scheduled to put this technology to use by 2011, after several years of planning and constructing the storage system. Building the new 268-megawatt
system was expected to cost $200 million, with funding from the Department of Energy and municipal utilities in Iowa, North Dakota, South
Dakota, and Minnesota. Being able to store o-peak wind energy until
demand is needed allows wind power to become more of a reliable and
consistent energy source, both day and night.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Denmark, a small Scandinavian country, generates about 20 percent
of its electricity from wind plants. Most of the turbines are installed in
small clusters or as single units. Research and report on why Denmark
does not use large wind farms to generate power. Is it economically
feasible for a family homestead or school to construct, own, and operate its own wind turbine? Explain your answer.
2. Floating windmills and turbines are being tested in the Mediterranean Sea and o the coast of Norway. They are placed on platforms
beyond the point of visibility from shore. They will produce and carry,
by underwater cable to the mainland, generated electricity. Research
the development of oating wind turbines.
Archinect. School blog. http://www.archinect.com/schoolblog/entry.php?
id=55756_0_39_0_c. [Student blog describing a project where a
horizontal-axis turbine is powered by the turbulence created from
passing cars.]
Chhabara, Rajesh. Wholl Solve the Wind Turbine Supply Crisis? Climate Change Corp., May 29, 2008. http://www.climatechangecorp.
com/content.asp?ContentID=5344.
Home Power Magazine. http://www.homepower.com.
Pacic Northwest Laboratories. Wind Energy Resource Atlas. Washington,
D.C.: American Wind Energy Association, 1987. Reprint, 1991.
Pagano, Margaret. Are Wind Farms a Health Risk? US Scientist Identies Wind Turbine Syndrome. The Independent (London), August 2,
2009. http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/green-living/arewind-farms-a-health-risk-us-scientist-identies-wind-turbine-syn
drome-1766254.html.
Sagrillo, Mick. Apples & Oranges 2002: Choosing a Home-Sized Wind
Generator. Home Power (Aug./Sept. 2002), no. 90: 5066.
Szarka, Joseph. Wind Power in Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007.
WEB SITES
http://www.energy.gov/energysources/wind.htm
The U.S. Department of Energy is a very good resource for information on wind energy, hydropower, and ocean/tidal energy.
http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/small_wind/small_wind_
guide.pdf
Small Wind Systems includes answers to frequently asked questions
and information on U.S. manufacturers.
http://www.dsireusa.org
Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) is a
comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility, and federal incentives and policies that promote renewable energy and energy eciency.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets
Green Power Network Net Metering provides information on net
metering programs that are now available in more than 35 states.
awea-wind-home-subscribe@egroups.com
Small Wind Talk on the Web: This Home Energy Systems electronic mailing list, hosted by the American Wind Energy Association, is a forum for the discussion of small-scale energy systems that
include wind.
http://www.nrel.gov/clean_energy/home_wind.html
Wind Energy for Homeowners covers items you should consider
before investing in a small wind energy system and provides basic
information about the systems.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy97/22223.pdf
The Wind Resource Assessment Handbook includes new computing
tools and new meteorological data sets that allow researchers to create even more accurate and detailed wind maps of how much energy
is available at potential development sites.
http://www.bergey.com/
Bergey Windpower was formed in 1977 and has been manufacturing
small wind turbines since 1980. Its wind turbines have been installed
in all 50 states and in approximately 90 countries.
VIDEOS
Wind Turbines (Future Uses?): What has the industry learned from
jet engines, and is the FloDesign Turbine the next-generation wind
turbine? To compare the new with the old, go to http://news.cnet.
com/8301-11128_3-9945005-54.html (4:59 minutes).
Wind Generators: A Quantum Leap Toward the Future? Riding on
a frictionless magnetic base, the futuristic Maglev sail n generator
is reported to be able to replace 1,000 legacy propeller wind turbines
and produce a staggering 2,000 gigawatts of power. To view, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7Qs2gFlt-o&feature=related
(1:40 minutes).
Chapter 4
Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power plants use the kinetic energy of moving water to turn
turbines to generate electricity. In 2009 U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven
Chu said that hydropower capacity in the United States could double with
minimal impact to the environment, mostly just by installing more ecient turbines at existing hydroelectric projects or at dams without power
components, increasing the use of pumped-storage projects, and encouraging the use of run-of-the-river turbines. These kinds of improvements
to the existing infrastructure could apparently add 70,000 megawatts of
capacity. We will be pushing this, Chu said at a White House forum.
Were not talking about a lot of large, new reservoirs. Just work with what
we have and its a massive amount of power.
Chu also announced up to $30.6 million in Recovery Act funding for the
selection of seven hydropower projects: These projects would modernize
VIDEO
Hydroelectricity: What Is It? From the invention of the water wheel to hydroelectricity, this video explains how humans have harnessed the power of water: http://
videos.howstuffworks.com/discovery/30198-really-big-things-hydroelectricpower-video.htm (2:26 minutes).
74
Some of the major U.S. hydroelectric power producers are located in Washington, California, and Oregon. Hydroelectric power is generated by approximately
3 percent of the thousands of dams in the nation. (Source: U.S. Department of
Energy/Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual, Volume 1,
August 2000. Tables A7 and A12. Includes utility and nonutility generation)
hydropower infrastructure by increasing eciency and reducing environmental impacts at existing facilities.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER IN THE UNITED STATES
Hydroelectric power accounts for 6 percent of the U.S.s electricity consumption and nearly 75 percent of renewable power, according to the
Energy Information Administration, the statistical arm of the U.S. Department of Energy. Mark Garner, chief executive ocer of Voith Hydro,
said hydroelectric power plants generate 98,000 megawatts of electricity
and support about 300,000 jobs in the United States. Voith Hydro is one
of the worlds largest dedicated hydro turbine equipment manufacturing
facilities. Hydroelectric power accounts for approximately 90 percent of all
electricity that comes from renewable resources such as solar, geothermal,
wind, and biomass.
DID YOU KNOW?

Hydroelectric power is generated at only 3 percent of the nations 80,000 dams.
Only 2,400 dams have the equipment to generate electricity.
Hydroelectric Power
75
The top U.S. hydroelectric power producers are located in Washington,

California, and Oregon. Hydroelectric power produced in Canada supplies
a good share of electricity to many U.S. areas such as New York, New England, the upper Midwest, the Pacic Northwest, and California.
Presently, hydroelectric power plants produce about 24 percent of the
worlds electricity. This is enough electricity to supply more than one billion people with electrical power for their household needs. The worlds
hydroelectric power plants, output a combined total of 675,000 megawatts,
the energy equivalent of 3.6 billion barrels of oil, according to the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Hydroelectric power in the United States produces enough electricity
annually to meet the needs of all the people who live in California, New
York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas. In the United States the top ve
hydroelectric power dams are the Grand Coulee Dam, Chief Joseph Dam,
Niagara Falls, John Day Dam, and the Hoover Dam.
Grand Coulee Dam
In 1933 the construction of Grand Coulee Dam began on the Columbia River in northeast central Washington. When completed in 1942, the
Grand Coulee Dam was the largest hydroelectric facility in North America. Besides supplying 6,800 megawatts of power, the Grand Coulee Dam
is also used for irrigation and to control the oods of the Columbia River.
Chief Joseph Dam
The Chief Joseph Dam also spans the Columbia River in the state of Washington and is the second-largest hydroelectric powerproducing plant in
the nation. Several additional turbines were installed in the 1970s, and the
dam power plant now generates more than 2,500 megawatts.
John Day Dam
The John Day Dam is located east of Portland, Oregon, on the Columbia
River. The John Day Dam began operating in 1968 and is the third-largest
DID YOU KNOW?

The Chief Joseph Dam was named after Chief Joseph, who was best known for his
resistance to the U.S. governments attempts to force his tribe onto reservations.
76
The Grand Coulee Dam in Washington generates electricity and is also used
for irrigation and for controlling floods in the Columbia River. (Courtesy Rob
Frechette)
hydroelectric plant in the United States and the 25th-largest in the world.
The dams main generators are capable of producing more than two million
kilowatts.
The John Day Dam also has the deepest lock in the country, used for raising and lowering ships traveling on the Columbia River. Many of the ships
carry millions of tons of goods and products through the locks every year.
Some of the products include petroleum, farm, grain, and wood products.
Niagara Falls
The rst hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879. In
the 1880s the street lamps in the city of Niagara Falls were lit by electricity
from the power dam. Today, Niagara is still the largest electricity producer
in New York State, with a generating capacity of 2.4 gigawatts.
Hoover Dam
The Hoover Dam, constructed on the Colorado River on the border between Arizona and Nevada, is similar to the other large dams. Besides
Hydroelectric Power
77
providing hydroelectric power, the Hoover Dam controls ooding conditions in the area, stores water for irrigation, and provides recreational
opportunities.
Between 1939 and 1949, the Hoover power plant was the worlds largest hydroelectric power plant. At 726 feet high, it is one of the highest
concrete dams ever constructed. There are 17 main turbines in the Hoover
power plant. Nine are on the Arizona side, and eight are in the Nevada
wing. The Hoover Dam turbines generate enough electricity to serve more
than one million people in Nevada, Arizona, and California.
The Hoover Dam uses Francis turbines, one of the most common water
turbines in use as of 2010. In these turbines, electricity is generated when
water from a reservoir ows down through large pipes inside the dam to a
turbine. The action of the water in the turbines turns a shaft in a generator
to produce electricity.
WHAT IS HYDROELECTRIC POWER?
As mentioned at the start of the chapter, hydroelectric power is energy
that comes from the force of moving water. Simply stated, hydroelectric
power uses the energy of falling water to generate electricity. Hydroelectric power generators and electric generators powered by wind turbines
operate in similar ways. At a hydroelectric power plant, fast-owing currents (as opposed to wind) are used to spin the rotor of a turbine to generate electricity. The amount of electric energy produced by the turbine
depends on the pressure and the volume of the water that ows into the
turbine.
Since water is denser than air, it is estimated a hydroelectric power generator can produce one megawatt of power with a rotor that is several feet
in diameter. The rotor is the rotating part of a mechanical device, such as
a rotor of a turbine in a wind generator. To produce the same power using
air, the rotor in a wind generator would need to be much larger in diameter
than the water-powered rotor.
DID YOU KNOW?

How does hydroelectric power work? For more information go to: http://ga.water.
usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html.
78
SHORT HISTORY OF
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
For thousands of years, humans have been harnessing water for energy to
do a variety of tasks. From the 10th century, water-powered mills grounded
grain, an important food source. The rst water power plant in Scandinavia
was built in the 1300s. Hydroelectric power has been in use in the Nordic
countries for almost 700 years.
In 1882 the worlds rst hydroelectric power plant was installed on the
Fox River in Appleton, Wisconsin. The plant produced 12.5 kilowatts of
power, just enough to power all of the electricity needed by the machinery
in two paper mills.
About 50 years later, in 1933, the Tennessee Valley Authority Act was
passed into law, to improve navigation along the Tennessee River and Mississippi River basins and to construct dams along these rivers. To provide
power for critical war industries, the Tennessee Valley Authority engaged
in one of the largest hydropower construction programs ever undertaken
in the United States. Early in 1942, when the eort reached its peak,
12 hydroelectric projects were under construction.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER DAMS
Dams are built to provide hydroelectric power plants and to store water in
a reservoir for human needs, such as for freshwater supplies and for recreational facilities. In simple terms, a dam is a structure, often human-built,
that restricts the ow of water. Dams are constructed on a waterway, such
as a stream or river. The dam usually alters the ow of water by slowing it,
rerouting it, or storing it as a reservoir, pond, or lake.
People have built dams for a variety of purposes. Early dams helped to
corral sh, making them easier to catch. Agricultural societies have used
dams to improve irrigation, storing water or redirecting water into irrigation ditches for farming.
Besides provided the power to turn grindstones used to mill grain, dams
were a very important power source during the Industrial Revolution.
During this era, water propelled by the force of gravity was used to operate
machinery. In addition, dams provided ood control by allowing the storage of excess water during times of heavy runo and by later regulating the
release of the excess water.
The Tennessee Valley Authority was created by Congress in 1933 to develop

the Tennessee River system in the interests of navigation, flood control,
national defense, and to generate and sell surplus electricity. This simplified
diagram explains the Tennessee Valley Authoritys river control projects that
include parts of seven states: Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. (Library of Congress)
80
Different Kinds of Dams

Various types of dam structures exist, including the familiar gravity dam,
the arch dam, and the buttress dam.
A gravity dam consists of a wall constructed across the waterway in
such a way that water ows only under, not over, the wall. This construction directs much of the force of the water toward the base of the dam.
The largest gravity dam in the world is the Aswan Dam on the Nile River
in Egypt.
The arch dam has a wall that curves upstream against the ow of water.
Typically built in small canyons, arch dams direct the force of the water
toward the canyon walls. The Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River in Arizona
is an example of an arch dam.
Buttress dams have a system of beams, or buttresses, that support the
downstream side of the dam. A buttress dam, which can be made relatively
large, is often selected for use in wide valleys. An example of a buttress dam
is the Bartlett Dam on the Verde River near Phoenix, Arizona, which was
built in the late 1930s.
When great quantities of soil or rock are available for construction, engineers may choose to build an embankment dam, which typically consists
of an earthen wall.
TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
According to the Department of Energy, there are three types of hydroelectric power facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage.
Note that some hydroelectric power plants need dams; however, other
hydroelectric power plants do not. Following is a short description of
some kinds of hydroelectric power plants, according to the Department
of Energy.
Impoundment
The most familiar and common type of hydroelectric facility is the impoundment hydropower plant, such as the Hoover Dam. An impoundment facility uses a dam to collect and store water in a large reservoir. It
works similar to other dams in producing electricity. Water is released from
the dams reservoir, ows downward through pipes to a turbine, which in
turn activates a generator to produce electricity.
Hydroelectric Power
81
Diversion
The diversion facility dam is sometimes called a run-of-river hydroelectric
power system. The diversion power plant is built to channel and direct the
incoming ow of water through a canal to the power station. Unlike other
dams, this kind of power station has little storage capacity for water. So you
will not nd a large reservoir associated with this type of dam. Therefore,
the power station depends solely on the energy from the ow rate of the
stream or river. So if the natural ow rate of the river is reduced so is the
available power output of the hydropower installed on the river or stream.
An example of a diversion dam is the Cascades Diversion Dam, which is
built into the Merced Wild and Scenic River in Yosemite National Park at
an elevation of 3,800 feet.
Pumped Storage
A pumped storage facility stores energy by pumping water from a lower
reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical demand,
the water is then released from the upper level to the turbines below to
generate electricity. The Muddy Run Pumped Storage Facility in Drumore Township, Pennsylvania, is a pumped storage hydroelectric plant
that is owned by Exelon Power. The Muddy Run has a capacity of 1,071
megawatts.
THE COMPONENTS OF A HYDROELECTRIC
POWER PLANT
Dam Gates
To produce energy, most hydroelectric power plants have a lot of potential
energy stored in the water of a reservoir. Special gates are used to release
this potential energy into kinetic energy. The gates monitor and control
the owing water. When the gates are opened, large quantities of water
from the reservoir ow down through the penstock, or pipeline, that leads
to the turbine.
Turbine
As mentioned previously, the Francis turbine is the most common type of
turbine for hydroelectric power plants. Some of these turbines can weigh
82
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An impoundment facility is a large hydropower system that uses a dam to
store river water in a reservoir. A penstock releases water from the reservoir
to a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
as much as 170 tons and spin at a rate of 90 revolutions per minute. The
turbine is actually the engine that converts the kinetic energy from a uid
such as water or air into mechanical energy. The turbine has just one moving part, a rotor assembly, which has blades attached to a shaft. The water,
owing down under great pressure, turns the large blades of a turbine attached to a generator.
Generator
A generator is connected to the turbine by special gears so that when the
turbine spins, it causes the generator to spin, converting the mechanical
DID YOU KNOW?

James Francis was an engineer who improved on earlier turbine models. His turbine, named after him, has a 90 percent efficiency rating.
Hydroelectric Power
83
energy from the turbine into electric energy. Looking inside a moving
generator, you will nd giant magnets, weighing hundreds of pounds, rotating around copper coils, producing alternating current, which is converted to higher-voltage current. The current is then transmitted from the
hydroelectric power plant to an outside transmission power grid, which
provides electricity for homes and business.
HOW MUCH ELECTRICITY CAN A HYDROELECTRIC
PLANT GENERATE?
The amount of electricity a hydroelectric power plant can produce depends
on such factors as the volume of the water that falls down the vertical distance and the ow rate of the falling water. Therefore, the higher the dam,
the more potential power it has.
THE LEADING HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
IN THE WORLD
The top hydroelectric power dams in the world include the following:
Three Gorges Dam (China)

Itaip Dam (on the border of Paraguay and Brazil)
Guri Dam (Venezuela)
Tucurui Dam (Brazil)
Sayano-Shushenskaya Dam (Russia)
Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric dam (Russia)

and Venezuela is generated by hydroelectric power plants. These countries
generate more than 170,000 megawatts of electricity, enough power to
support the electrical needs of more than 110 million households in the
United States.
Following are brief descriptions of some of the major hydroelectric
power plants in the world.
China: Three Gorges Dam Project
In 2010, Chinas Three Gorges Dam, the worlds largest water project, was
lled to capacity. The dam, on the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) River in central
China, provides hydroelectric power, better navigation, and ood control.
According to the Xinhua news agency, by the end of 2011, the dam is
84
The worlds leading hydropower producers include China, Brazil, Canada, and
the United States. Norway relies predominantly on hydroelectricity. (Source:
U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Agency, International Energy
Annual 2006)
expected to reach full generating capacity producing 84.7 billion kilowatts

of electricity. (The Xinhua News Agency is the ocial press agency of the
government of the Peoples Republic of China.)
The Three Gorges Dam also provides ood control along the almost
4,000-mile-long river. The dam can release excess water to buer the eects
Chinas Three Gorges Dam is the worlds largest hydroelectric dam. The dams
construction was supported by Chinese officials for its financial benefits and
was opposed by environmentalists, historians, and human rights groups for
the flooding of the gorges and villages along the Yangtze River. (Shutterstock)
Hydroelectric Power
85
of heavy precipitation or runo. This is an important feature because in the

past, the river has periodically ooded, causing much death and destruction at times throughout Chinese history.
The planning of the Three Gorges Dam began in the mid-20th century with the evaluation of possible construction sites and eects. The
Chinese government, recognizing the great economic potential and
environmental power of the Yangtze River, realized an opportunity to
take advantage of the river through modern civil engineering. Another
option at the time was to build a series of smaller dams on tributary
rivers of the Yangtze, which when constructed might serve the energy
and ood control functions without the risks presented by a single huge
dam.
When completed, the Three Gorges Dam created a lake approximately
375 miles long and up to 600 feet deep. This large body of water permits
deep-water vessels to travel 1,500 miles into the interior of China.
Critics of the dam have presented a variety of social and environmental
problems. Some of these problems include the high economic costs of the
construction, the displacement of communities ooded by the project, and
the loss of some historical sites. Another concern was that any large accumulations of sediment behind the dam might lead to future structural
failure and water pollution.
Canada
Hydroelectric generation provides almost 60 percent of the electricity
needs for Canada. In fact, Canada is the worlds second-largest producer
of hydroelectricity and one of few countries in the world to generate the
majority of its own electricity from hydroelectricity.
In 2007 Canada produced approximately 370 terawatt-hours of electricity, which would be about 12 percent of all the hydropower electricity
generated in the world. The leading hydroelectric power plants are concentrated in the provinces and territories of Quebec, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Yukon.
DID YOU KNOW?

The Yangtze River is the third longest of the worlds great rivers; it stretches almost
4,000 miles.
86
Believe it or not, Quebec is the fourth-largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world. Almost 100 percent of the electricity generated in
Quebec comes from a network of more than 50 hydroelectric power stations. One of Canadas major hydroelectric power plants is the Churchill
Falls hydroelectric power plant. The Churchill Falls, named after former
British prime minister Winston Churchill, is located on the Churchill
River in Newfoundland and Labrador. It is a major source of electricity in
North America.
Brazil and Paraguay: The Itaip
Hydroelectric Power Plant
The Itaip Hydroelectric Power Plant is one of the largest hydroelectric
power plants in the world. Two neighboring countries, Brazil and Paraguay,
own the plant, built between 1975 and 1991. The 18 or so generators at the
Itaip hydroelectric plant provide 25 percent of the energy needs of Brazil
and 78 percent of the electricity for homes and businesses in Paraguay.
Aerial view of the Itaip hydroelectric dam in Brazil. Itaip represents the
efforts and accomplishments of two neighboring countries, Brazil and Paraguay. The dam supplies 90 percent of Paraguays energy and 25 percent of
Brazils electric power. (Itaip Binacional)
Hydroelectric Power
87
Itaip is one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World, according

to a worldwide survey conducted by the American Society of Civil Engineers, whose magazine article stated: To build the Itaip Dam, workers reenacted a labor of Hercules: they shifted the course of the seventh
biggest river in the world (Paran River, at the Brazil/Paraguay border)
and removed more than 50 million tons of earth and rock. The Piracema
Canal that runs between the Paran River and the Itaip Reservoir allows
migratory shes to swim along the canal without restrictions from the
dam. The canal provides a safe area where migratory sh can spawn.
Venezuela: The Guri Dam and the Simn Bolivar
Hydroelectric Plant
Another large hydroelectric power plant in South America is the Guri
power plant, located on Caroni River in Venezuela. The hydroelectric plant
can produce 10,300 megawatts a year. The other large power plant, known
as the Simn Bolivar Hydroelectric Power Station, supplies Venezuela
with 82 percent of its electricity.
Norway
Norway is the country to visit if you want to see a large number of hydroelectric power plants in action. The country has been using water power
since the late 19th century. In 2006 Norways 850 hydroelectric plants accounted for 98 percent of the countrys electricity production.
Hydroelectric Power along the Danube River
Since the 16th century, several European countries have utilized the rivers
in the Danube River Basin for ood control, navigation, and hydroelectric
power production. It has been estimated that more than 650 dams have
been built along the main tributaries of the Danube River.
DID YOU KNOW?

Showtime at the Dam. The technical illumination specialist in Brazil, Peter Gasper,
designed a monumental illumination show of the Itaip power plant for visitors.
When the lights turn on, you can listen to music created by the specialist Antonio
Faya especially for the show.
88
The Danube, which is the longest river in Europe, begins its journey in
the Black Forest in Germany and ows eastward for some 1,750 miles. The
river ows through various European countries before ending its journey
in the Black Sea.
The Danube River Basin has been an excellent location for building
hydroelectric power plants. The total electricity-generating capacity of all
the hydroelectric power facilities in the Danube Basin is approximately
30,000 megawatts.
The largest hydroelectric power dams located along the Danube are at
the Iron Gate Dam I and the Iron Gate II Gorge; the countries of Romania
and Serbia cooperatively operate the two dams and divide the electricity
produced. Iron Gate II is the larger of the two and was completed in 1984.
Romania
Romania is planning to complete construction of a hydroelectric power
plant on the Jiu River in 2012. The Jiu River is a tributary that ows into
The Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station is the largest dam on the Danube
River and one of the largest hydropower plants in Europe. It is located on the
Iron Gate Gorge between Romania and Serbia. (Constantin Bogdan Carstina/
Dreamstime.com)
Hydroelectric Power
89
the Danube. The new hydroelectric power system will comprise two plants
and when in operation will have a combined capacity of 215 gigawatthours of electricity per year.
Austria
Austria has almost 2,000 small hydroelectric power plants that supply the
electrical needs of one million households. Dams within the Danube River
Basin in Austria generate much of the electricity.
India
In 2009 the government of India began making plans to expand its potential hydroelectric power resources. Today India depends much on coal
power plants for its energy needs. Because only 25 percent of its total power
generation comes from hydroelectric power, the government now plans to
increase its hydroelectric power production to 40 percent.
The future planning and construction of hydroelectric power plants will
be located in Himachal Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh has abundant water
resources with ve major rivers owing from the western Himalayas. These
rivers have the potential to provide hydroelectric power for about 25 percent of Indias electrical needs from renewable resources.
MICROHYDROPOWER: USING SMALL-SCALE
HYDROELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
Hydroelectric power plants range in size from large power plants to smaller
ones. The Department of Energy denes small hydroelectric power plants
as facilities that have a capacity of from 100 kilowatts to 30 megawatts.
The smallest of the small is the microhydroelectric power plant, which has
a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. Many of the present hydroelectric power
systems used by homeowners, small business owners, farmers, and ranchers
are the 10-kilowatt microhydroelectric power systems that provide enough
power for their needs. These systems can also work well in remote villages
and towns where electricity is needed for businesses, farms, local lighting,
and for pumping drinking water.
Globally, most microhydroelectric power systems are o-grid, given that
they are usually installed in remote mountainous areas. These stand-alone
small-scale hydroelectric power systems can be a great resource because the
90
DID YOU KNOW?

The typical U.S. home uses an average of 920 kilowatt-hours per month, according
to the Department of Energy.
equipment is said to last a long time and the costs are low. In fact, in some
cases, installation costs can be as low as $1,000 per power system unit.
Small-scale hydroelectric power stations can provide all of the advantages of hydroelectric power without some of the problems of large-scale
hydroelectric power plants. As an example, small hydroelectric power plants
have less impact on the environment and cost less to build and maintain
than the larger hydroelectric systems.
Building small, rather than large, hydroelectric power systems may be
the trend for the future. Today, microhydropower systems are being used
on rivers and tributaries and in remote areas where construction is dicult.
Such small-scale systems do not require the damming of rivers.
Microhydropower Components
According to Green Energy Ohio, a standard microhydropower system
includes the following key components, which are similar to the parts of
the larger dam systems.
The penstock is the pipeline that carries water from a source such as
a reservoir or stream to a turbine. All power plants have a turbine and a
generator. The owing water turns the shaft of the turbine, which is connected to a generator used to produce electricity. A regulator is used to
control the electricity produced by the generator and is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. An inverter is used to convert
DC electricity to the standard AC currently used in homes. Finally, wiring
is installed to deliver the electricity to a power grid transmission line or
VIDEO
To view a small hydroelectric power system, view the Mini Hydroelectric
Power Project in Indonesia video at http://wiki.edc-cu.org/blogs/index.php/
videos/2009/08/05/p794.
Hydroelectric Power
91
DID YOU KNOW?

Microhydropower systems producing less than five kilowatts are usually termed
picohydro and are usually used for individual homes or communities of two or
three houses.
to storage batteries. (Note: Green Energy Ohio is a nonprot organization dedicated to promoting environmentally and economically sustainable energy polices and practices in Ohio. See their Web site: http://www.
greenenergyohio.org.)
The Head
The most important component of the microhydropower system is
known as the head. The head is the vertical distance the water falls in
A 10-kilowatt microhydroelectric power plant can supply enough electricity

for homeowners who have installed the system. Water from a stream enters
a storage tank known as the forebay. From there the water flows down into a
closed pipe called a penstock to a powerhouse where a turbine spins a generator to supply electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
92
In the microhydropower system, a portion of a rivers water is diverted to a

channel. The water in the channel follows the contour of the hillside. The
water then enters a storage tank known as the forebay. From here the water
flows down into a closed pipe called a penstock. In the powerhouse, the fastmoving water enters a turbine that spins a shaft. The motion of the turning
shaft can be used for mechanical processes, such as pumping water, or it can
be used to power an alternator or generator to produce electricity. (Illustrator:
Jeff Dixon)
the system. So, the higher the head, the more power in the falling water.
A high head site has a height of more than 10 feet, whereas shorter drops
are referred to as a low head. High head sites are critical in this system.
Sites with less than a two-foot drop may not support a microhydropower
system. Also, the higher the head, the less water is needed to produce
power. Therefore, knowing the height measurement of the head and the
ow volume, you can determine the power at the site. The volume of ow
is measured in cubic feet per second, or it can be measured in gallons per
minute.
Turbines
For the small hydropower systems, there are dierent kinds of turbines.
Some of these turbines include the impulse turbines, the reaction turbines, and the submersible propeller turbines. However, the two basic
turbines include the Francis reaction turbines and the Pelton and Turgo
Hydroelectric Power
93
impulse turbines. All of the turbines, no matter which kind, are built to
use water pressure to drive a generator, which produces electricity.
What Kind of Terrain Supports Microhydropower?
To install a microhydropower system, you need a plot of land that has a
stream with a high head in order to provide enough water pressure to turn
a turbine. You also want to use this power year round. However, using energy year-round requires a continuous owing stream that will not freeze
in cold weather or dry up in hot weather.
Is Microhydroelectric Power Affordable?
Homeowners living o the grid can select from many dierent microhydropower systems. Some of them cost more than others. However, for a
The Pelton turbine, or Pelton wheel, is among the most efficient types of water
turbines and is only one of eight types of turbines currently in use. The Pelton
wheel was invented by Lester Pelton in the late 19th century. (U.S. Department
of Energy/Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy)
94
FEATURE
The Pelton Wheel Turbine
You read about the Francis turbine earlier in this chapter. The Francis turbine is a
reaction turbine. However, another kind of turbine is the impulse turbine. One of
the most common types of impulse turbines includes the Pelton wheel. The Pelton wheel needs pressurized water to turn its turbine wheel. It all starts when the
water is forced into a pressurized pipeline that has a narrow nozzle at one end. The
water then sprays out of the nozzle striking a number of special cups attached to
the wheel. The jet spray of water hitting the cups creates a force that rotates the
wheel at a high efficiency rate. Pelton wheel turbines are available in various sizes
and operate best under low-flow and high head conditions.
few thousand dollars, a homeowner can purchase a system that will power
a small house under the right conditions, which may cost less than a photovoltaic energy system.
Microhydropower Benefits
Microhydropower systems can be very reliable for homes as a renewable
energy source. They can also provide a backup source of power for conventional systems during electricity outages. Another big plus is that microhydropower systems operate under any weather conditions. That makes these
systems available 24 hours a day.
Many Countries Use Microhydropower Systems
Besides the United States, there are thought to be tens of thousands of
plants in the micro range operating successfully in many countries. Some
of these countries include China, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Japan, and Peru.
China now houses more than 43,000 small hydropower facilities producing more than 19,000 megawatts of electricity,
In Afghanistan, a new 60 kilowatt-hour microhydropower plant has
improved the quality of life for a local village and has opened the door for
new business opportunities. Currently, the plant provides 1,200 residents
with electricity and allows local shops to sell food and drinks.
Hydroelectric Power
95
The Shutol microhydropower plant is located along the Panjshir River in

Afghanistan. It was constructed in 2006 and generates power for the nearby
district centers offices. (Shahla Hammond/USAID)
The microhydropower plant installation has been implemented in some

villages in Indonesia, supplying electricity to villages that previously were
not illuminated by electricity.
Many rural towns and communities in Japan benet from microhydropower projects because they do not require massive investments.
In Kenya, a microhydropower project provides energy for 1,000 people
in a village river community. The project has also reduced some air pollution problems associated with using wood and dung for cooking.
A school in one of the villages in Sri Lanka no longer relies on electricity from the main Sri Lanka transmission grid. The schools picohydropower plant produces up to ve kilowatts of energy from the smallest of
streams. The picohydropower system can power four computers and all the
light bulbs in the school at the same time. The schools overall electricity
bill has been reduced as a result.
ADVANTAGES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER
One major advantage of hydroelectric power is that it is nonpolluting: it
produces no harmful emissions such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxides, and
96
FEATURE
Microhydropower Potential in the United States
Several states in the United States are also installing microhydropower systems, including Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and North Carolina. Sections of these states
have high elevation gradients for adequate flow and head requirements. Lets look
at North Carolina as one example. The high elevation gradients in western North
Carolina may contain the states greatest potential for microhydropower. In fact, a
1983 study conducted by Appalachian State University examined 24 western counties
and found 1,592 potential microhydropower sites between 5 and 20 kilowatts. Collectively, these sites have the potential to generate 30 megawatts of electrical power.
nitrogen oxides and no liquid or solid wastes. It is a clean and renewable

energy. Also, because this energy is produced domestically, it reduces the
countrys dependence on imported fossil fuels.
Hydroelectric projects can also provide other important benets, including a water supply, ood control, irrigation, navigation, and recreational areas.
DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROPOWER
There are concerns about building large dams for hydroelectric power
because they can have negative eects on the environment. The building
of a large dam requires ooding a large area behind the dam to form the
reservoir. The ooding destroys natural habitats, wetlands, and farmlands.
People living in areas designated for ooding have to be relocated. Over
time, reservoirs ll up with silt and sediments, burying the spawning areas
of sh and other aquatic organisms. Stagnant pools can become breeding
grounds for disease-causing insects and waterborne pathogens.
Droughts can have a major impact on hydropower. No water equals no
electricity.
Dams can be barriers to sh migrating upstream to spawning grounds
or migrating downstream to the ocean. As an example, in the past, large
dams in the Pacic Northwest have hindered salmon migrations.
Hydropower plants can cause low dissolved oxygen levels in water. Dissolved oxygen is vital to shes and other aquatic life. Water with dissolved
oxygen of less than ve milligrams per liter generally cannot support living
organisms.
Hydroelectric Power
97
FEATURE
Green-e: An Independent Consumer Protection Program
Green-e is the nations leading independent consumer protection program for the
sale of renewable energy and greenhouse gas reductions in the retail market.
Green-e offers certification and verification of renewable energy and greenhouse
gas mitigation products.
The Green-e certification program also analyzes different types of hydropower.
Generally, only small hydro (dams 30 megawatts or less) and low-impact hydropower (LIH) facilities qualify. The Low Impact Hydropower Institute certifies dams
as truly low impact by studying the total environmental impacts of a particular hydropower dam. The Low Impact Hydropower Institute has created a special certification program to identify and reward efforts by dam owners to minimize the
impacts of their hydropower dams. Green-e certification is based on several environmental criteria. Some of them include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
River flows
Water quality
Fish passage and protection
Watershed protection
Threatened and endangered species protection
A fish ladder at Bonneville Dam in Oregon. Fish ladders are used to help fish
get upstream to spawn when dams or other obstructions block their natural
passageway. (Lori Howard/Dreamstime.com)
98
FEATURE
More Small Hydropower Plants
As of 2009, the number of small hydropower projects in the United States was increasing because of environmental concerns presented by larger dams. In 2010
a Wall Street Journal report noted that the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission has applications pending for 14,000 megawatts. This is enough electricity
for 714 million homes, and most of the proposed small hydropower plants are located on small rivers, streams, and creeks in states such as Washington, Colorado,
and Montana. However, environmentalists are beginning to raise objections to the
small dams, too, which they say can still block fish runs and interfere with whitewater rafting trips.
Dams sometimes have created environmental and social problems. In

the 1990s the construction of the Gabcikovo Dam on the Danube River
in Slovakia caused severe impacts on the ecosystem of the Danube valley.
By holding back and diverting water, the dam caused lowering of the water
table and drying of wetlands downstream of the dam. The depressed water
table aected farms that depended on groundwater for irrigation.
SMALL HYDROPOWER ORGANIZATIONS
The European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA) is a nonprot international association representing the sector of small hydropower. The
association was founded in 1989 as an initiative of the European Commission. ESHA is a founding member of EREC (the European Renewable
Energy Council), which groups together all main European renewableenergy industry and research associations. Since March 2000, ESHA has
shared its headquarters with other EREC members in the Renewable Energy House in Brussels, Belgium.
SOMETHING TO DO
In 1970 Egypts Aswan High Dam was completed to control the
ow of the Nile River, prevent ooding, improve transportation, and
provide a power source for the population living within 12 miles of
the river. However, problems have arisen along the river oodplain.
Hydroelectric Power
99
Identify the problems in terms of water drainage and salinity, soil

composition and nutrients, and the displacement of populations and
antiquities.
The damming of rivers accounts for about 24 percent of the worlds
electricity. The recently completed Three Gorges Dam in China and
the Tennessee Valley dam system completed in the United States
in the 1930s provide both electricity and ood control. Compare
and contrast the construction of the two dam systems in size,
land area aected, community relocation, energy output, and the
eect on natural habitats. Consult these Web sites: www.loe.org/
series/3gorges, www.tva.com, www.geography.about.com, and www.
thinkquest.org.
Escheverria, J. D., et al. Rivers at Risk: The Concerned Citizens Guide to Hydropower. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1990.
McCutheron, S. Electric Rivers: The Story of the James Bay Project. New
York: Black Rose Books, 1991.
WEB SITES
http://www.hydropower.org/
The International Hydropower Association (IHA) addresses the
role of hydropower in meeting the worlds growing water and energy
needs as a clean, renewable, and sustainable technology.
http://www.hydropower-dams.com/
The International Journal on Hydropower and Dams is a bimonthly
publication, is read in 176 countries, and deals with all technical, environmental, social, and economic aspects of hydro plants and multipurpose water resources development projects.
100
http://www.hydro.org/
The National Hydropower Association (NHA) is a nonprot national association dedicated exclusively to advancing the interests of
the hydropower industry. It seeks to secure hydropowers place as a
climate-friendly, renewable, and reliable energy source that serves
national environmental and energy policy objectives.
http://www.usbr.gov/power/edu/edu.htm
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Hydropower Information, established in 1902, is best known for the dams, power plants, and canals
it constructed in the 17 western states. Reclamation has constructed
more than 600 dams and reservoirs, including Hoover Dam on the
Colorado River and Grand Coulee on the Columbia River. The Bureau of Reclamation is the largest wholesaler of water in the United
States.
http://water.usgs.gov
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) collects information needed to
understand the Nations water resources and provides access to water
data, publications, and maps, as well as to recent water projects and
events.
VIDEOS
Hydroelectricity: What Is It? From the invention of the water wheel
to hydroelectricity, this video explains how humankind harnesses the
power of water: http://videos.howstuworks.com/discovery/30198really-big-things-hydroelectric-power-video.htm (2:26 minutes).
Large-Scale Hydroelectricity: To learn about how this electricity is
produced, including the environmental advantages and disadvantages, view the following video: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/
yt-LEc2-43J7zI/large_scale_hydro_electricity/ (3:43 minutes).
Hydroelectric Power
101
Micro Systems: Microhydropower systems in the Peruvian Andes connect rural communities to the modern world. To view the dierence
made by hydropower and how electricity has revolutionized rural
Peru, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xepODtFXjk4 (4:33
minutes).
Riverbank Power: Aquabank, a forerunner in underground renewable
energy, claims to produce 1,000 megawatts of reliable power to boost
the demand for electricity during peak hours. For more information, review the following video: http://www.alternative-energynews.info/technology/hydro/ (4:21 minutes).
Chapter 5
Ocean Tidal Power,

Ocean Wave Power, and
Ocean Thermal Energy
In a 1980 issue of Popular Science, the magazine published an article on

how an energy company was developing plans to use the movements of
deep-sea ocean currents to generate electricity. The plan included building
a huge undersea turbine to generate electrical power for 25,000 homes.
The planned turbine was to be 30 stories high and be anchored to the sea
oor. The installed turbines twin rotors would drive an electric generator using the energy from the owing ocean currents. The plan was never
completed, but it was one of many technology proposals at that time to
use ocean waves and tidal energy to generate electricity. Since the 1980s,
several countries have been developing plans to build equipment for ocean
energy power systems.
Oceans, which cover 70 percent of Earths surface, are enormous solar
energy collectors. Oceans have vast amounts of kinetic energy in their
waves, currents, and tides. The various forms of energy include the thermal
energy generated by the suns heat and absorbed by marine waters and the
kinetic or mechanical energy of moving water such as waves and tides.
The oceans provide the following types of energy that can be harnessed
for power.
Tidal energy. Tidal energy is the result of the movement of ocean
waters that are derived directly from the relative motions of the
EarthMoon system, and to a lesser extent from the EarthSun

system.
Wave energy. Wave energy is produced from the movement of surface water. Winds create currents that can transport large volumes of
water across the oceans.
Ocean thermal energy. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OETC), is
an energy technology that uses the oceans natural thermal gradient
to generate electricity.
This chapter discusses tidal power, wave power, and ocean thermal energy. Lets begin with tidal power.
TIDAL POWER
Tidal power is a form of hydroelectric power. In all hydroelectric power
plants, electrical energy is generated when water ows over a turbine.
As water pushes on the turbines blades, the turbine spins. This spinning
action is transferred to coils of wire inside a generator, which produces
electricity.
What Are Tides?
Tides are caused by the periodic rise and fall of ocean waters as well as
the rise and fall in some large lakes such as Lake Erie and inland seas as
a result of the gravitational pull of the sun and moon on Earth. High tide
occurs when the ocean level is high and the tide ows in. Low tide occurs
when the ocean level is low and water ows out toward the ocean. The
low tide and high tide alternate in a continuous and predictable cycle as
recorded in local papers near ocean beach resorts.
Along most coastlines throughout the world, two high tides, or ow
tides, and two low tides, or ebb tides, occur each 24-plus-hour day. The
VIDEO
Tidal Power: Homegrown power from New Yorks East River? Drawing technology
from wind turbines, Verdant Power harvests tidal power in this small pilot project
with huge potential. To play a CBS News video on this project, go to http://www.
cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=1534819n&tag=related;photovideo (2:05 minutes).
Tidal Power, Wave Power, and Ocean Thermal Energy a 105
amount of mechanical energy associated with tidal movement is now

being utilized by tidal power plants throughout the world to generate
electricity.
For there to be potential tidal power, the dierence between high and
low tides must be at least 15 feet. As of 2010, there are only about 40
coastal areas on Earth with tidal ranges of this size.
The rise and fall of tides in Portland, Maine, have been recorded by a gauge. The
gauge has been in place since January 1912 on the Portland waterfront. This
graph illustrates the tidal elevations (both predicted and actually observed) at
the Portland tide gauge for two days during April 6 and 7, 2009. The dotted line
shows that the predicted tides would have reached a height of about 4.5 feet
mean sea level. However, the unbroken line documents the actual water level
with additional height due to a storm. The difference in height is the result of
storm surge activity and it was recorded at about 1.5 feet. The data is useful
for geological studies of coastal erosion by tides during storm surges. (Source:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
DID YOU KNOW?

The motions of the sun and moon are completely predictable, so are the tides.
Therefore, the amount of tidal power can be accurately forecasted.
DID YOU KNOW?

The largest tidal power station in the world is in the Rance estuary, in northern
France, and was built in the 1960s.
Brief History of Tidal Power

Tidal power is one of the oldest forms of energy resources. For example,
the tide mill, a special type of water mill driven by rise and fall of tides,
was used in Europe for nearly 1,000 years. The tide mill was mainly used
for grinding grains for local communities. The rst tidal power plant in
North America was built on the bay in 1984 at Annapolis Royal, Nova
Scotia. The power plant uses tidal energy to generate about 20 megawatts
of electricity.
Most would agree that tidal power has potential as a renewable energy
source. However, converting the movement of tides to generate electricity economically and on a steady basis is a challenge. For example, a tidal
power station can generate only electricity when the tide is owing either
in or out along the coast.
How Does Tidal Power Work?
On most coastlines, tides move in and out very slowly. As a result, the
energy in these tides is insucient to spin a turbine generator. To solve
this problem, most tidal power plants use dams to capture and later release
water that can be made to ow with more force. For example, each time
the tide comes in, a dam prevents the water from receding back into the
ocean. When the water level reaches its maximum height, the gates of the
dam are opened. The water can then ow very rapidly and spin a turbine
and generator. At low tide, the gates open again, allowing the water to ow
back into the ocean. Again, the energy in the moving water is used to spin
the turbine generator.
DID YOU KNOW?

Some scholars believe the earliest tidal mill was located in London on the River
Fleet, dating back to Roman times.
Tidal Power Plants

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, tidal power technologies
include the following.
Barrage technologies. A barrage is a low dam built across a river estuary.
Gates and turbines are installed along the dam. The large lock gates, like
the ones used on canals, allow ships to pass. As the tides change during
the day, the water ows through tunnels in the dam. The rise and fall of the
tidal waters spins a turbine. The turbine activates a generator to produce
electricity.
Tidal fence technology. A tidal fence has an H-shaped vertical axis that
can be constructed between small islands or between the mainland and an
island. The action of the tidal currents owing through the fence, at speeds
between six and nine miles per hour, can spin the blades of a turbine/
Tidal turbines. Tidal turbines are constructed and installed in any location where there is strong tidal ow. Installed under the water, the tidal
turbines are arranged in rows. The turbines go into operation when the
coastal tidal currents ow at between four and six miles per hour. In currents of that speed, a 50-foot-diameter tidal turbine can generate as much
energy as a 200-foot-diameter wind turbine. The best location and placement for a tidal turbine is at depths of 60100 feet, close to the shoreline.
According to the U.S. Department of

Energy, tidal turbines are basically
wind turbines in the water that can
be located anywhere there is strong
tidal flow. Because water is about
800 times denser than air, tidal turbines have to be much sturdier than
wind turbines. Tidal turbines are
heavier and more expensive to build
but capture more energy. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Underwater seabed turbines. The worlds most northerly town is Kvalsund, in the Arctic area of Norway. The town is preparing to receive its
electricity from an underwater turbine power station that will be built on a
nearby seabed. The underwater tidal turbines weigh about 200 tons and are
installed deep below the keels of passing ships to prevent accidents.
A seabed turbine is designed to always move in the direction of incoming or outgoing tidal currents. This is true even when the currents change
direction. The movement of the seawater turns the blades of the turbine
to generate electrical power. The quiet seabed turbines have slow-moving
blades that pose little danger to sh because the sh can swim around the
slow-moving turbine without being harmed.
The turbines are designed to be maintenance-free for three years. However, divers can go down into the water if needed for repair work. When
in full production, the Norwegian turbine will generate electricity for approximately 1,000 homes.
Proponents of seabed turbine energy believe there are many advantages
of using underwater tidal turbines. Some of these advantages include low
operating costs, zero greenhouse gas emissions, low ecological impact, and
the fact that seabed turbines can provide more power than wind or solar
technologies.
Tidal Power in the United States?
The United States has no tidal power plants. If any are to be built, both
the Pacic Northwest and the Atlantic Northeast area of the country have
excellent sites for potential tidal power.
For example, in Eastport, Maine, studies have been conducted to exploit
the tidal power of Passamaquoddy Bay. The tides of Passamaquoddy Bay
range from 12 to nearly 26 feet during neap and spring tide conditions.
This extreme range in the footage between the two tides is the greatest
tidal change in the continental United States. Studies have reported that
DID YOU KNOW?

Oceans are the worlds largest solar energy collector and energy storage system. If
only a small percentage of this stored solar energy could be converted into electric
power, it would supply on a daily basis the total amount of electricity consumed in
the United States.
a tidal power plant on Passamaquoddy Bay has the potential to produce

enough electricity for an estimated 20,000 households.
Countries Using Tidal Power Energy
Many countries are examining the potential to harness tidal energy to drive
turbines for electricity. However, only a few sites in the world have been
identied as possible tidal power stations. Presently, tidal power stations
are operating in France, Canada, and China. The largest is in France.
France
Although much of the electricity produced in France is from nuclear energy power plants, the country has a tidal power plant as well. The Rance
tidal power plant is in operation on the estuary of the Rance River, located
in the northwest corner of France. The power plant went online in 1966
and became the worlds rst electricity-generating station powered by tidal
energy. The plant produces 240 megawatts of power.
An aerial view of the Rance River tidal power plant near Saint Malo in western
France. The approximately 2,400-foot-long barrage of the Rance River tidal
power plant was completed in 1966. It is the worlds first tidal power station.
(Marcel Mochet AFP/Getty Images)
Canada
The U.S.-based Electric Power Research Institute identies the Bay of
Fundy as perhaps the best site for tidal power generation in North America.
The site has the potential to generate 300 megawatts of electrical energy
for approximately 100,000 residents. Presently, Nova Scotias tidal generating power plant uses the tides in the Bay of Fundy to produce enough
electricity for 6,000 nearby homes.
China
China has been developing tidal energy for more than 40 years. The countrys rst tidal power station went into operation in eastern China. Presently, China has installed eight tidal power stations with a total capacity
of 6,120 kilowatts.
Northern Ireland
In 2008 in Northern Ireland, a tidal turbine near the mouth of Strangford
Lough began generating enough power to meet the electricity needs of
approximately 1,000 homes.
South Korea
A team of South Korean engineers has recently succeeded in generating
1,000 kilowatts of electricity by using an underwater turbine. The turbines
generate electricity from tidal currents near Jindo, a small island in the
south sea. Jindo is a place where two tides meetone coming from the
south sea and the other from the west sea. The speed of the tidal currents
in the sea of Jindo is among the fastest in the world.
The underwater turbines generate enough electricity to meet the needs
of 1,000 homes. Engineers are planning to increase the power output to
1,200 kilowatts in the near future. The project is the rst of its kind in Asia,
and the country plans to build more underwater power turbines capable of
generating 50 megawatts by 2013.
New Zealand
A 200-megawatt tidal power plant has been proposed in New Zealand,
with completion scheduled for 2011. The turbines will be installed in the
deepest part of the channel in Kaipara Harbor and will generate 4 percent
of New Zealands electrical power.
Potential Sites for Tidal Energy
As mentioned previously, there are not many potential sites for tidal energy in the world. However, there are some promising tidal power energy
sites in Mexico, South Korea, Chile, western Australia, western India, and
along the Patagonian coast of Argentina.
In England, tidal energy studies have estimated that tidal barrages built
in the estuaries of the northwest part of the United Kingdom could produce 50 percent of the regions electricity needs. Russia is planning to build
the Meijin tidal power station, which will have a capacity of 15.2 million
kilowatts. Other potential sites under consideration include new areas in
New Zealand, Wales, the East River in New York City, and the Golden
Gate Bridge in San Francisco Bay.
The Economics of Tidal Power
Location, location, location. Location is critical for a tidal turbine to be economically feasible. Tidal systems need to be located in areas where there
are fast-owing tide currents. For example, the best locations would be
at the entrances to bays and rivers and in gaps between islands and other
coastal land areas.
Probably the main drawback to tidal energy, however, is that construction costs are very high. As a result, the high cost per kilowatt-hour of
tidal power is not competitive with conventional fossil fuel power or with
other nonrenewable sources. Therefore, these projects may not produce a
nancial payback for investors for several years.
DID YOU KNOW?

Tidal Power for San Francisco? According to an article published in the San Francisco Chronicle, underwater turbines below the Golden Gate Bridge could generate enough alternative energy to provide electric power to nearly 40,000 San
Francisco homes.
Waves crash against the shore near

the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California. In 2007 Pacific Gas
and Electric launched an estimated
$1.5 million research program to
study the possibility of submerging
turbines under the water to gather
energy from tidal flows to generate
electricity. (Corel)
Benefits of Tidal Power

Tidal power, like solar energy and wind power, is a relatively clean renewable energy source. It is nonpolluting and has little or no impact on the
environment.
Following are some of the benets of tidal power:
Emits no greenhouse gases and does not generate other wastes

Requires no fuel to power the system
Produces electricity reliably
Is not costly to maintain
Tides are totally predictable
Installing a barrage across an estuary can impact the environment for many
miles upstream and downstream. Tidal power plants that dam up estuaries can slow down the migratory paths of marine organisms. Silt can also
build up behind such facilities and can impact ecological systems.
In summary, tidal power has a number of advantages. The timely tides
turn twice a day no matter what kind of weather conditions. The tides
provide a steady and predictable source of power. The technology requires

fewer turbines to produce the same amount of electricity as wind because
of waters greater density per volume than that of wind. Underwater turbines are also unlikely to draw too many complaints from shoreline residents because tidal power is installed under the water and out of sight.
OCEAN WAVE ENERGY
There is much potential energy in the waves, caused by the wind blowing
over the ocean surfaces. The best sites in the world to harness wave energy
include the western coasts of Scotland, northern Canada, southern Africa,
and Australia. In the United States, the northeastern and northwestern
coasts are favorable potential sites for ocean wave energy. As an example,
in the Pacic Northwest alone, it is possible that wave energy along the
western coast could produce 4070 kilowatts for every 3.3 feet of coastline.
And because the West Coast of the United States is more than 1,000 miles
long, there is the potential that many kilowatts of wave energy could be
produced along this shoreline.
Waves
In many areas of the world, the wind blows with enough consistency and
force to provide continuous waves. Ocean waves travel forward in an upand-down motion. The height of the waves is the key factor of their power.
Therefore, the rougher the sea, the more the potential power of the waves.
However, to combat rough water, wave energy engineers have to design
a tidal energy station that can absorb the most ferocious waves without
being wrecked.
Harnessing Wave Energy
One way to harness wave energy is to design a system that bends the direction of the waves into a narrow channel, increasing their power and size.
DID YOU KNOW?

The greatest amount of wave energy is available in deep offshore waters because
waves lose energy as they reach shallower waters.
The energy of the waves can then be converted into electricity through
both oshore and onshore power plant installations.
Oshore Wave Generation Systems
There are several kinds of oshore wave generation systems. The oshore
systems are situated in deep water of approximately 120 feet. One kind of
system uses the bobbing motion of the waves to power a pump that generates electricity. Other oshore devices use long hoses connected to oats
that ride the waves. The rise and fall of the oats causes the hoses to expand and contract, which in turn causes enough motion to rotate a turbine.
Two oshore wave generation systems include Ocean Power Technologies
and the Pelamis Wave Energy Converter.
Ocean Power Technologies
PowerBuoy is a wave generation system developed by Ocean Power
Technologies that uses an ocean-going buoy to capture and convert wave
energy into low-cost, clean electricity. This system consists of modular,
ocean-going buoys, which are designed to be installed one to ve miles
oshore in water at a depth of 100200 feet. The rising and falling of the
waves moves the buoy-like structure, creating mechanical energy that is
converted into electricity. The electricity is then transmitted to shore from
a submerged transmission line.
The Pelamis Wave Energy Converter
Pelamis Wave Power, Ltd., is the manufacturer of the Pelamis Wave Energy Converter. This machine can generate electricity to a utility power
grid from oshore wave energy. The Pelamis resembles a giant sea snake
because it is long and narrow. When the waves move, the various long
segments of the Pelamis move too. This action drives a generator that produces electricity.
Onshore Systems
Onshore wave power systems use the energy in the breaking waves along
shorelines. Onshore system technologies in use and in development include the following wave energy converters.
The Oscillating Water Column Converter

The oscillating water column converter is the most common form of converting wave energy into power. To oscillate means to move or swing from
side to side regularly.
Simply stated, the oscillating wave generator has a partially submerged
concrete- or steel-structured chamber that has an opening to the sea
below the waterline. As the energy of the wave passes through the chamber, the water inside the chamber rises and falls compressing and displacing the air inside the chamber. This action causes the airow to pass
through the turbine that drives an electrical generator.
Wave Energy Converter
In the 1980s a new kind of system to capture energy directly from surface
waves was installed on a Norwegian island. The system is called TAPCHAN and consists of a tapered channel that gradually becomes narrower at one end in a reservoir. The channel funnels the ocean water into a
reservoir that is constructed on clis above sea level. The channels narrow
width causes the waves in the front to increase in height as they move
toward the narrow end of the channel into the reservoir. Then the high
waves spill over the walls of the channel into the reservoir, where the water
is stored and used later to power a turbine-generator.
Pendulor Devices
Another onshore technology for wave energy collection is the pendulor
wave-power device. This technology consists of a rectangular box that is
open to the waves at one end. A special ap is hinged over the opening.
The energy of the waves causes the ap to swing back and forth like a
pendulum. The motion powers a hydraulic pump and a generator. Further
installations are being planned in Japan and Sri Lanka.
Terminator Devices
Terminator devices are built to extend perpendicular to the direction of
wave travel. The angle puts the device in a good position to capture or
reect the power of the wave. Terminator systems are typically installed
onshore or near shore. The steady back-and-forth motion of the waves
One way to harness wave energy is to bend or focus the waves into a narrow
channel, increasing their power and size. The tapered channel (TAPCHAN)
consists of a collector that funnels waves into an elevated reservoir several
feet above sea level. The kinetic energy of the moving wave is converted
into potential energy as the water is stored in the reservoir. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
passes through an opening into a chamber, causing air to be trapped above

it. The wave action causes a water column to move up and down like a
piston. When this happens, the trapped air is forced out though an opening and rushes forth to spin the blades of a turbine for the production of
electrical energy.
Countries Using Wave Energy
Wave energy power is now being considered as a viable renewable energy
source in Europe. Presently, a few countries, such as Sweden, Portugal, and
Norway, are researching and testing wave energy power plants.
Sweden
A wave energy plant located o the coast of Sweden has been very successful. This success has motivated institutions across Sweden to research
further possibilities of wave energy. Some of the researchers are involved
in pioneering a project called the AquaBuoy, a concept being tested as of
2010. The AquaBuoy is a oating buoy structure that converts the kinetic
energy of the vertical motion of oncoming waves to produce electricity

energy.
Portugal
Several wave power turbines are scheduled to be installed o the coast of
Portugal in the Atlantic Ocean. The wave power generators will look like
giant oating sausages and will rock with the waves. The up-and-down
wave action will pump water into hydraulic motors that drive generators to
produce electricity. When in operation, a typical power plant will generate
2.25 megawatts of power, enough to supply 1,500 homes.
Norway
One company in Norway is exploring the feasibility of a wave energy
converter conceived by Fred Olsen, Ltd., in Oslo, Norway. The design
In this artistic rendering by Finavera Renewables, wave energy converters

called AquaBuOYs are shown. Finaveras 35-ton buoys rise above the water
about six feet but extend beneath the surface some 60 feet, where a piston encased in an underwater steel cylinder rises and falls with the waves
and pushes pressurized seawater through rubber hoses. The water is then
pumped into a turbine inside the buoy, which spins to create electrical power.
(AP Photo/Finavera Renewables)
resembles an oil riglike platform that oats on special absorbers mounted

on vertical rods. The up-and-down motion of special buoys in the waves is
converted into electrical energy.
The Benefits and Challenges of Wave Power Energy
As many countries address global climate change and aim for less dependence on fossil fuels, they are examining and developing a wide variety of
renewable energy sources, including wave power systems. Besides providing a source of electricity, other benets of wave power research include
water pumping for aquaculture farming and desalination.
One of the major concerns is that wave power devices need to be built
to survive storm damage, to reduce saltwater corrosion, and to prevent
snapped mooring lines.
Wave power systems will continue to nd it dicult to compete with
traditional renewable sources unless the costs of installing wave energy
systems are reduced. However, some European energy experts believe that
wave power devices will nd a small but high-paying niche market. Their
reason is that once a wave power system is installed, it has low operation
and maintenance costs.
Environmental and Economic Challenges
Finding the right coastal location is the key in reducing any environmental
impacts of wave power. Therefore, wave energy planners can choose locations that preserve scenic coastal areas. They also need to build in locations
that do not change the ow patterns of sediment on the ocean oor or
interfere with marine life.
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

Brief History of Ocean Thermal Energy
In 1881 Jacques Arsene dArsonval, a French physicist, suggested that
thermal energy of the ocean could be harnessed as a possible energy source.
Later, in the 1930s, Georges Claude built an ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant o the coast of Cuba. The system produced approximately 20 kilowatts of electricity for the island country, but it was
destroyed later in a hurricane.
The United States became involved in OTEC research in 1974 with the
establishment of the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority. The
laboratory has become one of the worlds leading test facilities for OTEC
technology.
What Is Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion?
Ocean thermal energy conversion uses the ocean as a solar collector. The
ocean has layers of water with dierent temperatures, as you would observe
when swimming in dierent depths of ocean water. The OTEC system
uses these temperature dierences between the warm surface waters of
the ocean and the cold water at the bottom. In deep water of 3,000 feet
or more, the dierence can amount to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. The OTEC
station uses an intake pipe to pump cold water from the deeper layers of
the ocean to the surface. The water goes through heat-exchange cycles to
drive a turbine and generate electricity. The cold, deep seawater used in the
OTEC process is also rich in nutrients and, therefore, can be used to raise
both marine organisms and plant life near the shore or on land.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Technologies
The types of OTEC systems include closed-cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid
technologies.
Closed-Cycle
Ocean thermal energy conversion plants can be installed on land or in the
ocean. One kind of OTEC system is the closed-cycle system. The closedcycle OTEC plant consists of pipes arranged in a closed loop. A liquid
chemical with a low boiling point is placed inside the pipes. At one end
of the loop is the turbine of an electric generator. Warm surface seawater
at the top of the loop is pumped around the network of pipes, causing
the liquid inside the pipes to be heated and changed to a gas. The movement of this gas through the pipes causes the turbine to power an electric
generator to generate electricity. After passing through the turbine/generator, the gas ows downward into the bottom part of the loop. At this
stage, cold water pumped from the deep ocean is circulated around the
gas-containing loop. The cold water absorbs heat energy from the loop,
causing the gas to condense back into a liquid. The cycle then repeats over
and over again.
The ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) system is a technology that

converts the oceans thermal energy to electric power. The system uses temperature differences between the warm surface waters of the ocean and the
colder water at the bottom to produce electricity. The OTEC system must have
a large temperature difference of at least 77 degrees Fahrenheit to operate,
limiting its use to tropical regions. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
In 1979, according to the Department of Energy, the Natural Energy Laboratory and several private-sector partners developed the mini
OTEC experiment, which achieved the rst successful at-sea production
of net electrical power from closed-cycle OTEC. The mini OTEC vessel was moored 1.5 miles o the Hawaiian coast and produced enough
net electricity to illuminate the ships light bulbs and run its computers and televisions. In 1999, the Natural Energy Laboratory tested a
250-kW pilot OTEC closed-cycle plant, the largest such plant ever put
into operation.
Open-Cycle
Another kind of OTEC system is the open-cycle system. In this type of
plant, warm ocean water is boiled within a vacuum chamber. As the water
evaporates, it produces low-pressure steam that is used to generate electricity. Cold ocean water is then used to condense the steam into fresh
water, which can be pumped to communities for use as drinking water or
to agricultural regions for use in irrigation. In a May 1993 experiment, an
open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced 50,000 watts
of electricity.
This OTEC plant was built on the Big Island of Hawaii in 1993 to demonstrate
the potential of ocean energy technology. The 210 kilowatt land-based experimental plant operated between 1993 and 1998. The turbine generator was
designed for an output of 210 kilowatts for 79 degrees Fahrenheit from warm
surface water, and from deepwater temperatures of approximately 42 degrees
Fahrenheit. Hawaii has experimented with OTEC since the 1970s. There is no
large-scale operation of OTEC today, mainly because there are many challenges posed by the system. (Courtesy Pacific International Center for High
Technology Research [PICHTR])
Hybrid Systems
Hybrid systems combine the features of the open and closed systems.
Warm seawater is ash-evaporated into steam within a vacuum chamber,
which in turn vaporizes a low-boiling-point uid that drives a turbine.
OTEC Environmental and Economic Challenges
The major step in reducing or minimizing any environmental concerns
is to determine the right location. So the location of the OTEC plant is
critical. As an example, an OTEC station in operation may alter ocean
water temperatures in the areas where they are used. Too much alteration of water temperatures can aect the ability of the region to support
area sea life. The construction of OTEC plants and the laying of pipes in
coastal waters may cause localized damage to reefs and near-shore marine
ecosystems.
Another factor is that there are only a few hundred land-based sites in
the tropical regions where deep-ocean water is close enough to shore to
make OTEC plants possible. However, the tropical areas are subject to
seasonal natural disasters such as hurricanes and typhoons. Such storms
can completely destroy an OTEC plant.
Producing electricity from OTEC systems is not cheap. In fact, it is
more costly than electricity that is generated by hydroelectric power plants
and fossil fuel plants.
The Future of OTEC Systems
Although Hawaii has experimented with OTEC since the 1970s, there is
no large-scale operation of OTEC today, mainly because there are many
challenges. One of the main reasons is that the OTEC systems are not
very energy-ecient. Pumping water is a major engineering challenge. For
example, to produce 10 megawatts of electricity, an OTEC station would
DID YOU KNOW?

An OTEC station was built in 1956 off the coast of Africa. However, the station was
replaced by a dam that generated hydroelectric power at a lower cost than did the
OTEC plant.
DID YOU KNOW?

Mariculture is the farming of various aquatic organisms in salt water. Some of the
organisms raised are mollusks, finfish, and seaweeds.
need to pump nearly 1,500 cubic feet per second of both warm and cold
water through its heat exchangers while being moored 3,000 feet deep.
However, OTEC technology may be an excellent energy resource for
tropical island communities that rely heavily on imported fuel. Ocean
thermal energy conversion systems installed in these locations could provide islanders with much-needed power, as well as desalinated water and
assistance in raising a variety of mariculture products.
More Research Is Needed for OTEC Systems
It may be 1020 years before the technology is available to produce and
transmit electricity economically from OTEC systems. However, OTEC
research is continuing, especially in Japan, Canada, Great Britain, France,
and Taiwan.
SOMETHING TO DO
Countries in the European Union have agreed to energy standards that
include obtaining 20 percent of their energy from renewable resources by
2020. The United Kingdom wants to tap into its potential for tidal power
in an eort to achieve that goal. One plan is to build a barrage across the
mouth of the Severn River to take advantage of its tidal range, which is the
second longest in the world.
Explore the impact of the plan in terms of electricity output, natural
habitats, and commercial and recreational activities.
co.uk.
co.uk.
WEB SITES
http://www.energy.gov/energysources/hydropower.htm
The mission of the U.S. Department of Energys Hydropower Program is to develop, conduct, and coordinate research and development with industry and other Federal agencies to improve the
technical, societal, and environmental benets of hydropower.
http://www.noaa.gov
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
is an agency that enriches life through science. NOAAs reach goes
from the surface of the sun to the depths of the ocean oor and
its goal is to keep citizens informed of the changing environment
around them.
http://www.oceanenergycouncil.com
One of the purposes of the Ocean Energy Council is to educate the
public on the potential and current status of development of ocean
energy.
http://www.oceanrenewablepower.com
Since 2004, the Ocean Renewable Power Company (ORPC) has
been hard at work developing breakthrough technology and ecoconscious projects that use river and ocean energy to produce clean,
predictable electricity to power our homes and businesses while protecting our environment.
VIDEOS
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plug-ins.
Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the videos. You
also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Ocean and Tidal Technologies: To view seven short, multimedia videos exploring and demonstrating seven dierent technologies, go
to the following Michigan State Universitysponsored link: http://

www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/hydro/tidal-power/
(range 0:384:28 minutes).
Pelamis Wave Power Converter: Portugal opened the rst wave power
farm. Each Pelamis wave power converter produces 750 kilowatts per
hour. For more information go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=7k5r89IseEM&feature=related (2:40 minutes).
Tidal Power: Homegrown power from New Yorks murky East River?
Drawing technology from wind turbines, Verdant Power harvests
tidal power in a small pilot project with huge potential. To play a
CBS News video on the project, go to http://www.cbsnews.com/
video/watch/?id=1534819n&tag=related;photovideo (2:05 minutes).
BOOKS AND
a

www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
2003.
2003.
2002.
2008.
2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.

2007.
awea.org.
2006.
the Pacic, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.
2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
19492008
138 a Energy Data
TABLE 1

Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Coal
11,980,905
12,347,109
12,552,996
11,306,479
11,372,684
9,714,667
11,167,259
11,349,723
10,820,631
9,533,287
9,518,353
9,837,785
9,623,351
9,906,454
10,412,538
10,964,385
11,580,608
12,143,080
11,913,750
12,330,677
12,381,540
12,264,528
11,598,411
12,076,917
12,971,490
12,662,878
12,662,786
13,584,067
13,922,103
13,765,575
15,039,586
15,422,809
15,907,526
15,321,581
15,894,442
17,070,622
17,478,428
17,260,405
18,008,451
18,846,312
19,069,762
19,172,635
18,991,670
19,122,471
19,835,148
19,909,463
20,088,727
21,001,914
Coal
Coke Net
Importsb
6,671
992
21,452
11,879
9,002
6,746
10,044
13,020
17,459
6,721
8,358
5,630
7,886
5,506
7,390
10,441
18,451
24,949
15,326
17,310
36,109
57,660
33,108
25,966
7,465
56,098
13,541
99
14,582
124,719
62,843
35,018
15,946
21,650
15,624
11,482
13,491
16,740
8,630
39,556
30,405
4,786
9,697
34,621
27,106
58,330
61,058
22,816
Natural Gasc
5,145,142
5,968,371
7,048,518
7,549,621
7,906,645
8,330,202
8,997,935
9,613,975
10,190,753
10,663,199
11,717,422
12,385,366
12,926,392
13,730,841
14,403,306
15,287,850
15,768,667
16,995,332
17,944,788
19,209,656
20,677,984
21,794,707
22,469,052
22,698,190
22,512,399
21,732,488
19,947,883
20,345,426
19,930,513
20,000,400
20,665,817
20,235,459
19,747,309
18,356,222
17,220,836
18,393,613
17,703,482
16,591,364
17,639,801
18,448,393
19,601,689
19,603,168
20,032,957
20,713,632
21,228,902
21,728,065
22,671,138
23,084,647
Petroleumd
11,882,722
13,315,484
14,428,043
14,955,682
15,555,829
15,839,176
17,254,955
17,937,473
17,931,667
18,526,937
19,322,650
19,919,230
20,216,387
21,048,981
21,700,828
22,301,257
23,245,680
24,400,523
25,283,661
26,979,447
28,338,336
29,520,695
30,561,290
32,946,738
34,839,926
33,454,627
32,730,587
35,174,688
37,122,168
37,965,295
37,123,381
34,202,356
31,931,050 [R]
30,231,608 [R]
30,053,921 [R]
31,051,327
30,922,149 [R]
32,196,080
32,865,053 [R]
34,221,992 [R]
34,211,114
33,552,534
32,845,361
33,526,585 [R]
33,744,490 [R]
34,561,665
34,436,967 [R]
35,673,290 [R]
Total
29,002,099
31,631,956
34,008,105
33,799,903
34,826,156
33,877,300
37,410,105
38,888,151
38,925,592
38,716,702
40,550,068
42,136,751
42,758,243
44,680,770
46,509,283
48,543,050
50,576,504
53,513,987
55,126,873
58,502,470
61,361,751
63,522,269
64,595,645
67,695,880
70,316,351
67,906,091
65,354,796
69,104,082
70,989,367
71,855,989
72,891,627
69,825,607
67,569,939
63,887,761
63,153,575
66,504,079
66,090,567
66,031,109
68,521,935
71,556,253
72,912,970
72,333,123
71,879,686
73,397,310
74,835,647
76,257,523
77,257,890
79,782,668
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
112
1,915
2,187
6,026
19,678
26,394
38,147
39,819
43,164
64,158
88,456
141,534
153,722
239,347
412,939
583,752
910,177
1,272,083
1,899,798
2,111,121
2,701,762
3,024,126
2,775,827
2,739,169
3,007,589
3,131,148
3,202,549
3,552,531
4,075,563
4,380,109
4,753,933
5,586,968
5,602,161
6,104,350
6,422,132
6,479,206
6,410,499
6,693,877
7,075,436
7,086,674
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Energy Data a 139
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PV
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Wind
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Biomass
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554
6,034,459
6,562,330
6,523,526
6,186,780
6,224,827
5,741,161
5,570,238
6,393,667
6,208,290
6,240,085
5,995,131
6,264,397
6,157,054
6,706,907
7,169,179
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Importsb
5,420
6,094
7,461
7,740
6,852
7,983
13,879
15,519
12,288
11,320
12,127
15,474
7,689
1,829
334
6,671
482
3,725
1,020
2,152
3,656
6,688
12,046
26,227
48,715
43,311
21,103
29,378
59,422
67,318
69,381
71,399
113,406
100,026
120,547
135,323
139,655
122,481
158,101
108,399
37,450
7,888
66,965
86,733
94,910
152,937
133,856
137,144
Total
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
140 a Energy Data
TABLE 1
(Continued )
Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Coal
Coke Net
Year
Coal
Importsb
1997 21,445,411
46,450
1998 21,655,744
67,084
1999 21,622,544
57,685
2000 22,579,528
65,348
2001 21,914,268
29,264
2002 21,903,989
60,760
2003 22,320,928
50,518
2004 22,466,195
137,739
2005 22,796,543
44,194
2006 22,447,160
60,810
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197
2008 P 22,420,827
40,771
Natural Gasc
23,222,718
22,830,226
22,909,227
23,823,978
22,772,558
23,558,419
22,897,268
22,931,481
22,583,385
22,223,903 [R]
23,627,629 [R]
23,837,695
Petroleumd
36,159,835 [R]
36,816,619
37,838,081 [R]
38,264,303 [R]
38,186,476 [R]
38,226,666 [R]
38,809,183 [R]
40,294,351
40,393,325
39,958,151 [R]
39,773,213 [R]
37,136,675
Total
80,874,414
81,369,672
82,427,536
84,733,157
82,902,566
83,749,834
84,077,896
85,829,766
85,817,446
84,690,024
86,175,506
83,435,968
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
6,596,992
7,067,809
7,610,256
7,862,349
8,032,697
8,143,089
7,958,858
8,221,985
8,160,028
8,213,839
8,457,783 [R]
8,455,236
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Energy Data a 141
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PV
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
Wind
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Biomass
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
7,178,202
6,657,589
6,680,737
6,264,394
5,315,670
5,893,795
6,149,881
6,260,276
6,422,883
6,908,484
6,813,935
7,300,048
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Total
Importsb
116,203
94,765,811 [R]
88,224
95,183,293 [R]
98,924
96,817,452 [R]
115,199
98,975,100 [R]
75,156
96,326,089 [R]
71,595
97,858,314 [R]
21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
38,597
100,350,624 [R]
84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
62,849
99,875,196 [R]
106,632
101,553,855 [R]
112,381
99,303,634
142 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Biofuelsb
Totalc
Energyd
NA
1,549,262
2,973,984
NA
1,562,307
2,977,718
NA
1,534,669
2,958,464
NA
1,474,369
2,940,181
NA
1,418,601
2,831,460
NA
1,394,327
2,754,099
NA
1,424,143
2,783,987
NA
1,415,871
2,850,582
NA
1,333,581
2,849,194
NA
1,323,123
2,915,090
NA
1,352,874
2,901,339
NA
1,319,870
2,928,619
NA
1,294,762
2,953,406
NA
1,300,242
3,118,714
NA
1,323,316
3,098,396
NA
1,336,802
3,227,637
NA
1,334,761
3,398,036
NA
1,368,985
3,434,674
NA
1,340,249
3,693,799
NA
1,419,495
3,777,541
NA
1,440,487
4,101,751
NA
1,430,962
4,075,857
NA
1,432,323
4,268,335
NA
1,503,065
4,398,409
NA
1,529,068
4,433,121
NA
1,539,657
4,769,395
NA
1,498,734
4,723,494
NA
1,713,373
4,767,792
NA
1,838,332
4,249,002
NA
2,037,605
5,038,938
NA
2,151,906
5,166,379
NA
2,475,500
5,485,420
12,979
[R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
35,106
[R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
64,432
[R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
78,880
[R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
95,052
[R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R]
192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R]
144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R]
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Geo-thermalf
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PVg
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Energy Data a 143
Windh
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Woodi
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,428,649
1,430,229
1,500,992
1,527,012
1,537,755
1,496,928
1,711,484
1,836,524
2,036,150
2,149,854
2,473,861
2,495,563
2,510,048
2,684,271
2,685,817
2,686,765
2,562,134
2,463,159
2,576,663
2,679,623
2,216,165
2,214,083
2,313,471
2,259,774
2,323,820
2,369,869
2,437,027
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2,313
NA
2,094
NA
2,073
NA
2,056
NA
1,902
NA
1,806
NA
1,889
NA
1,808
NA
1,455
NA
2,052
NA
1,639
NA
88,000
12,979
[R]
119,000
35,106
[R]
157,000
64,432
[R]
208,000
78,880
[R]
236,317
95,052
[R]
262,861
109,285
[R]
289,000
125,229
[R]
315,328
126,589
[R]
354,357
127,936
[R]
408,078
113,129
[R]
439,715
130,612
[R]
473,201
147,965
[R]
479,336 [R]
172,512
[R]
515,324
192,236
[R]
531,476 [R]
203,875
[R]
576,990
145,703
[R]
Total
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554 [R]
6,034,459 [R]
6,562,330 [R]
6,523,526 [R]
6,186,780 [R]
6,224,827 [R]
5,741,161 [R]
5,570,238 [R]
6,393,667 [R]
6,208,290 [R]
6,240,085 [R]
5,995,131 [R]
6,264,397 [R]
6,157,054 [R]
6,706,907 [R]
7,169,179 [R]
144 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
(Continued )
Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Energyd
Year
Biofuelsb
Totalc
1997
190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R]
1998
206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R]
1999
215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R]
2000
237,904
3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R]
2001
259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R]
2002
314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R]
2003
411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R]
2004
500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R]
2005
580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R]
2006
743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R]
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R]
2008P 1,428,745
3,899,915
7,315,711
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Geo-thermalf
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PVg
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
g
fuels).
Energy Data a 145
Windh
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Woodi
2,370,991
2,184,160
2,214,167
2,261,715
2,005,833
1,995,283
2,002,040
2,121,251
2,136,351
2,151,731
2,142,417
2,040,616
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
550,602 [R]
187,375
[R]
542,295
205,137
[R]
540,156
213,232
[R]
510,800 [R]
240,523
363,874
257,769
[R]
402,006
309,456
[R]
401,347
413,217
[R]
389,044 [R]
512,571
[R]
403,219 [R]
593,576
[R]
414,226 [R]
794,656
[R]
430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R]
430,554
1,413,082
Total
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
7,178,202 [R]
6,657,589 [R]
6,680,737 [R]
6,264,394 [R]
5,315,670 [R]
5,893,795 [R]
6,149,881 [R]
6,260,276 [R]
6,422,883 [R]
6,908,484 [R]
6,813,935 [R]
7,300,048
146 a Energy Data
TABLE 3

End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Primary
4,475,121
4,847,590
5,124,031
5,178,644
5,074,890
5,286,016
5,633,095
5,866,467
5,771,579
6,155,096
6,223,822
6,688,963
6,814,611
7,122,112
7,135,126
7,161,257
7,328,128
7,549,262
7,740,902
7,963,327
8,276,760
8,352,750
8,456,799
8,655,327
8,250,226
7,927,553
8,005,740
8,408,252
8,207,376
8,272,389
7,933,806
7,453,254
7,057,589
7,154,067
6,840,628
7,220,681
7,160,776
6,921,722
6,940,917
7,372,024
7,586,093
6,570,463
6,758,442
6,963,482
7,155,529
6,990,569
6,946,268
7,471,455
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
5,613,938
6,006,806
6,399,747
6,580,694
6,581,124
6,869,767
7,303,271
7,689,809
7,739,679
8,230,400
8,447,378
9,077,668
9,325,376
9,825,201
10,034,384
10,290,804
10,688,770
11,218,183
11,669,926
12,368,421
13,205,347
13,798,057
14,277,629
14,890,531
14,929,771
14,683,314
14,841,755
15,440,661
15,688,729
16,155,929
15,841,970
15,786,781
15,295,246
15,557,340
15,456,669
15,998,041
16,088,348
16,029,197
16,321,196
17,186,278
17,858,128
17,014,681
17,490,321
17,426,920
18,288,984
18,181,216
18,577,978
19,562,439
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
2,660,963
2,824,267
2,727,158
2,661,902
2,500,330
2,444,814
2,547,641
2,592,274
2,434,391
2,541,202
2,630,274
2,702,042
2,743,974
2,901,109
2,896,921
2,949,284
3,150,462
3,383,741
3,738,448
3,866,000
4,045,666
4,196,051
4,282,718
4,369,078
4,381,061
4,221,192
4,022,853
4,332,587
4,217,258
4,268,843
4,333,251
4,074,270
3,805,343
3,835,241
3,806,026
3,968,567
3,694,740
3,656,730
3,736,106
3,957,548
4,004,442
3,858,007
3,905,836
3,951,199
3,933,859
3,978,979
4,063,119
4,234,533
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
3,660,910
3,883,472
3,862,700
3,862,377
3,758,937
3,720,157
3,881,530
4,008,279
3,945,887
4,103,153
4,353,069
4,588,973
4,706,925
5,013,919
5,226,862
5,438,649
5,819,530
6,299,383
6,870,845
7,296,778
7,795,301
8,307,155
8,681,492
9,144,775
9,506,982
9,362,537
9,465,906
10,035,225
10,177,267
10,480,604
10,626,851
10,562,769
10,601,863
10,847,354
10,922,977
11,436,092
11,443,724
11,603,742
11,943,383
12,575,483
13,202,580
13,332,926
13,512,501
13,453,951
13,835,823
14,111,283
14,697,525
15,181,207
Industrialb
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
12,626,532
13,881,079
15,118,070
14,661,778
15,328,413
14,305,657
16,090,702
16,562,350
16,512,867
15,797,985
16,518,951
16,977,066
16,993,115
17,589,807
18,365,964
19,426,503
20,123,911
21,029,715
21,012,628
21,872,069
22,653,721
22,974,833
22,732,356
23,532,489
24,740,862
23,816,329
21,454,213
22,685,371
23,192,694
23,276,491
24,211,500
22,610,288
21,338,216
19,075,786
18,578,019
20,197,515
19,467,805
19,098,662
19,977,070
20,884,381
20,897,403
21,208,225
20,854,317
21,786,666
21,784,999
22,422,272
22,747,660
23,443,770
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 147
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
14,716,733
16,232,875
17,669,234
17,301,575
18,200,961
17,146,242
19,472,329
20,196,256
20,204,730
19,306,571
20,315,979
20,823,424
20,936,742
21,768,109
22,729,891
24,089,579
25,074,894
26,397,297
26,615,564
27,888,371
29,114,339
29,641,226
29,600,938
30,952,764
32,652,616
31,818,721
29,447,184
31,429,542
32,306,559
32,733,452
33,962,118
32,077,090
30,756,076
27,656,788
27,481,484
29,624,598
28,877,080
28,333,363
29,443,635
30,738,557
31,397,833
31,895,492
31,486,967
32,661,236
32,721,292
33,607,366
34,046,786
34,988,791
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
7,879,581
8,383,528
8,933,753
8,907,235
9,030,518
8,823,059
9,475,032
9,791,039
9,837,442
9,952,797
10,298,441
10,560,452
10,734,679
11,185,922
11,621,165
11,964,508
12,400,149
13,069,166
13,718,214
14,831,020
15,470,880
16,061,232
16,693,481
17,681,086
18,576,065
18,085,915
18,209,133
19,065,144
19,784,143
20,580,415
20,436,369
19,658,353
19,476,200
19,050,580
19,132,451
19,606,799
20,040,687
20,739,703
21,419,125
22,266,855
22,424,597
22,366,185
22,065,034
22,363,309
22,716,447
23,311,806
23,793,148
24,383,906
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
7,990,087
8,492,594
9,042,162
9,003,096
9,123,484
8,903,125
9,550,811
9,860,083
9,897,017
10,004,893
10,349,357
10,596,801
10,770,077
11,220,519
11,654,898
11,998,284
12,433,906
13,101,884
13,752,106
14,865,583
15,506,152
16,097,603
16,729,212
17,716,273
18,611,660
18,119,206
18,243,706
19,099,331
19,819,581
20,614,766
20,470,711
19,696,034
19,512,537
19,087,723
19,175,075
19,653,933
20,087,315
20,788,771
21,469,449
22,318,176
22,478,708
22,419,888
22,118,484
22,415,918
22,769,843
23,367,224
23,848,651
24,438,890
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Primary
Itemf
4,339,470
165
4,679,283
21
5,070,830
188
5,338,183
82
5,730,355
39
5,779,745
91
6,461,471
30
6,942,296
174
7,231,035
128
7,197,936
11
7,794,295
61
8,158,344
3
8,452,741
103
9,028,798
42
9,626,860
124
10,315,765
140
11,014,449
121
11,984,863
203
12,698,249
333
13,886,738
238
15,174,112
260
16,259,175
119
17,123,917
307
18,466,362
75
19,752,816
7,334 [R]
19,932,789
7,102 [R]
20,306,611
640 [R]
21,513,405
7,613 [R]
22,590,665
7,418 [R]
23,586,613
1,619 [R]
23,986,723
1,564
24,326,509
1,080 [R]
24,488,373
2,766 [R]
24,033,531
4,189 [R]
24,679,081
2,796 [R]
25,719,102
2,794 [R]
26,132,459
3,903 [R]
26,338,257
3,452
27,104,445
2,533 [R]
28,337,687
3,364 [R]
30,024,713 [4]
8,999 [R]
30,660,106
9,335 [R]
31,024,645
595 [R]
30,893,368
355 [R]
32,025,108
10,490 [R]
32,563,463
5,698
33,620,747
3,148 [R]
34,637,665
4,336 [R]
Totalg
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
148 a Energy Data
TABLE 3
(Continued )
End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008 P
Primary
7,039,505
6,423,825
6,783,779
7,168,979
6,878,917
6,938,187
7,251,896
7,019,274
6,920,879
6,190,514
6,625,793
6,778,379
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
19,025,680
19,020,712
19,620,860
20,487,621
20,106,132
20,873,763
21,208,021
21,177,889
21,697,240
20,769,777
21,619,373
21,636,900
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
4,256,507
3,963,729
4,007,378
4,227,143
4,036,108
4,099,189
4,238,672
4,180,422
4,013,701
3,703,258
3,895,928
3,972,150
Industrialb
e
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
15,693,953
15,979,296
16,383,617
17,176,087
17,141,259
17,366,740
17,351,447
17,664,445
17,875,276
17,723,994
18,287,222
18,541,387
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
23,721,864
23,210,838
22,990,578
22,870,804
21,835,587
21,857,313
21,575,582
22,454,620
21,465,855
21,632,057
21,454,002
20,630,137
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
c
d
power producers.
f
g

Energy Data a 149
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
35,288,218
34,928,190
34,855,491
34,757,478
32,806,204
32,764,483
32,649,843
33,609,067
32,545,253
32,541,235
32,523,120
31,210,299
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
24,697,145
25,203,168
25,893,727
26,491,500
26,215,564
26,787,738
26,927,646
27,820,116
28,279,693
28,761,209
29,046,175
27,842,133
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
24,751,817
25,258,473
25,951,203
26,551,610
26,278,577
26,848,508
27,002,137
27,899,279
28,361,295
28,840,577
29,134,189
27,924,560
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
35,044,648
36,385,110
37,135,709
38,214,371
37,365,995
38,171,067
38,217,654
38,876,247
39,798,935
39,588,544
40,542,007
40,090,347
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Itemf
6,142 [R]
3,378 [R]
6,281 [R]
2,304 [R]
6,084 [R]
4,820 [R]
2,908 [R]
55 [R]
5,694 [R]
385 [R]
10,049 [R]
9,512
Totalg
94,765,811
95,183,293
96,817,452
98,975,100
96,326,089
97,858,314
98,208,541
100,350,624
100,484,758
99,875,196
101,553,855
99,303,634
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
150 a Energy Data
TABLE 4
Year
Appliance

Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Wood
Central Systemc
Window/wall unitc
None
Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Refrigeratord
One
Two or more
Separate freezer
Clothes washer
Clothes dryerTotal
Natural gas
Electric
Dishwasher
Range/stove/oven
Natural gas
Electric
Microwave oven
Television
One or two
Three or more
Personal computer
One
Two or more
1978
1979
1980
1982
1984
1987
77
78
82
83
84
1981
86
91
55
16
4
20
2
3
55
17
5
17
4
2
55
18
5
15
6
2
56
17
4
14
6
3
57
16
5
13
7
3
55
17
5
12
7
3
55
20
5
12
6
3
23
33
44
24
31
45
27
30
43
27
31
42
28
30
42
30
30
40
34
30
36
55
33
4
8
0
55
33
4
7
0
54
32
4
9
1
55
33
4
7
1
56
32
4
7
1
54
33
4
6
1
54
35
3
6
1
100
86
14
35
74
59
14
45
35
99
48
53
8
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
38
74
61
14
47
37
99
46
57
14
98
85
14
NA
NA
NA
100
87
13
38
73
61
16
45
37
100
46
56
17
98
84
14
NA
NA
NA
100
86
13
37
71
60
15
45
36
99
47
56
21
98
83
15
NA
NA
NA
100
88
12
37
73
62
16
46
38
99
46
57
34
98
80
18
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
34
75
66
15
51
43
99
43
60
61
98
75
23
NA
NA
NA
Retail electricity.

Energy Data a 151
Year
1990
1993
Change
1997
2001
2005
94
97
101
55
23
5
11
4
2
53
26
5
11
3
2
52
29
5
9
2
2
39
29
32
44
25
32
47
25
28
55
23
23
59
25
16
32
5
27
53
37
3
5
1
53
38
3
5
1
52
39
3
5
1
54
38
3
4
0
53
39
4
4
0
1
7
0
5
1
100
84
15
34
76
69
16
53
45
100
42
59
79
99
71
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
35
77
70
14
57
45
100
33
63
84
99
70
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
33
77
71
15
55
50
99
35
62
83
99
69
29
35
29
6
100
83
17
32
79
74
16
57
53
100
35
62
86
99
63
36
56
42
15
100
78
22
32
83
79
17
61
58
99
35
62
88
99
56
43
68
45
23
0
8
8
6
9
18
3
14
21
0
11
5
74
1
29
29
NA
NA
NA
[R]
[R]
[R]
107
1980 to 2005
[R]
[R]
[R]
55
29
5
7
2
2
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
111
29
52
30
5
7
3
3
3
12
0
8
3
1
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
152 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
Region and Country

North America
1997
1998
113.13
1999
113.53
Mexico
5.68
5.96
6.04
6.32
94.77
95.18
96.82
98.98
.02
.02
.02
.02
19.45
20.12
20.27
20.84
Argentina
2.47
2.58
Brazil
7.86
8.12
Venezuela
2.66
2.85
[R]
12.96
118.26
12.67
Other
12.37
115.82
Canada
United States
[R]
2000
[R]
2.61
[R]
8.27
[R]
2.67
[R]
2.73
6.57
12.95
8.55
[R]
2.77
Other
6.46
Europe a
79.87
[R]
80.44
[R]
80.51
6.67
[R]
81.53
6.85
[R]
Belgium
2.65
[R]
2.70
[R]
2.66
[R]
2.73
[R]
France
10.36
10.58
10.71
10.85
Germany
14.26
14.36
14.34
14.13
Italy
7.22
7.43
7.56
7.63
Netherlands
3.70
3.70
3.69
3.79
Poland
4.09
3.85
3.98
3.62
Spain
4.76
4.99
5.26
Sweden
2.32
Turkey
2.93
United Kingdom
[R]
[R]
2.40
[R]
3.00
2.37
5.62
[R]
2.91
9.75
9.74
Other
17.74
17.72
Eurasia b
39.02
[R]
38.73
Russia
25.81
[R]
25.93
Ukraine
6.07
5.85
5.76
5.75
Uzbekistan
1.88
1.84
1.86
1.94
Other
5.26
5.11
5.19
5.45
15.61
16.28
16.62
17.32
Iran
4.43
4.58
4.83
5.01
Saudi Arabia
4.37
4.54
4.60
4.85
Other
6.81
7.15
7.18
11.40
11.30
1.79
1.85
Middle East
Africa
Egypt
[R]
2.27
[R]
3.16
9.79
[R]
9.72
17.47
[R]
17.87
[R]
39.83
[R]
40.61
[R]
[R]
27.01
[R]
27.47
[R]
[R]
[R]
11.62
[R]
[R]
7.46
[R]
1.92
12.03
[R]
2.00
South Africa
4.56
4.35
4.46
4.59
Other
5.05
5.10
[R]
5.23
5.44
[R]
101.98
[R]
105.28
107.33
[R]
Asia and Oceaniaa

Australia
102.89
[R]
[R]
4.56
4.59
4.82
4.85
China
37.91
37.32
37.23
37.18
India
11.64
12.17
12.99
13.46
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
3.66
21.91
1.67
3.56
[R]
21.52
1.69
3.91
[R]
21.97
1.74
[R]
4.06
[R]
22.43
1.87
[R]
Energy Data a 153
2001
2002
115.36
12.76
2003
117.25
[R]
2004
118.20
2005
120.74
13.13
[R]
13.56
[R]
13.84
6.26
6.25
[R]
6.42
[R]
96.33
97.86
98.21
2006 P
121.62
[R]
121.18
14.23
[R]
6.53
6.86
[R]
13.95
7.36
100.35
100.51
[R]
99.86
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
21.16
21.12
21.61
22.44
23.40
24.18
2.61
8.47
[R]
2.48
[R]
2.67
8.58
[R]
8.69
2.78
[R]
9.02
[R]
2.95
[R]
3.15
9.37
[R]
9.64
[R]
3.19
86.18
[R]
86.42
2.78
[R]
2.75
11.36
[R]
11.44
3.03
2.93
2.72
2.93
3.12
7.05
7.13
7.54
7.71
7.96
82.77
[R]
2.70
[R]
82.50
[R]
2.68
[R]
84.24
[R]
85.70
[R]
[R]
8.20
2.78
[R]
2.81
11.00
11.11
[R]
11.39
14.33
14.59
[R]
14.74
[R]
14.50
[R]
14.63
7.70
7.99
[R]
8.08
[R]
8.14
[R]
8.07
3.93
3.94
4.00
4.11
4.23
[R]
4.14
3.45
3.44
3.60
3.70
3.68
[R]
3.86
5.87
5.95
6.26
6.39
[R]
6.51
[R]
6.51
2.30
[R]
11.08
14.62
7.67
2.40
[R]
[R]
2.89
2.27
[R]
3.15
2.17
[R]
3.32
3.51
2.33
[R]
2.22
3.73
[R]
3.91
9.86
[R]
9.72
[R]
9.86
[R]
9.88
[R]
9.92
[R]
9.80
18.28
[R]
18.33
[R]
18.56
[R]
18.77
[R]
19.01
[R]
19.10
40.94
[R]
41.59
[R]
43.37
[R]
44.69
[R]
45.79
[R]
45.88
27.72
[R]
27.93
[R]
28.77
[R]
29.60
[R]
30.06
[R]
30.39
5.87
5.64
5.82
6.28
6.26
6.32
[R]
2.03
2.08
2.10
2.22
2.13
[R]
2.21
7.27
[R]
7.41
5.55
[R]
5.75
[R]
6.22
[R]
6.62
[R]
17.95
18.98
19.76
20.89
22.75
[R]
23.81
5.39
5.89
6.18
6.39
7.22
[R]
7.69
5.14
5.38
5.76
6.21
6.59
[R]
6.89
7.42
7.71
7.82
8.29
8.93
[R]
9.23
13.36
[R]
13.97
14.54
[R]
14.50
2.44
[R]
2.59
2.73
[R]
2.54
5.21
5.12
[R]
5.18
12.63
[R]
12.72
2.23
[R]
2.26
4.66
[R]
4.54
4.88
[R]
5.74
[R]
5.91
[R]
6.04
[R]
6.18
[R]
6.69
[R]
6.77
111.34
[R]
116.41
[R]
125.48
[R]
138.71
[R]
147.78
[R]
156.31
5.14
[R]
5.26
[R]
5.57
[R]
5.61
[R]
43.30
[R]
50.62
[R]
59.99
[R]
66.80
[R]
73.81
17.68
5.02
39.44
5.13
13.94
13.84
14.29
15.54
[R]
16.34
[R]
4.46
4.64
4.56
[R]
4.88
[R]
4.91
[R]
4.15
22.15
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.79
2.58
[R]
2.56
22.24
2.11
[R]
22.15
2.18
[R]
2.42
2.66
154 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
(Continued )
Region and Country

South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Other
World
1997
7.41
3.21
2.60
8.34
381.35
1998
[R]
6.83
3.40
2.44
8.47
[R]
382.38
1999
[R]
7.55
3.55
2.50
9.01
[R]
389.95
2000
[R]
7.89
3.77
2.58
9.23
[R]
[R]
397.93
[R]
Energy Data a 155
2001
8.10
3.86
2.70
9.47
402.15
2002
2003
[R]
[R]
8.39
4.02
2.94
9.80
[R]
410.56
2004
[R]
[R]
8.64
4.21
3.22
10.23
[R]
8.91
4.36
3.45
10.92
[R]
426.02
[R]
447.15
2005
[R]
2006 P
[R]
[R]
9.23
4.43
3.67
11.52
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
9.45
4.57
3.74
11.97
[R]
462.06
[R]
472.27
156 a Energy Data
TABLE 6

Crude Oil
Oil & Gas Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
211.6
178.6a
11.7
21.3
57.5
25.2b
11.1
21.3
309.8
58.2
13.9
237.7
314.1
58.3
18.1
237.7

Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Peru
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela
Otherc
109.9
2.6
.5
12.2
.2
1.5
.1
4.5
.4
.7
87.0
.2
104.8
2.7
.5
12.5
.0
1.5
.7
4.8
.4
.6
81.0
.2
261.8
15.8
26.5
12.3
3.5
4.3
2.5
NA
11.9
18.8
166.3
(s)
247.0
16.5
28.0
12.9
1.0
6.7
.8
.3
12.0
16.7
152.0
(s)
Europed
Austria
Croatia
Denmark
Germany
Hungary
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Romania
Serbia
United Kingdom
Otherc
14.3
.1
.1
1.2
.4
(s)
.4
.1
6.9
.1
.6
.1
3.6
.8
13.8
.1
.1
1.1
.2
.1
.4
.2
6.7
.2
.5
NR
3.6
.7
172.0
.6
1.0
2.5
9.0
.3
3.3
50.0
79.1
5.8
2.2
1.7
14.6
1.9
169.0
1.1
1.1
2.6
5.2
.6
3.0
48.8
81.7
4.7
4.2
NR
14.0
2.1
Eurasiae
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Otherc
98.9
7.0
30.0
60.0
.6
.4
.6
.3
126.0
NR
NR
76.0
NR
NR
NR
50.0
2,014.8
30.0
100.0
1,680.0
100.0
39.0
65.0
.8
2,104.0
NR
NR
1,654.0
NR
NR
NR
450.0
Energy Data a 157
Crude Oil
Oil & Gas
Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
Middle East
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwaitf
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabiaf
Syria
Yemen
Otherc
748.3
.1
138.4
115.0
104.0
5.5
15.2
266.8
2.5
97.8
3.0
(s)
727.3
NR
137.0
126.0
99.4
5.7
20.0
264.8
2.9
68.1
2.7
.7
2,548.9
3.3
948.2
111.9
56.0
30.0
905.3
253.1
8.5
214.4
16.9
1.3
2,570.2
NR
985.0
91.0
66.3
32.0
903.2
254.0
12.1
196.3
16.8
13.6
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Cameroon
Congo (Brazzaville)
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Libya
Mozambique
Nigeria
Sudan
Tunisia
Otherc
114.8
12.2
9.0
.2
1.6
3.7
1.1
2.0
41.5
.0
36.2
5.0
.4
1.9
114.7
11.9
9.5
NR
1.9
3.7
1.7
3.2
36.5
.0
37.2
6.7
.6
1.8
489.6
159.0
9.5
4.8
3.2
58.5
1.3
1.0
50.1
4.5
184.0
3.0
2.3
7.6
504.2
160.0
5.7
NR
4.1
68.5
3.4
2.5
52.8
.0
184.5
4.0
3.5
15.4
Asia and Oceaniad

Australia
Bangladesh
Brunei
Burma
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
New Zealand
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Thailand
Vietnam
Otherc
34.3
1.5
(s)
1.1
.1
16.0
5.6
4.4
(s)
4.0
.1
.3
.1
.5
.6
.2
40.0
4.2
NR
1.1
.2
18.1
4.0
4.5
NR
5.5
.1
.3
.2
.4
1.3
.2
415.4
30.0
5.0
13.8
10.0
80.0
38.0
93.9
.7
83.0
1.0
28.0
8.0
11.7
6.8
5.5
527.6
151.9
NR
11.0
15.0
61.8
31.8
92.0
NR
88.0
2.0
29.8
14.7
11.2
8.2
10.2
1,332.0
1,184.2
6,212.3
6,436.0
World
158 a Energy Data

a
oil sands.
c
Arabia.
TABLE 7
Region and Country

North America
Canada
Greenland
Mexico
United Statesa
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Peru
Other
Europeb
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Turkey
United Kingdom
Other
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
126,271
3,826
0
948
121,496
7,969
0
34
7,251
154
529
9,296
6
1,844
7
168
0
219
6,627
13
0
171
241
145,206
3,425
202
387
141,193
9,973
7,791
1,268
420
0
494
41,485
2,195
3,117
15,299
7,227
4,299
3,420
1,642
452
2,000
0
1,834
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
271,477
7,251
202
1,335
262,689
17,941
7,791
1,302
7,671
154
1,023
50,781
2,200
4,962
15,306
7,394
4,299
3,640
8,270
465
2,000
171
2,076
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 159
TABLE 7
(Continued )
Region and Country

Eurasiac
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Other
Middle East
Iran
Africa
Botswana
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Other
Asia and Oceaniab
Australia
China
India
Indonesia
North Korea
Pakistan
Thailand
Other
World
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
103,186
31,052
54,110
16,922
1,102
0
1,528
1,528
54,488
44
52,911
553
980
169,994
40,896
68,564
57,585
1,897
331
1
0
721
472,731
145,931
3,450
118,964
20,417
2,205
895
0
0
192
0
0
0
192
113,813
43,541
57,651
4,694
2,874
331
2,184
1,493
1,046
456,599
[R]
[R]
Total
249,117
34,502
173,074
37,339
3,307
895
1,528
1,528
54,680
44
52,911
553
1,172
283,807
84,437
126,215
62,278
4,771
661
2,185
1,493
1,767
929,331
[R]
R = Revised.
160 a Energy Data
TABLE 8

Region and Country

North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
Other
1997
1998
1999
2000
6,492
[R]
6,547
[R]
6,615
[R]
6,810
[R]
549
[R]
554
[R]
568
[R]
565
[R]
350
[R]
372
[R]
364
[R]
383
[R]
5,592
[R]
5,620
[R]
5,682
[R]
5,860
[R]
1
950
1
[R]
975
[R]
984
[R]
993
[R]
136
[R]
140
[R]
138
[R]
[R]
325
[R]
336
[R]
345
[R]
[R]
142
Argentina
130
Brazil
326
Venezuela
135
Other
359
[R]
372
[R]
374
[R]
375
Europeb
4,503
[R]
4,487
[R]
4,436
[R]
4,500
[R]
Belgium
146
[R]
151
[R]
143
[R]
149
[R]
France
385
[R]
410
[R]
404
[R]
402
[R]
Germany
889
[R]
872
[R]
841
[R]
857
[R]
Italy
425
[R]
441
[R]
441
[R]
448
[R]
Netherlands
240
[R]
242
[R]
239
[R]
252
[R]
Poland
339
[R]
316
[R]
329
[R]
295
[R]
Romania
120
[R]
101
[R]
91
Spain
272
[R]
282
[R]
309
[R]
327
[R]
Turkey
182
[R]
184
[R]
182
[R]
202
[R]
United Kingdom
569
[R]
564
[R]
559
[R]
561
[R]
Other
935
[R]
924
[R]
898
[R]
913
[R]
Eurasiac
2,244
[R]
2,235
[R]
2,320
[R]
2,356
[R]
120
[R]
116
[R]
133
[R]
143
[R]
1,483
[R]
1,482
[R]
1,560
[R]
1,582
[R]
344
[R]
333
[R]
328
[R]
327
[R]
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
133
134
93
Uzbekistan
103
102
[R]
103
Other
194
[R]
201
[R]
195
[R]
197
989
[R]
1,019
[R]
1,057
[R]
1,094
[R]
291
[R]
295
[R]
317
[R]
321
[R]
Middle East
Iran
106
[R]
Saudi Arabia
255
[R]
258
[R]
264
[R]
291
[R]
Other
443
[R]
467
[R]
475
[R]
483
[R]
[R]
Africa
872
[R]
861
[R]
877
[R]
892
Egypt
112
[R]
115
[R]
117
[R]
119
South Africa
388
[R]
370
[R]
381
[R]
392
[R]
Other
371
[R]
376
[R]
378
[R]
381
[R]
7,197
[R]
7,035
[R]
7,247
[R]
7,366
[R]
334
[R]
340
[R]
359
[R]
360
[R]
Asia and Oceaniac

Australia
China
3,133
[R]
3,029
[R]
2,992
[R]
2,967
[R]
India
878
[R]
914
[R]
971
[R]
1,012
[R]
247
[R]
241
[R]
266
[R]
274
[R]
1,161
[R]
1,116
[R]
1,158
[R]
1,204
[R]
Indonesia
Japan
Energy Data a 161
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
6,697
[R]
6,782
[R]
6,870
[R]
6,970
[R]
7,034
[R]
6,954
554
[R]
573
[R]
602
[R]
615
[R]
632
[R]
614
380
[R]
384
385
[R]
407
[R]
436
5,762
[R]
5,824
[R]
5,969
[R]
5,994
[R]
5,903
1,016
[R]
128
349
149
389
[R]
5,878
1,005
[R]
1,023
[R]
1,066
[R]
1,111
[R]
1,138
[R]
121
[R]
134
[R]
141
[R]
152
[R]
162
[R]
347
[R]
346
[R]
356
[R]
371
[R]
377
[R]
147
[R]
134
[R]
143
[R]
150
[R]
152
390
[R]
408
[R]
426
[R]
438
389
447
4,559
[R]
4,532
[R]
4,679
[R]
4,713
[R]
4,717
[R]
4,721
146
[R]
143
[R]
151
[R]
154
[R]
151
[R]
148
406
[R]
402
[R]
409
[R]
416
[R]
414
[R]
418
878
[R]
857
[R]
874
[R]
872
[R]
853
[R]
858
445
[R]
453
[R]
475
[R]
470
[R]
473
[R]
468
278
[R]
259
[R]
261
[R]
271
[R]
273
[R]
260
279
[R]
276
[R]
289
[R]
295
[R]
290
[R]
303
102
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
98
[R]
99
332
[R]
349
[R]
357
[R]
371
[R]
384
[R]
373
184
[R]
195
[R]
207
[R]
211
[R]
231
[R]
236
575
[R]
564
[R]
575
[R]
582
[R]
585
[R]
586
934
[R]
934
[R]
980
[R]
972
[R]
966
[R]
973
2,332
[R]
2,354
[R]
2,471
[R]
2,529
[R]
2,600
[R]
2,601
[R]
148
[R]
154
[R]
166
1,571
[R]
1,572
[R]
1,627
319
[R]
327
[R]
357
114
[R]
115
206
111
184
185
[R]
203
[R]
213
1,663
[R]
1,699
[R]
1,704
[R]
347
[R]
350
[R]
329
[R]
122
[R]
117
[R]
121
[R]
212
[R]
231
[R]
233
[R]
188
1,119
[R]
1,175
[R]
1,240
[R]
1,330
[R]
1,444
[R]
1,505
334
[R]
365
[R]
387
[R]
407
[R]
446
[R]
471
301
[R]
312
[R]
347
[R]
389
[R]
406
[R]
424
483
[R]
499
[R]
506
[R]
535
[R]
593
[R]
610
923
[R]
924
[R]
975
[R]
1,025
[R]
1,062
[R]
1,057
130
[R]
134
[R]
144
[R]
153
[R]
161
[R]
152
399
[R]
385
[R]
418
[R]
448
[R]
438
[R]
444
394
[R]
405
[R]
413
[R]
424
[R]
463
[R]
461
7,608
[R]
8,050
[R]
8,806
[R]
9,821
[R]
10,517
[R]
11,220
374
[R]
383
[R]
381
[R]
391
[R]
417
[R]
417
3,108
[R]
3,441
[R]
4,062
[R]
4,847
[R]
5,429
[R]
6,018
1,035
[R]
1,034
[R]
1,048
[R]
1,151
[R]
1,194
[R]
1,293
300
[R]
315
[R]
305
[R]
323
[R]
324
[R]
280
1,197
[R]
1,203
[R]
1,253
[R]
1,258
[R]
1,250
[R]
1,247
162 a Energy Data
TABLE 8
(Continued )
Region and Country
1997
Malaysia
102
South Korea
435
Taiwan
1998
1999
2000
103
[R]
107
[R]
112
[R]
[R]
375
[R]
433
[R]
446
[R]
210
[R]
225
[R]
224
[R]
252
[R]
Thailand
177
[R]
162
[R]
171
[R]
162
[R]
Other
520
[R]
530
[R]
567
[R]
578
[R]
23,247
[R]
23,160
[R]
23,535
[R]
24,011
[R]
World
a
international.
Energy Data a 163
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
125
[R]
134
[R]
150
[R]
166
[R]
160
[R]
164
452
[R]
468
[R]
478
[R]
489
[R]
497
[R]
515
249
[R]
274
[R]
290
[R]
287
[R]
290
[R]
300
172
[R]
187
[R]
206
[R]
226
[R]
243
[R]
245
594
[R]
612
[R]
633
[R]
683
[R]
714
[R]
741
24,253
[R]
24,823
[R]
26,064
[R]
27,453
[R]
28,485
[R]
29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:

3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a
3000 B.C.

2800
1100
various localities.
200
500 900
600
874
1400s
1626
1769
1800s
1800 1826
1816
1830 1839
1860
18701880

trains.
conrmed.
and transmission.
transportation.
1878
18811887
1883
18831884
1885
1888
1890s
1900
19001910
19061970
gas and air.
purposes.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
1910
1920
1940s1960s
1942
1950
1956
Mid-1950s
1957
1958
1961
1973
1986
1987
1990

large numbers.
War II.
source.

1997
2005
standard.
2007
2008
for the rst time.
for the rst time.
2009
2010
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
172 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
CONRAD, WILLIAM
DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 173
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
174 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 175
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a

and recruiters.

positions.
businesses.
GREEN CAREERS GUIDE
economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS
GREEN ENERGY JOBS
GREEN JOBS NETWORK
WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.
WWW.DOE.GOV

WWW.KAHKE.COM

AND MANUFACTURERS
a
altarockenergy.com
FARMINGTON, CT
SAN FRANCISCO, CA
BREVARD, NC
dupont.com

FEIBURG, GERMANY
IBM, SAN JOSE, CA
www.acciona-na.com

energysiemens.com
suncor.com
DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function
Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell
Geochemical cycles
Grades 912
Population growth
Natural resources
History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f
Abate, Dee, 5:39
Abengoa Solar, 1:213, 2:40, 2:55,
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Abu Dhabi, 5:92 93, 5:93f, 5:129
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
1:109 11, 1:110f
Active yawing, 3:12
Adams, William, 1:198, 1:203, 2:5,
2:168, 2:173, 3:166, 3:171, 4:168,
4:173, 5:170, 5:175

5:38f
motor, 2:96
Aeroturbine, 3:14
Afghanistan, 3:94
eld, 4:43
5:29 30
188 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Aleman, Angel, 1:50
2:92 94
2:117, 5:118
3:33f
3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Center, 2:103, 4:105
1:129
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170
5:37
1:100, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137

2:127
5:91
1:157, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137
1:66
3:169, 4:89, 4:171, 5:120, 5:173
(ASES), 1:35, 1:165, 1:209, 2:33,
2:80, 2:135, 2:179, 3:133, 3:177,
4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
(AWEA), 1:165, 2:135, 3:2, 3:26,
3:133, 4:135, 5:137
Anode, 2:88
Refuge
5:52 53; fuel use and, 1:178t 179t,
2:148t 149t, 3:146t 147t,
4:148t 149t, 5:150t 151t
Aquaculture, 4:50
Arch dam, 3:80
Archimedes, 2:35
5:88 89; for green roof, 5:81 82
(ANWR), 1:61
Index a 189

Tucson, 5:17
Arkansas, 4:5, 4:118, 5:91, 5:91f
Society
5:41
Atoms, 2:10
Austin, Texas, 5:91
2:25
AutoDesk, 5:18
1:213 14, 2:183 84, 3:181 82,
4:183 84, 5:185 86
Association
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f
B20 fuel, 4:119f, 4:120
Babcock Ranch, 2:22
Bacon, Francis T., 1:203, 2:90, 2:173,
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Bacteria, 4:103
Baez, Ana, 1:50
3:55 56, 3:55f
Bantam, Doug, 4:1

(Wibberding), 5:61
Bates, John, 5:123
Bats, 3:60
of, 5:122 23; NiMH, 5:122 23;
Bay Localize, 1:28
Bay of Fundy, 3:110
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Belize, 4:34
Belote, Dave, 2:3f
Benz, Daimler, 2:90
Benzene, 1:53
Biliran, 4:33
4:22, 4:40f
Biodiesel, 1:48, 1:49, 1:51, 1:53 54,
4:127 28; advantages of, 4:121;
190 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

using, 4:117 20, 4:119, 4:119f;
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75
Biodigester, 4:98, 4:99f, 4:101
Bioethanol, 4:91 92
5:123; buses, 5:7, 5:8f; dening,
of, 4:102 3; CO2 from, 4:96; cow
Biojet, 4:107
Biomass, 1:13 14, 2:64 65; Asian
of, 4:103 4; dening, 4:81 82;

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
4:82 83, 4:82f; types of, 4:81f; US
2:64
Bioreactors, 2:93f
4:42
Bitumen, 1:58, 1:59
5:25 26
Blade design, 3:9
Blenders, 1:53 54
5:121 22, 5:121f, 5:128
3:14
BMW Mini E, 5:72
2:105, 2:106f
1:143f
Index a 191

Brazil, 2:113, 3:86 87
2:103
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Brush, Charles F., 1:199, 1:203, 2:169,
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173,
5:171, 5:175
Bunsen, Robert, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Burdin, Claude, 3:7
farms, 3:39 40
Butane, 1:74, 1:76
Buttress dam, 3:80
C. reinhartii, 2:92

eciency
Caithness/COC, 4:20
2:17; wind energy in, 1:200, 2:170,
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:115 16
3:32
(CYES), 1:30
Calorie, 1:18
Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
Canola, 4:115
Caprocks, 1:74
Carbon, 1:94, 5:7
1:122 23, 1:124f
Carbon cycle, 4:91f
192 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
1:119 20, 1:120f; emissions

emissions of, 1:192 95, 2:162 65,
3:160 63, 4:162 65, 5:5, 5:105,
2:179 82, 3:177 80, 4:179 82,
5:181 84

Carrier Corp., 1:214, 2:184, 3:182,
4:184, 5:186
Cathode, 2:88
Cattle, 1:76
Mechanism
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
bulb
Chaplin, Daryl, 2:5
Charcoal, 4:102
Chen, David, 2:52 54, 2:52f
Chernobyl plant, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
4:170, 5:172
Chevron, 1:67, 4:41
1:214, 2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Chevy Volt, 5:71
of, 1:114, 1:116; Dongtan, 5:94;
Index a 193

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
in, 1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:61f, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
4:102
Chu, Steven, 1:125, 1:131, 2:85, 3:73,
4:80, 4:89, 5:108, 5:111, 5:120,
5:129
2:17 21
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
4:115 16
2:135, 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
1:122

(CDM), 4:51
Clean Edge jobs, 1:209, 2:179, 3:177,
4:179, 5:181
4:126
(CUTE), 2:112
1:22 24; reducing, 1:25 33;
1:32f
pump (GCHP), 4:68
uses of, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
1:109 11, 1:128 29; exporters of,
1:116 17, 1:117t; formation of,
1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
and, 1:115 16, 5:106; history of,
of, 1:190t 191t, 2:160t 161t,
194 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,

1:113 15, 1:115f, 1:117; Utah state
5:39
in, 3:34
Columbia, 1:101

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
wind turbines, 3:10
farms, 3:31 32
using, 1:93f
Computers, 5:54
1:xiv, 1:12, 2:xiv, 2:1, 2:35, 2:38f,
of, 2:50 51; land use of, 2:50;
5:113; types of, 2:36 47
Condoor, Sridhar, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
Conduction, 2:68
(CRS), 3:24, 3:30
Conlogue, Fred, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
1:67, 3:67
Conrad, William, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
3:68
Index a 195

2:4
Controller, 3:11
Control rods, 1:142
Convection, 2:68
Coolants, 1:141 42
Copenhagen, 3:58f
Corn kernels, 4:94f
(CAFE), 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
wind energy, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68
Costa Rica, 4:43 44

3:116 18
Cow manure, 4:98
Service
of, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
1:46 47; US imports of, 1:54 56
Cubic foot, 1:18
for Europe
Cut-in speeds, 3:21
Services
Daimler AG, 2:86, 5:119
Dam gates, 3:81
3:78 80; types of, 3:80
Darajat, 4:41
Davy, Humphrey, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:63
Delaware, 3:37
196 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:105
3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138;
vacancies in, 1:212, 2:182, 3:180,
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:174, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Desuperheater, 4:69
Diesel, Rudolf, 1:47, 1:48, 1:199,
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169,
5:171

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
cells
Doping process, 2:7
Drake, Edwin L., 1:67, 1:204, 2:174,
3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:44 45; rig, 1:44f
4:8 9, 4:8f
Headquarters, 5:87
DuPont, 2:102
Durability, 4:70
DVD players, 5:54
2:12f
Index a 197

1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190;
Econar, 4:75
3:16 18
Eco-roofs, 5:65
Ecoversity, 4:127
Edison, Thomas, 1:199, 2:1, 2:169,
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
3:166, 4:168, 5:170
Renewable Energy
Centers
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Einstein, Albert, 1:199, 1:204, 2:169,
2:174, 3:167, 3:172, 4:169, 4:174,
5:171, 5:176

grid; Utility grid
1:114f; energy and, 1:16 17;
3:16, 3:41; homes use of, 3:44,
3:90, 5:48, 5:49f; household
3:16, 3:21 22
Electric motor, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:110
3:25
America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
4:135, 5:77, 5:126, 5:137
198 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
to, 5:125 26; green, 5:71 74;

5:72
Electrolysis, 2:87, 2:91 92, 2:92f
Electrolyte, 2:88
Electrons, 2:92
CO2, 1:95f, 1:119 20, 1:120f; CO2
4:117; US CO2, 1:120f; zero, 1:122,
dioxide
Enel, 4:20

1:24, 1:36 37; future of, 5:129;
3:181 84, 4:183 86, 5:185 88;
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:7 9; Savers, 4:54, 4:76; security,
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73; US history of, 1:3 4,
Energy audits, 5:20, 5:24, 5:54 55
4:118
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; in schools,
1:26 28
and, 5:102; future of, 1:21 22;
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
Index a 199
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,

2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
4:150t 153t, 5:152t 155t; by
sector, 1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t; of US, 1:19f
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; school
Energy (EERE), 1:36, 2:104, 4:76,
4:105, 5:22, 5:128
(EFRC), 1:33
EnergyGuide, 5:50f
Act of 2007, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f,
5:55
4:12 13, 4:41, 4:46 47, 4:47f,
4:48f
Division, 5:22

and, 1:22 24; of coal, 1:109 11,
station, 1:119 20; of CSP, 2:50 51;
1:108; in tidal power, 3:112 13
(EPA), 1:97, 1:166, 2:136, 3:134,
Frontier by, 4:69
Agency
Energy Council
Ericsson, John, 1:198, 1:205, 2:5,
2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
4:175, 5:170, 5:177
Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
4:175, 5:177
Ethane, 1:74 75
200 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Ethylene, 1:53
(EREC), 3:98
3:59
Exxon Mobil, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
Faraday, Michael, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Faya, Antnio, 3:87
2:170, 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
Fermentation, 2:92, 4:94 95, 4:100
Fermi, Enrico, 1:134, 1:200, 1:205,
2:170, 2:175, 3:168, 3:173, 4:170,
4:175, 5:172, 5:177
Finland, 4:88
Fish farms, 4:17, 4:19, 4:50, 4:51f
Fish ladders, 3:97f
4:10f
1:151 52
2:33
1:111
1:121 22
Food Lion, 5:105
Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Ford 999, 2:109
Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
5:72, 5:86, 5:172, 5:188
Forebay, 3:92f
Index a 201
Forklifts, 2:113
4:66 67
Activities, 5:128
2:129 30, 3:127 28, 4:129 30,
5:131 32
4:185, 5:187
Freons, 1:74
Frisch, Otto, 1:134
Fritts, Charles, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177
1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,

world use of, 1:8f
Fuel Cell 2000, 2:103
2:109
about, 2:121 23; cost of, 2:97,
small, 2:106, 2:120, 2:120f; solid
2:104
2:98
2:99, 2:107, 2:108f, 5:69 70; cost
of, 2:114; in Germany, 2:110 11; in
2:107 9
Fuel economy, 1:51
Fuel rods, 1:140 41, 1:141f
Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 72, 4:102
3:173, 4:175, 5:177
202 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Fuller, Calvin, 1:205, 2:5, 2:175,

3:173, 4:175, 5:177
Fumaroles, 4:52
Furling, 3:8
FutureGen, 1:123
Gabcikovo Dam, 3:98
Garden roofs, 5:65, 5:78, 5:84
Garner, Mark, 3:74, 5:108, 5:108f
1:62
Gasholder, 4:98
for, 4:79; coal, 1:125 28, 1:126f;
of wood, 4:97
Gasohol, 4:92
Gasoline, 1:41, 1:47, 4:93f, 4:96
1:91
Gasper, Peter, 3:87
5:125 26
3:183, 4:185, 5:187

5:122
Geology, 4:63
GEO Mission, 4:54
GeoThermal, 4:54
4:8 13; in El Salvador, 4:42 43;
4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
4:5 6; in Iceland, 1:197, 2:167,
3:165, 4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169;
Index a 203

and, 4:24; locations of, 4:6 7, 4:29;
4:15; in New Mexico, 4:17 18;
1:162, 2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134;
2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii, 4:13 20,
4:67; uses for, 4:49 51; in Utah,
using, 4:66 67
1:35, 4:27 28
4:60 61, 4:61f; CO2 reduced

4:70 71; land use and, 4:63 64;
for, 4:63 64; in Sweden, 4:72; in
using, 4:62 63
4:29
4:27
4:67, 4:68, 5:104
3:174, 4:176, 5:178
1:115 16; FCVs in, 2:110 11;
204 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

3:53, 3:57
Geysers, 4:4 5, 4:52
The Geysers, 4:5 6, 4:8 9, 4:14, 4:14f
Gill, Dena, 3:65
5:120
1:103; of energy, 1:18 19, 1:20f,
1:184 87t, 2:154 57t, 3:152 55t,
4:154 57t, 5:156 59t; of natural
gas, 1:72 73, 1:94 95; wind energy
and, 3:56
2:162 65, 3:160 63, 4:162 65,
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 67
1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
1:79 81, 1:79f, 1:188t 189t,
2:158t 159t, 3:156t 157t,
4:158t 159t, 5:160t 161t

1:25 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
gas and, 1:128
Global winds, 3:3f
Glycerin, 4:112
in, 5:3 4; of NASCAR, 5:1 3
Gomez, Cesar, 1:50
Gore, Al, 5:129
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39;
US, 4:80
Grant, John D., 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Gravity dam, 3:80
Great Geysir, 4:37
School, 5:35
Green biz, 1:210, 2:180, 3:178, 4:180,
5:182
5:26 27
Index a 205

3:178, 4:180, 5:182
5:89 92, 5:92t
Green Club, 2:19 20
Green Cluster, 5:77
Green corps, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
Green-e, 3:97
3:179, 4:181, 5:183
1:30
4:50
2:77f, 5:4
of, 2:78, 5:16; emissions of, 4:69;
Greenpeace, 1:36
3:71
Snodgrass), 5:40

5:65 66, 5:65f; issues with, 5:87;
electric, 5:71 74
3:42f
Grove, William, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:120, 5:178
Guatemala, 4:34
Gunung Salak, 4:41
Guorui, Luo, 4:103
5:xvii
Hahn, Otto, 1:134
Halliday, Daniel, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Center, 3:34
206 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:103f
Harris, Matt, 2:8
Hawaii, 4:16 17
the Head, 3:91 92
Heat, 1:6 8
Heating system, 4:22 23, 4:50, 5:25
Heat pumps, 1:13
Cell kit, 2:125
5:10f
4:72
Herschel, John, 2:5
(HLRW), 1:34
High pressure, 3:4
wastes
Hobby Lobby, 5:61

5:56 57; energy saving, 5:47 48;
in, 1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,
5:150t 151t; of future, 5:46 47;
for, 5:63
Hoover Dam, 1:17f, 3:76 77
Hopi Indians, 1:104
2:127, 5:69
3:13f, 3:40 41
Index a 207

3:31, 3:31f
Hot dry rock, 4:12 13, 4:12f,
project of, 4:48 49
Human health, 4:76
Hybrid cars, 5:68, 5:69t, 5:78
3:85 86; dams built for, 3:78 80;
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133;
3:74 77, 3:74f
3:86 87, 3:86f; in Italy, 2:94;
3:89 90; types of, 3:80 81, 3:82f

using, 2:110, 2:110f, 5:69; storage,
2:90 91; vehicle, 2:116
1:15, 2:xv, 2:85 86, 2:128, 3:xv,
2:105; buses using, 2:111 13,
2:100 101; in Germany, 2:117;
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; sales growth
208 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

vehicles
Hydrology, 4:63
5:69, 5:119
Energy Agency
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
energy in, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165,
4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169; geothermal
systems
plants in, 4:15 16
combined cycle
Association
Illinois, 4:119 20
5:12f
5:xi xii
3:80, 3:82f
3:59 60
Indiana, 4:68, 4:120
1:115
steel, 1:20 21; US coal, 1:113 15,
Cell, 2:106
Insulation, 5:52
(ICS), 2:77
cycle (IGCC), 1:122
Gas Vehicles, 1:100
(IAEA), 1:135 36, 1:166, 2:136,
3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 209

and Dams, 3:99
2:124
2:33, 2:83
Coalition, 2:16
Ions, 2:88
Iowa, 5:35
4:71
Energy Agency
3:86 87, 3:86f
James, David, 4:127
Jiu River, 3:88 89

Kalina system, 4:49
Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
Kazimi, Mujid, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Kelp, 1:98
in, 5:32
Kenya, 4:43
Keros, Alex, 2:108f
Kerosene, 1:53
Kibaki, Mwai, 4:43
Kill A Watt, 5:62
1:6
Krocker, J. D., 4:6
5:106
Kyoto Protocol, 1997, 1:32 33, 1:201,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:16, 5:105 6,
5:106f, 5:173
210 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
LaDuke, Winona, 2:8

1:97 98, 2:120, 4:97; nitrogen
energy, 5:56 57
energy and, 2:29
3:109f
3:100
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also
LEED certication

5:102 5
Lewis, Mike, 2:98
Lewis, Zane, 2:95f, 4:110f, 4:111
4:33
Life science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
facilities
Limestone, 1:42
1:85
1:150f
Lithium, 5:124
Local winds, 3:4
1:122 23
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:13, 4:136,
5:138
Louisiana, 4:112
(LIH), 3:97
1:145 46
Low pressure, 3:4
1:12
Index a 211

Luminant, 3:31
Program, 5:62
Mak-Ban, 4:41
Malaysia, 4:87
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
5:173; in energy, 1:213 16,
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
Mariculture, 3:123
Marine plants, 1:98
Maryland, 5:35
4:67 68
Mayer, John, 5:8f
5:16
5:70
McCurdy, Ross, 2:94 99, 2:125,

2:126, 4:110 11
cells
4:119f
5:70f
5:71
Methane, 1:74 75, 1:75f, 4:96; cattle
1:96 97
Methanol, 2:89, 2:120, 2:120f
Mexico, 4:34 35
Michigan, 4:72
3:89 90, 3:91f; China using,
Microturbines, 2:41
4:80f
Middle East, 1:79f
Migratory sh, 3:87
Military, US, 1:137
212 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

1:138 40
project, 5:9, 5:10f
4:43
Mississippi, 4:72
Mojave Desert, 2:36 38, 2:51, 3:32,
4:11
Molecules, 2:10
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119
Montana, 4:20
5:83
Motion, 1:6
2:168, 2:176, 3:166, 3:174, 4:168,
4:176, 5:170, 5:178
4:108
Mt. Washington, 3:5
3:81
Murphy, John, 2:98
Musk, Elon, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Nacelle, 3:11
5:117f
Nanometers, 2:10
Nanosolar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
5:114f, 5:116
2:90, 5:120
4:117, 4:127
4:73
2:52, 3:64 68; mission of, 3:66;
3:66 67
Index a 213

2:103
(NGSA), 1:100
Guide, 5:90
1:36, 3:100
2:33, 2:99 100, 2:103, 2:127,
2:136, 3:14, 3:44, 3:134, 4:118,
4:136, 5:109, 5:115, 5:138
1:217 18, 2:187 88, 3:185 86,
4:187 88, 5:189 90
(NWTC), 3:52
Authority, 3:119
Natural gas, 1:xii, 1:9 10, 1:71 72,
1:71; Chinas use of, 1:197, 2:167,
1:101; consumers of, 1:82 85;
of, 1:74 75; drilling for, 1:76 77;
consumption of, 1:72 73, 1:94 95;
1:79f, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,

and, 1:94; history of, 1:73 74;
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75; advantages
safety of, 1:92
(NRRI), 4:83
Nauen, Andreas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
Reserves, 1:58
Nebraska, 4:68
NECAR 1, 2:90
2:13
Energy Association
Netherlands, 1:84
Net metering, 2:15 16, 3:43, 3:71
University Program
214 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Nevada, 4:15
2:185, 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Newell, Craig, 3:20
New Jersey, 4:118, 5:35 36
New Mexico, 4:17 18
New York, 2:17, 2:114 15, 5:34, 5:82
New York gym, 5:9
3:110 11
Association
Niagara Falls, 3:76
(NiMH), 5:122 23
Nielsen, Carl, 4:6
battery
Resource Service

1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84
North Dakota, 4:72
North Sea, 1:80f
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
3:117 18
Commission
of, 1:132 33; in countries, 5:112;
1:137 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 41,
on, 1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
4:129 30, 5:131 32; in sustainable
Index a 215

source, 1:131 32
1:152, 1:157
(NEUP), 1:131, 5:111
3:168, 4:170, 5:172; Browns Ferry,
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173;
US, 1:136
(NRC), 1:134, 1:147, 1:157, 1:166,
2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
1:146 47
1:150, 5:123
1:131, 1:148, 2:3, 2:3f, 2:86, 3:xiii,
4:xiii, 4:80, 5:xiii, 5:108f, 5:110 11,
5:124, 5:129

(ORPC), 3:124
3:113 18
(OTEC), 1:15, 3:104, 3:118 19,
3:120f; Africa and, 3:122;
Octane rating, 1:47
Development
Oerlikon Solar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
systems, 3:114
Ohio, 5:33
Ohms Law, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
216 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158,

4:160, 5:162
Oil sands, 1:58 59, 1:190, 2:160,
3:158, 4:160, 5:162
Olive oil, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
3:114 16
4:61 63, 4:62f
4:1 2, 4:20 23, 4:21f, 4:24f
4:24f
1:20f, 1:81

2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39
Ormat, 4:20
Company
3:115
Conversion
3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Oxygenates, 1:53
Pacic ocean, 4:6 7
Palapa, Rosy, 1:50
2:37f, 2:43f
Paraguay, 3:86 87
2:67 70, 2:67f; benets of, 2:70;
Index a 217
Paul, Stephen, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
reactor
Peak oil, 1:56, 1:69
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
1: 151
Peck, Rick, 5:13 15, 5:13f
3:92 93, 3:93f, 3:94
membrane
Center, 5:96
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169;
1:60 62; forming of, 1:41 42; as
2:119

uses for, 2:6
5:113
leaders in, 2:24 26
4:187, 5:189
Picohydro, 3:91
5:88
5:33
Poland, 1:116
(PEM), 1:xv, 2:xv, 2:89, 3:xv, 4:xv,
5:xv
Pools, 4:50 51
energy in, 3:59
PowerBuoy, 3:114
binary, 4:9 10, 4:9f, 4:22; CO2
218 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

also Geothermal
plants
Power strips, 5:54
Pressures, 4:3
1:144
Probst, Pete, 4:124
1:213 16, 2:183 86, 3:181 84,
4:183 86, 5:185 88
1:116; coal, 1:115 16, 1:116;
oil, 1:62; hydrogen, 2:91 100;
1:81 82; Polands coal, 1:116;

and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:29 38, 3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115;
1:59
Propane, 1:74 75, 1:76, 1:85
3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Quad, 1:18
Quebec, 3:86
Race cars, 4:107 8, 4:108f
Radiant energy, 1:5
4:16f
Rain barrels, 5:32
Index a 219

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; on fossil fuels,
1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; on nuclear
energy, 1:159 60, 2:129 30,
3:127 28, 4:129 30, 5:131 32; on
solar energy, 1:160 61, 2:130 31,
3:128 29, 4:130 31, 5:132 33; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
5:134 35; on wave energy, 1:161,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
5:133
1:107 8
1:190 91t, 2:160t 161t,
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,
5:162t 163t
1:149, 1:151; of PV, 2:30
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,
5:156t 159t
Regulator, 3:90
1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84; China
of, 5:124; for homes, 5:63 64;
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
(RReDC), 5:125
Renovation, 5:27 28
Revenues, 3:38
Reverb, 5:8f
Rhode Island, 3:37, 4:118 19, 5:126
2:98
Rice paddies, 1:76
220 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Ring of Fire, 4:6 7, 4:7f, 4:18, 4:31,
4:40, 4:44
1:29, 1:31
2:110f, 5:69
Robbins, Steve, 2:9
Rocket stoves, 4:88
Rojas, Fermin, 1:50
Romania, 3:88 89
Rotor blades, 3:7 9
5:31
Data Center
of, 3:62
2:44f

(SAITEM), 2:116
Salter, Steven, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
5:188
Sandstone, 1:42
2:111
2:25
Saturn, 5:71
2:94
Index a 221

wind energy in, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
in, 4:66
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188,
5:190
3:185, 4:187, 5:189
SciKits, 2:127
Scooters, 2:113 14
Scott, Paul, 5:18f
Training
Seaweed, 1:98
1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
5:146t 149t
Sedum, 5:39
Systems
Selsam, Douglas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
5:13 15, 5:13f
Sharp Corp., 2:26
1:135
plants, 3:95f
Siemens Corp., 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Silicon, 2:9
plants, 3:87
4:11
Smaller homes, 5:55
plants, 3:89 90
Smith, David, 5:48
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
222 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:114 15; thin-lm, 2:9 10, 2:9f
5:64 65, 5:64f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185;
of, 2:4 5; benets of, 2:26 27;
2:17 21; collectors for, 2:73 74,
2:5 6, 2:56; for homes, 5:63 64;
2:130 31, 3:128 29, 4:130 31,

5:132 33; schools using, 2:16 17;
2:14 15, 2:28; videos for, 2:34. See
technology
(SEGS), 2:37, 2:51, 2:51f
Cosmos, 2:73f
Solar ovens, 2:71
3:64f
of Spain, 2:47
Solar Two, 2:47 50
Solar wall, 2:60 61
Index a 223

5:66 67; economics of, 2:78;
worlds rst, 2:59
Solatubes, 5:37
5:121
Solix Biofuels, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Solvents, 1:47
Sound, 1:6
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t
South America, 1:84
South Korea, 3:110
Soy crops, 4:125
4:69
Space science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
Spas, 4:50 51

Split systems, 4:59
Sridhar, K. R., 5:121 22, 5:121f
Sri Lanka, 3:95
4:98 102, 4:99f
Stanley, William, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Rotor
Storage tanks, 2:77
1:60f
(SEAT), 1:28
Students, 4:121
Sulfur dioxide, 1:53, 1:111, 1:119,
4:92
Sullivan, Jim, 2:98
224 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:35 36
Sun, 1:5, 2:49, 2:59, 2:107
2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
SunEdison, 5:35
1:107 8; shallow coal, 1:109
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
5:101f

3:116 17
3:9
Sweet Bay, 5:105
Swept area, 3:8
1:127 28
2:80
3:34
5:73f
Tanzania, 4:102
TAPCHAN, 3:115, 3:116f
5:27f
Tax revenue, 4:27
1:121 28; dye-sensitized, 2:11 12,
2:127, 5:69; hydrogen, 2:99 100;
nano, 4:77, 5:114 15, 5:114f,
3:119 22; passive solar, 2:60 61;
photovoltaic, 2:24 25, 2:24 26,
2:25, 2:30 31; Power, 2:83; Prism
4:19f, 4:20; science and, 1:218,
Index a 225

Televisions, 5:54
dierences in, 1:15
3:79
plants, 3:93
Tesla, Nicola, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Tessera Solar, 2:41
3:54; wind farms in, 3:32 33
3:175, 4:177, 5:179
Thailand, 4:39 40, 4:87
Thermal energy, 1:6, 3:118 23, 4:15
5:123f
Thompson, Asa, 4:5

3:84f
Tidal mill, 3:106
US, 3:108 9
Tides, 3:104 5, 3:105f
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73
Tiwi, 4:41
Toledo Zoo, 4:67
Toluene, 1:53
Tower, 3:11
Toyota, 2:86, 2:114, 5:69, 5:119;
FCHV of, 2:109; RAV4, 5:18f
Trac jams, 1:7f
226 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

turbines, 3:9 11
1:146 47
Tree hugger jobs, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
5:91
Trucking, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
Turbines, 3:81 82, 3:90, 3:92 93
Turkey, 2:116, 4:41
3:24
5:27 28
2:54

industry of, 1:113 15, 1:115f,
energy in, 1:132 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 227

of, 3:17 18, 5:115; wind energy
specic states
(USGS), 1:167, 2:137, 3:135,
4:137, 5:139
1:141; processing, 1:140; U-238,
1:144
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Council
(USGBC), 5:26 27, 5:36, 5:42
Survey
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 20
Utility bills, 5:36
2:28
4:123
Veggie Van, 4:127
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75; electric,
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75;
cell vehicles
plant, 3:59
Vermont, 5:10
Verne, Jules, 2:85
3:14 15
Vietnam, 4:87
in, 5:11
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
compounds
Voith Hydro, 3:74
5:108f
1:97, 1:119
Volcanoes, 4:7f, 4:33, 4:35, 4:37, 4:40,
4:44
Volkswagen, 2:111
Walters, Bob, 1:86 89, 1:87f
228 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

farms in, 3:36
Waste, 5:51
Water Furnace, 4:75
Watermill, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
Watt, James, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; Sweden
3:116f
Waves, 3:113

1:145
West Virginia, 5:32
5:28 31
1:111
4:66f, 4:68
California, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
3:69 70; cost of, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68;
3:58f, 5:115; DOE report on, 3:17,
3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 18;
in schools, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
Index a 229

3:68 69; US capacity of, 3:17 18,
3:72
3:32, 3:33f; Bualo Ridge, 3:34;
3:46, 3:46f
Windows, 5:33, 5:51, 5:52f
3:72
Wind speed, 3:5 6, 3:8 9
3:55 56, 3:55f; bats killed by, 3:60;

1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:60f, 3:169,
turbine, 3:13 15, 3:13f;
3:11 12
Wind vane, 3:11
Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 67
Wood alcohol, 2:89
Woods, Mel, 2:18
World oil, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 4:160,
5:162
5:xi xii
230 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4
Xeriscape, 5:87
5:188
Yellowcake, 1:140
4:9, 4:52
2:33
1:131 32
5:94
About the Author

A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 4: Geothermal and

Biomass Energy
John F. Mongillo

Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66
2011
621.042dc22
2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11
1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter 1
ix
xiii
Geothermal Energy
What Is Geothermal Energy?
Where Can You Find Geothermal Resources?
Harnessing Geothermal Energy
How Is Electricity Generated from Geothermal Plants?
Geothermal Energy in the United States
Advantages of Geothermal Power Plants
Other Uses of Geothermal Energy
Protection of the Environment
The Future of Geothermal Energy
1
2
6
7
8
13
24
25
25
27
Interview
John W. Lund
Chapter 2
20
Countries Using Geothermal Energy
31
United States
Philippines
Mexico
Japan
31
32
34
35
vi a Contents
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Italy
Iceland
Canada
China
Thailand
Indonesia
Turkey
United Kingdom
Australia
El Salvador
Kenya
Costa Rica
New Zealand
Germany
Other Countries Interested in Geothermal Energy
Hot Dry Rock or Enhanced Geothermal System
Many Uses for Geothermal Energy
Benets
Environmental Concerns of Geothermal Energy
The Future of Geothermal Energy
35
37
38
39
39
40
41
41
42
42
43
43
44
45
45
46
49
52
53
53
Geothermal Heat Pumps
57
How Do Geothermal Heat Pumps Work?

Types of Geothermal Heat Pump Systems
Evaluating a Site for a Geothermal Heat Pump
Schools Using Geothermal Energy
The Benets of Geothermal Heat Pumps
Use of Geothermal Heat Pumps in the United States
Geothermal Use in Europe
Economics of Geothermal Heat Pumps
Advantages and Disadvantages
Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers
59
60
63
64
68
70
72
73
74
75
Biomass, Biofuels, and Biogas
79
What Is Biomass and What Is It Used For?

Renewed Interest in Biomass
Major Asian Countries Using Biomass
Other Users of Biomass
Biofuels
81
85
85
88
89
Contents a vii
Biogas
Benets of Biomass
96
103
Interview
Sister Susan Frazer
Chapter 5
98
Biodiesel Fuel
107
What Is Biodiesel Fuel?

How Is Biodiesel Made? Composition of Biodiesel
How Does a Diesel Engine Operate?
Straight Vegetable Oil as a Fuel
Waste Vegetable Oil as a Fuel
Industry and Federal Specications
for Biodiesel Production
How Do Biodiesel Emissions Compare
to Petroleum Diesel?
Can Biodiesel Be Used in an Existing Diesel Engine?
School Districts Use Biodiesel for Vehicles
and Heating Purposes
Other Uses for Biodiesel Fuels
Students Build Biodiesel Cars
What Are the Advantages of Biodiesel Fuel?
What Are the Disadvantages of Biodiesel Fuel?
109
112
112
114
114
114
116
117
117
120
121
121
121
Interviews
Ross McCurdy
Phillip Cantor
110
122
129
135
Energy Data
139
167
Proles
173
179
183
187
Index
189
About the Author
233
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a
xiv a Introduction

21st century.
Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction

Introduction a xvii

Petroleum
Russia, 13 percent
Iran, 5.4 percent
China, 5.1 percent


Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy
Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
New York, and Colorado.
xx a Introduction
usesunshineis free.
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy
one in France.

Geothermal
xxiv a Introduction
Energys Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
Geothermal Energy
The schools with geothermal systems have energy costs about

half those of the schools with conventional heating and cooling
equipment.
Doug Bantam, Chief Engineer, Lincoln
Electric Systems, Nebraska
The word geothermal comes from Greek words geo (earth) and therme
(heat). Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because heated
material located in the interior of Earth is constantly being produced. The
following is a brief overview of how one school uses a geothermal energy
system to produce electricity for its campus needs.
On January 24, 2009, the Oregon Institute of Technology, at its main
campus at Klamath Falls, began detailed plans to use geothermal energy.
After nalizing the project, a drilling rig was used to break into a geological fracture almost a mile below ground, tapping water at a temperature of
300 degrees Fahrenheit. The water, converted to steam, runs the generators
for the schools 1.5-megawatt electrical power plant. In fact, the power
plant generates enough electricity for the entire Klamath Falls campus.
When the geothermal steam turbine went online, the Oregon Institute
of Technology became the rst university in the world to be powered entirely by geothermal technology, according to the university report. The
VIDEO
Geothermal: Its Hot! This video explains the benefits of the greatest source of untapped, practical clean energy in the world: http://www.discoversolarenergy.com/
solar/videos-geotherm.htm (1:55 minutes).
Oregon Institute of Technology was also the rst university in the nation
to be heated and cooled entirely by geothermal energy. Besides heating the
classrooms and the universitys swimming pool, geothermal energy is also
used to melt and remove snow from campus sidewalks.
The new geothermal power plant will also save $500,000 in electric
utility bills, and any excess electricity will be sold to a commercial power
company. The geothermal power plant study is part of the schools energy
curriculum to teach students about renewable energy sources.
The Oregon Institute of Technology is located on a known geothermal
resource area, which has been used by hometown residents primarily for
space heating since the turn of the century. At present, there are more
than 500 geothermal wells being used in a variety of ways, including in
the heating of homes, schools, businesses, and swimming pools and in
snow-melting systems for sidewalks and even sections of highway pavement. (For more information about this project, see the interview with
Dr. John W. Lund, the director of the Geo-Heat Center at Oregon Institute of Technology featured later in this chapter.)
Presently, the use of geothermal energy for electricity and heating has
grown worldwide, and as of 2010 more than 20 countries use some sort
of geothermal energy. As an example, the United States alone produces
thousands of megawatts of electricity from geothermal energy.
WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?
Geothermal energy is the use of natural renewable heat energy from the
interior of Earth that is extracted from such sources as steam, hot water,
and hot dry rocks. Geothermal energy is an alternative energy and renewable resource that can be used as power for the direct heating of buildings
or for generating electricity. Geothermal energy works only where magma
materials exist close to Earths surface.
Geothermal Energy
Earths Interior
Magma is hot, melted rock material beneath Earths surface located at
depths between 35 and 120 miles. The temperature of the magma at these
depths can reach 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit. Nearby underground rock layers and water absorb the hot temperatures from this magma.
When temperatures and pressures are just hot enough, some of the
magma is forced upward toward Earths surface and ows from volcanoes
as lava. All volcanoes are fueled by magma deep in Earths surface. However, in many locations, the magma most often remains below Earths crust,
continuously heating nearby rock layers and underground water reservoirs.
A good demonstration of how hot Earths interior can get is to observe a
geysers ejection of hot water and steam.
Earths interior consists of the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. (Anita
Potter/Dreamstime.com)
DID YOU KNOW?

The temperature of the ground just a few feet below Earths surface is relatively
stable, about 4558 degrees Fahrenheit, throughout the year.
Geysers
Geologically speaking, a geyser is a vent or hole in Earths surface that
periodically ejects a column of hot water and steam. Some geysers have
eruptions that eject into the air thousands of gallons of boiling hot water,
reaching heights of a several hundred feet.
Old Faithful is one of the worlds best-known geysers. It is located in
Yellowstone National Park in the northwestern area of Wyoming. Old
Faithful erupts every 6090 minutes and explodes gallons of boiling hot
water hundreds of feet into the air.
How does the geyser work? When underground water is heated to its
boiling point, it becomes steam. Steam occupies much more space than
Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park erupts every 60 to 90 minutes

for 1 to 5 minutes. Its maximum height ranges from 90 to 184 feet. The water
during an eruption has been measured at 204 degrees Fahrenheit and the
steam at more than 350 degrees Fahrenheit. (Steve Byland/Dreamstime.com)
Geothermal Energy
DID YOU KNOW?

The heat from the outer core of Earth continuously flows, primarily by conduction.
This interior heat of Earth is estimated to be the equivalent to 42 million megawatts
of power, and this is expected to remain the case for billions of years to come,
providing an inexhaustible supply of energy.
the original volume of water. The geyser erupts when superheated ground
water becomes hot enough to blast its way through vents in the surface.
Most of the worlds geysers occur in only a few countries, including the
United States, Russia, Chile, New Zealand, and Iceland. All of these geyser locations are in areas where there has been recent volcanic activity and
where there are hot-temperature rocks below the surface.
A Brief History of Geothermal Energy
The rst use of geothermal resources in North America took place more
than 10,000 years ago. According to historians, early humans used the
minerals in hot springs as a source of healing. Some historians believe that
Native Americans in the United States settled in many locations where
hot springs were available.
In 1830 the rst known commercial use of geothermal energy occurred
in the city of Hot Springs, Arkansas. The owner, Asa Thompson, charged
people for their use of bathing in tubs lled by heated water from three
hot springs.
In 1892, in Boise, Idaho, the worlds rst district heating system for
the town was installed. Water was piped from nearby hot springs to town
buildings and homes. Within a few years, the geothermal system served
many homes and several downtown businesses. Even today, there are
several district geothermal heating systems in Boise that provide heat to
homes and businesses.
In 1921 the United States rst geothermal power plant went into operation at The Geysers, an area north of San Francisco. In that year, the geothermal plant produced 250 kilowatts of energy. This was enough power
to provide electricity for lighting the local Geyser Resort Hotel and other
buildings and street lights. But, according to the Department of Energy,
the geothermal plant was not competitive with other energy sources of
power and it was soon disused.
In 1948 Professor Carl Nielsen of Ohio State University developed the

rst geothermal heat pump for use at his residence. (Geothermal heating
pumps are covered in chapter 3 of this volume.) During the same time,
J. D. Krocker, an engineer in Portland, Oregon, installed a geothermal heat
pump to heat a local commercial building.
The Geysers made a comeback in the 1960s, becoming the countrys
rst large-scale geothermal electricity-generating plant. The power plants
rst turbine produced 11 megawatts of power.
In 1970 the Geothermal Resources Council was formed to encourage
the development of geothermal resources worldwide.
In 1997 the Lake CountySoutheast Geysers Euent Pipeline Project
was the rst of its kind to deliver treated water to The Geysers every day to
be used as a geothermal resource.
In 2000 The Geysers celebrated 40 years in operation with some 350
steam wells and about 80 miles of pipelines.
In 2007 Calpine, a major U.S. power company, launched a $200 million
program to enhance geothermal production by up to 80 megawatts.
WHERE CAN YOU FIND GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES?
The Ring of Fire
If you are a geothermal engineer, the rst place to start in your quest for
geothermal resources is to look at a map showing the Pacic Ring of Fire.
The Pacic Ring of Fire (or sometimes just Ring of Fire) is an area in the
Pacic Ocean where large numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
occur. Some of the countries along or near the Ring of Fire include the
western United States (including Alaska), New Zealand, Indonesia, Philippines, Japan, and Russia.
The Pacic Ring of Fire is associated with oceanic trenches, volcanic
belts (earthquake areas, too), and with plate movements. In fact, the Pacic
Ring of Fire includes a long list of hundreds of active and dormant volcanoes and a number of major earthquakes.
DID YOU KNOW?

More than 85 percent of the worlds earthquakes are found along the Pacific Ring
of Fire.
Geothermal Energy
More than half of the worlds active volcanoes above sea level encircle the
Pacific Ocean to form the circum-Pacific Ring of Fire. The Ring provides
excellent examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens.
HARNESSING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy can be harnessed from Earths natural heat where there
are active volcanoes and even inactive volcanoes that still produce interior
heat. The internal uids of the volcanoes can range from low-temperature
to high-temperature heat. Steam from high-temperature uids is powerful
enough to drive turbines and generate electrical power. Lower temperature geothermal uids can also be used to provide heat sources for homes,
industrial uses, greenhouses, and hot or warm springs at resort spas. In
addition to being an energy resource, some geothermal waters also contain
minerals such as sulfur, gold, silver, and mercury that can be recovered as a
byproduct of geothermal energy production.
HOW IS ELECTRICITY GENERATED FROM

GEOTHERMAL PLANTS?
In geothermal power plants, steam, heat, or hot water from geothermal
reservoirs provides the power that rotates the turbine generators to produce electricity. Any excess geothermal water is then returned into the
geothermal reservoir to be reheated naturally and recycled.
There are several commercial types of geothermal power plants, according to the Department of Energy, including the dry steam power plant,
the binary cycle power plant, the single-ash steam power plant, and the
double-ash power plant. There is also much interest in using hot dry
rock systems, or enhanced geothermal systems, as a geothermal source of
energy.
Dry Steam Power Plants
As stated previously, the rst geothermal power plants in the United States
were built in 1962 at The Geysers, located in a dry steam geothermal eld.
Located about 100 miles north of San Francisco, this area is still the largest
producing geothermal eld in the world.
However, dry steam geothermal elds are rare. The Geysers is one of
only two locations in the world (the other is Larderello, Italy) where a
high-temperature, dry steam resource is used to turn turbines and generate
Dry steam plants use hydrothermal fluids that are primarily steam. The steam
goes directly to a turbine, which drives a generator that produces electricity.
The steam eliminates the need to burn fossil fuels to run the turbine. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Geothermal Energy
electricity. A dry steam reservoir produces steam but very little water. The
steam can be piped out directly from underground wells into turbines,
which generate electricity.
In the United States there are only two known underground geothermal
resources of steam: The Geysers in Northern California and Yellowstone
National Park in Wyoming. Yellowstone National Park is protected from
any major commercial developments.
Binary Power Plants
A geothermal reservoir with moderate temperature water, between 250
and 360 degrees Fahrenheit, is not hot enough to produce enough steam
energy. However, the reservoir can still be used to produce electricity in
a binary power plant system. According to the Department of Energy
(DOE), in this system, energy is extracted from the hot geothermal uid
and a secondary or binary uid with a much lower boiling point than
water. As the two uids pass through a heat exchanger, the heat from the
geothermal uid causes the secondary uid to ash to vapor, which then
drives the turbines.
Most geothermal areas contain moderate-temperature water (below 400

degrees Fahrenheit). Energy is extracted from these fluids in binary-cycle
power plants. Hot geothermal fluid and a secondary (hence binary) fluid
with a much lower boiling point than water pass through a heat exchanger.
Heat from the geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor,
which then drives the turbines. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
10
In geothermal resources, lower-temperature waters are much more

plentiful than high-temperature waters. Therefore, binary cycle systems
will probably be the dominant geothermal power plants of the future.
An example of a geothermal binary power generation system is located
at the Mammoth Pacic power plant, located in the California Sierra Nevada mountains. Built in 1984, the plant generates 40 megawatts of renewable electricity that is sold to Southern California Edison. The power
company produces enough power for more than 30,000 homes. The plant
is painted in a green, forest-like color to blend with the landscape, which
reduces its visible impact.
Flash-Steam Power Plants
A geothermal reservoir that produces mostly hot water is called a hot water
reservoir and is used in a ash-steam power plant. Flash-steam power
plants are more complicated, more expensive, and somewhat less ecient
than steam-powered plants. In this system, the heat is contained in liquid
water, not steam.
In a ash-steam power plant, the hot water is brought to the surface
under pressure. Then the liquid is sprayed into a special ash tank where
it vaporizesor ashesto steam, which is then piped directly to the
turbine.
Hydrothermal fluids above 360 degrees Fahrenheit (182 degrees Celsius) can
be used in flash plants to make electricity. Fluid is sprayed into a tank held
at a much lower pressure than the fluid, causing some of the fluid to rapidly
vaporize, or flash. The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator.
Geothermal Energy
11
Single-Flash
According to the Department of Energy, single-ash geothermal power
plants are the most commonly installed plants at geothermal elds. A
single-ash resource system has temperatures of approximately 300370
degrees Fahrenheit. During the processing of geothermal energy in this
system, the steam and liquid are separated in two distinct phases. In the
rst phase, the steam is sent to the turbine while the liquid is sent back
to the injection well. Then in the second phase, after the steam is used to
generate power, it is condensed back to a liquid in a cooling tower before
being reinjected into the reservoir.
Double-Flash
A double-ash steam power plant costs more than a single-ash system because it is more complicated to manufacture the system and maintain it.
However, double-ash plants may produce from 20 to 25 percent more power
than a single-ash system using the same geothermal setup and conditions.
The double-ash system operates in much the same way as the singleash system. However, instead of the separated liquid being sent directly
to the reinjection well, the liquid is sent to a second separator tank. In the
second tank, the uid is ashed into steam. This steam, together with the
exhaust from the principal turbine, is used to drive a second turbine to
generate additional electricity.
Flash-steam plant generators can range in size from 10 to 55 megawatts. A typical standard size of 20 megawatts is used in some countries,
including the Philippines and Mexico.
Coso Geothermal Field: A Flash-Steam Plant
In the United States, the CalEnergy Navy I is a ash geothermal power
plant at the Coso geothermal eld. The power plant is located in the
Mojave Desert of Southern California. CalEnergy Navy I is the United
States second-largest producer of geothermal electricity, having a continuous output of 190 megawatts. The geothermal eld relies on superheated
groundwater from the Coso Hot Springs.
This desert geothermal power plant has been producing electricity at
the Coso site since 1987 by a private contractor for the U.S. Navy. The
geothermal power produced at the plant is sold into the local utility grid.
12
The Navys Geothermal Program Oce is also exploring other military

bases for geothermal energy resources.
Hot Dry Rock, or Enhanced Geothermal, System
Geothermal energy can also be produced by a hot dry rock system, also
know as an enhanced geothermal system. The hot dry rocks are usually
granite rock layers in Earths interior. These rocks are hot as a result of
consistent heat produced by the decay of radiogenic elements.
Hot dry rock geothermal technology offers enormous potential for electricity
production. Much of the hot dry rock energy comes from hot rocks found at
depths of 4,000 meters or more beneath the Earths surface. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
Geothermal Energy
13
One method for exploiting the hot dry rocks is to fracture the granite
rock layers either by using small, explosive charges or by injecting water
at sucient pressure to ensure fracturing. After the rocks are fractured in
the injection well, surface water is pumped down through the broken hot
rocks. The water is heated by the hot rocks and then pumped back to the
surface from a production well to drive turbines for electricity or to provide
heat. According to geologists, a hot dry rock well is expected to have a useful life of 2030 years before the well becomes uneconomic.
Researchers at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico
have studied hot dry rock since 1974. According to the laboratory, an experimental facility was built in Fenton Hill, New Mexico. To demonstrate
the feasibility of hot dry rock technology, a well was drilled 11,500 feet into
rock layers where temperatures reached 430 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at
80 degrees was pumped down into the well, and the liquid returned to the
surface at 360 degrees. Although the Fenton Hill facility was closed down
in 1996, the plant produced as much as ve megawatts of power, proving
that a hot dry rock system has the potential to be an excellent geothermal
energy resource.
Hot dry rock research programs have now stopped in the United States
but research continues in France and Japan and many other countries. Several geothermal energy specialists like the hot dry rock system technique
because it does not have many environmental concerns or issues.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN THE UNITED STATES
Presently, geothermal energy is the fourth-largest source of renewable
energy in the United States. Today the United States has about 3,000
megawatts of geothermal electricity connected to the grid. According to
the Department of Energy, energy generated from geothermal sources accounted for 4 percent of renewable energy-based electricity consumption
in the United States. The United States continues to produce more geothermal electricity than any other country, representing approximately 30
percent of the worlds total. According to the U.S. Energy Information
Agency, geothermal has the potential to provide the United States with
12,000 megawatts of electricity by the year 2010 and with 49,000 megawatts by 2030.
Most U.S. geothermal plants are located in California, Nevada, Idaho,
Hawaii, New Mexico, Arizona, Alaska, and Utah. Other states with projects currently under consideration or development are Colorado, Florida,
14
Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. Combined, as of 2008 these states

have approximately 103 projects in development ranging from initial to
advanced stages.
California
California is a major player in geothermal power production. Geothermal
power accounted for 5 percent of all the states electricity generation as of
2003.
The Geysers, mentioned previously in the chapter, is located approximately 70 miles north of San Francisco. This geothermal resource site encompasses an area of about 30 square miles and is the largest geothermal
development in the world. The Geysers accounts for one-fourth of the
non-hydropower green power produced in California.
In The Geysers area, there are about 20 separate geothermal power
plants that utilize steam from more than 350 producing wells. These
power plants produce more than 800 megawatts of electricity, enough to
power one million Northern California households of four people each.
The Geysers plant also helps Californians reduce their need for thousands
and thousands of barrels of oil per year.
The geothermal power plant at The Geysers near Santa Rosa, California, is
the largest geothermal development in the world. (Julie Donnelly-Nolan/U.S.
Geological Survey)
Geothermal Energy
15
DID YOU KNOW?

The thermal energy in the uppermost six miles of Earths crust is the equivalent of
50,000 times the energy of all the worlds gas and oil resources.
The Geysers recharge project in Sonoma County and the Southeast

Geysers recharge project in Lake County make use of recycled reclaimed
wastewater. The wastewater replenishes the geysers geothermal steam reservoir. Using the reclaimed wastewater at these sites extends the life span
of the steam eld.
Nevada
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, Nevada ranks number two
in the United States, behind California, in capacity for electric power production with an installed capacity of 264 megawatts of electrical power.
Besides producing electrical power from geothermal resources, Nevada
is a leader in the direct use of the thermal waters at more than 25 sites. In
the direct-use application, heat is extracted and transferred directly from
thermal waters for such uses as agricultural drying, space heating, and
aquaculture. The thermal waters, as in other areas of the United States, are
commonly used for bathing and spas.
High-temperature geothermal resources that are suitable for electric
power production are located in the northwestern portion of the state.
High-temperature geothermal waters are above 212 degrees Fahrenheit.
However, moderate- to low-temperature geothermal resources, those waters that are between 68 degrees and about 212 degrees Fahrenheit, are
suitable for heating purposes and are widespread throughout Nevada.
The University of Nevada at Reno is now developing a geothermal resource at its Redeld campus, located near the Steamboat Springs. The
college campus will be powered and heated entirely with geothermal
energy.
Idaho
In 2008 a 13-megawatt geothermal power plant was built in Raft River in
southern Idaho. It will be the rst commercial geothermal plant in Idaho.
The site is both a new and old geothermal location.
16
U.S. Geothermal president of operations Chris Harriman opens a valve on

an injection well at the companys Raft River site in Idaho in 2007. Originally
intended to pump geothermal water back into the aquifer a mile beneath the
Idaho desert, the well has turned out to be another potential source of hot
water for its 13-megawatt geothermal power plant. (AP Photo/John Miller)
In addition to the Raft River site, there are 24 other sites in Idaho that
have potential for power generation. Estimates of the geothermal electricityproducing capacity in Idaho have large ranges. One geological report estimates that Idaho has such potential for geothermal energy that it could be
producing 855 megawatts by 2015 and 1,670 megawatts by 2025.
Hawaii
The Hawaiian Islands lie above a geothermal hot spot that has been volcanically active for millions of years. Geothermal research conducted in the
1970s found that the Kilauea Volcano on Hawaiis Big Island has the most
potential for generating electricity.
The Puna Geothermal Venture is the rst and only commercial geothermal power plant in the state. The plant has generated sustainable electricity
Geothermal Energy
17
for Hawaii Island for 15 years. Under a power purchase agreement with
Hawaii Electric Light Company, Puna Geothermal Venture sends all the
electricity it produces, on average 2530 megawatts, to the utility company,
supplying approximately 20 percent of the total electricity needs of the Big
Island.
Colorado
There are a number of geothermal wells and hot springs throughout Colorado. And believe it or not you can nd a sh farm using these geothermal wells near Alamosa, Colorado. The sh farm utilizes three geothermal
wells to raise white tilapia sh for table use. According to the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), from 50 to100 thousand pounds
of sh per year are harvested at this location.
New Mexico
In New Mexico, geothermal energy has been used for small-scale electricity generation and in direct use to supply geothermal water for aquaculture,
FEATURE
Fort Atkinson School District, Wisconsin
As of 2008, the Fort Atkinson School District in Wisconsin decided to use geothermal energy as a method to save money while teaching the students about alternative energy.
One middle school is already using a geothermal system that includes deep
wells under the football field. Geothermal water is pumped out of these wells to
both heat and cool the middle school.
According to the school report, the wells are about 3,300 feet deep and can
reach 250 degrees Fahrenheit, warm enough to heat the building. Located as part
of the Yellowstone aquifer, the hot water gets pumped through the six-inch line and
then goes throughout the building to each individual classroom.
Each classroom has a radiated heater hooked up to the geothermal water pipes;
the hot water flows through the pipes to each of the 27 heaters. The fans blow the
warm air into the building. A thermostat is used to turn on or off the heat.
The school has saved thousands of dollars using geothermal energy, and the
savings are expected to increase. The school also uses solar panels to heat the
swimming pool, so energy from both Earth and sun is used to cut expenses.
18
greenhouses, swimming pools, resorts, space heating, and hot water. New
Mexico also has many hot springs.
In 2008 Raser Technologies and New Mexico governor Bill Richardson
announced New Mexicos rst geothermal power plant. The potential plant
will be capable of generating power at low temperatures below 165 degrees
Fahrenheit. According to the company, the plant will use a new kind of
technology that employs water heated by geothermal energy to vaporize a
special working uid in a heat exchanger. The pressure from the vaporized uid is then used to drive a turbine.
Arizona
Arizona is a state well known for its solar power installations. However,
the state is exploring the potential for geothermal energy. So far, hightemperature geothermal resources needed for electric power production
have not been discovered, but much of Arizonas geothermal assets contain
low-temperature resources that can be put to direct use. Presently, Arizona
uses geothermal energy primarily for aquaculture programs. For example,
there are several aquaculture businesses in the state that use geothermal
resources for raising sh and shrimp. One aquaculture business, the Desert
Springs tilapia facility, uses 50 percent of the installed geothermal directuse capacity. Additionally, the heated water is used for crop irrigation, spas,
and greenhouse heating.
Arizona also has many areas with low- to moderate-temperature geothermal uids at shallow depths. These geothermal elds could be used
directly for various heating applications, including for greenhouses and
nurseries, grain and vegetable drying, and soil warming for mushroom
growing and earthworm farms.
Alaska
Alaska has many geothermal resources throughout the state. According to
government geological reports, the geothermal resources are in three major
regions:
1. The Ring of Fire, which includes the Aleutian Islands, Alaska Peninsula, and Baranof Island
2. The hot springs in central Alaska, extending from the Seward Peninsula east to the Canadian border
3. The area near the Wrangell Mountains, a high mountain range in
eastern Alaska
Geothermal Energy
19
Alaskas Chena Hot Springs geothermal power plant went online in

2006. Because the geothermal water at Chena Hot Springs never reaches
the boiling point of water, the plant cannot use a traditional steam-driven
turbine. Instead, a secondary uid called R-134a is used. The uid, which
is similar to a refrigerant used in air conditioning systems, has a lower
boiling point than water. The special uid passes through a heat exchanger
that contains water from geothermal wells at a temperature of 165 degrees
Fahrenheit. Heat from the geothermal water causes the R-134a to ash to
a vapor, which then drives the turbine. In this system virtually nothing is
emitted into the atmosphere.
Utah
Within the state of Utah, electrical utility power companies and various
business enterprises such as greenhouses, sh farms, and recreational resorts use geothermal energy. According to geological surveys, Utahs geothermal reservoirs range in liquid temperature from below 165 to above
240 degrees Fahrenheit. The reservoirs are located mostly throughout the
central and western regions of the state.
A worker makes adjustments on a heat exchanger/generator unit at Raser

Technologies Thermo Power Plant west of Minersville, Utah. Within six months
of discovering a massive geothermal field, Raser had erected and fired up the
power plant. (AP Photo/Douglas C. Pizac)
20
DID YOU KNOW?

There are several geothermal companies in the United States, including U.S. Geothermal, Ormat, Calpine Corporation, Enel, Caithness/COC, and California Energy.
These moderate- to high-temperature geothermal resources are suitable

for power production. One geothermal power plant in the southwestern
portion of the state generates enough electricity to supply nearly 8,000
homes. The thermal or heat energy from lower-temperature resources
can be used directly for such applications as space heating for homes and
businesses.
One of the newest geothermal power plants has been installed in Beaver
County, Utah. The Beaver County power plant has been named Thermo
and was built by Raser Technologies, Inc., which specializes in geothermal
power generation.
Montana
Geothermal resources as cool as 85 degrees Fahrenheit are being used
to heat Montana homes, greenhouses, and commercial buildings. In the
western part of the state geothermal heating is used for aquaculture (commercially raised sh), greenhouses, and spas and resorts.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: John W. Lund, Director of the Geo-Heat Center at Oregon Institute
of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon
I am the director of the Geo-Heat Center at Oregon Institute of Technology in Klamath Falls, Oregon, an emeritus professor of civil engineering, and a past president
of the International Geothermal Association. I am a registered professional engineer, and I taught civil engineering at OIT for 32 years. Presently, I am responsible
for promoting the development and use of geothermal energy through providing
technical assistance, writing publications, disseminating information, training, and
Geothermal Energy
21
lecturing, with funding support form the U.S. Department of Energy and the Oregon
University System.
Diagram of the 280 kilowatt organic Rankine cycle (ORC) geothermal power
plant at the Oregon Institute of Technology campus in Klamath Falls, Oregon. (Courtesy Dr. John Lund/Oregon Institute of Technology)
I grew up in California but have lived in North Carolina, Maryland, Colorado, and
Norway and now in Oregon for the past 42 years. I went to school in Norway as
a boy while my father worked for the U.S. Embassy in Oslo. I attended Bethesda
Chevy-Chase High School in Bethesda, Maryland.
school?
My favorite subjects in high school were math and science, with interest in history
and geography. I had to work at English, especially writing reports and speakingas
this is one of the most important parts of any technical career. My favorite sports are
cross-country skiing and soccer.
My university training was at the University of Colorado (BS in civil engineering,
1958; PhD in civil engineering, 1967) and the University of California, Berkeley (ME
degree in transportation engineering, 1962).
22
Describe your interest in geothermal energy.

From college, I had a background in geotechnical engineering (geology, soil mechanics, and various road building materials such as aggregates, concrete and
asphalt). I then taught engineering geology and soil mechanics at Oregon Institute
of Technology. This background helped me understand the workings of a geothermal reservoir and how geothermal energy is utilized. Since the OIT campus was
already heated with geothermal energy (192 degrees Fahrenheit), it peaked my
interest in this renewable and green energy resource. It was natural to explore this
interesting domestic energy source. Bathing in hot springs throughout the west
also helped my interest. I now live in a geothermally heated home, where my hot
water and hot tub also are heated with water from a 420-foot-deep well in my front
yard.
As a result of my interest in geothermal energy, I have traveled all over the
world, lecturing in 30 countries and providing training at the United Nations University Geothermal Training Program in Reykjavik, Iceland, and the Geothermal Training Program at the University of Auckland in New Zealand. Rotorua, New Zealand,
another geothermal city, is the sister city of Klamath Falls.
What kind of geothermal power plant is installed on the campus?
In addition to campus being heated with geothermal hot water since the early
1960s, we recently installed a 280-kilowatt binary geothermal power plant on
campus, using water from our existing wells. Early this year, we drilled a 5,300foot-deep well on campus that will produce about 2,000 gpm (126 L/s) of 200
degree F (93 degrees C) water. This well will then provide the energy for an approximately one-megawatt binary power plant. These two plants will provide the
base load electricity required for campus and meet about 80 percent of the peak
demand (hot summer and cold winter days). A binary plant uses a low-temperature geothermal fluid to heat a secondary working fluid (hydrocarbon such as
isopentane, isobutane, etc.). The working fluid boils, and the vapor turns a turbine, which in turn turns a generator to produce electricity. The working fluid is
then condensed and starts the cycle over again. The geothermal fluid never sees
the light of day and is injected back into the reservoirthus conserving the
resourceor it can be used for space heating in a cascade mode, before being
injected.
OIT saves about 1 million dollars in heating costs per year and will save approximately $100,000 from the 280-kilowatt plant and $400,000 from the 1-megawatt
plant per year. The waste water from the larger power plant can be used to
provide heat to adjacent buildings, earning up to an additional $200,000 per year
approximately.
How do you use the power plants as a training program?
The geothermal heating system has served as a demonstration site for interested
developers and users of geothermal energy, along with serving as a training site for
Geothermal Energy
23
students. (This we refer to as the direct use of geothermal energy, which includes
space heating, greenhouse and aquaculture pond heating, industrial application,
and drying of timber and food products.) The new power plants will also serve as
a demonstration site and for training students. This fits in well with our new renewable energy engineering bachelors degree program on both our Portland and
Klamath Falls campuses. We are also planning to build a Sustainable Energy Park
(Source: Geothermal Education Office)

on campus that will have room for solar, wind, biofuels, and biomass renewable
energy projects.
Describe the greenhouse plans and aquaculture projects.
We also plan to build geothermally heated greenhouse and aquaculture projects
on campus that will use the waste water from the heating system and power
plants. These will be used to demonstrate the potential for using low-temperature
geothermal resources, as well as to provide fish, vegetables, and flowers for use
on campus. They will also be a research site for our students to test various heating
systems and electrical control systems and to determine energy-efficiencies and
cost savings.
What are some of your future plans for using geothermal programs?
We hope to expand the geothermal programs on campus by hiring additional engineers and developing more projects, to help promote the use of geothermal energy
in the nation and worldwide. This growth will support our renewable energy engineering degree and training students for this new and exciting market. Using this
domestic and renewable energy resource will help to lower our dependency on
imported fossil fuel sources and reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. Small
power plants and direct-use projects can help small communities with employment and help them to be self-sufficient with a distributed energy program. You
can learn more about the uses of geothermal energy from our Web site: http://
geoheat.oit.edu.
24
View from inside the 280 kilowatt organic Rankine cycle (binary cycle) geothermal power plant on the campus of the Oregon Institute of Technology.
The turbine-generator set has an insulating cover over it, and the large
tubes are the condenser (upper) and evaporator (lower) heat exchangers.
(Courtesy Geo-Heat Center)
ADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

Geothermal energy has proven to be extremely reliable and exible. Hydrothermal electric power plants operate very consistently, approximately
97 percent of the time. That means that they are not shut down too often
for maintenance.
Geothermal power plants, like wind and solar power plants, do not have
to burn fossil fuels to manufacture steam to turn the turbines. Therefore,
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions are much less than at fossil
power plants.
What are some of the benets or advantages of using geothermal
energy?
Land use. The land area needed for a geothermal power plant is
smaller than that needed by most other types of power plants.
Geothermal Energy
25
DID YOU KNOW?

Lake County, California, home to five geothermal electric power plants, meets the
most stringent governmental air-quality standards in the United States.
Reliability. Geothermal power plants are designed to operate 24

hours a day, all year. A geothermal power plant is built directly on top
of its fuel source. There are no interruptions of power generation as a
result of weather or natural disasters.
Flexibility. Geothermal power plants can have modular designs, with
additional units installed in increments when needed to t growing
demand for electricity.
OTHER USES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal water is used around the world, even when it is not hot enough
to generate electricity. The main nonelectric geothermal energy is for direct
uses and geothermal heat pumps.
Geothermal water employed for direct use ranges in temperature from
50 to over 300 degrees Fahrenheit. These waters are ideal for health spas,
greenhouses, aquaculture, and milk pasteurization and can also be piped
into homes and individual buildings for space heating.
In the western United States, hundreds of communities use geothermal
resources for district heating. The worlds largest district heating system is
in Reykjavik, Iceland. Since the country started using geothermal energy
as its main source of heat, Reykjavik has become one of the cleanest cities
in the world. Modern district heating systems also serve homes in Russia,
China, France, Sweden, Hungary, Romania, and Japan.
PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Geothermal power plants have minimal or no negative impacts on the
environment and ecological systems.
Protection of the Air and Atmosphere
Hydrogen sulde gas sometimes occurs in geothermal reservoirs. It smells
like rotten eggs at low concentrations and can cause humans to quickly lose
26
their sense of smell. There are government health regulations for worker
safety because the gas can be toxic at high concentrations. Companies have
special equipment for scrubbing hydrogen sulde from geothermal steam.
About 99 percent of this gas can be removed using these scrubbers.
Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in geothermal steam, but geothermal
plants release less than 4 percent of the total carbon dioxide emissions
released by power plants. However, if a closed-cycle (binary) technology
system is used, there are no emissions at all.
Protection of Groundwater
Geothermal water contains higher concentrations of dissolved minerals
than water from cold groundwater aquifers. In geothermal wells, all the
piping and casings used in drilling are cemented into the ground to prevent the mixing of geothermal water with other groundwater.
When the geothermal water needs to be stored at the surface, it is kept
in lined, impermeable storage basins. After use, the geothermal water is
either evaporated or injected back into its deep reservoir, again through
sealed piping, for recycling.
Emissions from a geothermal plant in Iceland. Special scrubbers installed at

geothermal plants like this one in Iceland can remove up to 99 percent of dangerous emissions such as hydrogen sulfide. (iStockphoto)
Geothermal Energy
27
FEATURE
Geothermal Energy Association
The Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) is a trade association composed of U.S.
companies. They support the expanded use of geothermal energy. The GEA develops geothermal resources worldwide for electrical power generation and directheat uses. The members have offices or operations in many states and in numerous
countries throughout the world.
The GEA advocates for public policies that will promote the development and
utilization of geothermal resources. The association provides a forum for the industry to discuss issues and problems, encourages research and development to
improve geothermal technologies, presents industry views to governmental organizations, provides assistance for the export of geothermal goods and services,
compiles statistical data about the geothermal industry, and conducts education and outreach projects. You can visit the association Web site at http://www.
geo-energy.org/gea.asp.
Visual Protection
A geothermal plant is constructed right on top of the surface of its fuel source.
No additional land or other expansion is needed. The plants have a low prole, reaching about 25 feet in height, and are constructed to blend in with the
natural scenery so that they do not distract from popular scenic landscapes.
THE FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
According to government ocials, geothermal energy has the potential
to play a signicant role in the energy portfolios of the United States and
other countries. Geothermals major asset is that it is a renewable energy
technology that can provide a continuous supply of energy around the
clock. The utility costs for electricity supplied from geothermal facilities
FEATURE
Does Geothermal Energy Contribute to Local U.S. Economies?
According to town officials in a rural area of Imperial County, California, as of 2009
geothermal activities produced more than $12 million in tax revenue. The geothermal businesses provided jobs for more than 250 people. Since enactment of the
2005 Geothermal Steam Act Amendments, state and local governments have received substantial revenues from geothermal leasing and production.
28
are also declining. In fact, some geothermal power plants have reported
50 percent reductions in the price of electricity since the 1980s. Presently,
new geothermal facilities can produce electricity for between 4.5 and 7.3
cents per kilowatt-hour. This kind of pricing makes it competitive with
conventional fossil fuelred power plants.
In 2009 a new report by the Geothermal Energy Association (GEA)
showed strong growth in new geothermal power projects continuing into
2009. The report identied a total of more than 100 projects under development with the potential to put 5,500 megawatts of new geothermal power
online, providing enough power for 5.5 million California homes, according to the GEA. The GEA also reported that Nevada, with 58 planned
geothermal projects, has the most production under development of any
state. California is second with 27 projects, followed by Idaho, Oregon,
Utah, and Alaska. In all, new geothermal power projects were identied
in Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada,
New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. The GEA estimates that
bringing these projects online could help economic recovery, with the potential of 100,000 new jobs.
Media, 2007.
Orr, Tamra. Geothermal Energy. Ann Arbor, MI: Cherry Lake, 2008.
Saunders, Nigel. Geothermal Energy. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens,
2008.
2007.
Sherman, Josepha. Geothermal Power. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press, 2004.
SOMETHING TO DO
Using the U.S. geothermal map, determine whether your state would be a
candidate for installing geothermal energy systems. Why or why not?
WEB SITES
www.osti.gov/geothermal
Geothermal Energy
29
Geothermal Technologies Legacy Collection is a set of documents,

journals, and citations where users can expect to nd valuable resources in the geothermal technology eld.
www.sandia.gov/geothermal-energy-drilling
Sandia National Laboratories investigates new drilling processes and
tools that could make geothermal energy a practical and aordable
energy source.
www.energy.gov
The U.S. Department of Energy and its geothermal technologies
program supports the U.S. geothermal industry in providing diversity
in domestic energy supply options.
www.geothermal.marin.org
The Geothermal Education Oce promotes public understanding
of geothermal resources through environmental and renewable energy educational materials for educators, students, and the general
public.
www.geothermal.org
The Geothermal Resources Councils goals are to encourage worldwide development of geothermal resources through the distribution
of data and technical information and to promote research, exploration, and development of geothermal energy compatible with the
environment.
VIDEOS
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plugins. Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the videos. You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Geothermal: What Is It? Where Is It Located? To view a Google
Earth video explaining the advantages of digging deeper to tap
emissions-free and carbon-neutral geothermal energy, go to http://
www.google.org/egs/ (3:23 minutes).
Geothermal: Its Hot! This video explains the benets of the greatest
source of untapped, practical clean energy in the world: http://www.
discoversolarenergy.com/solar/videos-geotherm.htm (1:55 minutes).
30
Geothermal: Global ConsumptionIceland: The most inventive,

progressive, and eco-friendly energy system in the world is the cornerstone of a national consciousness that is a blueprint for the worlds
future. The United States could learn from Iceland and produce 10
percent of its total power from geothermal energy. For more information, view the rst 4:30 minutes of this video: http://www.you
tube.com/watch?v=XRAQrDduaU0.
Chapter 2
Countries Using
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy supplies approximately 10,000 megawatts of electricity for more than 15 countries worldwide. How much electricity is that?
That is enough electricity to meet the needs of 60 million people.
Much of the geothermal-producing countries are located along the
Circum-Pacic Belt, also called the Pacic Ring of Fire. As stated in chapter 1, the Pacic Ring of Fire stretches along the western coasts of North
and South America, across the Aleutian Islands in Alaska, and downward
along the eastern coast of Asia. The countries in this ring-like-shaped area
include the western United States (including Alaska), New Zealand, Indonesia, Philippines, Japan, and Russia.
UNITED STATES
Two countries, the United States and the Philippines, account for 50 percent of the worlds use of geothermal energy. As of August 2008, geothermal capacity in the United States totaled nearly 3,000 megawatts, produced
by several states such as Alaska, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, New
Mexico, and Utah. In fact, California produces more megawatts of geothermal energy than any country in the world. See chapter 1 for more information on Californias geothermal energy, produced in an area called The
Geysers, a geological region north of San Francisco.
This chapter concentrates on how other countries use geothermal
power.
(Source: Casey Research)
PHILIPPINES
After the United States, the second-largest producer of geothermal power
in the world is the Philippines. The Philippines is located in the western
part of the Pacic Ring of Fire, and in this area of the world, there are deep
geological fractures where hot molten material (magma) inside the crust is
close enough to Earths surface to heat the underground water reservoirs.
These underground heated reservoirs can provide hot steam and hot water
for renewable energy production.
DID YOU KNOW?

The worlds oldest geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France,
has been operating since the 14th century.
Countries Using Geothermal Energy a 33
DID YOU KNOW?

There are more than 22 active volcanoes in the geographic region know as the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
The Philippines produces 350 megawatts from geothermal sources

enough to power 700,000 local households. Most of the geothermal power
plants are on the islands Luzon, Negros, Mindanao, and Leyte. In fact,
Leyte was the rst island in the Philippines where geothermal power
plants were installed. As of 2009, there were 16 geothermal power plants in
the Philippines generating almost 2,000 megawatts of electricity in total,
according to the Philippine governments Department of Energy.
The Philippine government plans to increase to more megawatts of
renewable energy by 2013. As an example, Biliran, one of the smallest
provinces in the Philippines, is estimated to have at least 100 megawatts
of potential geothermal energy, which will be an excellent location for future geothermal explorations. Besides this province, there are many other
View of the main power plant at the Leyte Geothermal Production Field on
Leyte Island, the Philippines. (Blaine Harden/Washington Post/Getty Images)
potential geothermal sites in the country still waiting to be explored for

energy uses.
The energy portfolio of the Philippines includes a variety of other resources besides geothermal. They country has diesel fuel plants, hydropower plants, coal-red plants, natural gas plants, and petroleum-powered
thermal plants.
MEXICO
In 2009 Los Angeles mayor Antonio Villaraigosa signed an agreement to
purchase geothermal power from Mexico, saying: Just to make this deal
even sweeter, geothermal power doesnt vary with the wind or the sunlight.
It will be steady, stable, and available for use at virtually all times.
Mexicos national utility agency is located in Mexicos geothermal area,
which is one of the largest geothermal powerproducing areas in the world.
The purchase of geothermal power from Mexico will assist Mayor Villaraigosa in his goal of having Los Angeles obtain 20 percent of its power
from renewable sources in 2010.
According to the Renewable Energy and Energy Eciency Partnership (REEEP), as of 2007, Mexico, with its 960 megawatts of geothermal
energy power, occupies third place in the world for the generation of electrical power from geothermal sourcesafter the United States and the
Philippines. The electricity generated from geothermal accounts for almost
3 percent of the total energy used in Mexico.
Mexico also has a geothermal agreement with the country of Belize
similar to the one with Los Angeles. Belize, situated in Central America
and a short distance from Mexico, gets much of its power from Mexico.
Mexico has also negotiated a geothermal agreement with Guatemala, another nearby country. Mexico claims that its sales of geothermal energy to
other countries bring in more than 80 million dollars a year. As of 2005,
to keep pace with demand, Mexico was actively exploring additional
VIDEO
GeothermalPhilippines Eco Solution: This CNN video highlights the Philippines
active pursuit of this alternative energy source. The Philippines produces 350
megawatts from geothermal sourcesenough to power 700,000 local households.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoDBKvnRDIA&feature=related (2:44 minutes).
geothermal productions sites in its Baja California and the Central Mexican Volcanic Belt locations.
JAPAN
Do you know that Japan is located in an area of more than 100 active volcanoes? The 100 or so volcanoes represent 10 percent of the worlds active
volcanoes. So Japan is in a good position to tap into underground geothermal energy sources near these volcano sites.
As a nation with few natural resources, Japan has long been dependent
on importing large quantities of crude oil and natural gas from other countries. Now the country is trying to cut back on it dependency on imported
energy sources by planning to explore geothermal resources and other renewable energy sources.
Presently, Japan has an estimated geothermal electricitygenerating capacity of more than 60,000 megawatts. This is enough energy production
to provide one-third of the countrys electricity requirements.
In 2010 Japan started construction on new geothermal projects, including a geothermal power plant in northern Japan. When in operation, the
power plant will tap into hot water and steam at approximately 6,000 feet
below the surface. If the drilling is successful, the project could generate up
to 60,000 kilowatts of power when it begins operating in 2016.
ITALY
Italy is the European leader in geothermal energy production. The country
is also one of the worlds largest producers of geothermal energy, behind
the United States, the Philippines, Mexico, and Japan. Italy has a long history of using geothermal resources.
Going back a few thousand years, the early Romans built many large
communal baths using natural hot water throughout their empire. Their
empire extended from the countries in northern Africa to northern England and from Turkey to Spain. In many of these locations, the Romans
DID YOU KNOW?

As of 2009, Toshiba (Japan) holds 44 percent of the worlds market share of geothermal turbines and is the top supplier of geothermal turbines in the world.
heated their buildings using hot steam piped in through hollow tiles from
the thermal underground springs. This piped-in hot steam technique was
an early use of direct geothermal heating.
However, it was in 1904 that the rst modern geothermal power plants
were built in the region of Larderello, a community in Tuscany in central
Italy.
But the major production of geothermal energy at Larderello began
in the 1930s, and by 1970 the electrical power capacity had reached 350
megawatts. Since the 1980s, there has been more drilling in this region to
increase geothermal power production.
There are currently 32 operating geothermal plants in Italy, with a total
installed capacity of 790 megawatts. These geothermal plants also make
use of wastewater from nearby cities. The wastewater is injected into the
geothermal eld, providing an environmentally safe disposal method to
increase steam production in the power plants. Italy is expected to nearly
double its installed capacity by 2020.
The geothermal power plant in Larderello is located in central Italy just south
of Tuscany. This geothermal project started in 1904 when Prince Piero Ginori
Conti tested the first geothermal power generator at the Larderello dry steam
field. It was reported that the little generator produced just enough electricity
to light up a few lightbulbs. (Dreamstime.com)
So today, after 100-plus years, the Larderello eld is still producing geothermal energy to meet the requirements of two million Italian households.
The use of geothermal energy also plays a part in the countrys reduction of
carbon dioxide emissions.
ICELAND
Do you know that people in Iceland use geothermal heat to wash clothes,
take warm baths, bake bread, and heat up footpaths, streets, and parking
places? Iceland, sometimes referred to as the Land of Volcanoes, is considered the success story in the world of geothermal production. As of 2009,
Iceland ranked 14th in the world for geothermal resources but was the
highest per capita (per person) producer of geothermal power.
Iceland has many hot springs, geysers, and high-temperature geothermal reservoirs. The high-temperature sources are in a volcanic area where
there are natural steam vents; a vent, also known as a fumarole, is an opening at Earths surface through which volcanic materials such as magma and
gases as well as steam or water are released.
Hot springs and geysers are located all over Iceland. As mentioned in
chapter 1, a geyser is a natural phenomenon of hot water owing up from
underground and it proves heat exists in Earths interior. There are more
than 100 geysers in Iceland. The most famous one is the Great Geysir in
South Iceland from which the international word geyser is derived. The
geyser has been known to erupt a long column of hot water to a height of
about 180 feet.
Icelands population of more than 300,000 people is now fully powered
by renewable forms of energy, with 17 percent of its electricity and 87 percent of its heating needs provided by geothermal energy. However, some
fossil fuels are still imported for shing vessels and for vehicle and other
transportation needs.
Over the years, Iceland has been improving and expanding its geothermal power production to meet growing industrial and commercial energy
DID YOU KNOW?

Between 1980 and 1990, volcanic activity killed at least 26,000 people and forced
nearly 450,000 to flee from their homes.
The Stokkur Geysir in Haukadalur, southern Iceland, erupts about every four to
eight minutes and spouts water approximately 60 feet high. The word geyser
means gusher or spouter in Danish. (Rzihlman/Dreamstime.com)
demands. As an example of geothermal growth, in 2004 Iceland was reported to have generated 1,465 gigawatt-hours from geothermal resources,
and by 2009 geothermal production had reached 3,000 gigawatt-hours.
How Does the Geothermal Plant
Work in Iceland?
In Iceland, a mixture of steam and geothermal brine is extracted from wells
and transferred to a central separation station. After being separated from the
brine, the steam is piped through special steam heat exchangers inside the
plant building. At this stage, the steam is piped to steam turbines for generating electricity. The leftover excess steam is released through a steam exhaust
system.
CANADA
Much of the geothermal activity in Canada is located in Meager Mountain
in British Columbia. Presently, a large geothermal electrical generation project is under development. In this plan, geothermal uids with temperatures
of greater than 350 degrees Fahrenheit will be used to produce electricity.

Low-temperature geothermal uids will be used for direct-use applications
such as space heating, crop drying, aquaculture, and so on.
The schools in Manitoba take advantage of geothermal energy as well.
Approximately 20 schools in Manitoba currently use some form of geothermal system, in which underground pipes assist the heating and cooling
systems in the buildings. According to school ocials, although geothermal systems can be more expensive to install, they produce virtually no
greenhouse gases and can reduce annual heating costs by 5070 percent.
CHINA
Did you know that the oldest known pool fed by a hot spring was built in
the Qin dynasty in the third century b.c.?
In China, there are several thousand geothermal areas that include many
geothermal sites with total potential reserves of 3.2 million megawatts. At
present, geothermal energy has been used for electric power generation,
textile printing and dyeing, heating sources, and medical care. The geothermal power stations that have been put into operation are mainly in Tibet.
High-temperature geothermal resources are mainly distributed in the
northern area of Tibet and in the southwestern areas of Yunnan and in the
Taiwan province. The geothermal uid temperature is above 150200 degrees Fahrenheit. High-temperature geothermal resources are mainly used
for electrical power generation.
In 2009 a new geothermal district heat development system was installed
in a province near Beijing. The geothermal reservoir used in the district
heating system has water temperatures ranging from 132 to 200 degrees
Fahrenheit at a well depth of 1,5004,500 feet. The installation of the geothermal district heating system heats homes and helps improve the districts
air quality because the heating of homes would otherwise be powered by
coal-red heating plants. Chinas plan for the future is to rely less on coalpowered plants for energy and to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions by
using renewable energy sources such as wind, tidal power, hydropower, and
solar and geothermal energy.
THAILAND
Thailand has much potential to use geothermal energy sources in the future. Thailands Department of Mineral Resources has reported that more
than 100 geyser sources have been found in many sections of the country.
The geysers, with hot geothermal water temperatures ranging from 70
to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, can provide enough energy for a geothermal
plant.
INDONESIA
Much of Indonesia lies in a region of active volcanoes in the Pacic Ring
of Fire. More than 200 locations across the country have been identied as
possible sites for geothermal power production. Presently, a major oil and
gas company, which operates two geothermal power plants in the West
Java province, is hoping to double the size of its geothermal business in
Indonesia. So 20 years after the rst geothermal plant came online, the
governments goal is now to install 8,000 megawatts of new geothermal
power plants by 2026.
A small 300 kilowatt geothermal binary plant provides electric power to the
small village of Fang, Thailand. The power plant replaced a diesel-powered
electrical generator. The hot water, at a temperature of 250 degrees Fahrenheit, is used for other applications. (PRNewsFoto/Ormat Technologies, Inc.)
FEATURE
Chevron
Chevron, a global company, is the largest producer of geothermal energy in the
world, accounting for more than half of all privately developed geothermal power.
The companys geothermal operations started more than 30 years ago when Chevron discovered Darajat, a major field in Indonesia. Its three other important sites
for geothermal energy production include Gunung Salak in Indonesia and Tiwi and
Mak-Ban in the Philippines. Combined, the four Pacific Rim sites generate 1,273
megawatts of geothermal energy. The company reports that the Indonesian sites
produce enough energy to supply approximately 3.9 million homes in the area. In
the Philippines, Chevron geothermal power supplies 7 percent of the electricity
needed by Luzon, the countrys largest island and home to 48 million people.
TURKEY
Turkey is ranked seventh in the world in geothermal resources. The country is located on the Mediterranean volcanic belt, which has one of the
most promising geothermal elds.
Much of the geothermal resources in Turkey are of low temperatures that
are not suitable for electricity production. However, the low-temperature
geothermal resources are still useful for district direct-heating applications,
such as in some cities in China.
In 2010, 125,000 homes in Turkey were heated with geothermal energy.
The country plans to have 550 megawatts of on-line geothermal power by
2013.
UNITED KINGDOM
The rst geothermal power plant in the United Kingdom is being planned
for development in Cornwall. The Cornwall Geothermal Project is a hot
dry rock system, also known as a geothermal enhanced system, which drills
into granite rock outcrops near Earths surface for heat energy to generate
electricity.
The hot dry rock system requires drilling holes down into Earth to approximately 12 miles to reach the high-temperature granite rocks. After
the drilling is completed, the next phase is to pump water down into the
holes of the injection well. The pumped-in water passing through the
hot rocks heats up to about 250300 degrees Fahrenheit before returning to the production well at the surface. The hot water is then converted
to electricity through a heat exchanger. The Cornwall project should be
completed and the power plant should be producing electricity by 2012.
Further studies have indicated that the geothermal resource of the Cornwall area has the potential to supply 10 percent of the United Kingdoms
electricity for 200 years.
There is already a geothermal project in Southampton that supplies
heated water to a number of customers. However, the Cornwall project
will be the rst to convert heated water into electricity.
AUSTRALIA
In 2009 the Australian government approved funds for two projects to
begin the installation of geothermal power resources in the country. Geological reports state that geothermal power plants could provide up to
2,200 megawatts of electrical capacity by 2020.
The geothermal power companies will be also implementing the hot dry
rock system, or the enhanced geothermal system. As mentioned previously,
instead of locating pockets of steam underground, the enhanced geothermal
system requires using high-pressure water to fracture and break up the hot
rock layers. When this process is completed, water is then pumped through
the rocks to make steam. When the plant is in operation, it can produce
around 7.5 megawatts of power and up to 30 megawatts in the future.
Australia presently has the Birdsville geothermal power plant in
Queensland. The power station was rst commissioned in 1992 and it is
Australias only operational geothermal power station capable of electricity
generation 24 hours a day. The plant generates a modest 8090 kilowatts
net power. However, there are plans to upgrade and retrot this plant to
increase its electrical output from a minimum of 90 kilowatts up to 340
kilowatts. The retrotting of this geothermal program is part of Australias
goal to achieve a 60 percent reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from
year-2000 levels by 2050.
EL SALVADOR
El Salvador is situated on the Pacic coast of Central America and is
about the size of Massachusetts. However, this small country is one of
the top geothermal energy producers in the world. Geothermal power

in El Salvador represents 14 percent of the countrys total electricity
production. Since 1975, the Ahuachapn geothermal eld has been in
continuous and successful commercial operation. Ahuachapn is a city
in western El Salvador with a population of about 110,000 people. Since
1992, the geothermal eld in this city area has provided 10 megawatts
of power.
In 2009 another geothermal power plant went into full operation. The
plant is a 9.3-megawatt binary plant at Berlin in El Salvador. The Berlin
plant uses lower-temperature geothermal heat reservoirs to generate electricity. The plant utilizes a uid boiling at lower temperatures in a closed
cycle system. However, if the temperature of 270 degrees Fahrenheit increases, a heat exchanger creates steam, which itself turns a turbine to generate electricity.
KENYA
The geothermal development potential of the Great Rift Valley in Africa
looks very promising. Africas Great Rift Valley is a large crack more than
5,000 miles long in Earths crust that runs from Lebanon to Mozambique.
This is an excellent and extensive location to explore geothermal resources.
So in June 2008, President Mwai Kibaki announced a plan to install some
1,700 megawatts of new geothermal capacity within 10 years. This would
represent a huge increase in the current capacity of geothermal energy in
this country.
COSTA RICA
It has been reported that Costa Rica gets about 99 percent of all of its electrical energy from renewable energy sources such as hydroelectric power,
wind power, and geothermal energy. The largest share of that energy is
from hydroelectric power plants, but as much 515 percent comes from
geothermal resources.
When in operation, the Las Pailas Geothermal Plant in the northern
province of Costa Rica will be the countrys second major geothermal
eld to generate electricity. The plant is scheduled to become operational
in 2011, adding 35 megawatts to the 163.5 that are already supplied by
the ve units of the Miravalles volcano power station, in operation since
1994, according to the government of Costa Rica. The new plant will use
water-cooled condensers and a high-eciency turbine to produce energy

applications.
NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand is another country that lies in the southwest corner of the
Pacic Ring of Fire chain of volcanic activity and geothermal resources. The
main geothermal area is centered near the towns of Taupo and Rotorua in
the North Island of New Zealand. The original settlers of New Zealand, the
Maoris, used the natural geothermal springs for bathing and the hot springs
and geysers for cooking. The region became home to one of the worlds earliest geothermal projects when a geothermal power station was constructed
in the mid-1950s. The indigenous Maori people own New Zealands largest
privately developed geothermal project. Presently, about 10 percent of the
electricity in New Zealand comes from geothermal sources.
A geothermal power station located at Wairakei, New Zealand. The plant

was built in 1958 and is located within the Taupo Volcanic Zone. According
to reports, New Zealands geothermal energy potential could supply a third of
the total electricity needs of the country if fully developed. (Andrew Wrighting/
StockphotoPro)
GERMANY
As of 2004, less than 1 percent of Germanys total primary energy supply
was from geothermal sources. Since then, new power plants have started to
come online. Right now, there are only four small geothermal power plants
successfully operating in Germany, but more than 100 geothermal power
plant projects are being planned.
The rst geothermal plant in operation is in the northeastern part of
Germany. The plant provides both electrical power and thermal energy.
The 230-kilowatt combined electricity and heat power plant went into
operation in 2003 and extracts water with a temperature of 220 degrees
Fahrenheit from a well approximately 1.5 miles underground. The plant
supplies 1,300 households with heat and approximately 500 households
with electricity. Another plant close to Munich supplies 20,000 households with electricity and heat.
In Germany one of the best geothermal areas is located in southern
Bavaria, the biggest state in Germany, in the southeastern section of the
country and with a population of approximately 12 million people. The
geothermal reservoirs in this section have water temperatures of 280 degrees Fahrenheit or hotter. Most of these reservoirs are found at three
miles below the ground.
Besides geothermal energy plants, geothermal heat pumps are popular in Germany. In 2007 there were an estimated 130,000 geothermal
heat pumps operating in residential and commercial buildings. About
25,00030,000 new geothermal heat pumps are being added to the list
each year.
OTHER COUNTRIES INTERESTED
IN GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
As of 2010, the following countries were exploring the potential of geothermal energy: Armenia, Chile, Djibouti, Dominica, Greece, Honduras,
Hungary, India, Iran, Korea, Nevis, Rwanda, Slovakia, Solomon Islands,
St. Lucia, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam, and Yemen.
As a result of this interest, geothermal electricity generation is likely
to expand. According to the International Geothermal Association, total
global geothermal capacity was expected to rise to 11 gigawatts by 2010.
Fortunately, many countries now have enough technology, experience, and
engineering capabilities to tap this vast resource.
FEATURE
What Factors Influence the Cost of a Geothermal Power Plant?
According to a report by the Geothermal Energy Association, many factors influence the cost of a geothermal power plant. In general, geothermal plants are affected by the cost of steel, other metals, and labor. Some of the specific costs
include funds for drilling and the costs to connect the geothermal plant to the electric grid, which can vary from one project to the next. The purchase and leasing of
land also varies for a geothermal site to be fully explored. Other factors to consider
before installing a geothermal plant include the following:
Size of the plant

Power plant technology
Knowledge of the resource
Temperature of the resource
Chemistry of the geothermal water
Resource depth and permeability
Environmental policies
Tax incentives
Financing options and cost
Time delays
HOT DRY ROCK OR ENHANCED

GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
Additional applications and technologies of geothermal systems continue
to emerge. One technology is the hot dry rock system, or the enhanced
geothermal system, which was mentioned previously in the chapter.
Lets review this technology again. The hot dry rocks found in granite
outcrops are an excellent source of geothermal energy. To generate electricity or to produce thermal energy, the rock layers are rst fractured and
broken up into particles. Next, water is pumped into and out of the hot
rock. The heated water is transferred to a production well and then to geothermal power plant.
The hot dry rocks are usually granite, an igneous rock found in many
parts of the world. These rocks have abnormally high heat production as a
result of the decay of a type of radioactive particle that makes up this kind
of igneous rock.
Although hot dry rock geothermal studies have stopped in the United
States, research applications of this technology are being pursued in France,
Japan, Australia, and elsewhere. Europe and Australia are aggressively
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, enhanced geothermal systems are

engineered reservoirs created to produce energy from geothermal resources
that are otherwise not economical due to lack of water and/or permeability. To
see a video of how a geothermal-enhanced system works go to http://www1.
eere.energy.gov/geothermal/egs_animation.html. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
working toward the potential of using hot dry rock systems on a large scale
to produce electricity in their countries.
Australia
In 1994 the Australian government concluded in a report that the country
had extensive hot dry rock resources with the potential to generate electricity. Several thousand cubic miles of high-temperature heat-producing
granite rocks were identied throughout northeastern South Australia and
in New South Wales. According to the government report, the hot dry
rock resources have the potential heat energy to meet Australias total electricity demand for the next hundred years or more.
European Hot Dry Rock Project
Besides Australia, France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland have joined together in a single European program to research hot dry rock technologies.
The European hot dry rock system project is at Soultz-sous-Forts in
Alsace in northeastern France. It is a pilot program based on 20 years of
research and development in hot dry rock technology. Soultz-sous-Forts
is an area where there are many fractures in underground rock layers containing owing water. In demonstration tests, the work on the Soultz project has shown that the underground water can be made to ow at a steady,
constant rate inside a closed loop. The loop is made up a network of several
natural ssures, reaching a depth of about 10,000 feet. The water is heated
inside the rock from 130 to 220 degrees Fahrenheit, and the thermal energy is transferred to the surface power plants to produce electricity. If
these tests continue to be successful, they could be the starting point for a
European industrial project in hot dry rock systems.
One of the worlds enhanced geothermal systems is in Soultz-sous-Forts in

northern Alsace, France. The European Unions Enhanced Geothermal System
(EGS) is a 1.5 megawatt demonstration plant that is connected to the local
grid. (Courtesy GEIE Exploitation Minire de la Chaleur)
VIDEO
Hot Dry Rock EnviroVideo Documentary: http://www.encyclopedia.com/video/
Szdx8F_g3Z0-hot-dry-rock-envirovideo-documentary.aspx.
Advantages of Hot Dry Rock

Systems in Europe
Hot dry rock/enhanced geothermal systems can utilize the vast amount
of heat stored in Earths crust. And because the hot dry rock resources are
widely distributed throughout Europe, these resources can provide a rich
source of geothermal potential and data for many countries.
One of Europes long-term objectives is to ensure a sustainable energy
supply based on renewable energy sources. The hot dry rock technology
system could contribute much to Europes total energy supply because this
technology oers a clean, steady, and constant supply of energy.
MANY USES FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
In addition to large power generation, geothermal is used for directuse purposes worldwide. In 2005, 72 countries reported that homeowners
and businesses use geothermal energy for direct uses such as space heating for greenhouses, snow melting of roads, aquaculture, and industrial
buildings.
FEATURE
The Kalina System
The Kalina system is another geothermal technology. As of January 2009, the Kalina system was being used at two power plants in Germany and Iceland.
The Kalina cycle uses an ammonia and water mixture to achieve greater heat
transfer efficiency for power. Proponents of the Kalina system state that the Kalina
cycle system could boost geothermal plant efficiency by as much as 2040 percent
and reduce plant construction costs by 2030 percent. If these percentages are
accurate, the system would lower the cost of geothermal power generation. However, more research and demonstration tests are being conducted in this technology field.
Heating Purposes
Iceland and France are major users of geothermal energy for space heating. In Iceland, 85 percent of the countrys 300,000 plus people use geothermal energy to heat their homes. It has been reported that the country
saves $100 million per year by avoiding major oil imports. As mentioned
previously, geothermal energy accounts for much of Icelands energy use
in general.
In the 1970s some 60 geothermal district heating facilities began operating in France. Most of them, 41 in all, are in the Paris region. These facilities provide both heat and hot water for some 200,000 housing units.
Other countries that have extensive geothermal-based district heating
systems include Japan, Turkey, and as mentioned previously, China. In the
United States, there are individual homes that are supplied directly with
geothermal heat in Reno, Nevada, and in Klamath Falls, Oregon.
Geothermal energy is an excellent source of heat for greenhouses, particularly in northern climates. Russia, Hungary, Iceland, and the United
States all use geothermally heated greenhouses to produce fresh vegetables in cold weather conditions. Geothermal energy is also used for
aquaculture.
Aquaculture
Approximately 20 countries use geothermal energy for aquaculture.
Among these are China, Israel, and the United States. In California, for
example, several sh farms produce tilapia, striped bass, and catsh with
warm waters from underground geothermal reservoirs. This process enables farmers to produce larger sh in a shorter period of time and to
raise the sh stocks without interruption all year long. Collectively, these
California farms provide thousands of pounds of sh per year.
The number of countries turning to geothermal energy both for electricity and for direct use is increasing rapidly. Romania, for example, uses
its geothermal energy for district heating, for greenhouses, for hot water
for dwellings, and to supply industrial hot water for factories.
Spas and Pools
Geothermal energy has also long been enjoyed by swimmers and bathers.
In Japan alone, hot geothermal water runs through more than 2,500 spas,
Located two miles west of Alamosa, Colorado, this fish farm utilizes three geothermal wells. These wells are 2,000 feet deep with 105 degree Fahrenheit,
85 degree Fahrenheit, and 70 degree Fahrenheit water, respectively, all with
artesian flow. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
5,000 public bathhouses, and 15,000 hotels. Many public swimming pools
are also heated by geothermal energy, including approximately 100 in Iceland and 1,200 in Hungary. Most spas heated with geothermal energy are
open-air pools used year-round.
FEATURE
Carbon Credits for Global Geothermal Users
Companies using geothermal energy projects will earn carbon dioxide credits
under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the United Nations Kyoto accord on climate change. Projects that demonstrate non-carbon dioxide emissions
would gain credits that can be sold into carbon markets or used by companies to
offset their own carbon dioxide emissions.
An elderly Japanese man in Kirishima City, Japan, relaxes by soaking his

feet at a free outdoor hot spring especially made for that purpose. (Wdeon/
Dreamstime.com)
BENEFITS
Geothermal energy provides reliable, alternative, and renewable fuel; supplies thousands of jobs; boosts rural economies; increases tax bases; reduces
foreign oil imports; and diversies the fuel supply.
According to a 2006 Geothermal Energy Association publication, besides the costs expended through the development and construction of a
power plant, geothermal developers often make signicant contributions
to the communities in which they are located, as well as to the local, state,
and federal governments under whose jurisdiction they operate. Some
contributions come as royalties or taxes, which are mandated by the government, while some come voluntarily from the geothermal company.
DID YOU KNOW?

Many geothermal areas are national treasures. Geothermal areas in the national
parks, such as the geysers and fumaroles in Yellowstone National Park, are protected by law to prevent the land from being disturbed or degraded.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy has some disadvantages. It can be more expensive to
use than other fuels. Thermal pollution can occur from the wastewater unless it is treated. The construction of geothermal plants in rain forests can
destroy sensitive ecological habitats. The drilling of wells can also disrupt
underground faults and ssures, which may lead to seismic activity and
landslides.
THE FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy could play a role in moving the United States and
some other countries toward a cleaner energy system, especially as the cost
of creating electricity from geothermal plants declines. Since 1980 the
cost of electricity at several geothermal facilities has been cut in half. Like
fossil fuels and unlike most other renewable energy sources, geothermal
plants can supply continuous, base-load power, making them an attractive
option. And as hot dry rock/enhanced geothermal system technologies
improve and become competitive, this largely untapped and underused
geothermal resource could be a major source of geothermal energy. In addition to electric power generation, there is a bright future for the direct
use of geothermal resources as a heating source for homes, greenhouses,
and businesses.
However, the future of using geothermal energy is still uncertain. Presently, it is not a major energy supplier in the overall energy needs on the
global scene. Many believe that geothermal energy has great potential as
an energy source, but more research and development has to be initiated
and nanced by governments.
Orr, Tamra. Geothermal Energy. Ann Arbor: Cherry Lake, 2008.
Saunders, Nigel. Geothermal Energy. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens,
2008.
2007.
2004.
SOMETHING TO DO
Research and discuss why the United States dropped further research of
hot dry rock systems when many countries in Europe and elsewhere are
interested in this technology.
WEB SITES
www.energysavers.gov
Energy Savers is a site providing consumers and installers of geothermal heat pump systems information about the economics, energy
eciency, and the meaning of the Energy Star rating system on geothermal products.
www.eia.doe.gov
The Energy Information Administration publishes an annual report
that includes data tables, text, and graphics covering various aspects
of the renewable energy marketplace. The renewable energy sources
included are biomass, geothermal, wind, solar, and conventional
hydropower.
www.geoexchange.org
GEO Mission is a nonprot trade association for the geothermal industry whose mission is to support national and state eorts to promote maximum sustainable growth of geothermal pump technology.
www.alliantenergygeothermal.com
GeoThermal promotes the use of geothermal energy by explaining
economic and environmental benets, system development fundamentals, and types of equipment needed for homeowners and contractors to construct open- and closed-loop systems.
VIDEOS
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plugins. Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the
videos. You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current
version.
GeothermalHistory of Geothermal Power Plants: Covering Italy
to California, this video can be accessed via http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=9XlWSurevy4&feature=related (3:08 minutes).
GeothermalPhilippines Eco Solution: This CNN video highlights
the Philippines active pursuit of this alternative energy source. The
Philippines produces 350 megawatts from geothermal sources
enough to power 700,000 local households. http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=QoDBKvnRDIA&feature=related (2:44 minutes).
Geothermal Heat PumpsGeothermal Heating and Cooling: Patrick
Dixon explains the advantages of installing geothermal pumps. He cites
Sweden, Switzerland, and New Zealand as the pioneers in this eld.
http://video.yahoo.com/watch/2386719/7444409 (4:34 minutes).
Chapter 3
We have installed over 75 GHP (Geothermal Heat Pumps) in the

Austin Independent School District alone. In addition to the savings,
low noise, low maintenance, and numerous other benets, these systems are also environmentally friendly and convenient to use
Bob Lawson, Austin Independent Schools, Texas
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), geothermal heat pumps are the most energy-ecient, environmentally clean, and
cost-eective systems for temperature control. Although most homes still
use traditional or conventional furnaces and air conditioners, geothermal
heat pumps are becoming more popular. In recent years, the U.S. Department of Energy and the EPA have joined with the geothermal industry to
promote the use of geothermal heat pumps.
The use of geothermal heat pumps is not new. In fact, many homes and
buildings throughout the world have been using geothermal heat pumps
for years.
Simply stated, a geothermal heat pump is a central heating and/or
cooling system that pumps heat to or from the ground. The geothermal
heat pump uses Earths underground temperature as a heat source in cold
weather. In a sense, heat pumps move heat from one place to another, for
example from outside to inside a home.
DID YOU KNOW?

A geothermal heat pump is also referred to as a ground source heat pump.
A report by the Department of Energys Energy Information Administration (EIA) stated that in 2007, the U.S. geothermal heat pump industry
had double-digit growth each year for the past four years. The growth of
geothermal heat pumps was the result, in part, of the increasing energy
prices for conventional fuels as well as the desire for reliable and clean
energy alternatives. According to the EIA report, in 2007 total geothermal
heat pump shipments reached 86,396 units. The report further stated that
despite costing more initially than traditional heating and cooling systems,
the high eciency and ongoing cost-saving potential of geothermal heat
pumps has resulted in their becoming the heating and cooling system of
choice for many consumers.
According to the Energy Information Administration, in 2008, total shipments

of geothermal heat pumps surged more than 40 percent to 121,243 units. In
2008 there were about 23 known domestic manufacturers of geothermal heat
pumps, including brand-name manufacturers that shipped geothermal heat
pumps manufactured by others under contract. (Source: U.S. Department of
Energy/Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-902, Annual Geothermal
Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey)
Geothermal Heat Pumps a 59
VIDEO
Geothermal Heat PumpsGeothermal Radial Drilling: This highly mobile and flexible pioneering German process intelligently increases the potential to
extract more geothermal energy from fewer boreholes: http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=uNzcJfamMMs.
The United States is the largest user in the world of geothermal heat
pumps. However, although most of this growth has occurred in the United
States and Europe, other countries such as Japan and Turkey have shown
interest in the application of geothermal heat pumps.
HOW DO GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS WORK?
Geothermal heat pumps use the temperature in shallow ground, which
is approximately the upper 10 feet of Earths surface. At this depth, the
ground maintains a nearly constant temperature of between 50 and 60
degrees Fahrenheit. Like in a cave, the ground temperature is warmer than
the air above it in the winter and cooler than the above air in the summer.
According to the Department of Energy, heat pumps and most central air
conditioners are called split systems because there is an outdoor unit, called a
condenser, and an indoor unit, called an evaporator coil. The heat pump (or
air conditioner) transfers heat from one of these units to the other.
In the summer, for example, the system removes hot air from indoors
and transfers it outside. The cooled indoor air is recirculated through the
ducts by a fan.
The outdoor unit has a compressor that will change the gaseous refrigerant in the coil. As the gas ows through the outdoor coil, it loses heat. This
action causes the gaseous refrigerant to condense into a high-temperature,
high-pressure liquid that ows through copper tubing into the evaporator
coil located in the fan unit.
At that point, the liquid refrigerant expands. When this happens, the
liquid refrigerant turns into a low-temperature, low-pressure gas. The gas
then absorbs heat from the hot air circulating inside the house. This system
leaves cooler air to be distributed throughout the house. Meanwhile, the
low-temperature, low-pressure refrigerant gas returns to the compressor to
begin the cycle all over again.
During the winter, the geothermal heat pump system collects heat from the
ground and transfers it to the building. In warmer weather, cooling is done
by collecting the heat in the building and transferring it outside to the ground.
The same process works in reverse in a heat pump during the winter.
The heat pump takes heat out of the outside air and moves that heat inside, where it is transferred from the evaporator coil to the air circulating
through a building.
TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS
According to the Department of Energy, geothermal heat pumps are generally classied as either closed-loop or open-loop systems based on the type
of ground loop that they use.
Closed-Loop Systems
The closed-loop system uses sealed horizontal or vertical pipes as heat exchangers. Water, or water and antifreeze, owing through the pipes transfers geothermal heat to or from the ground. The closed-loop tubing can be
installed horizontally as a loop eld in trenches or vertically as a series of
long U-shapes in wells. The size of the loop eld depends on the kind of
soil and its moisture content and the average ground temperature.
The installation of the horizontal closed-loop system is generally most costeffective for residential installations, particularly for new construction where
sufficient land is available, according to the Department of Energy. It requires
trenches at least four feet deep. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Open-Loop Systems
Unlike the closed-loop system, which can use antifreeze in the heat exchangers, the open-loop system circulates only water drawn from a surface
water source, such as from a pond or stream. The collected groundwater
is transferred to a geothermal heat pump and then discharged back to its
original water source or to another location. The piping of an open-loop
system is open at both ends, and the water is used only once.
The open-loop system is advantageous because the source water is used
only once and then discharged. However, it has two disadvantages:
The open-loop system uses well or surface water as the heat exchange fluid.
The fluid circulates directly through the geothermal heat pump system. Once it
has circulated through the system, the water returns to the ground through the
well, a recharge well, or surface discharge. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
1. The water quality needs to be carefully checked for such corrosives as

sulfur, iron, or manganese.
2. If the pH is low, the costs of pumping water through an open loop
are higher than those associated with circulating water through a
closed loop. The pH (potential of hydrogen) is a measure of the
degree of the acidity or the alkalinity of a solution as measured on a
scale (pH scale) of 014.
Hot water for use in homes can be supplied with geothermal heat pump
water heaters. These geothermal heat pump heaters can be installed right
into the same ground loop that services heating and cooling. According to
studies, this method of heating water is four times more cost-ecient than
standard electric water heating.
The energy in geothermal heat pumps can also be used to power commercial freezers, walk-in and reach-in coolers, and icemakers. Geothermal
heat pumps can provide hot water for laundry or dishes and even snow
removal.
EVALUATING A SITE FOR A GEOTHERMAL
HEAT PUMP
Geothermal heat pumps can be eectively used almost anywhere because
shallow ground temperatures are relatively constant throughout the United
States. However, knowing the geology and hydrology of the land is important in determining the best type of ground loop for a geothermal heat
pump site. Land availability is a factor as well.
Geology
The soils chemical composition and physical properties are important factors to consider during the planning of a ground loop at a land site. For
example, soil that can transfer heat very well requires less piping than soil
with poor heat-transfer properties.
Hydrology
Also important to consider when evaluating a site is the availability of
ground or surface water, which will impact what type of ground loop to
use. Because surface water such as ponds and lakes can be used as a source
of water for an open-loop system, several factors need to be investigated,
such as the depth, volume, and water quality of the surface water. Geothermal heat pump contractors advise that anyone purchasing an open-loop
system must take the time to investigate the sites hydrology to avoid potential problems. Some of the potential problems include aquifer depletion
and groundwater contamination.
Land Availability
The layout of the land, the landscaping, and the location of underground
utilities are important in determining the geothermal pump system design
FEATURE
Using Stored Water from a Former Granite Quarry to Cool a Building
Is it possible to use a water-filled former granite quarry to cool a building? Well,
it has been done. Biogen Idec, Inc., a company in Weston, Massachusetts, decided to use cold water from a nearby water-filled quarry to cool their new 356,000square-foot building. The quarry is about 400 feet deep and the water temperature
at the bottom is about 41 degrees Fahrenheit. A pumping station draws up the cold
water and transports it through pipes and then to the building. Inside the building, a
special heat exchanger and other equipment filter the cooled water and circulate
it throughout the many offices in building. After the water passes through the cooling system, it is recirculated and returned to the water-filled quarry. The system
keeps the building cool in the summer and without the need of using a traditional
air conditioning system, according to the company.
and installation. Horizontal ground loops are used for newly constructed
buildings that have sucient land area. Vertical installations are used for
existing buildings.
SCHOOLS USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
According to the EPA, geothermal pumps are used in homes, stores,
zoos, and oce buildings nationwide. However, as of 2009, more than
600 schools in 30 states also have installed a variety of geothermal heat
pumps. Following are some reasons geothermal heat pumps are popular
for schools:
Reduced energy use and energy costs

Reduced maintenance costs
No complicated controls required
Lower life-cycle cost
Saves money for school district
No outdoor equipment
Quiet operation
Reduced mechanical room space
Individual room control
Low source energy use and low air pollutant emissionsgreen
technology
Construction of an eco-friendly school in Greensburg, Kansas, that will use

geothermal wells for energy. On May 4, 2007, Greensburg, a typical Midwestern U.S. farming town of some 1,400 people, was 95 percent destroyed by a
tornado. After the tornado, residents decided to rebuild as a model green
community for rural America, attracting a group of experts and enthusiasts
who not only helped the community try to achieve economical, environmental,
and cultural sustainability using renewable energy and LEED building standards but also encouraged residents and businesses to go green. (Emmanuel
Dunand/AFP/Getty Images)
Kentucky
Paint Lick Elementary School in Garrard County, Kentucky, was the rst
newly constructed school in Kentucky to be heated and cooled by geothermal heat pumps. The school has 35 separate heat pumps throughout the
building, which allow the classrooms, the library, the cafeteria, the oces,
and the gym to have individual thermostats. The school has a science curriculum that helps students learn about geothermal energy.
Arizona
Some school districts in Arizona are considering geothermal energy to
reduce utility costs. The Cave Creek Unied School District governing
In 2008 the Williston Northampton School transformed a landmark Victorian

home into a 25,000-square-foot dormitory with geothermal heating and cooling. The 15 geothermal wells are 350 feet deep. An antifreeze mixture circulates through the pipes and back into compressors in the basement.
board approved the drilling of a test well at its high school campus. The
plan is to drill a 250-foot test well at Cactus Shadows High School. The
test includes attaching geothermal heat pumps to a series of buried plastic
pipes. The pipes circulate water in closed-loop systems. During the winter, the grounds heat warms the circulating water and transfers it to the
pumps. The process is reversed in the summer, with the pumps sending
heat back into the ground.
Minnesota
Approximately 40 schools in Minnesota are using geothermal systems. For
one example, the West Central Area Secondary School in Barrett, Minnesota, uses geothermal heat pumps for space heating and cooling and for
hot water.
Wisconsin
As mentioned in chapter 1, the Fort Atkinson School District in Wisconsin uses geothermal energy as one way to save money while teaching
students about alternative energy. Four schools within the district will be
renovated to incorporate alternative energy methods. One middle school
is already using a geothermal system that starts with geothermal wells deep
below the football eld equipped with pumps to provide both heating and
cooling throughout the middle school. So far the school has saved thousands of dollars with geothermal energy, and the savings are expected to
rise in the near future. The school is also using solar panels to heat the
swimming pool, so energy from both Earth and sun is being used to cut
expenses and as a teaching tool.
South Dakota
In South Dakota, geothermal water has heated the Midland elementary
and high schools for more than 30 years. In 1969 the town of Midland
decided to tap geothermal energy by drilling a well into a hot underground
water source. The well is about 3,300 feet deep and is located in part of the
Yellowstone aquifer.
The temperature of the water is about 150 degrees Fahrenheit. Pumps
bring the water into each of 27 individual classrooms, where the pipes
connect to heaters. According to school sta, heating issues are rare, and
maintenance is largely limited to greasing the water pumps.
Massachusetts
The Noble and Greenough School in Dedham, Massachusetts, is getting
geothermal wells installed on campus. School ocials say that although the
system will cost more than a conventional setup, using geothermal energy
to provide heat and air conditioning for its middle-school building will save
$17,000 a year and will help the schools goal to become more eco-friendly.
FEATURE
Toledo Zoo Uses Geothermal Energy
In the Midwest, the Toledo Zoo in Ohio is now drilling geothermal wells to help
both heat and cool the center. The geothermal energy will mainly be used to keep
the facilitys aquarium at the correct temperature and will reduce the zoos carbon
footprint by 38 percent annually.
The Williston Northampton School is located in Easthampton, Massachusetts, and consists of three buildings. All three buildings are heated and
cooled using a geothermal well system. The system eliminates the need for
conventional heating oilcutting energy costs and at the same time helping to save the environment by reducing the schools carbon footprint.
According to the construction company, the geothermal system uses several vertical wells, each 350 feet deep, in order to tap into Earths constant
temperature at that level. Pumps in the building circulate a uid that is used
as fuel to heat or cool the entire building depending on the time of year.
Nebraska
Some elementary schools in the Lincoln, Nebraska, school district will use
a closed-loop ground-coupled heat pump (GCHP) system for their heating and cooling operations. GCHP technology meets the schools heating
and cooling needs at the lowest energy costs. In fact, the GCHP systems
are expected to save the school district at least $100,000 a year and Lincoln
School District taxpayers nearly $3.8 million over the next 20 years.
Indiana
Ball State University (BSU), located in Muncie, Indiana, has plans to
drill 400-foot-deep, ve-inch-diameter geothermal wells through athletic
elds, parking lots, and lawns. BSU expects nearly 4,000 wells to be dug.
The wells will be equipped with two loops of polyethylene pipingone for
cold water and one for warm.
During the winter the cold water will ow down the wells to absorb
heat from the surrounding Earth, which stays around 55 degrees Fahrenheit year-round. Water warmed by the wells will ow back to a heat
exchanger that collects and concentrates the warmth to heat buildings.
To cool those same buildings in summer, the process reverses: water
warmed by the heat exchanger is cycled into the wells where the surrounding Earth cools it. BSU expects to save an estimated $2 million a year in fuel
costs while cutting in half the campuss yearly carbon dioxide emissions.
THE BENEFITS OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS
Geothermal heat pumps are quieter than conventional systems and have
lower maintenance costs. Surveys show customer satisfaction at usually
well over 90 percent. In a 1993 EPA report titled Space Conditioning: The
Next Frontier, the agency concluded that geothermal heat pump technologies represent a major opportunity for reducing national energy use and
pollution, while delivering comfort, reliability, and savings to homeowners.
Those conclusions remain valid in the early 21st century.
The EPA estimates that, on average, a properly sized and installed Energy Starlabeled geothermal heat pump can save consumers 3040 percent on heating and cooling bills. Results vary based on resident behavior,
climate, and other factors such as abnormally hot or cold seasons.
Greenhouse gas emissions associated with the use of geothermal heat
pumps are 5560 percent lower than those from standard air-source heat
pumps. The EPA found that in most areas of the United States, geothermal heat pumps had the lowest CO2 emissions and the lowest overall environmental impact of any space conditioning technology evaluated by the
EPA in its study. In even the coldest climates, geothermal heat pumps oer
cost savings, durability, low maintenance, year-round comfort, and other
benets.
Cost-Effectiveness
Geothermal heat pumps can save money in operating and maintenance
costs. The purchase price of a home geothermal heat pump system
costs more than that of a comparable gas-red furnace and central airconditioning system. However, the geothermal heat pump is more ecient, thereby saving money every month and for years to come.
In addition, some electric utilities have nancing packages and incentives that make the purchase of a geothermal heat pump system even less
expensive. Other utilities are providing special electric rates for homes with
geothermal heat pump systems installed.
DID YOU KNOW?

For further savings, geothermal heat pumps equipped with a device called a desuperheater can heat household water. In the summer cooling period, the heat that is
taken from the house is used to heat the water. In the winter, water-heating costs
are reduced by about half.
Durability and Maintenance

Geothermal heat pump systems have fewer components and maintenance
requirements than most other systems. The components in geothermal
heat pump systems are protected from leaves and dirt. Geothermal heat
pumps are durable and highly reliable. The underground piping used often
has a 25- to 50-year warranty, and the heat pumps themselves typically last
20 years or more.
USE OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS IN THE UNITED STATES
The Geothermal Energy Association reports that geothermal heat pump
installations have been growing at an annual rate of 15 percent, with more
than 600,000 units installed in the United States by the end of 2005the
largest growth in the world for geothermal heat pumps. As of 2010, approximately 80,000 units are being installed annually, of which 46 percent
are vertical closed-loop systems, 38 percent are horizontal closed-loops
systems, and 15 percent are open-loop systems.
States Using Geothermal Heat Pumps
A number of states provide incentives for homeowners and businesses to
utilize geothermal heat pumps and other geothermal energy technologies.
Some of the state and federal programs include property tax exemptions
for the value of installed geothermal heat pumps, income tax credits, and
grant programs for publicprivate geothermal energy projects. Here are a
few of the states that use geothermal heat pumps.
Kentucky
The Waterfront Oce Building in Louisville, Kentucky, completed in
1994, has the largest geothermal heat pump system in the world. The Louisville geothermal heat pump system includes 130-foot-deep wells. Each
DID YOU KNOW?

In the United States, heat pumps are rated in tonnage and are equal to 12,000 Btu/
hour or 3.51 kilowatts. A unit for a typical residential requirement would be around
three tons or 10.5 kilowatts installed capacity.
Iowa Central Community College carpentry students stand near a construction

site at the school in Fort Dodge, Iowa. The students helped in the construction
of an energy-efficient home that will feature a geothermal heat pump system,
windows that maximize solar energy, energy-efficient insulation, and even
shingles made of recycled materials. (AP Photo/Charlie Neibergall)
well provides up to 700 gallons per minute from the Louisville aquifer.
The ground water, at a temperature of 58 degrees Fahrenheit, is pumped
into a 150,000-gallon reservoir under the mechanical-maintenance room.
The water is then circulated through special heat exchangers and other
equipment that provides heating and air conditioning for the large oce
building. The adjoining 750,000-square-foot Galt House East Hotel complex, with its 600 hotel rooms, 100 apartments, and 120,000 square feet of
public areas, is served by geothermal heat pumps.
Idaho
Idaho allows an income tax deduction to taxpayers who install a solar, wind,
or geothermal device used for heating or generating electricity. Geothermal heat pumps are also eligible. The deduction starts at 40 percent of the
cost of the system for the year in which it is installed. The deduction then
falls to 20 percent for each of the following three years. In addition, the
states energy oce oers a low-interest loan program for projects using
geothermal heat, including geothermal heat pumps. According to the tax
code, to qualify, the project must be located within the state and the savings must repay the installation costs within 10 years.
Michigan
At Davenport University in Grand Rapids, Michigan, a 134,000-squarefoot main building and a 75,000-square-foot adjacent residence hall receive heating and cooling capacity from 150 on-site geothermal holes in
the ground, which the university estimates has reduced its energy usage in
these buildings by as much as 40 percent.
North Dakota
North Dakota is another state that provides tax incentives for geothermal
heat pumps and other geothermal energy systems. According to its tax
code, any North Dakota taxpayer, whether an individual or a corporation,
who installs a geothermal, solar, or wind energy device may claim an income tax credit of 5 percent per year for three years for the actual cost of
acquisition and installation.
Mississippi
The new Herbert Bryant Conference Center in Vicksburg, Mississippi,
has a geothermal heating and cooling system. Ocials decided to install
this system in the new conference center because it seemed to match its
philosophy of using natural resources wisely. The conference center is right
next to a small lake. Although geothermal pumps are more expensive than
traditional heating and cooling systems, the center hopes the system will
pay for itself in less than 10 years.
GEOTHERMAL USE IN EUROPE
In many countries in the European Union, people use the heat pump system instead of gas-red boilers and oil-burning boilers. In Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, Norway, and France, large numbers of geothermal heat pumps are already operational, especially in Sweden.
In Sweden, heat pumps became popular in the early 1980s. By 1985
about 50,000 units had been installed and as of 2009, about 116,900 heat
pumps were sold.
The total sales volume of the heat pump system in the European Union
was about 520,000 units in 2009, which increased about 110 percent when
compared to the volume of units sold in 2005.
FEATURE
The Federal Role
The EPA and Department of Energys Energy Star program helps draw consumer
attention to the energy-saving and environmental qualities of geothermal heat
pumps. In addition, the National Earth Comfort Program, established under the
Department of Energys Energy Partnerships for a Strong Economy, promotes the
use of geothermal heat pumps nationwide. The program is a collaborative effort
of the U.S. Department of Energy, the EPA, and other public and private-sector organizations, including 120 electric utilities. The goal is to increase annual sales
of geothermal heat pumps in the United States, reduce carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gas emissions, and to save consumers millions of dollars per year in
energy bills.
ECONOMICS OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS

Many geothermal heat pump systems carry the U.S. Department of Energy
and EPA Energy Star label. According to the Oce of Energy Eciency
and Renewable Energy, geothermal heat pumps save money in operating
and maintenance costs. On average, a geothermal heat pump system costs
about $2,500 per ton of capacity, or roughly $7,500 for a three-ton unit
(Source: World Geothermal Conference [2010])
FEATURE
Air-to-Water Heat Pumps
Although the European market is largely oriented toward space heating, use of
geothermal technology for clean, sanitary hot water is also becoming popular.
Many manufacturers in Sweden, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France are
increasing their product line to sell air-to-water heat pumps (exhaust-air type) that
can provide sanitary hot water. An air-to-water heat pump transfers heat in the
outdoor air to water for space or water heating.
The European market for air-to-water heat pumps is expected to see large
growth through 2015 and in fact become a popular product in several countries.
One reason for the popularity of this product is the ease of installation and low costs
when compared with ground-source heat pumps. In 2009 Germany and France reported a large sale of geothermal air-to-water heat pumps for residential use.
(a typical residential size). A system using horizontal ground loops will

generally cost less than a system with vertical loops. In comparison, other
systems would cost about $4,000 with air conditioning.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
A study by the EPA found that geothermal heat pumps are as much as 72
percent more ecient than electric heating and air conditioning systems.
The U.S. Department of Energy found that heat pumps could save a typical home hundreds of dollars in energy costs each year, with the system
paying for itself in 210 years.
Despite their long-term savings, geothermal heat pumps have a higher
initial cost than conventional heating and cooling units. In addition, installing them in existing buildings can be dicult. Also, some heating and
cooling installers are just not familiar with the technology.
Lets look at a list of advantages and disadvantages of geothermal heat
pumps.
Advantages
High eciency
Lower energy consumption
Lower energy cost
Low maintenance cost
Low life-cycle cost

No outdoor equipment
Greater occupant comfort
Disadvantages
Higher initial cost than for conventional systems
Not all system types feasible in all locations
Limited number of geothermal heat pump contractors and installers
GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP MANUFACTURERS
Many geothermal heat pump manufacturers provide comprehensive Web
sites, including online catalogs and information on all aspects of geothermal heat pumps, such as designs and techniques for geothermal heat
pumps and care and maintenance of geothermal heat pumps. Following is
a list of a few of these manufacturers.
Econar. Based in Elk River, Minnesota, Econar is a manufacturer of geothermal heat pumps. It has been producing geothermal heat pumps
in Minnesota for more than 20 years and has specialized in cold
climate geothermal heat pumps; these are suited to places where the
principal requirement is heating rather than cooling.
Water Furnace. Based in Fort Wayne, Indiana, Water Furnace is a maker
of geothermal heating pumps for both residential and commercial
applications. Water Furnace geothermal heating pumps can save
users up to 70 percent of their heating, cooling, and hot water costs.
ECR Industries. Based in Reading, Pennsylvania, ECR Industries is
a maker of geothermal heating pumps. The companys geothermal
heating pumps have been on the market since 2000.
SOMETHING TO DO
A heat pump extracts ambient heat from the environment, hot buildings,
roads, and so on. Find a metal hubcap and measure its temperature with
a thermometer. Now place the hubcap in bright sunlight for 10 minutes.
Take its temperature again. One calorie of heat raises the temperature of
one gram of water 1 degree Celsius. How many calories of heat did the
hubcap absorb?

Beyond Fossil Fuels: Lucien Bronicki on Geothermal Energy. Scientic
American, April 30, 2009. http://www.scienticamerican.com/article.
cfm?id=energy-bronicki-ormat-technologies.
2007.
2004.
WEB SITES
The following Web sites are representative, although not inclusive, of government and nongovernmental organizations.
www.energy.gov/programs_oces
supports research and development of energy eciency and renewable energy technologies.
www.energysavers.gov
The Energy Savers home page describes ways in which homeowners
can save money and use clean, renewable technologies at home, while
driving, and at work.
www.epa.gov/aboutepa
The Environmental Protection Agencys mission is to protect human
health and the environment. The purpose is to protect all Americans
from risks to human health and the environment where they work,
learn, and live. This is done through developing and enforcing regulations, studying and supporting grants on environmental issues, and
providing instruction about protecting the environment.
www.inlportal.inl.gov
The Idaho National Laboratorys Geothermal Program works with
U.S. industry to establish geothermal energy as an economically
competitive contributor to the U.S. energy supply.
www.geoheat.oit.edu
The Geo-Heat Center provides technical analysis, assistance, and databased resources for those actively involved in geothermal development.
www.igshpa.okstate.edu
The International Ground Source Heat Pump Association was established to advance ground source heat pump technology on local,
state, national, and international levels. Its goal is to promote the

use of geothermal technology worldwide through education and
communication.
http://www.silobreaker.com/FlashNetwork.aspx?DrillDownItems
=11_4167539
This site links to a network of geothermal blog sites, related news
articles, and general facts.
VIDEOS
Geothermal Heat PumpsGeothermal Radial Drilling: This
highly mobile and exible pioneering German process intelligently
increases the potential to extract more geothermal energy from
fewerboreholes.http://www.science.tv/watch/8035d23f69e30bb19218/
Geothermal-Radial-Drilling (4:31 minutes).
Geothermal Power and Nanotechnology: Could nanotechnology
boost geothermal power and reduce earthquake risk? For more
information, see the video at the end of the following report: http://
www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2009-07/nanotech-could-boostgeothermal-pow (1:45 minutes).
Chapter 4
Biomass, Biofuels,
and Biogas
Do you have any idea what biomass is and what it is used for? Simply
stated, biomass refers to the leftovers or waste products of organic materials such as wood chips and plants.
Middlebury College in Vermont provides an example of how biomass
can be used. In 2004 Middlebury decided to cut by 8 percent its carbon
emissions. To help reduce its emissions, the college invested in a biomassfueled district heating and cooling system. A few years later, Middlebury
built an $11 million biomass gasication plant. Middlebury College
expects its biomass plant to
cut the volume of greenhouse gases that it emits by almost 12,500
tons per year, or about 40 percent
replace a distant fuel source with a local one, with the college requiring that all of its biomass come from less than 75 miles away
generate from 2 to 2.5 million kilowatt hours of electricity with a
renewable fuel
benet the economy of its home region, especially its forest-products
industry, along with area farmers
serve as a learning and demonstration lab for biomass gasication
technology in action
Middlebury College in Vermont has a biomass gasification plant that uses

wood chips. According to college sources, between 20 and 35 tons of wood
chips arrive by truck at the college every day. This daily tonnage adds up to
thousands of tons of chips each year. The chips are fed into the $12 million biomass plant. The use of the new boiler at the plant has cut the campus Number
6 fuel oil consumption in half, according to the college. (Courtesy Middlebury
College)
Besides Middlebury College and other institutions, the U.S. government is also very interested in the development of biomass and bioenergy
technology projects. In 2009 the U.S. Department of Energy and Department of Agriculture announced up to $25 million in funding for research
and development of technologies and processes to produce biofuels, bioenergy, and high-value biomass products.
These projects will be among many Obama Administration investments that will help strengthen our economy and address the climate crisis.
A robust biofuels industryfocused on the next generation of biofuelsis
critical to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, reducing our addiction to
foreign oil and putting Americans back to work, said Secretary of Energy
Steven Chu.
Biomass, Biofuels, and Biogas a 81
VIDEO
BiomassA Global Revolution (General): What is biomass? See this video
explaining all the plants, terms, and definitions associated with biomass: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_NZHFo6DcDk&feature=related (6:08 minutes).
WHAT IS BIOMASS AND WHAT IS IT USED FOR?

Biomass refers to organic material such as trees, agricultural food and
feed crops, agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood wastes and residues, aquatic plants, animal wastes, municipal wastes, and other waste
materials.
Producing fuels and chemicals from biomass is not a new idea. Cellulose, ethanol, methanol, vegetable oils, and many other biomass-based
chemicals were manufactured in the early 1800s. The biomass produced
during that period was used to make such products as paint, adhesives,
and glue. It was not until the 1930s and 1940s that products made from
Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals. Biomass resources
include pulp and paper operations, agricultural and forestry wastes, urban
wood wastes, garbage, and animal wastes. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
petroleum or petrochemicals began to be more popular than products derived from biomass.
Biomass resources are used to generate electricity and power and for
producing liquid transportation fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel.
This chapter highlights the new technologies that are being used to
produce energy from a wide range of agricultural and forestry resources.
For more on biofuels see chapter 5.
Switchgrass: A Biomass Energy Crop
According to government sources, biomass crops, which include such
plants as poplar, willow, and switchgrass, could become important feedstocks for liquid fuel and chemical production. Of all of these plants, there
is a lot of attention to using switchgrass, a native grass in North America,
as an energy crop.
Unfamiliar with switchgrass? Well, it is not like the grass growing on
your front lawn. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a native grass of the
prairie states. The prairie states are in the Great Plains of the north-central
region of the United States. The prairie states are also called the heartland
or the breadbasket of America.
Switchgrass is used for heating

and for the production of diesel
fuel. Switchgrass, a plant native to
Texas, contains enormous amounts
of sugar that can be refined into
ethanol. It can be burned to produce electricity or used as a feedstock for cellulosic ethanol. (Jochen
Schneider/Dreamstime.com )
Switchgrass is a tall and hardy grass plant. After its growing season,
switchgrass can stand 10 feet high in a eld, with stems that are thick and
strong like hardwood pencils, according to the scientists at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory in Tennessee.
Switchgrass is a summer perennial grass that is native to North America. It is found in a tall-grass prairie ecosystem, which covers much of
the Great Plains, but switchgrass can also grow on the prairie soils in the
southern regions of Alabama and Mississippi. Switchgrass is ideal for energy crops: it grows fast, and the cellulose in the plant can be liqueed,
gasied, or burned directly (cellulose is a major part of the cell walls of
plants, and chemically, it is a carbohydrate).
Test plots of switchgrass at Auburn University have produced up to
15 tons of dry biomass per acre, and ve-year yields average 11.5 tons
enough to make 1,150 gallons of ethanol per acre each year. The U.S.
Department of Energy believes that biofuels made from crops of native
grasses, such as fast-growing switchgrass, could reduce the nations dependence on foreign oil, curb emissions of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide,
and strengthen Americas farm economy.
Hybrid Poplars as Biomass Energy
The Natural Resources Research Institute (NRRI) at the University of
Minnesota in Duluth is developing a variety of projects aimed at meeting
the growing demand for biomass energy. One of the biomass projects at the
institute involves the growing and harvesting of hybrid poplars, which are
some of the fastest-growing and most productive trees in North America.
A cross between North Americas cottonwoods and aspens and European
poplars, these hybrid poplars are a source for alternative fuels and ber
and are also grown on tree farms for pulpwood and for the manufacturing
of paper goods. The U.S. Forest Services Wisconsin lab is a leader in U.S.
hybrid poplar research.
The NRRI poplar-breeding program is one of the largest in the world
to develop hybrid poplars for industrial uses. Hybrid poplars can produce
three to six times more wood per acre per year than natural forests, according to the Minnesota Department of Agriculture. The plant is well suited
as a source of bioenergy (such as heat, power, and transportation fuels),
ber (paper, pulp, or particle board), and other biomass products such as
organic chemicals and adhesives. Compared to corn and other annual row
A stand of hybrid poplars at GreenWood Resources tree farm, a Forest Stewardship Councilcertified poplar tree farm in Boardman, Oregon. The fastgrowing hybrid poplars are an excellent source of biomass. GreenWood grows
the poplars for multiple markets including feedstock for biomass energy.
(Courtesy GreenWood Resources, Inc.)
crops, the hybrid poplar (like other perennial plants) is an excellent biomass alternative because it can greatly reduce erosion and runo. According to the Minnesota Department of Agriculture, hybrid poplar trees can
be harvested on 5- to 15-year cycles, and they often regrow from the roots
and trunks, eliminating the need to replant.
With a boost in crop yields for switchgrass, poplars, and other plants,
biomass might compete with fossil fuels for a number of energy uses.
Compared to fossil fuels, biomass feedstocks do provide signicant
DID YOU KNOW?

A hybrid poplar can grow to a height of 60 feet in 10 years.
environmental benets. As stated previously, biomass crops do not add

greenhouse gases to the atmosphere during their life cycle.
RENEWED INTEREST IN BIOMASS
Biomass continues to be a major source of energy in much of the developing world. In the United States, wood and waste (bark, sawdust, wood
chips, and wood scrap) provide about 2 percent of the energy we use today.
There are some main reasons for the renewed interest in biomass, including economics and environmental concerns.
Economically, new advances in biotechnology and other technologies
can reduce the costs of producing biochemicals from biomass materials. As
stated previously, biomass fuels generally have less impact on the environment than the mining and production of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil.
Biomass crops could also perform other environmental tasks such as ltering and removing fertilizers and pesticides from runo areas near ranching
and farming activities.
Department of Energy research scientists suggests that yields of biomass crops such as poplar, willow, and switchgrass could be increased signicantly. Such a development would benet farmers by adding energy
crops to their traditional food-production operations.
MAJOR ASIAN COUNTRIES USING BIOMASS
The use of present-day conventional energy sources such as petroleum, oil,
coal, and natural gas has increased enormously in many Asian countries.
In these countries during the 1980s, consumption of these conventional
energy sources more than doubled, with an average annual growth rate of
7 percent. However, consumption of biomass energy also increased over
the same time period. The biomass materials used for fuels in these countries include fuelwood, charcoal, and agricultural wastes.
DID YOU KNOW?

About 3 percent of the energy used in the United States is produced from biomass
fuels.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, biomass is an important energy source. The International
Energy Agency expects biomass consumption to account for 25 percent of
all energy consumption in Indonesia by 2010.
Indonesia has tested several biomass energy-conservation technologies,
including the following:
The gasication of wood from unproductive rubber trees to generate
heat energy for the drying of fermented chocolate seeds for sale
Energy conversions from organic vegetable waste by using special
fermentation methods that manufacture biogas as a fuel and for generating electricity for homes and businesses
Gasication of charcoal and wood sawdust for electricity generation
Sugarcane field in Indonesia. According to the Department of Energy, crops

such as sugarcane are being studied for their ability to serve as energy crops
for the production of biofuels. As an example, the Indonesian government
is interested in ethanol production using the countrys abundant biomass
resources such as sugarcane, one of its major crops. (Photosoup/Dreams
time.com)
Malaysia
Biomass energy is highly popular in the country of Malaysia. In this region
of the world, biomass technologies convert the biomass into solid fuels
such as briquettes and charcoal. The country also uses the combustion of
biomass to provide heat for use in the palm oil, rubber, and brick-making
industries.
Philippines
Philippines president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed the Renewable
Energy Act of 2008 in a bid to make the Philippines 60 percent energy
self-sucient by 2010. With our Renewable Energy Act, we can now
move aggressively to develop these resources, the President said. One
of the renewable resources includes biomass energy technologies. In the
Phillipines, biomass energy can be generated from agricultural wastes
such as wood, straw, animal manure, rice husks, and sugarcane residues.
Burning these agricultural wastes can generate heat, steam, and electrical
energy.
Thailand
In Thailand, about 80 percent of the total energy used in the country
comes from conventional nonrenewable energy sources such as petroleum.
Almost half of the energy used in the country is imported. Therefore, renewable energy from biomass looks very promising as an alternate energy source. Thailand has an excellent opportunity and has the resources
to utilize biomass for energy production. Waste products from rice husks,
bagasse, oil palm residue, and rubber wood residue, for example, can be use
for biomass fuels.
Vietnam
The major source of energy in Vietnam is biomass. The majority of both
rural and urban populations use biomass. It is estimated that approximately
90 percent of the domestic energy consumption in rural areas is derived
from biomass such as fuelwood, agricultural residues such as rice straw and
husks, and charcoal. Much of this biomass is used mainly for household
cooking.
FEATURE
Burn Wood More Efficiently: Use the Rocket Stove
Rocket stoves are being used all over the world to help families cook using less
fuel and less time. The rocket stove is a variety of a wood-burning cooking stove
that makes it possible to cook with small twigs and branches; the stoves are also
easy to build. The rocket stove was developed for use in nations where the use
of wood for cooking has led to the vast wholesale deforestation of large areas of
Earths surface.
Rocket stoves can be built out of metal or masonry and feature an L-shaped
tube at the bottom where the wood is placed. The chimney provides a highly efficient, largely smoke-free burn. A few small branches or twigs are all you need
to start a fire. The unique design of the stove allows the person to use just smalldiameter pieces of wood, such as small branches. The small twigs and branches
provide sufficient fuel for cooking tasks. Also, the small branches can be gathered
in less time and without the benefit of tools for cutting and sawing.
OTHER USERS OF BIOMASS

Several industrialized countries use native wood and biomass fuels as alternatives to oil or coal, including Sweden, Finland, Austria, and Denmark.
Sweden
In Sweden, biomass and peat contribute about 12 percent of the total energy supply. The main source is liquids from the biomass of pulp mills.
Fuelwoods (logs, bark, and sawdust), municipal solid waste, and peat are
all used for district heating, for home heating, and in the forest products
industry.
Finland
The utilization of biomass to produce liquids in Finland is similar to that
in Sweden. Of the total biofuels available in Finland, the liquids produced
from biomass pulp wastes account for the largest proportion (45%), followed by peat (19%), wood waste (18%), and rewood (18%), with municipal waste representing less than 1 percent. Tree planting is another
ongoing strategy to produce biomass.
Austria
In Austria, renewable energy sources supply 27 percent of the countrys
total energy consumption. Of this percentage, biomass provides 13 percent.
Tree-bark residue and wood chips are among the biomass products used in
this country. Most of these products are used in small wood-burning stoves
as well as larger furnaces and district heating plants.
Denmark
Denmark is an agricultural country and generates large amounts of straw
and animal wastes, which are increasingly being used as sources of energy.
At present, 6 percent of Denmarks total energy consumption is covered by
biomass energy, representing 75 percent of the countrys renewable energy
production.
Municipal solid waste is also increasingly being used for energy in the
country. Households separate organic from nonorganic waste in a recycling program, and the organic waste is used in biogas digester plants,
which generate heat and electricity from the biogas.
BIOFUELS
accelerate advanced biofuels research and development and to provide
additional funding for commercial-scale biorenery demonstration projects.
Developing the next generation of biofuels is key to our eort to end
our dependence on foreign oil and address the climate crisiswhile creating millions of new jobs that cant be outsourced, Secretary Chu said.
With American investment and ingenuityand resources grown right
here at homewe can lead the way toward a new green energy economy.
The Department of Energy biomass program will include the departments national laboratories, universities, and the private sector. These
groups will help improve biofuels reliability and work together to overcome technology challenges, with the goal of creating third-generation
biofuels such as green gasoline, diesel, and jet fuels.
The $786.5 million from the Recovery Act provides additional funding
for existing projects. Biofuels are a solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived
Biorefinery plants, like this one in Nebraska, process renewable forms of

energy from biological material. (iStockPhoto)
from biomass. Biofuels are used as an alternative to fossil fuels and include
biogas, biodiesel, and methane. About 5 percent of the energy consumed
in the United States is provided by biofuels.
What Are Biofuels?
The biofuels section in this chapter concentrates on biofuels such as ethanol and biogas. Biodiesel fuels are covered in chapter 5.
Most biofuels are produced from wood wastes from logging operations.
However, biofuels can also be produced from corn and sugar crops. The
term biofuel basically refers to fuel ethanol, biodiesel, and some other biomass products.
Biofuels include various types of alcohols, oils, gases, and solid fuels.
All of the biofuels are extracted from organic remains or from recently
living organisms. At present, biofuels are blended with fossil-based fuels at
a ratio of 1 percent for diesel and 520 percent for gasoline. However, car
manufacturers have already begun development of vehicles that run solely
on biofuels.
Biofuels are cleaner than fossil fuels because they release few greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur into the atmosphere.
DID YOU KNOW?

In France, Italy, and Germany, biodiesel fuels are produced from domestic oilseeds
and cottonseeds.
Bioethanol
Bioethanol is a sustainable and renewable energy source. Fermenting carbohydrates, such as starch or sugar, from agricultural plants produces it.
Bioethanol is also known as ethanol; however, ethanol also can be produced
from petroleum, and petroleum-based ethanol would not be considered
a renewable energy source. Note that both kinds of ethanol (bioethanol
and petroleum-based ethanol) have the same chemical composition and
chemical formula.
Carbon (C) is the fourth most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen
(H), helium (He), and oxygen (O). The carbon cycle includes the circulation of
chemical components through the biosphere from or to the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Here, the term ethanol refers to alcohol produced exclusively from plant
starches. Ethanol is currently being used in Brazil, the United States,
China, India, and Thailand. The rst three countries are also the worlds
top producers of bioethanol. Sources of bioethanol include corn, sugar,
cassava, sweet sorghum, molasses, and potatoes. In the Philippines, the
primary source of bioethanol is sugarcane.
The use of bioethanol has been gaining popular worldwide acceptance
for the following reasons:
1. It is a clean fuel. Bioethanols high oxygen content reduces carbon
monoxide levels and harmful exhaust emissions.
2. It boosts the octane levels in fuels to help vehicles run smoothly.
3. It is biodegradable and therefore produces no harmful eects to the
environment.
Corn Ethanol
Ethanol is the chemical name for ethyl alcohol, or grain alcohol, a substance made from renewable natural resources that are used as a fuel or a
fuel additive. Distilling biomass materials such as sugarcane, beets, grain,
and corn can produce ethanol. Ethanol can also be produced from garbage
and agricultural wastes and even from animal dung.
Ethanol is a colorless, volatile, ammable liquid that is used in liquors,
as a fuel, and as a solvent. When burned, ethanol produces a pale blue
ame with no residue. These characteristics make ethanol an ideal fuel or
fuel additive.
Ethanol is often used as an additive in unleaded gasoline to boost its
octane rating and make the fuel burn more eciently. Gasolines containing ethanol produce fewer carbon monoxide emissions than other fuels.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has determined that ethanolblended fuels reduce carbon monoxide emissions by as much as 2530
percent. Ethanol also releases little sulfur in the form of sulfur dioxide to
the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is a major component in the formation of
acid rain.
In the United States, about 8 percent of ethanol exists as a blend called
gasohola fuel containing about 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline. The 10 percent variety, called E10, is common today. E85, which is
85 percent ethanol, is the highest practical blend; some gas is still required
for combustion in most climates.
Ethanol-gasoline fuel pump. At most gasoline stations in the United States,

ethanol is combined with unleaded gasoline to improve efficiency. (Pat Lalli/
Dreamstime.com )
About 4 percent of the corn crop in the midwestern United States is

currently used to produce ethanol. Experts believe that new manufacturing processes and technologies will lead to increased production and use
of ethanol in the future. However, some scientists believe that biomass
products other than corn can be used to produce ethanol as well.
How Is Ethanol Produced?
Most of the ethanol in the United States is made in several production
facilities in 20 dierent states; most of these are located in the Midwest.
In the production, the starch in kernels of corn needs to be changed to
sugar. The next step is to change the sugar to ethanol, a complex process
because technologies from several elds are required, include microbiology, chemistry, and engineering.
All the ethanol from corn can be produced with two standard processes: dry milling or wet milling. Dry-milling plants cost less to build and
produce higher yields of ethanol. Therefore, most of the ethanol plants in

the United States utilize a dry-milling process.
Dry Milling
In dry milling, the entire corn kernel or other starchy grain is rst ground
into our. The our, known as the meal, is processed without separating out
the various component parts of the grain. The meal is mixed with water to
form a mash-like material. Enzymes are added to the mash to convert the
starch to dextrose, a simple sugar. Ammonia is added for pH control and
as a nutrient for growing the yeast.
When the mash is ready, it is placed in a high-temperature cooker to
reduce bacteria levels before fermentation. After the mash is cooled and
transferred to fermenters, the conversion of sugar to ethanol and carbon
dioxide begins.
According to the Department of Energy, in dry milling corn kernels are ground
into a fine powder and processed without fractionating the kernel into its component parts. Most ethanol comes from dry milling. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
The fermentation process generally takes about 4050 hours. During

this part of the process, the mash is mixed and kept cool. This helps increase the activity of the yeast. After fermentation, the resulting liquid is
transferred to special distillation units. Here the ethanol is separated from
the remaining materials. The ethanol is concentrated to 190 proof using
conventional distillation, and then it goes through another process that is
used to dehydrate the liquid further to approximately 200 proof.
Wet Milling
The wet-milling operation requires more steps than dry milling. In the wetmilling operation, the corn is heated in a solution of water and sulfur dioxide.
For 2448 hours the solution loosens the germ and the hull ber. The germ
is then removed from the kernel, and corn oil is extracted from the germ.
A high-protein portion of the kernel called gluten is separated and becomes
corn gluten meal, which is used for animal feed. In wet milling, only the starch
is fermented, unlike dry milling, in which the entire mash is fermented.
Wet milling is used to convert grain to ethanol. The wet milling process is the
most common process used to produce ethanol. In the wet mill process, grain
such as corn is steeped and separated into starch, germ, and fiber components. To produce ethanol, yeast is added to the slurry or mash. (Illustrator:
Jeff Dixon)
DID YOU KNOW?

Each bushel of corn can produce up to 2.5 gallons of ethanol fuel. Only the starch
from the corn is used to make ethanol.
Benefits of Ethanol
A new University of Nebraska study reports that higher ethanol blends
increase engine eciency. The study, which was funded by the Nebraska
Corn Board, found that high ethanol blends provide better energy conversion within an engine than other fuels, meaning less energy is needed to
travel farther.
According to the Department of Energy, ethanol results in fewer greenhouse gas emissions than gasoline and is fully biodegradable, unlike some
fuel additives. Ethanol-blended fuels currently on the marketwhether
E10 or E85meet stringent tailpipe emission standards.
Ethanol breaks down or biodegrades without harm to the environment
and is a safe, high-performance replacement for fuel additives.
Some Concerns about Ethanol
Ethanol contains one-third less energy than gasoline, which means mileage
with ethanol is 3040 percent lower than with gasoline fuel. Large-scale
ethanol production from corn could cause a shortage in food production
for countries that depend on the U.S. corn crop. However, corn is only one
source of ethanol. Future ethanol production will come from crop residues
such as stalks and hulls; forestry residues; energy crops such as switchgrass,
sorghum, and hybrid poplar trees; and municipal wastes.
BIOGAS
Biogas is mainly used as fuel, like natural gas. It is a combustible mixture of
gases produced by microorganisms when biological wastes such as animal
wastes are allowed to ferment in the absence of air in closed containers.
The major parts of biogas include methane (60% or more by volume) and
carbon dioxide (about 35%) and small amounts of water vapor, hydrogen
sulde, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen. However, the composition of biogas can vary depending on the biological material from which it is made.
DID YOU KNOW?

In landfills, biomass rots and releases methane gas. The resulting gas is also called
biogas or landfill gas. Some landfills have a system that collects the methane gas
so that it can be used as a fuel source to generate electricity. Some dairy farmers
collect biogas from tanks called digesters where they put all of the animal wastes
from their barns.
One type of biogas, mentioned previously, is produced by the anaerobic

digestiona biological activity that occurs without oxygenor fermentation of biodegradable materials such as manure or sewage, municipal
waste, green wastes, and energy crops. This type of biogas is composed
primarily of methane and carbon dioxide.
The other principal type of biogas is wood gas. This gas is produced
by gasication of wood or other biomass. The components in this biogas
are primarily nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, with some small
amounts of methane.
Biogas production facilities like this one are located in farming areas throughout Asia, the United States, and Europe. Biogas is normally used locally, for
cooking purposes, as a furnace fuel for heating, and in some cases, to power
generators for electrical applications. (Manfredxy/Dreamstime.com)
FEATURE
Biogas Project in California
In California a dairy farmer has a project that uses cow manure to produce biogas.
The biodigester sends the gas to the small plant where it is scrubbed of hydrogen
sulfide and carbon dioxide. The end product is close to 99 percent pure methane,
and according to bioenergy authorities, it is then transported and shipped by pipelines to a gas power plant in Northern California.
How Biogas Is Produced

A biogas plant consists of two components: a biodigester (or fermentation tank) and a gasholder (a tank to hold the gas). The biodigester is a
cube-shaped or cylindrical waterproof container with a trough; the trough
allows wastes to enter the biodigester.
The gasholder is usually an airproof steel container that collects the
gas generated. In one of the most widely used designs, the gasholder is
equipped with a gas outlet, and the digester is provided with an overow
pipe to lead the sludge out into a drainage pit. A biodigester oers two
major benets: it produces gas that can be used for cooking, lighting, and
electricity generation, and it produces nutrient-rich fertilizer.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Sister Susan Frazer, RSM, MSW, Director of St. John Bosco Boys
Home, Jamaica, West Indies
Go-Green Project: Biogas Digester at Boys Home in Jamaica, West Indies
Please tell us about the early beginnings of St. John Bosco Boys Home.
The Sisters of Mercy opened St. John Bosco Boys Home in 1960 to care for 88
abandoned, neglected, orphaned, and delinquent boys between the ages of 7 and
18 who came to the home through the family court system as well as the police
from all parts of the island. Since that time, however, the home has have expanded
to 160 boys due to the rising need for alternate forms of care for boys coming from
extremely difficult family backgrounds.
This residential home is situated on 35 acres of rocky hillside in rural Jamaica
(Mandeville, Manchester). Farming has always been a part of the history of the
The biogas digester at St.

John Bosco Boys Home
in Jamaica. (Courtesy
Sister Susan Frazer)
Home, but in the past 20 years, we have moved from more crop farming to more
animal husbandry.
Describe your present position.
I am a social worker and received my masters degree in 1984 from Barry University
in Miami, Florida. The main thrust of my training was in administration and systems
change. I hail originally from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and grew up in small
towns all my life until moving to Cincinnati, Ohio, when I was 16 years old. It was
there that I met and joined the Sisters of Mercy after graduating from McAuley
High School in 1966. I didnt have a specific interest in farming per se but always
liked the outdoors and working in a variety of different situations. Ive always had a
keen desire to work with those less fortunate.
What are some of the programs at the Home?
At the present time, the Home supports the following programs for the boys:
Primary/Grade School Program: St. John Bosco boasts of being one of the
finest primary school programs on the island. The boys are tested upon
entrance and placed in a grade appropriate to their learning level and not
on their age. Since the boys have been on the streets and out of school
for many years, their educational level is far behind their chronological
age. Our primary job is to help the boys become numerate and literate
before entering into one of the four trade programs.
Animal Husbandry: We train the boys in raising the following animals: pigs (600);
broiler chickens (9,000); and sheep (30).
Piggery: St. John Bosco has a state-of-the-art pig rearing facility complete with slated floors allowing excrement to be scraped through channels to our biogas digester. We house approximately 55 sows and sell
replacement stock to local farmers as well as raise pigs for our meatprocessing/cutting butcher shop trade. The proceeds from the sale of
meat then help to run the Home.
Chickens: Our broiler program has increased significantly in the past
5 years due to a grant from USAID. This grant funded our 6,000-bird coop
completed with automated feeding and water, which allows the boys to
learn technical farming and give them the experience they need to find
jobs in the larger businesses after leaving the Home. We also have two
smaller broiler coops of 1,500 each where the boys hand-feed chickens
with automatic water.
Sheep: This is a small number of animals to give some added experience
in raising a ruminate animal. We are also able to easily sell this meat to
our customers from the butcher shop.
Do you have a greenhouse?
We only recently started greenhouse technology with the assistance of FINTRAC/
USAID and the Canadian High Commission. We have a small house with 800 tomato
plants. The substrates (or slurry from the biogas) are used for the tomato bags as
well as in other areas on the property that we farm using biogas slurry to enhance
the growing.
Tell us about your background in biogas science and technology.
The term biogas digester is commonly used to describe what is more correctly
called an anaerobic digestion plant. The term biogas digester may also be used
more specifically to refer to the biogas reactor vessel, which is the location in
all anaerobic digestion plants where the digestion (or the biological reaction of
anaerobic decomposition) takes place and is also known as a fermenter. The effluent from the reactor, dark slurry, is a nutrient-rich fertilizer, which is useful for
agriculture and aquaculture, due to conservation of nitrogen during the anaerobic
process.
Whatever you call it, a biogas digester is a natural processing system for organic materials and is a highly sustainable method by which biogas is created that
can be used to provide a renewable energy source for an extremely wide range
of uses.
Biogas refers to a gas made from anaerobic digestion of agricultural and animal waste, food waste, and sometimes municipal solid waste, plus biofuel crops.
Design differences for the various plant types mainly depend on the type of organic
waste to be used as raw material, the temperatures to be used in digestion, and the
materials available for construction.
When was the biodigester started?
St. John Bosco started a biogas digester first in 1980 with a small 50-cubic-meter
floating steel-top design. At the time, we had only about 100 pigs total, so the digester was able to manage that amount of excrement. The job for the boys, however, was much harder than it is now. We had to then manually sweep out the pig
houses and wash down through cement channels the material to a pit and then
hand-bucket it into another concrete container where it was mixed to the correct consistency. Then it was released into the digester.
Who helped in the initial planning of the biodigester?
The initial reason for beginning biogas was to control the amount of flies on the
property as a result of having to burying manure all over the property. We had been
encouraged through the Scientific Research Council in Kingston, which gave us our
first design and helped in the planning and building. The first grant for this small digester came from the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica. The production of cooking gas was a wonderful extra benefit in addition to the initial reason for building.
At first we utilized the gas only in our school kitchen, which cooked three meals
a day for our growing population of now 102 boys. Although it took our cooking staff
a little time to adjust to the benefits of cooking with biogas and to overcome their
disbelief that a small little blue flame would produce more heat that a large orange
flame, they were quickly won over.
How do you process the wastes for the biodigester and how is the biogas used?
The building we use is a new 600+ pig-rearing operation that is complete with slatted floors and channels below to contain manure and urine. This excrement is then
scraped down into the digester (now a new 100-cubic-meter digester) by an electric scrapping system, where the fermentation begins. There is no need for any
hands-on handling of the manure.
In addition to the biogas being used for cooking for our now 160 boys, our much
larger digester also heats the hot nursery for the weaning pigs and provides heat
for the three chicken coops, which use methane gas brooders for the day-old baby
chicks until about day 10.
Are there any problems using methane gas?
One of the drawbacks to the methane gas is that it is highly corrosive. The methane
heaters in both the piggery and the boiler houses have a tendency to corrode quite
quickly. The roofing material, which is also metal, has had to be redesigned with
layers of wood and insulation between the area with the gas and the metal roof.
Have you noticed any savings using biogas?
Although the specific monetary savings to the Home have never been measured,
I know that the savings are significant since the methane heaters run almost 24/7
in both the piggery and in one or another of the three broiler houses. Cooking also
takes place three times per day with little or no need for the traditional propane
gas on the property.
All in all, biogas technology has provided great saving to the Home as well as
helped the environment in which we live. It should be highly encouraged throughout communities where the organic waste is available.
Early Biogas Technology

China used biogas technology early in its history. By the end of the 19th
century, simple biogas digesters had appeared along the coastal areas of
southern China. Luo Guorui invented and built an eight-cubic-meter biogas tank in the 1920s. In 1932 he started his company, the Chinese Guorui
Biogas Company, in Shanghai.
China began a major promotion of biogas development in the 1970s, constructing and installing biodigesters under the slogan biogas for every household. More than ve million biodigesters were installed in China, which
became the biogas capital of the world. The China Dome digester became
the standard design and construction for present-day small-scale domestic
use. However, many new types of household digesters have also been built.
FEATURE
Tanzania
Farming is an important rural occupation in Tanzania but it does not generate much
income. As in most of Africa, fuelwood and charcoal are the primary sources of energy for Tanzanias rural population. On average the members of many households
spend several hours per week searching for fuelwood, or they spend money on
fuelwood and charcoal. The heavy consumption of charcoal and fuelwood has led
to serious problems in deforestation, air pollution, and carbon dioxide emissions.
Scientists from Tanzania learned how to design and build a low-cost, tubularshaped plastic biodigester from their visits to Vietnam. They adapted the Vietnamesemade biodigester to their Tanzanian farming system where cows are used to supply
manure for the biodigester.
When operating, the Vietnamese biodigester produces gas that can be used as
fuel for cooking and heating as well as for lighting. It costs about $100 to build one
of these digesters and takes about four hours to assemble. Using biogas for cooking
reduces the need for fuelwood and charcoal. Each biogas unit is estimated to reduce
deforestation by 60 acres per year. Because it also uses cow manure that would
otherwise have degraded, further greenhouse gas emissions are avoided as well.
The China Dome digester is still used throughout much of China, especially
for small-scale domestic applications in rural areas. China is considered the
biogas capital of the world, and Chinese companies are now finding numerous
other uses for biogas, bioslurry, and biosludge. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Besides China, there are presently several other countries using biogas, including India, Vietnam, Colombia, Cambodia, Bangladesh, and Tanzania.
BENEFITS OF BIOMASS
Biomass is a renewable resource that can be used as a fuel for producing electricity and other forms of energy. Biomass is any organic matter
FEATURE
Biodesign Project: Tubes in the Desert
Is there a better biofuel in the future? The answer may be in the development of a
new bacteria-based biofuel. Researchers at Arizona State University are using tiny,
photosynthetic bacteria to produce a sustainable, high-yield biofuel that can be
used in conventional engines. The bacteria would be grown in transparent tubes
that could be constructed anyplace where there is sufficient sunlight. The deserts
of the American Southwest would be ideal for this project, and so the project is
called Tubes in the Desert. Bacteria-based biofuel offers several benefits: it results in a higher yield per acre, does not compete with food crops, requires less
water than plant-based biofuels, and fertilizers are not needed.
that is available on a renewable basis for conversion to energy. Agricultural crops and residues, industrial wood and logging residues, farm
animal wastes, and the organic portion of municipal waste are all biomass
materials.
Biomass is a proven option for electricity generation. Currently, there
are more than 7,000 megawatts of biomass power capacity installed at
more than 350 plants in the United States. In the future, farms cultivating
energy crops, such as trees and grasses, could signicantly expand the supply of biomass materials.
Economic Benefits of Biomass
Economic activity associated with biomass currently supports about
66,000 jobs in the United States, most of which are in rural regions. The
Department of Energy predicts that by the year 2010, more than 13,000
megawatts of biomass power could be installed, with over 40 percent of the
fuel supplied from four million acres of energy crops and the remainder
from biomass residues. This would support more than 170,000 U.S. jobs
and could signicantly benet rural economies.
SOMETHING TO DO
Use the carbon cycle diagram in this chapter to come up with a project that
young people like you could do to clean up the air in your neighborhood as
well as make your surroundings more beautiful.
Rourke, 2009.
de la Garza, Amanda, ed. Biomass: Energy from Plants and Animals. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2007.
Morris, Neil. Biomass Power. Edited by Mary-Jane Wilkins. North
Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2007.
WEB SITES
The following Web sites, although not inclusive, include government, nongovernmental, and commercial organizations.
www.afdc.energy.gov/afc/data/biomass
The Alternate Fuels and Advanced Vehicles data center produces a
biofuel atlas for comparing biomass feed stocks and biofuels by location. It helps users select from and apply biomass data layers from a
map and summarizes energy use and infrastructure for traditional
bioenergy power, fuels, and resources, and calculates the biofuels potential use for a given area.
www.eere.energy.gov/biomass
EERE Biomass Programs work with industry, academia, and national
laboratories on biomass feed stocks and conversion technologies. The
Biomass Program is helping to transform the nations renewable and
abundant biomass resources into cost-competitive, high-performance
biofuels, bioproducts, and biopower.
www.alternativeenergyprimer.com
Alternate Energy Primer provides information for homeowners to
be able to produce their own energy from available resources with
little or no carbon footprint such as biomass, wind, solar, wood, and
geothermal energy.
www.biomasscenter.org
The Biomass Research Centers mission is to achieve a healthier, economically strong and secure country through the development and
use of sustainable biomass energy systems.
VIDEOS
version.
BiomassDevon, England: Wood-burning boilers are a turnkey
solution for biomass heating, making biomass as convenient as
fossil fuels without the environmental impact. For more information, go to http://greenenergytv.com/Watch.aspx?v=1741177393
(4:32 minutes).
BiomassOhio, United States: This video covers Ohios bid for federal funds to jump-start its economy and clean up the environment:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UO0n_1ci_e0.
About Biomass Fuels. What is biomass? This video gives an introduction to biomass fuels: http://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3DAsnqy
6kC0as.
Chapter 5
Biodiesel Fuel
What would you think about a chocolate-powered biodiesel-fueled race

car, jet plane, and train? Simply stated, biodiesel is the name of a cleanburning alternative fuel produced from domestic, renewable resources.
In 2009 a chocolate-powered biodiesel race car participated in a Formula 3 racing event in Europe. The Formula 3, or F3, is a class of openwheel formula racing events that are held in Europe, Australia, South
America, and Asia. Winners in Formula 3 class racing can move up to
more senior racing events that include the famous Grand Prix.
What was unusual about this eco-friendly racing car in the Formula 3
event was that it was built with vegetable parts. The car was also powered
by biodiesel fuel made from waste cocoa butter leftover from a nearby
candy company. The steering wheel was partially made of carrot ber, and
the front wing and the mirrors were partly made with potato starch and
ax ber.
For the race, the car ran on 30 percent biodiesel and 70 percent standard
diesel fuel. The chocolate-powered race car achieved 130 miles an hour,
stayed in one piece, and nished the race.
In 2007 a Biojet, a 40-year-old Deln L-29 model, was the rst jet
aircraft to y on 100 percent biodiesel and the rst to y transcontinental
on biofuel. Biodiesel Solutions of Sparks, Nevada, produced the fuel, made
from restaurant waste oil. The Deln L-29 is a simple jet capable of speeds
The WorldFirst F3 Formula 3 racing car is powered by chocolate, has a steering

wheel made out of plant-based fibers derived from carrots, has bodywork made
from potatoes, and can still reach speeds of up to 125 miles per hour. The race
car was designed and made from sustainable and renewable materials. The
car meets all the Formula 3 racing standards except for its biodiesel engine,
which is configured to run on fuel derived from waste chocolate and vegetable
oil. Pictured with the car are its creators (from left to right): Dr. Kerry Kirwan,
Dr. Steve Maggs, and Dr. James Meredith. (AP Photo/University of Warwick)
well in excess of 330 miles per hour and is still in service in many air forces
throughout the world.
In 2008 Engine 9 at the Mount Washington Cog Railway was converted to run a diesel engine powered by biodiesel instead of coal-powered
steam. Located on Mount Washington in New Hampshire, the Cog Railway has been taking visitors to the 6,288-foot summit since 1869. It was
the worlds rst mountain-climbing cog railway.
In the previous chapter, several kinds of biofuels were reported. This
chapter concentrates on one major category of biofuelbiodiesel fuels. It
also describes how some teachers and their students have produced biodiesel fuels in hands-on laboratory activities and converted diesel engine cars
into biodiesel vehicles.
Presently, many school districts throughout the United States use
biodiesel fuels for heating purposes and for fueling their buses and other
vehicles.
Biodiesel Fuel a 109
VIDEO
Biodiesel: In this video, Kris Moller, founder of Conserv Fuels, discusses the
pros of biodiesel: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/video/1066929:Video:40840
(1:10 minutes).
WHAT IS BIODIESEL FUEL?

Biodiesel is a biofuel made from soybeans or waste vegetable oil used in
cooking. Biodiesel fuel can be used in place of petroleum diesel fuel for
vehicles or as a heating fuel oil for homes and buildings. Unlike petroleum
diesel, biodiesel is a renewable resource, and it creates less pollution than
petroleum diesel. The biofuel can be used alone or in combination with petroleum diesel or with heating oil. Generally, there are no expensive modications or add-on-installations to use biodiesel in diesel-powered engines
in cars and trucks. So this makes it easier for vehicle owners to integrate
biodiesel into current diesel engine systems than to use other alternative
energy sources, which often require new equipment.
A soybean-powered bus advertises its biodiesel fuel source. Biodiesel is a cleanburning, alternative fuel produced from renewable resources. Because it is biodegradable, nontoxic, and free of sulfur and aromatics, its use in public transportation
holds great potential for many urban areas. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
INTERVIEW
Driving to California in a Biodiesel-Powered Pickup Truck
Green Advocate: Ross McCurdy, Ponaganset High School, Rhode Island
Go-Green Project: Biodiesel Pickup Truck
During the summer of 2008, Ponaganset High School teacher Ross McCurdy and
three students completed a coast-to-coast road trip from Ponaganset High School
in Gloucester, Rhode Island, to Los Angeles, California. They completed the 7,000mile round trip in a 1997 GMC K3500 biodiesel-powered pickup truck as a high
school renewable energy project. And the interesting news is they made the trip
without refueling along the way. I asked Mr. McCurdy about the biodiesel pickup
truck and his trip to California.
Ponaganset High School teacher Ross McCurdy (left) poses with students
(from left to right) Wylie Smith, Seth Keighley, and Zane Lewis after arriving
at Surfrider Beach in Malibu, California, having traveled from Rhode Island
in a biodiesel pickup truck. They arrived with around 40 gallons of biodiesel remaining after traveling about 3,100 miles without refueling. (Courtesy
Ross McCurdy)
Why use a biodiesel truck rather than a biodiesel automobile?
We first thought about a Volkswagenbut the downside was that we could not fit
as many students in this small a car. The truck can haul a ton of fuel and carry six
passengers. This was the advantage of a pickup truck that was built for work and
recreation.
Where did you obtain the fuel?

The fuel was obtained from Newport Biodiesel, who makes fuel from used cooking oil.
T.H. Molloy distributes their biodiesel for home heating and sells it for vehicles
at their biodiesel pumps in Cumberland, Rhode Island. The fuel is called B99 and is
99 percent or higher biodiesel.
How much fuel did it take to get to California?
Two-hundred-forty gallons of biodiesel took us the 3,100 miles to Surfider Beach in
Malibu, California. Based on the miles per gallon when driving the pickup the month
before the trip, we calculated that 250 gallons would get us there. We wanted some
reserve and left Rhode Island with 280 gallons of biodiesel. We were able to carry
all the extra fuel by mounting 250 gallons of Delta auxiliary tanks in the pickup bed.
How many students went on the trip?
There were three students, Zane Lewis, Seth Keighley, and Wylie Smith.
Were there any problems that you encountered on the trip?
Actually, everything went pretty smoothly. Good food, lodging but the weather was
terrifically hot at 115 degrees going through the Mojave Desert. We tried to travel at
night but that didnt always work. We just rolled down the windows and went through
eight gallons of Gatorade. We had to change one headlight and when we got back
had to replace the alternatorwhich had nothing to do with the biodiesel.
What kind of resources and advice would you give to teachers who might be interested in doing what you did?
Id advise everyone interested in biodiesel fuels to talk to people, use the Internet,
speak to teachers from other states and try to get both students and their parents
involved. One student I have is making biodiesel fuel for a school project. Another
students dad is making biodiesel from cooking oil. There are workshops and conferences that teachers and others can attend to learn more about biodiesel applications in chemistry and physics.
How helpful were some of the donors?
This trip would not have been possible without the help, sponsorships, and donations from many people and organizations listed on our Web site. The generous
donation of a vehicle from ConEdison Solutions enabled us to achieve this project.
The students and faculty at Ponaganset High School are committed to renewable
energy education and demonstration, and this pickup has enabled us to demonstrate the viability of biodiesel fuel by safely and reliably driving 3,000 miles coast
to coast with all the biodiesel fuel we needed to make the trip. The diesel pickup
donated by ConEdison Solutions is a classic American truck, like the majority of
privately owned diesel vehicles in the United States. This has been a great opportunity to promote biodiesel fuels.
You can view the trip by going to the following Web site: Videos From ConEdison
Solutions: Students Travel Cross-Country in Biodiesel Pick-up Truck, http://www.
conedsolutions.com/streaming/dieseltruck/diesel_truck_video.html.
HOW IS BIODIESEL MADE? COMPOSITION

OF BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is made in a chemical process, where such oils as vegetable oils,
animal fats, and recycled restaurant greases are combined with alcohol. As
the oils and fats break down chemically, fatty esters such as methyl ester
are formed. Esters are chemical compounds and include many naturally
occurring fats and oils. The esters can be blended with conventional diesel
fuel or used as 100 percent biodiesel fuel. When completed, the chemical process results in two productsmethyl esters (the chemical name for
biodiesel) and glycerin, which is another by-product that is usually used
in the production of soap products. Notice that there is no left-over waste
products in this chemical process. Everything produced is used.
To understand how biodiesel fuel is used in diesel engine, you need to
know a little bit about the diesel engine and how it works.
HOW DOES A DIESEL ENGINE OPERATE?
German engineer Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine. Like the gasoline engine in most U.S. cars, a diesel is an internal combustion engine.
Combustion engines convert chemical energy found in gasoline or diesel
fuel to mechanical energy. The mechanical energy powers pistons, called
cylinders, that move up and down in the engine. The pistons are connected
to the engines crankshaft, which provides the rotary motion needed to
move the vehicles wheels.
In both gasoline and diesel engines, a series of small explosions or combustion takes place inside the cylinder as the fuel reacts chemically with
oxygen in the air. However, whereas gasoline engines start the explosion
from spark plugs, in the diesel engine, the fuel ignites on its own. The
reason is that the air heats up when it is highly compressed inside the
diesel engines cylinders. When it is hot enough, diesel fuel is then injected
VIDEO
Biodiesel: Learn how veterans and restaurant owners are gelling together to make
their own fuel in a grassroots effort in Louisiana after Katrina to reduce the need for
foreign oil and give power back to the people by turning cooking oil and weeds
into biodiesel: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/video/1066929.
under high pressure into the hot air inside the cylinder at exactly the right
time. The fuel gets ignited immediately, causing combustion, which moves
the pistons up and down to turn the crankshaft for rotary motion to the
wheels. The burned exhaust gases are ejected out of the cylinders. The very
hot air temperature, which is compressed under huge pressure inside the
cylinder, makes a spark plug unnecessary. The diesel engine has remained
pretty much the same since the early 1900s.
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that converts chemical

energy, such as diesel fuel, to mechanical energy. Diesel engines power a
variety of vehicles, including buses, cars, tractors, trucks, and even ships.
DID YOU KNOW?

When Rudolf Diesel designed his prototype diesel engine in 1898, he ran it on peanut
oil. He planned that diesel engines would operate on a variety of vegetable oils. But
when petroleum diesel fuel arrived on the marketplace, it was cheap, reasonably efficient, and readily available and therefore quickly became the diesel fuel of choice.
STRAIGHT VEGETABLE OIL AS A FUEL

Some vehicle owners are burning vegetable oil directly into their diesel
engines. Vegetable oil can be used as diesel fuel just as it is, without being
converted to biodiesel. The vegetable oil is usually new oil that is fresh and
uncooked. However, there is one problem. Straight vegetable oil is much
thicker than conventional diesel fuel or biodiesel. It does not burn the
same in the engine. Therefore, straight vegetable oil can damage engines
if not used properly and safely, and precautions have to be taken before it
is used. Another major drawback of using straight vegetable oil is that it
thickens up a bit in colder temperatures and must be heated before starting
the engine during cold weather.
WASTE VEGETABLE OIL AS A FUEL
As of 2000, the United States was producing in excess of 2.9 billion U.S.
gallons of waste vegetable oil annually, mainly from industrial deep fryers
used in potato chip processing plants or for cooking fries in snack food
factories and fast food restaurants.
As mentioned previously, before it can be used as a fuel, the waste vegetable oil must be ltered because it contains many food particles. Both
straight vegetable oil and waste vegetable oil are derived from plants such
as peanuts, soy, canola/rapeseed, and other grains. Both oils thicken at
colder temperatures and can clog fuel systems unless they are heated and
ltered before using them in the vehicles engine. A vegetable oil conversion kit includes a heating system and usually a second gas tank.
INDUSTRY AND FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS
FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
Fuel-grade biodiesel must be produced to strict industry specications in
order to ensure proper performance. Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel
to have fully met the health-eects testing requirements of the 1990 Clean
DID YOU KNOW?

Vegetable oil can solidify below 25 degrees Fahrenheit.
FEATURE
Algae: Biofuels of the Future?
Scientists are experimenting with ways to utilize algae as alternative biofuel oil.
Algae can be more suitable than other biofuels because algae can grow practically
anywhere, unlike other biofuel plants that need good soil conditions and weather.
Algae can grow in seawater and other salty water and even in sewage. They can
bear extreme temperatures and can grow even on desolated wastelands, according to researchers. By growing and multiplying very fast, algae can double their
weight many times in a single day. Algae can produce 15 times more oil per acre
than other plants used for biofuels.
Researchers believe that algae could supply enough fuel to meet much of the
U.S. transportation needs in the form of biodiesel. In fact, a land area of algae about
the size of the state of Maryland could replace much of the transportation fuels in
the United States.
Air Act Amendments. (Note: raw vegetable oil cannot meet biodiesel fuel
specications because it is not registered with the Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] and is not a legal motor fuel.)
Biodiesel can be used as a pure fuel or blended with petroleum in any
percentage. For example, B20 (a blend of 20 percent by volume biodiesel
with 80 percent by volume petroleum diesel) has demonstrated signicant
environmental benets with a minimum increase in cost for eet operations and other consumers.
Biodiesel is registered as a fuel and fuel additive with the EPA and
meets clean diesel standards established by the California Air Resources
Board. The U.S. Department of Energy and the Department of Transportation have designated 100 percent biodiesel as an alternative fuel.
DID YOU KNOW?

One of the leaders in biodiesel production is the Blue Sun Company in Colorado.
The company makes its biodiesel fuel from a variety of seed crops grown locally,
including canola (rapeseed). The company sells its products to several gas stations
in the state.
Lyle Rudensey holds a container of homemade biodiesel fuel. Rudensey is an

environmental health educator and former research scientist who makes all
his own fuel using discarded restaurant oil. He is passionate about biodiesel
and the need for renewable energy, and has done presentations on this topic
for more than 1,200 K12 students and many community organizations. (AP
Photo/Ted S. Warren)
HOW DO BIODIESEL EMISSIONS COMPARE

TO PETROLEUM DIESEL?
According to government reports and information from the EPA, the use
of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine results in a reduction of pollutants such as unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and small particle
matter when compared to those emissions from burning diesel fuels. Based
on the most stringent emissions testing required by the EPA for certication of fuels in the United States, the ozone-forming potential of the
hydrocarbon emissions from biodiesel fuel was nearly 50 percent less than
that measured for diesel fuel.
DID YOU KNOW?

Vehicle exhaust emissions of sulfur oxides and sulfates are major sources of acid
rain.
CAN BIODIESEL BE USED IN AN EXISTING

DIESEL ENGINE?
Biodiesel can operate in any diesel engine with little or no modication to
the engine or the fuel system. However, the combustion of biodiesel fuel
in the engine may release deposits that have accumulated in the fuel tank
walls, pipes, and hoses from previous diesel fuel engines and tanks. If these
deposits are released, they may clog lters so precautions should be taken.
Again, only fuel meeting the biodiesel specication and safeguards should
be used.
SCHOOL DISTRICTS USE BIODIESEL FOR VEHICLES
AND HEATING PURPOSES
Several health studies have raised concerns about the harmful eects of
diesel emissions on schoolchildren who ride school buses. Studies have
proved that biodiesel has reduced harmful eects in comparison with petroleum diesel. Several school districts nationwide have made the switch
to biodiesel because of its reduced emissions. Some diesel-powered buses
have been converted to biodiesel with few or no modications. Biodiesel
also oers schools an option to address air-quality concerns if they wish.
FEATURE
The National Biodiesel Board
Biodiesel can be made available anywhere in the United States. The National Biodiesel Board (NBB) maintains a list of registered fuel marketers. The NBB also maintains the largest library of biodiesel information in the United States. Information,
including the list of marketers, can be requested by visiting the biodiesel Web site
at www.biodiesel.org, by e-mailing the NBB at info@nbb.org, or by calling NBBs
toll-free number: (800) 841-5849.
FEATURE
Nanotechnology and Biofuels
Instead of fossil fuels going in your gas tank, how about adding a salted biofuel?
This may be possible in the future: a new technology process is under development to convert a type of salt into a biofuel, according to a study by researchers at
Singapores Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology.
Arkansas
In Pulaski County, Arkansas, 149 school buses using biodiesel blends were
part of a pilot program intended to reduce reliance on nonrenewable fossil
fuels. The biodiesel fuel for the buses in the pilot program was a blend of
80 percent standard diesel fuel and 20 percent soy-based oil. Although the
cost of using the biodiesel blend was 20 cents more a gallon than regular
diesel fuel, the transportation director stated, We actually got a little better fuel economy on the biodiesel than we did with the regular.
New Jersey
In 1997 the Medford, New Jersey, school district began using B20 (20 percent
biodiesel, 80 percent petroleum diesel). According to school ocials, the fuel
has performed well even in temperatures as low as 11 degrees below zero.
Idaho
The Meridian, Idaho, school district and the Community Planning Association of Southwest Idaho are participating in a special biodiesel project.
The project involves using up to 125,000 gallons of B20 biodiesel fuel for
their school buses.
Rhode Island
Since 2002 the Warwick school district has been successfully using various blend levels of biodiesel in their heating boilers. The U.S. Department
of Energy Clean Cities Program and the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory provided funding for the project. The results show that using
biodiesel reduced emissions from the boilers in three schools compared to
a fourth where standard petroleum-based diesel was used as a control. The
sta members noticed fewer odors with biodiesel and found no soot in the
An employee of the Medford Township school district in New Jersey refuels

one of the districts biodiesel school buses. According to Medford Township
school officials, during the past decade the districts biodiesel school buses
have traveled more than four million miles and eliminated more than 127,000
pounds of hazardous emissions. The buses use B20 fuel, a 20 percent blend of
biodiesel. (Courtesy Medford Township Board of Education)
equipment. Biodiesel also did not slow down or impact the eciency of
the boilers. The school is now starting to use biodiesel in its eet of school
buses.
Kentucky
The Campbell County School District in Kentucky uses a B20 blend in its
65 school buses. School ocials became interested in biodiesel after learning about the fuels benets from a soybean farmer in the community.
Illinois
The Olympia, Illinois, school district began using biodiesel (B20) in August 2002 in all 33 of its school buses and about 20 operation and maintenance support vehicles such as lawnmowers, pickup trucks, and tractors.
The 377-square-mile school district is the second-largest school district

in the state outside Cook County. The large eet of buses travel a total of
4,000 miles a day, or an average of 600,000 miles a year.
Indiana
The Hammond School District in northwest Indiana rst began fueling
its school buses with B20 in the 2001 school year under a grant from the
Indiana Department of Commerce.
Virginia
Arlington County, Virginia, recently began using B20 in the countys 500
diesel-powered vehicles, including 120 school buses. School ocials like
the biodiesel because it is a renewable fuel with low emissions.
OTHER USES FOR BIODIESEL FUELS
Biodiesel is also very good for a variety of other applications, including
space heaters, forklifts, tractors, generators, and oil-powered furnaces.
Home Heating with Biodiesel
Any heating oil furnace can use B20 biodiesel fuel without modication to
the furnace unit. However, fuel oil companies warn that homeowners need
to be very careful in understanding the specic regulations and guidelines
before switching from petroleum diesel fuel to biodiesel.
Before using biodiesel as a heating fuel, a homeowner should rst get
a yearly furnace tune-up and inspection from a qualied fuel oil technician. When the inspection is nalized, the technician will ensure that the
system is free of leaks, has a new fuel lter and nozzle, and that the furnace
and boiler are operating at peak performance and eciency.
DID YOU KNOW?

B20 biodiesel burns cleaner and produces as much heat as petroleum-based
heating oil. In one study, B20 biodiesel performed well for several years in heating
homes in Portland and Eugene, Oregon.
STUDENTS BUILD BIODIESEL CARS

Pennsylvania
Students in one school have built a soybean-powered car as an after-school
project. The project took them one year. The students claim that the car not
only runs on soybean biodiesel but also gets 51 miles to the gallon and can
go from 0 to 60 in four seconds. The car was featured at the Philadelphia
auto show.
California
Some schools have alternative energy programs where students convert
used cooking oil into biodiesel and learn chemistry and automotive science
along the way.
The School of Science and Technology at San Diego High has a biodiesel processor installed in its auto shop. Since its installation, students have
been making biodiesel out of used cooking oil gathered from school cafeterias. The goal is to power the San Diego Unied School Districts food
services trucks with clean energy. The biodiesel made by students already
has been used to run San Diego High Schools power washer equipment.
Other schools have also built biodiesel vehicles.
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES
OF BIODIESEL FUEL?
Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source that can be made from soybeans grown for fuel or from cooking oils recycled from restaurants. This
means it is a renewable resource, unlike petroleum-based diesel. There is
excess production of soybeans in the United States; therefore, biodiesel
is an economic way to utilize this surplus.
Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum
diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide. The absence of sulfur in 100 percent
biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters in cars and trucks.
WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES
OF BIODIESEL FUEL?
Biodiesel is currently more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel. Part of
this cost dierence is because the most common source of biodiesel oil is
INTERVIEW
The Veggie Oil Vehicle
Green Advocate: Phillip Cantor, North-Grand High School, Chicago, Illinois
Go-Green Project: The Veggie Oil Vehicle
Mr. Cantor has been teaching biology and AP psychology at North-Grand High
School, a neighborhood Chicago Public School, since 2006. Before coming to
North-Grand, Mr. Cantor taught sixth-grade earth and physical sciences at Northwest Middle School. Prior to teaching, Mr. Cantor had a career in video production
and photography.
Teacher Phil Cantor poses with the North Grand High Schools veggie oil
vehicle. (Courtesy Phil Cantor)
I grew up in Skokie, Illinois, a suburb just north of Chicago. I went to Grinnell College in Iowa, where I received a degree in psychology. After college I worked in
photography and video production for nearly 20 years until I went back to school to
get my teaching certificate.
What were some of your favorite activities and subjects in school?
Unfortunately, I didnt have really good teachers in my science classes when
I was in high school. In high school, my favorite classes were literature and social
studies.
I had always loved science, though, and did have wonderful science teachers
when I was in sixth and seventh grade. I still remember some of those labs and the
science fair projects I worked on.

Ive had a couple of different careers, but I feel that the teaching I do now has
helped me merge many of my interests together. During the last few years of my
work as a video producer, I got to work on some wonderful science projects, including the videos for the Underground Adventure and Sue the T.rex exhibits
at Chicagos Field Museum.
Describe the Veggie Oil Vehicle.
My students and I purchased an old diesel car and converted it to run on waste
vegetable oil, which we collect from local restaurant deep fryers. The project ties
so many aspects of science together: environmental science, biology, chemistry,
and physics.
The main challenge of running a diesel vehicle on waste vegetable oil is keeping
the veggie oil running thought the engine smoothly. The two things that can cause
the veggie oil to clog the engine are crumbs in the oil and the thickness of the oil.
We solved the crumb problem by building a filtration system that pumped the
waste veggie oil (WVO) through four different filters, starting with a 400 micron
filter, then going to 100 micron, 30 micron, and finally a 15 micron filter. Once the
oil is clean, it goes into an auxiliary fuel tank, which we installed in the back of our
station wagon. We also installed a separate fuel filter in the cars engine to clean
the oil one last time before it enters the engines cylinders.
Because vegetable oil is so much thicker than diesel fuel at room temperature,
it is also important to heat the WVO so that it thins out as it enters the engine. The
main work of the car conversion is to install a heat exchanger, which takes heat
from the engine and uses it to warm the veggie oil in the fuel tank and then superheat it as it is pushed through the WVO fuel filter before it is burned in the engine.
We also had to install a switch, which would allow us to start the car on diesel fuel
and then switch it over to the WVO once it warmed up enough to go through the
engine smoothly.
The idea for the project came from another teacher at my school, Allister Scott,
who thought the students would love it because, as he put it, what high school
student isnt interested in cars? We were brainstorming ideas for an application
we were writing for the BP A+ for Energy Grant. The grant required that the project
involve energy in some way, and we decided the veggie oil vehicle would be a
perfect way to learn about energy as well as address an important issue in environmental science. BP liked the idea too and awarded us a $10,000 grant to do the
project.
Few issues are as pressing right now as energy, resource usage, and climate
change. By creating a car that can run on a waste product (used fryer oil), we are
facilitating recycling and reducing the amount of waste to be disposed of. The crops
that the oil comes from absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The waste
vegetable oil fuel is close to being carbon-neutral because when we burn it in the
car, we are releasing only carbon that was recently absorbed from the atmosphere,
rather than carbon from fossil fuels that has been safely in the ground for 100 million years or so. Although there isnt enough waste veggie oil to power all our cars
and trucks, it is a good example of how something considered garbage can actually
prove to be a resource and benefit the earth and those of us who depend on it.
There are many resources online about converting vehicles to run on vegetable oil.
One very helpful site is a blog that follows the conversion of a vehicle from start to
finish: http://greasebenz.com/. The most important resource we had was a group
called Chicago Biofuels (http://chicagobiofuels.org/), which put us in touch with
Pete Probst, who guided us through the process. Pete had done two or three similar conversions already, so he was our local expert. He helped us find the right vehicle and conversion kit. We purchased our conversion kit from Greasecar (http://
www.greasecar.com/) specifically for the model of car we ended up purchasing.
Another huge resource for us was a community organization called the Cob
Connection. They helped us get another grant so that our students could actually
get paid for some of their work after school and we could afford more help from
Pete, the experienced WVO car converter.
Unless you are very mechanically inclined, get some help from someone who has
done a conversion before. At least find a car that already has been converted, and
see how it was done.
It would have been difficult to do this project without the grant we received
from BP. That grant allowed us to purchase and insure the car, buy tools and the
conversion kit, and even pay for some expert advice and help from an experienced
biofuel organization.
their reactions or comments if you want.
The students spent a whole semester after school three days a week to get this
project done. They did all the work, from searching for a vehicle to buy to researching various conversion kits and then doing all the hands-on work of converting
the car, building an oil filtration unit, collecting the used oil, and finally decorating
the car with a mural meant to educate passers-by about waste veggie oil and our
vehicle. In the process students also did some labs such as comparing the energy content of various plants by burning them in calorimeters and creating a small
amount of biodiesel fuel through chemical reactions.
The students really enjoyed figuring out how to solve problems as they came up
and using the tools to modify the car. For example, we were planning to use oil from
our school cafeterias deep fryers, but our school district banned fried foods and
got rid of the deep fryers just as we started our project. The students went around
to different restaurants in the neighborhood and asked for donations of used oil.
We collected samples, and after some filtration tests, we found which restaurants
had the best oil for us to use.
Once we finished the project, the students designed a brochure and murals that
would teach people about the WVO energy chain and the process of converting the
car. Of course, the most exciting parts of the project were the first time we ran dirty
used veggie oil through the filtration system we built and the first time we started
up the car and put it in full veggie oil mode. The smell of egg rolls that came from
the tailpipe smelled better to us than any perfume.
From start to finish, the project took about four months, but the actual mechanical
conversion took about three weeks.
Now we are mostly using the car as a teaching tool. Students will be taking our
veggie oil vehicle to middle and elementary schools in the area to teach others
about the project and how we need to come up with creative solutions to problems
such as climate change. We are even thinking about selling the car and buying a
new one to do the whole project again.
[Please note: Safety first if students produce biodiesel fuel for science projects.
Biodiesel is made first by mixing methanol (methyl alcohol) derived from natural
gas with sodium hydroxide or lye. Both methanol and lye must be handled very
carefully. Skin and eyes must be covered, and the worker should be careful not to
breathe the fumes. Adult supervision and safety regulations must be applied.]
the soybean plant, which is only 20 percent oil. However, making biodiesel
from recycled cooking oils rather than from new soybeans can reduce the
costs of biodiesel. Another source is to make it from plant matter with
higher oil content. But it must be remembered that it takes energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy of sowing, fertilizing, and harvesting, adding to the cost of the biodiesel fuel. Biodiesel fuel
can also damage rubber hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built
before 1994. As noted previously, a vehicle owner should check with the
manufacturer before using biodiesel fuel.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Both biofuels ethanol and butanol are of interest to your boss at the
plant. Your job is to make a list of the advantages and disadvantages
of each fuel. Use this list to tell your boss how to power the plant
and why.
2. Read about the Venice, Italy, canal algae project using nuisance algae
from the canals to make biodiesel fuels that will power a seaport. This
is one way of making biodiesel. What are other methods?
BOOKS AND OTHER READING MATERIAL
WEB SITES
The following Web sites, although not inclusive, include government, nongovernmental, and commercial organizations.
www.epa.gov/region9/waste/biodiesel
Fat to Fuel is a production of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency that oers information on the benets of biodiesel energy as
an alternative to conventional petroleum-based diesel power.
www.energy.gov/biodiesel_publications
Biodiesel Publications provides a large selection of biodiesel-related
documents, publications, and newsletters available online.
www.biofueloasis.com
The Berkeley Biodiesel Collective is a community-based collective
focused on both educating communities about the environmental,
social, and political benets of biodiesel and promoting the use of
sustainably produced biodiesel energy.
www.biodieselofamerica.com
Biodiesel of America focuses on producing and selling biodiesel and
other biodiesel products made from virgin oil and used cooking oil
for industrial use.
www.missouri.edu/biofuel
Biodiesel/Biofuel Research focuses on the use of biodiesel as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Related published papers on biodiesel and biofuels are listed on the site.
www.cleanfuelsdc.org
Clean Fuels Development Coalition members have taken on a leadership role in developing new national energy strategies to foster clean
fuel technology, reduce oil imports, and improve air quality through
reduced emissions.
www.ecoversity.org
Ecoversity, through its educational center, explores the benets and
complexities of sustainable living, ecological design, and wise stewardship of Earths natural resources. It oers workshops on the advantages and disadvantages of various alternate fuel sources such as
biomass and biofuel energy.
www.biodiesel.org
The National Biodiesel Board serves as the industries central coordinating organization. Its goal is for industry and government to
recognize biodiesel technology and use it as an integral part of a national energy policy to encourage the use of clean, domestic, renewable fuels.
www.veggievan.org
The Veggie Van organization seeks to facilitate the transition from
fossil fuels toward a green economy by educating people about sustainable energy sources such as biodiesel fuels and providing information that incorporates sustainable energy into homes, schools,
communities, cities, and nations.
VIDEOS
sites may move or longer be available.
version.
Biodiesel: Kris Moller, founder of Conserv Fuels, discusses the pros
of biodiesel in this video: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/
video/1066929:Video:40840 (1:10 minutes).
Biodiesel: David James discusses how to make human-made diesel and gasoline from algae in 5 minutes as opposed to 4,000 years
(via Mother Nature). Learn more about gasication versus transesterication in this video: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/
video/1066929:Video:38314 (3:50 minutes).
Biodiesel: Learn how veterans and restaurant owners are gelling together
to make their own fuel in a grassroots eort in Louisiana after Katrina
to reduce the need for foreign oil and give power back to the people
by turning cooking oil and weeds into biodiesel: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/video/1066929:Video:36146 (6 minutes).
Biogas: No smell, no mess, reduced fuel bills, and more tourists: in a
sustainable, enterprising, and beautiful and inventive solution for
managing waste, the streets of India are being cleaned to turn household waste into biogas and fertilizer: http://www.metacafe.com/
watch/yt-LrtINiLgNKY/biotech_india_turning_food_waste_into_
biogas/ (5:09 minutes).
Biogas: Did you know 18th-century London was lit up by gas lamps
powered by sewage gases? Learn how to build your own biogas generator: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/yt-0WCv4-_-nwk/biogas_
generator/ (2:02 minutes).
Biogas: Anaerobic digestion is biogas made easy. This schematic shows
the process of making biogas and compost: http://www.metacafe.com/
watch/yt-but5ntRMQQc/biogas_how_it_works/ (1:01 minutes).
BOOKS AND
a

www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
2003.
2003.
2002.
2008.
2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.

2007.
awea.org.
2006.
the Pacic, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.
2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
19492008
140 a Energy Data
TABLE 1

Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Coal
11,980,905
12,347,109
12,552,996
11,306,479
11,372,684
9,714,667
11,167,259
11,349,723
10,820,631
9,533,287
9,518,353
9,837,785
9,623,351
9,906,454
10,412,538
10,964,385
11,580,608
12,143,080
11,913,750
12,330,677
12,381,540
12,264,528
11,598,411
12,076,917
12,971,490
12,662,878
12,662,786
13,584,067
13,922,103
13,765,575
15,039,586
15,422,809
15,907,526
15,321,581
15,894,442
17,070,622
17,478,428
17,260,405
18,008,451
18,846,312
19,069,762
19,172,635
18,991,670
19,122,471
19,835,148
19,909,463
20,088,727
21,001,914
Coal
Coke Net
Importsb
6,671
992
21,452
11,879
9,002
6,746
10,044
13,020
17,459
6,721
8,358
5,630
7,886
5,506
7,390
10,441
18,451
24,949
15,326
17,310
36,109
57,660
33,108
25,966
7,465
56,098
13,541
99
14,582
124,719
62,843
35,018
15,946
21,650
15,624
11,482
13,491
16,740
8,630
39,556
30,405
4,786
9,697
34,621
27,106
58,330
61,058
22,816
Natural Gasc
5,145,142
5,968,371
7,048,518
7,549,621
7,906,645
8,330,202
8,997,935
9,613,975
10,190,753
10,663,199
11,717,422
12,385,366
12,926,392
13,730,841
14,403,306
15,287,850
15,768,667
16,995,332
17,944,788
19,209,656
20,677,984
21,794,707
22,469,052
22,698,190
22,512,399
21,732,488
19,947,883
20,345,426
19,930,513
20,000,400
20,665,817
20,235,459
19,747,309
18,356,222
17,220,836
18,393,613
17,703,482
16,591,364
17,639,801
18,448,393
19,601,689
19,603,168
20,032,957
20,713,632
21,228,902
21,728,065
22,671,138
23,084,647
Petroleumd
11,882,722
13,315,484
14,428,043
14,955,682
15,555,829
15,839,176
17,254,955
17,937,473
17,931,667
18,526,937
19,322,650
19,919,230
20,216,387
21,048,981
21,700,828
22,301,257
23,245,680
24,400,523
25,283,661
26,979,447
28,338,336
29,520,695
30,561,290
32,946,738
34,839,926
33,454,627
32,730,587
35,174,688
37,122,168
37,965,295
37,123,381
34,202,356
31,931,050 [R]
30,231,608 [R]
30,053,921 [R]
31,051,327
30,922,149 [R]
32,196,080
32,865,053 [R]
34,221,992 [R]
34,211,114
33,552,534
32,845,361
33,526,585 [R]
33,744,490 [R]
34,561,665
34,436,967 [R]
35,673,290 [R]
Total
29,002,099
31,631,956
34,008,105
33,799,903
34,826,156
33,877,300
37,410,105
38,888,151
38,925,592
38,716,702
40,550,068
42,136,751
42,758,243
44,680,770
46,509,283
48,543,050
50,576,504
53,513,987
55,126,873
58,502,470
61,361,751
63,522,269
64,595,645
67,695,880
70,316,351
67,906,091
65,354,796
69,104,082
70,989,367
71,855,989
72,891,627
69,825,607
67,569,939
63,887,761
63,153,575
66,504,079
66,090,567
66,031,109
68,521,935
71,556,253
72,912,970
72,333,123
71,879,686
73,397,310
74,835,647
76,257,523
77,257,890
79,782,668
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
112
1,915
2,187
6,026
19,678
26,394
38,147
39,819
43,164
64,158
88,456
141,534
153,722
239,347
412,939
583,752
910,177
1,272,083
1,899,798
2,111,121
2,701,762
3,024,126
2,775,827
2,739,169
3,007,589
3,131,148
3,202,549
3,552,531
4,075,563
4,380,109
4,753,933
5,586,968
5,602,161
6,104,350
6,422,132
6,479,206
6,410,499
6,693,877
7,075,436
7,086,674
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Energy Data a 141
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PV
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Wind
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Biomass
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554
6,034,459
6,562,330
6,523,526
6,186,780
6,224,827
5,741,161
5,570,238
6,393,667
6,208,290
6,240,085
5,995,131
6,264,397
6,157,054
6,706,907
7,169,179
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Importsb
5,420
6,094
7,461
7,740
6,852
7,983
13,879
15,519
12,288
11,320
12,127
15,474
7,689
1,829
334
6,671
482
3,725
1,020
2,152
3,656
6,688
12,046
26,227
48,715
43,311
21,103
29,378
59,422
67,318
69,381
71,399
113,406
100,026
120,547
135,323
139,655
122,481
158,101
108,399
37,450
7,888
66,965
86,733
94,910
152,937
133,856
137,144
Total
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
142 a Energy Data
TABLE 1
(Continued )
Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Coal
Coke Net
Year
Coal
Importsb
1997 21,445,411
46,450
1998 21,655,744
67,084
1999 21,622,544
57,685
2000 22,579,528
65,348
2001 21,914,268
29,264
2002 21,903,989
60,760
2003 22,320,928
50,518
2004 22,466,195
137,739
2005 22,796,543
44,194
2006 22,447,160
60,810
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197
2008 P 22,420,827
40,771
Natural Gasc
23,222,718
22,830,226
22,909,227
23,823,978
22,772,558
23,558,419
22,897,268
22,931,481
22,583,385
22,223,903 [R]
23,627,629 [R]
23,837,695
Petroleumd
36,159,835 [R]
36,816,619
37,838,081 [R]
38,264,303 [R]
38,186,476 [R]
38,226,666 [R]
38,809,183 [R]
40,294,351
40,393,325
39,958,151 [R]
39,773,213 [R]
37,136,675
Total
80,874,414
81,369,672
82,427,536
84,733,157
82,902,566
83,749,834
84,077,896
85,829,766
85,817,446
84,690,024
86,175,506
83,435,968
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
6,596,992
7,067,809
7,610,256
7,862,349
8,032,697
8,143,089
7,958,858
8,221,985
8,160,028
8,213,839
8,457,783 [R]
8,455,236
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Energy Data a 143
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PV
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
Wind
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Biomass
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
7,178,202
6,657,589
6,680,737
6,264,394
5,315,670
5,893,795
6,149,881
6,260,276
6,422,883
6,908,484
6,813,935
7,300,048
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Total
Importsb
116,203
94,765,811 [R]
88,224
95,183,293 [R]
98,924
96,817,452 [R]
115,199
98,975,100 [R]
75,156
96,326,089 [R]
71,595
97,858,314 [R]
21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
38,597
100,350,624 [R]
84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
62,849
99,875,196 [R]
106,632
101,553,855 [R]
112,381
99,303,634
144 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Biofuelsb
Totalc
Energyd
NA
1,549,262
2,973,984
NA
1,562,307
2,977,718
NA
1,534,669
2,958,464
NA
1,474,369
2,940,181
NA
1,418,601
2,831,460
NA
1,394,327
2,754,099
NA
1,424,143
2,783,987
NA
1,415,871
2,850,582
NA
1,333,581
2,849,194
NA
1,323,123
2,915,090
NA
1,352,874
2,901,339
NA
1,319,870
2,928,619
NA
1,294,762
2,953,406
NA
1,300,242
3,118,714
NA
1,323,316
3,098,396
NA
1,336,802
3,227,637
NA
1,334,761
3,398,036
NA
1,368,985
3,434,674
NA
1,340,249
3,693,799
NA
1,419,495
3,777,541
NA
1,440,487
4,101,751
NA
1,430,962
4,075,857
NA
1,432,323
4,268,335
NA
1,503,065
4,398,409
NA
1,529,068
4,433,121
NA
1,539,657
4,769,395
NA
1,498,734
4,723,494
NA
1,713,373
4,767,792
NA
1,838,332
4,249,002
NA
2,037,605
5,038,938
NA
2,151,906
5,166,379
NA
2,475,500
5,485,420
12,979
[R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
35,106
[R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
64,432
[R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
78,880
[R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
95,052
[R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R]
192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R]
144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R]
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Geo-thermalf
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PVg
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Energy Data a 145
Windh
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Woodi
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,428,649
1,430,229
1,500,992
1,527,012
1,537,755
1,496,928
1,711,484
1,836,524
2,036,150
2,149,854
2,473,861
2,495,563
2,510,048
2,684,271
2,685,817
2,686,765
2,562,134
2,463,159
2,576,663
2,679,623
2,216,165
2,214,083
2,313,471
2,259,774
2,323,820
2,369,869
2,437,027
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2,313
NA
2,094
NA
2,073
NA
2,056
NA
1,902
NA
1,806
NA
1,889
NA
1,808
NA
1,455
NA
2,052
NA
1,639
NA
88,000
12,979
[R]
119,000
35,106
[R]
157,000
64,432
[R]
208,000
78,880
[R]
236,317
95,052
[R]
262,861
109,285
[R]
289,000
125,229
[R]
315,328
126,589
[R]
354,357
127,936
[R]
408,078
113,129
[R]
439,715
130,612
[R]
473,201
147,965
[R]
479,336 [R]
172,512
[R]
515,324
192,236
[R]
531,476 [R]
203,875
[R]
576,990
145,703
[R]
Total
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554 [R]
6,034,459 [R]
6,562,330 [R]
6,523,526 [R]
6,186,780 [R]
6,224,827 [R]
5,741,161 [R]
5,570,238 [R]
6,393,667 [R]
6,208,290 [R]
6,240,085 [R]
5,995,131 [R]
6,264,397 [R]
6,157,054 [R]
6,706,907 [R]
7,169,179 [R]
146 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
(Continued )
Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Energyd
Year
Biofuelsb
Totalc
1997
190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R]
1998
206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R]
1999
215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R]
2000
237,904
3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R]
2001
259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R]
2002
314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R]
2003
411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R]
2004
500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R]
2005
580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R]
2006
743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R]
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R]
2008P 1,428,745
3,899,915
7,315,711
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Geo-thermalf
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PVg
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
g
fuels).
Energy Data a 147
Windh
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Woodi
2,370,991
2,184,160
2,214,167
2,261,715
2,005,833
1,995,283
2,002,040
2,121,251
2,136,351
2,151,731
2,142,417
2,040,616
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
550,602 [R]
187,375
[R]
542,295
205,137
[R]
540,156
213,232
[R]
510,800 [R]
240,523
363,874
257,769
[R]
402,006
309,456
[R]
401,347
413,217
[R]
389,044 [R]
512,571
[R]
403,219 [R]
593,576
[R]
414,226 [R]
794,656
[R]
430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R]
430,554
1,413,082
Total
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
7,178,202 [R]
6,657,589 [R]
6,680,737 [R]
6,264,394 [R]
5,315,670 [R]
5,893,795 [R]
6,149,881 [R]
6,260,276 [R]
6,422,883 [R]
6,908,484 [R]
6,813,935 [R]
7,300,048
148 a Energy Data
TABLE 3

End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Primary
4,475,121
4,847,590
5,124,031
5,178,644
5,074,890
5,286,016
5,633,095
5,866,467
5,771,579
6,155,096
6,223,822
6,688,963
6,814,611
7,122,112
7,135,126
7,161,257
7,328,128
7,549,262
7,740,902
7,963,327
8,276,760
8,352,750
8,456,799
8,655,327
8,250,226
7,927,553
8,005,740
8,408,252
8,207,376
8,272,389
7,933,806
7,453,254
7,057,589
7,154,067
6,840,628
7,220,681
7,160,776
6,921,722
6,940,917
7,372,024
7,586,093
6,570,463
6,758,442
6,963,482
7,155,529
6,990,569
6,946,268
7,471,455
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
5,613,938
6,006,806
6,399,747
6,580,694
6,581,124
6,869,767
7,303,271
7,689,809
7,739,679
8,230,400
8,447,378
9,077,668
9,325,376
9,825,201
10,034,384
10,290,804
10,688,770
11,218,183
11,669,926
12,368,421
13,205,347
13,798,057
14,277,629
14,890,531
14,929,771
14,683,314
14,841,755
15,440,661
15,688,729
16,155,929
15,841,970
15,786,781
15,295,246
15,557,340
15,456,669
15,998,041
16,088,348
16,029,197
16,321,196
17,186,278
17,858,128
17,014,681
17,490,321
17,426,920
18,288,984
18,181,216
18,577,978
19,562,439
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
2,660,963
2,824,267
2,727,158
2,661,902
2,500,330
2,444,814
2,547,641
2,592,274
2,434,391
2,541,202
2,630,274
2,702,042
2,743,974
2,901,109
2,896,921
2,949,284
3,150,462
3,383,741
3,738,448
3,866,000
4,045,666
4,196,051
4,282,718
4,369,078
4,381,061
4,221,192
4,022,853
4,332,587
4,217,258
4,268,843
4,333,251
4,074,270
3,805,343
3,835,241
3,806,026
3,968,567
3,694,740
3,656,730
3,736,106
3,957,548
4,004,442
3,858,007
3,905,836
3,951,199
3,933,859
3,978,979
4,063,119
4,234,533
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
3,660,910
3,883,472
3,862,700
3,862,377
3,758,937
3,720,157
3,881,530
4,008,279
3,945,887
4,103,153
4,353,069
4,588,973
4,706,925
5,013,919
5,226,862
5,438,649
5,819,530
6,299,383
6,870,845
7,296,778
7,795,301
8,307,155
8,681,492
9,144,775
9,506,982
9,362,537
9,465,906
10,035,225
10,177,267
10,480,604
10,626,851
10,562,769
10,601,863
10,847,354
10,922,977
11,436,092
11,443,724
11,603,742
11,943,383
12,575,483
13,202,580
13,332,926
13,512,501
13,453,951
13,835,823
14,111,283
14,697,525
15,181,207
Industrialb
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
12,626,532
13,881,079
15,118,070
14,661,778
15,328,413
14,305,657
16,090,702
16,562,350
16,512,867
15,797,985
16,518,951
16,977,066
16,993,115
17,589,807
18,365,964
19,426,503
20,123,911
21,029,715
21,012,628
21,872,069
22,653,721
22,974,833
22,732,356
23,532,489
24,740,862
23,816,329
21,454,213
22,685,371
23,192,694
23,276,491
24,211,500
22,610,288
21,338,216
19,075,786
18,578,019
20,197,515
19,467,805
19,098,662
19,977,070
20,884,381
20,897,403
21,208,225
20,854,317
21,786,666
21,784,999
22,422,272
22,747,660
23,443,770
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 149
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
14,716,733
16,232,875
17,669,234
17,301,575
18,200,961
17,146,242
19,472,329
20,196,256
20,204,730
19,306,571
20,315,979
20,823,424
20,936,742
21,768,109
22,729,891
24,089,579
25,074,894
26,397,297
26,615,564
27,888,371
29,114,339
29,641,226
29,600,938
30,952,764
32,652,616
31,818,721
29,447,184
31,429,542
32,306,559
32,733,452
33,962,118
32,077,090
30,756,076
27,656,788
27,481,484
29,624,598
28,877,080
28,333,363
29,443,635
30,738,557
31,397,833
31,895,492
31,486,967
32,661,236
32,721,292
33,607,366
34,046,786
34,988,791
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
7,879,581
8,383,528
8,933,753
8,907,235
9,030,518
8,823,059
9,475,032
9,791,039
9,837,442
9,952,797
10,298,441
10,560,452
10,734,679
11,185,922
11,621,165
11,964,508
12,400,149
13,069,166
13,718,214
14,831,020
15,470,880
16,061,232
16,693,481
17,681,086
18,576,065
18,085,915
18,209,133
19,065,144
19,784,143
20,580,415
20,436,369
19,658,353
19,476,200
19,050,580
19,132,451
19,606,799
20,040,687
20,739,703
21,419,125
22,266,855
22,424,597
22,366,185
22,065,034
22,363,309
22,716,447
23,311,806
23,793,148
24,383,906
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
7,990,087
8,492,594
9,042,162
9,003,096
9,123,484
8,903,125
9,550,811
9,860,083
9,897,017
10,004,893
10,349,357
10,596,801
10,770,077
11,220,519
11,654,898
11,998,284
12,433,906
13,101,884
13,752,106
14,865,583
15,506,152
16,097,603
16,729,212
17,716,273
18,611,660
18,119,206
18,243,706
19,099,331
19,819,581
20,614,766
20,470,711
19,696,034
19,512,537
19,087,723
19,175,075
19,653,933
20,087,315
20,788,771
21,469,449
22,318,176
22,478,708
22,419,888
22,118,484
22,415,918
22,769,843
23,367,224
23,848,651
24,438,890
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Primary
Itemf
4,339,470
165
4,679,283
21
5,070,830
188
5,338,183
82
5,730,355
39
5,779,745
91
6,461,471
30
6,942,296
174
7,231,035
128
7,197,936
11
7,794,295
61
8,158,344
3
8,452,741
103
9,028,798
42
9,626,860
124
10,315,765
140
11,014,449
121
11,984,863
203
12,698,249
333
13,886,738
238
15,174,112
260
16,259,175
119
17,123,917
307
18,466,362
75
19,752,816
7,334 [R]
19,932,789
7,102 [R]
20,306,611
640 [R]
21,513,405
7,613 [R]
22,590,665
7,418 [R]
23,586,613
1,619 [R]
23,986,723
1,564
24,326,509
1,080 [R]
24,488,373
2,766 [R]
24,033,531
4,189 [R]
24,679,081
2,796 [R]
25,719,102
2,794 [R]
26,132,459
3,903 [R]
26,338,257
3,452
27,104,445
2,533 [R]
28,337,687
3,364 [R]
30,024,713 [4]
8,999 [R]
30,660,106
9,335 [R]
31,024,645
595 [R]
30,893,368
355 [R]
32,025,108
10,490 [R]
32,563,463
5,698
33,620,747
3,148 [R]
34,637,665
4,336 [R]
Totalg
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
150 a Energy Data
TABLE 3
(Continued )
End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008 P
Primary
7,039,505
6,423,825
6,783,779
7,168,979
6,878,917
6,938,187
7,251,896
7,019,274
6,920,879
6,190,514
6,625,793
6,778,379
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
19,025,680
19,020,712
19,620,860
20,487,621
20,106,132
20,873,763
21,208,021
21,177,889
21,697,240
20,769,777
21,619,373
21,636,900
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
4,256,507
3,963,729
4,007,378
4,227,143
4,036,108
4,099,189
4,238,672
4,180,422
4,013,701
3,703,258
3,895,928
3,972,150
Industrialb
e
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
15,693,953
15,979,296
16,383,617
17,176,087
17,141,259
17,366,740
17,351,447
17,664,445
17,875,276
17,723,994
18,287,222
18,541,387
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
23,721,864
23,210,838
22,990,578
22,870,804
21,835,587
21,857,313
21,575,582
22,454,620
21,465,855
21,632,057
21,454,002
20,630,137
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
c
d
power producers.
f
g

Energy Data a 151
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
35,288,218
34,928,190
34,855,491
34,757,478
32,806,204
32,764,483
32,649,843
33,609,067
32,545,253
32,541,235
32,523,120
31,210,299
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
24,697,145
25,203,168
25,893,727
26,491,500
26,215,564
26,787,738
26,927,646
27,820,116
28,279,693
28,761,209
29,046,175
27,842,133
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
24,751,817
25,258,473
25,951,203
26,551,610
26,278,577
26,848,508
27,002,137
27,899,279
28,361,295
28,840,577
29,134,189
27,924,560
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
35,044,648
36,385,110
37,135,709
38,214,371
37,365,995
38,171,067
38,217,654
38,876,247
39,798,935
39,588,544
40,542,007
40,090,347
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Itemf
6,142 [R]
3,378 [R]
6,281 [R]
2,304 [R]
6,084 [R]
4,820 [R]
2,908 [R]
55 [R]
5,694 [R]
385 [R]
10,049 [R]
9,512
Totalg
94,765,811
95,183,293
96,817,452
98,975,100
96,326,089
97,858,314
98,208,541
100,350,624
100,484,758
99,875,196
101,553,855
99,303,634
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
152 a Energy Data
TABLE 4
Year
Appliance

Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Wood
Central Systemc
Window/wall unitc
None
Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Refrigeratord
One
Two or more
Separate freezer
Clothes washer
Clothes dryerTotal
Natural gas
Electric
Dishwasher
Range/stove/oven
Natural gas
Electric
Microwave oven
Television
One or two
Three or more
Personal computer
One
Two or more
1978
1979
1980
1982
1984
1987
77
78
82
83
84
1981
86
91
55
16
4
20
2
3
55
17
5
17
4
2
55
18
5
15
6
2
56
17
4
14
6
3
57
16
5
13
7
3
55
17
5
12
7
3
55
20
5
12
6
3
23
33
44
24
31
45
27
30
43
27
31
42
28
30
42
30
30
40
34
30
36
55
33
4
8
0
55
33
4
7
0
54
32
4
9
1
55
33
4
7
1
56
32
4
7
1
54
33
4
6
1
54
35
3
6
1
100
86
14
35
74
59
14
45
35
99
48
53
8
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
38
74
61
14
47
37
99
46
57
14
98
85
14
NA
NA
NA
100
87
13
38
73
61
16
45
37
100
46
56
17
98
84
14
NA
NA
NA
100
86
13
37
71
60
15
45
36
99
47
56
21
98
83
15
NA
NA
NA
100
88
12
37
73
62
16
46
38
99
46
57
34
98
80
18
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
34
75
66
15
51
43
99
43
60
61
98
75
23
NA
NA
NA
Retail electricity.

Energy Data a 153
Year
1990
1993
Change
1997
2001
2005
94
97
101
55
23
5
11
4
2
53
26
5
11
3
2
52
29
5
9
2
2
39
29
32
44
25
32
47
25
28
55
23
23
59
25
16
32
5
27
53
37
3
5
1
53
38
3
5
1
52
39
3
5
1
54
38
3
4
0
53
39
4
4
0
1
7
0
5
1
100
84
15
34
76
69
16
53
45
100
42
59
79
99
71
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
35
77
70
14
57
45
100
33
63
84
99
70
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
33
77
71
15
55
50
99
35
62
83
99
69
29
35
29
6
100
83
17
32
79
74
16
57
53
100
35
62
86
99
63
36
56
42
15
100
78
22
32
83
79
17
61
58
99
35
62
88
99
56
43
68
45
23
0
8
8
6
9
18
3
14
21
0
11
5
74
1
29
29
NA
NA
NA
[R]
[R]
[R]
107
1980 to 2005
[R]
[R]
[R]
55
29
5
7
2
2
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
111
29
52
30
5
7
3
3
3
12
0
8
3
1
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
154 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
Region and Country

North America
1997
1998
113.13
1999
113.53
Mexico
5.68
5.96
6.04
6.32
94.77
95.18
96.82
98.98
.02
.02
.02
.02
19.45
20.12
20.27
20.84
Argentina
2.47
2.58
Brazil
7.86
8.12
Venezuela
2.66
2.85
[R]
12.96
118.26
12.67
Other
12.37
115.82
Canada
United States
[R]
2000
[R]
2.61
[R]
8.27
[R]
2.67
[R]
2.73
6.57
12.95
8.55
[R]
2.77
Other
6.46
Europe a
79.87
[R]
80.44
[R]
80.51
6.67
[R]
81.53
6.85
[R]
Belgium
2.65
[R]
2.70
[R]
2.66
[R]
2.73
[R]
France
10.36
10.58
10.71
10.85
Germany
14.26
14.36
14.34
14.13
Italy
7.22
7.43
7.56
7.63
Netherlands
3.70
3.70
3.69
3.79
Poland
4.09
3.85
3.98
3.62
Spain
4.76
4.99
5.26
Sweden
2.32
Turkey
2.93
United Kingdom
[R]
[R]
2.40
[R]
3.00
2.37
5.62
[R]
2.91
9.75
9.74
Other
17.74
17.72
Eurasia b
39.02
[R]
38.73
Russia
25.81
[R]
25.93
Ukraine
6.07
5.85
5.76
5.75
Uzbekistan
1.88
1.84
1.86
1.94
Other
5.26
5.11
5.19
5.45
15.61
16.28
16.62
17.32
Iran
4.43
4.58
4.83
5.01
Saudi Arabia
4.37
4.54
4.60
4.85
Other
6.81
7.15
7.18
11.40
11.30
1.79
1.85
Middle East
Africa
Egypt
[R]
2.27
[R]
3.16
9.79
[R]
9.72
17.47
[R]
17.87
[R]
39.83
[R]
40.61
[R]
[R]
27.01
[R]
27.47
[R]
[R]
[R]
11.62
[R]
[R]
7.46
[R]
1.92
12.03
[R]
2.00
South Africa
4.56
4.35
4.46
4.59
Other
5.05
5.10
[R]
5.23
5.44
[R]
101.98
[R]
105.28
107.33
[R]
Asia and Oceaniaa

Australia
102.89
[R]
[R]
4.56
4.59
4.82
4.85
China
37.91
37.32
37.23
37.18
India
11.64
12.17
12.99
13.46
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
3.66
21.91
1.67
3.56
[R]
21.52
1.69
3.91
[R]
21.97
1.74
[R]
4.06
[R]
22.43
1.87
[R]
Energy Data a 155
2001
2002
115.36
12.76
2003
117.25
[R]
2004
118.20
2005
120.74
13.13
[R]
13.56
[R]
13.84
6.26
6.25
[R]
6.42
[R]
96.33
97.86
98.21
2006 P
121.62
[R]
121.18
14.23
[R]
6.53
6.86
[R]
13.95
7.36
100.35
100.51
[R]
99.86
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
21.16
21.12
21.61
22.44
23.40
24.18
2.61
8.47
[R]
2.48
[R]
2.67
8.58
[R]
8.69
2.78
[R]
9.02
[R]
2.95
[R]
3.15
9.37
[R]
9.64
[R]
3.19
86.18
[R]
86.42
2.78
[R]
2.75
11.36
[R]
11.44
3.03
2.93
2.72
2.93
3.12
7.05
7.13
7.54
7.71
7.96
82.77
[R]
2.70
[R]
82.50
[R]
2.68
[R]
84.24
[R]
85.70
[R]
[R]
8.20
2.78
[R]
2.81
11.00
11.11
[R]
11.39
14.33
14.59
[R]
14.74
[R]
14.50
[R]
14.63
7.70
7.99
[R]
8.08
[R]
8.14
[R]
8.07
3.93
3.94
4.00
4.11
4.23
[R]
4.14
3.45
3.44
3.60
3.70
3.68
[R]
3.86
5.87
5.95
6.26
6.39
[R]
6.51
[R]
6.51
2.30
[R]
11.08
14.62
7.67
2.40
[R]
[R]
2.89
2.27
[R]
3.15
2.17
[R]
3.32
3.51
2.33
[R]
2.22
3.73
[R]
3.91
9.86
[R]
9.72
[R]
9.86
[R]
9.88
[R]
9.92
[R]
9.80
18.28
[R]
18.33
[R]
18.56
[R]
18.77
[R]
19.01
[R]
19.10
40.94
[R]
41.59
[R]
43.37
[R]
44.69
[R]
45.79
[R]
45.88
27.72
[R]
27.93
[R]
28.77
[R]
29.60
[R]
30.06
[R]
30.39
5.87
5.64
5.82
6.28
6.26
6.32
[R]
2.03
2.08
2.10
2.22
2.13
[R]
2.21
7.27
[R]
7.41
5.55
[R]
5.75
[R]
6.22
[R]
6.62
[R]
17.95
18.98
19.76
20.89
22.75
[R]
23.81
5.39
5.89
6.18
6.39
7.22
[R]
7.69
5.14
5.38
5.76
6.21
6.59
[R]
6.89
7.42
7.71
7.82
8.29
8.93
[R]
9.23
13.36
[R]
13.97
14.54
[R]
14.50
2.44
[R]
2.59
2.73
[R]
2.54
5.21
5.12
[R]
5.18
12.63
[R]
12.72
2.23
[R]
2.26
4.66
[R]
4.54
4.88
[R]
5.74
[R]
5.91
[R]
6.04
[R]
6.18
[R]
6.69
[R]
6.77
111.34
[R]
116.41
[R]
125.48
[R]
138.71
[R]
147.78
[R]
156.31
5.14
[R]
5.26
[R]
5.57
[R]
5.61
[R]
43.30
[R]
50.62
[R]
59.99
[R]
66.80
[R]
73.81
17.68
5.02
39.44
5.13
13.94
13.84
14.29
15.54
[R]
16.34
[R]
4.46
4.64
4.56
[R]
4.88
[R]
4.91
[R]
4.15
22.15
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.79
2.58
[R]
2.56
22.24
2.11
[R]
22.15
2.18
[R]
2.42
2.66
156 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
(Continued )
Region and Country

South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Other
World
1997
7.41
3.21
2.60
8.34
381.35
1998
[R]
6.83
3.40
2.44
8.47
[R]
382.38
1999
[R]
7.55
3.55
2.50
9.01
[R]
389.95
2000
[R]
7.89
3.77
2.58
9.23
[R]
[R]
397.93
[R]
Energy Data a 157
2001
8.10
3.86
2.70
9.47
402.15
2002
2003
[R]
[R]
8.39
4.02
2.94
9.80
[R]
410.56
2004
[R]
[R]
8.64
4.21
3.22
10.23
[R]
8.91
4.36
3.45
10.92
[R]
426.02
[R]
447.15
2005
[R]
2006 P
[R]
[R]
9.23
4.43
3.67
11.52
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
9.45
4.57
3.74
11.97
[R]
462.06
[R]
472.27
158 a Energy Data
TABLE 6

Crude Oil
Oil & Gas Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
211.6
178.6a
11.7
21.3
57.5
25.2b
11.1
21.3
309.8
58.2
13.9
237.7
314.1
58.3
18.1
237.7

Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Peru
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela
Otherc
109.9
2.6
.5
12.2
.2
1.5
.1
4.5
.4
.7
87.0
.2
104.8
2.7
.5
12.5
.0
1.5
.7
4.8
.4
.6
81.0
.2
261.8
15.8
26.5
12.3
3.5
4.3
2.5
NA
11.9
18.8
166.3
(s)
247.0
16.5
28.0
12.9
1.0
6.7
.8
.3
12.0
16.7
152.0
(s)
Europed
Austria
Croatia
Denmark
Germany
Hungary
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Romania
Serbia
United Kingdom
Otherc
14.3
.1
.1
1.2
.4
(s)
.4
.1
6.9
.1
.6
.1
3.6
.8
13.8
.1
.1
1.1
.2
.1
.4
.2
6.7
.2
.5
NR
3.6
.7
172.0
.6
1.0
2.5
9.0
.3
3.3
50.0
79.1
5.8
2.2
1.7
14.6
1.9
169.0
1.1
1.1
2.6
5.2
.6
3.0
48.8
81.7
4.7
4.2
NR
14.0
2.1
Eurasiae
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Otherc
98.9
7.0
30.0
60.0
.6
.4
.6
.3
126.0
NR
NR
76.0
NR
NR
NR
50.0
2,014.8
30.0
100.0
1,680.0
100.0
39.0
65.0
.8
2,104.0
NR
NR
1,654.0
NR
NR
NR
450.0
Energy Data a 159
Crude Oil
Oil & Gas
Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
Middle East
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwaitf
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabiaf
Syria
Yemen
Otherc
748.3
.1
138.4
115.0
104.0
5.5
15.2
266.8
2.5
97.8
3.0
(s)
727.3
NR
137.0
126.0
99.4
5.7
20.0
264.8
2.9
68.1
2.7
.7
2,548.9
3.3
948.2
111.9
56.0
30.0
905.3
253.1
8.5
214.4
16.9
1.3
2,570.2
NR
985.0
91.0
66.3
32.0
903.2
254.0
12.1
196.3
16.8
13.6
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Cameroon
Congo (Brazzaville)
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Libya
Mozambique
Nigeria
Sudan
Tunisia
Otherc
114.8
12.2
9.0
.2
1.6
3.7
1.1
2.0
41.5
.0
36.2
5.0
.4
1.9
114.7
11.9
9.5
NR
1.9
3.7
1.7
3.2
36.5
.0
37.2
6.7
.6
1.8
489.6
159.0
9.5
4.8
3.2
58.5
1.3
1.0
50.1
4.5
184.0
3.0
2.3
7.6
504.2
160.0
5.7
NR
4.1
68.5
3.4
2.5
52.8
.0
184.5
4.0
3.5
15.4
Asia and Oceaniad

Australia
Bangladesh
Brunei
Burma
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
New Zealand
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Thailand
Vietnam
Otherc
34.3
1.5
(s)
1.1
.1
16.0
5.6
4.4
(s)
4.0
.1
.3
.1
.5
.6
.2
40.0
4.2
NR
1.1
.2
18.1
4.0
4.5
NR
5.5
.1
.3
.2
.4
1.3
.2
415.4
30.0
5.0
13.8
10.0
80.0
38.0
93.9
.7
83.0
1.0
28.0
8.0
11.7
6.8
5.5
527.6
151.9
NR
11.0
15.0
61.8
31.8
92.0
NR
88.0
2.0
29.8
14.7
11.2
8.2
10.2
1,332.0
1,184.2
6,212.3
6,436.0
World
160 a Energy Data

a
oil sands.
c
Arabia.
TABLE 7
Region and Country

North America
Canada
Greenland
Mexico
United Statesa
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Peru
Other
Europeb
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Turkey
United Kingdom
Other
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
126,271
3,826
0
948
121,496
7,969
0
34
7,251
154
529
9,296
6
1,844
7
168
0
219
6,627
13
0
171
241
145,206
3,425
202
387
141,193
9,973
7,791
1,268
420
0
494
41,485
2,195
3,117
15,299
7,227
4,299
3,420
1,642
452
2,000
0
1,834
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
271,477
7,251
202
1,335
262,689
17,941
7,791
1,302
7,671
154
1,023
50,781
2,200
4,962
15,306
7,394
4,299
3,640
8,270
465
2,000
171
2,076
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 161
TABLE 7
(Continued )
Region and Country

Eurasiac
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Other
Middle East
Iran
Africa
Botswana
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Other
Asia and Oceaniab
Australia
China
India
Indonesia
North Korea
Pakistan
Thailand
Other
World
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
103,186
31,052
54,110
16,922
1,102
0
1,528
1,528
54,488
44
52,911
553
980
169,994
40,896
68,564
57,585
1,897
331
1
0
721
472,731
145,931
3,450
118,964
20,417
2,205
895
0
0
192
0
0
0
192
113,813
43,541
57,651
4,694
2,874
331
2,184
1,493
1,046
456,599
[R]
[R]
Total
249,117
34,502
173,074
37,339
3,307
895
1,528
1,528
54,680
44
52,911
553
1,172
283,807
84,437
126,215
62,278
4,771
661
2,185
1,493
1,767
929,331
[R]
R = Revised.
162 a Energy Data
TABLE 8

Region and Country

North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
Other
1997
1998
1999
2000
6,492
[R]
6,547
[R]
6,615
[R]
6,810
[R]
549
[R]
554
[R]
568
[R]
565
[R]
350
[R]
372
[R]
364
[R]
383
[R]
5,592
[R]
5,620
[R]
5,682
[R]
5,860
[R]
1
950
1
[R]
975
[R]
984
[R]
993
[R]
136
[R]
140
[R]
138
[R]
[R]
325
[R]
336
[R]
345
[R]
[R]
142
Argentina
130
Brazil
326
Venezuela
135
Other
359
[R]
372
[R]
374
[R]
375
Europeb
4,503
[R]
4,487
[R]
4,436
[R]
4,500
[R]
Belgium
146
[R]
151
[R]
143
[R]
149
[R]
France
385
[R]
410
[R]
404
[R]
402
[R]
Germany
889
[R]
872
[R]
841
[R]
857
[R]
Italy
425
[R]
441
[R]
441
[R]
448
[R]
Netherlands
240
[R]
242
[R]
239
[R]
252
[R]
Poland
339
[R]
316
[R]
329
[R]
295
[R]
Romania
120
[R]
101
[R]
91
Spain
272
[R]
282
[R]
309
[R]
327
[R]
Turkey
182
[R]
184
[R]
182
[R]
202
[R]
United Kingdom
569
[R]
564
[R]
559
[R]
561
[R]
Other
935
[R]
924
[R]
898
[R]
913
[R]
Eurasiac
2,244
[R]
2,235
[R]
2,320
[R]
2,356
[R]
120
[R]
116
[R]
133
[R]
143
[R]
1,483
[R]
1,482
[R]
1,560
[R]
1,582
[R]
344
[R]
333
[R]
328
[R]
327
[R]
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
133
134
93
Uzbekistan
103
102
[R]
103
Other
194
[R]
201
[R]
195
[R]
197
989
[R]
1,019
[R]
1,057
[R]
1,094
[R]
291
[R]
295
[R]
317
[R]
321
[R]
Middle East
Iran
106
[R]
Saudi Arabia
255
[R]
258
[R]
264
[R]
291
[R]
Other
443
[R]
467
[R]
475
[R]
483
[R]
[R]
Africa
872
[R]
861
[R]
877
[R]
892
Egypt
112
[R]
115
[R]
117
[R]
119
South Africa
388
[R]
370
[R]
381
[R]
392
[R]
Other
371
[R]
376
[R]
378
[R]
381
[R]
7,197
[R]
7,035
[R]
7,247
[R]
7,366
[R]
334
[R]
340
[R]
359
[R]
360
[R]
Asia and Oceaniac

Australia
China
3,133
[R]
3,029
[R]
2,992
[R]
2,967
[R]
India
878
[R]
914
[R]
971
[R]
1,012
[R]
247
[R]
241
[R]
266
[R]
274
[R]
1,161
[R]
1,116
[R]
1,158
[R]
1,204
[R]
Indonesia
Japan
Energy Data a 163
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
6,697
[R]
6,782
[R]
6,870
[R]
6,970
[R]
7,034
[R]
6,954
554
[R]
573
[R]
602
[R]
615
[R]
632
[R]
614
380
[R]
384
385
[R]
407
[R]
436
5,762
[R]
5,824
[R]
5,969
[R]
5,994
[R]
5,903
1,016
[R]
128
349
149
389
[R]
5,878
1,005
[R]
1,023
[R]
1,066
[R]
1,111
[R]
1,138
[R]
121
[R]
134
[R]
141
[R]
152
[R]
162
[R]
347
[R]
346
[R]
356
[R]
371
[R]
377
[R]
147
[R]
134
[R]
143
[R]
150
[R]
152
390
[R]
408
[R]
426
[R]
438
389
447
4,559
[R]
4,532
[R]
4,679
[R]
4,713
[R]
4,717
[R]
4,721
146
[R]
143
[R]
151
[R]
154
[R]
151
[R]
148
406
[R]
402
[R]
409
[R]
416
[R]
414
[R]
418
878
[R]
857
[R]
874
[R]
872
[R]
853
[R]
858
445
[R]
453
[R]
475
[R]
470
[R]
473
[R]
468
278
[R]
259
[R]
261
[R]
271
[R]
273
[R]
260
279
[R]
276
[R]
289
[R]
295
[R]
290
[R]
303
102
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
98
[R]
99
332
[R]
349
[R]
357
[R]
371
[R]
384
[R]
373
184
[R]
195
[R]
207
[R]
211
[R]
231
[R]
236
575
[R]
564
[R]
575
[R]
582
[R]
585
[R]
586
934
[R]
934
[R]
980
[R]
972
[R]
966
[R]
973
2,332
[R]
2,354
[R]
2,471
[R]
2,529
[R]
2,600
[R]
2,601
[R]
148
[R]
154
[R]
166
1,571
[R]
1,572
[R]
1,627
319
[R]
327
[R]
357
114
[R]
115
206
111
184
185
[R]
203
[R]
213
1,663
[R]
1,699
[R]
1,704
[R]
347
[R]
350
[R]
329
[R]
122
[R]
117
[R]
121
[R]
212
[R]
231
[R]
233
[R]
188
1,119
[R]
1,175
[R]
1,240
[R]
1,330
[R]
1,444
[R]
1,505
334
[R]
365
[R]
387
[R]
407
[R]
446
[R]
471
301
[R]
312
[R]
347
[R]
389
[R]
406
[R]
424
483
[R]
499
[R]
506
[R]
535
[R]
593
[R]
610
923
[R]
924
[R]
975
[R]
1,025
[R]
1,062
[R]
1,057
130
[R]
134
[R]
144
[R]
153
[R]
161
[R]
152
399
[R]
385
[R]
418
[R]
448
[R]
438
[R]
444
394
[R]
405
[R]
413
[R]
424
[R]
463
[R]
461
7,608
[R]
8,050
[R]
8,806
[R]
9,821
[R]
10,517
[R]
11,220
374
[R]
383
[R]
381
[R]
391
[R]
417
[R]
417
3,108
[R]
3,441
[R]
4,062
[R]
4,847
[R]
5,429
[R]
6,018
1,035
[R]
1,034
[R]
1,048
[R]
1,151
[R]
1,194
[R]
1,293
300
[R]
315
[R]
305
[R]
323
[R]
324
[R]
280
1,197
[R]
1,203
[R]
1,253
[R]
1,258
[R]
1,250
[R]
1,247
164 a Energy Data
TABLE 8
(Continued )
Region and Country
1997
Malaysia
102
South Korea
435
Taiwan
1998
1999
2000
103
[R]
107
[R]
112
[R]
[R]
375
[R]
433
[R]
446
[R]
210
[R]
225
[R]
224
[R]
252
[R]
Thailand
177
[R]
162
[R]
171
[R]
162
[R]
Other
520
[R]
530
[R]
567
[R]
578
[R]
23,247
[R]
23,160
[R]
23,535
[R]
24,011
[R]
World
a
international.
Energy Data a 165
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
125
[R]
134
[R]
150
[R]
166
[R]
160
[R]
164
452
[R]
468
[R]
478
[R]
489
[R]
497
[R]
515
249
[R]
274
[R]
290
[R]
287
[R]
290
[R]
300
172
[R]
187
[R]
206
[R]
226
[R]
243
[R]
245
594
[R]
612
[R]
633
[R]
683
[R]
714
[R]
741
24,253
[R]
24,823
[R]
26,064
[R]
27,453
[R]
28,485
[R]
29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:

3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a
3000 B.C.

2800
1100
various localities.
200
500 900
600
874
1400s
1626
1769
1800s
1800 1826
1816
1830 1839
1860
18701880

trains.
conrmed.
and transmission.
transportation.
1878
18811887
1883
18831884
1885
1888
1890s
1900
19001910
19061970
gas and air.
purposes.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
1910
1920
1940s1960s
1942
1950
1956
Mid-1950s
1957
1958
1961
1973
1986
1987
1990

large numbers.
War II.
source.

1997
2005
standard.
2007
2008
for the rst time.
for the rst time.
2009
2010
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
174 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
CONRAD, WILLIAM
DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 175
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
176 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 177
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a

and recruiters.

positions.
businesses.
GREEN CAREERS GUIDE
economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS
GREEN ENERGY JOBS
GREEN JOBS NETWORK
WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.
WWW.DOE.GOV

WWW.KAHKE.COM

AND MANUFACTURERS
a
altarockenergy.com
FARMINGTON, CT
SAN FRANCISCO, CA
BREVARD, NC
dupont.com

FEIBURG, GERMANY
IBM, SAN JOSE, CA
www.acciona-na.com

energysiemens.com
suncor.com
DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function
Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell
Geochemical cycles
Grades 912
Population growth
Natural resources
History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f
Abate, Dee, 5:39
Abengoa Solar, 1:213, 2:40, 2:55,
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Abu Dhabi, 5:92 93, 5:93f, 5:129
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
1:109 11, 1:110f
Active yawing, 3:12
Adams, William, 1:198, 1:203, 2:5,
2:168, 2:173, 3:166, 3:171, 4:168,
4:173, 5:170, 5:175

5:38f
motor, 2:96
Aeroturbine, 3:14
Afghanistan, 3:94
eld, 4:43
5:29 30
190 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Aleman, Angel, 1:50
2:92 94
2:117, 5:118
3:33f
3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Center, 2:103, 4:105
1:129
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170
5:37
1:100, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137

2:127
5:91
1:157, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137
1:66
3:169, 4:89, 4:171, 5:120, 5:173
(ASES), 1:35, 1:165, 1:209, 2:33,
2:80, 2:135, 2:179, 3:133, 3:177,
4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
(AWEA), 1:165, 2:135, 3:2, 3:26,
3:133, 4:135, 5:137
Anode, 2:88
Refuge
5:52 53; fuel use and, 1:178t 179t,
2:148t 149t, 3:146t 147t,
4:148t 149t, 5:150t 151t
Aquaculture, 4:50
Arch dam, 3:80
Archimedes, 2:35
5:88 89; for green roof, 5:81 82
(ANWR), 1:61
Index a 191

Tucson, 5:17
Arkansas, 4:5, 4:118, 5:91, 5:91f
Society
5:41
Atoms, 2:10
Austin, Texas, 5:91
2:25
AutoDesk, 5:18
1:213 14, 2:183 84, 3:181 82,
4:183 84, 5:185 86
Association
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f
B20 fuel, 4:119f, 4:120
Babcock Ranch, 2:22
Bacon, Francis T., 1:203, 2:90, 2:173,
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Bacteria, 4:103
Baez, Ana, 1:50
3:55 56, 3:55f
Bantam, Doug, 4:1

(Wibberding), 5:61
Bates, John, 5:123
Bats, 3:60
of, 5:122 23; NiMH, 5:122 23;
Bay Localize, 1:28
Bay of Fundy, 3:110
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Belize, 4:34
Belote, Dave, 2:3f
Benz, Daimler, 2:90
Benzene, 1:53
Biliran, 4:33
4:22, 4:40f
Biodiesel, 1:48, 1:49, 1:51, 1:53 54,
4:127 28; advantages of, 4:121;
192 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

using, 4:117 20, 4:119, 4:119f;
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75
Biodigester, 4:98, 4:99f, 4:101
Bioethanol, 4:91 92
5:123; buses, 5:7, 5:8f; dening,
of, 4:102 3; CO2 from, 4:96; cow
Biojet, 4:107
Biomass, 1:13 14, 2:64 65; Asian
of, 4:103 4; dening, 4:81 82;

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
4:82 83, 4:82f; types of, 4:81f; US
2:64
Bioreactors, 2:93f
4:42
Bitumen, 1:58, 1:59
5:25 26
Blade design, 3:9
Blenders, 1:53 54
5:121 22, 5:121f, 5:128
3:14
BMW Mini E, 5:72
2:105, 2:106f
1:143f
Index a 193

Brazil, 2:113, 3:86 87
2:103
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Brush, Charles F., 1:199, 1:203, 2:169,
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173,
5:171, 5:175
Bunsen, Robert, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Burdin, Claude, 3:7
farms, 3:39 40
Butane, 1:74, 1:76
Buttress dam, 3:80
C. reinhartii, 2:92

eciency
Caithness/COC, 4:20
2:17; wind energy in, 1:200, 2:170,
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:115 16
3:32
(CYES), 1:30
Calorie, 1:18
Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
Canola, 4:115
Caprocks, 1:74
Carbon, 1:94, 5:7
1:122 23, 1:124f
Carbon cycle, 4:91f
194 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
1:119 20, 1:120f; emissions

emissions of, 1:192 95, 2:162 65,
3:160 63, 4:162 65, 5:5, 5:105,
2:179 82, 3:177 80, 4:179 82,
5:181 84

Carrier Corp., 1:214, 2:184, 3:182,
4:184, 5:186
Cathode, 2:88
Cattle, 1:76
Mechanism
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
bulb
Chaplin, Daryl, 2:5
Charcoal, 4:102
Chen, David, 2:52 54, 2:52f
Chernobyl plant, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
4:170, 5:172
Chevron, 1:67, 4:41
1:214, 2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Chevy Volt, 5:71
of, 1:114, 1:116; Dongtan, 5:94;
Index a 195

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
in, 1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:61f, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
4:102
Chu, Steven, 1:125, 1:131, 2:85, 3:73,
4:80, 4:89, 5:108, 5:111, 5:120,
5:129
2:17 21
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
4:115 16
2:135, 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
1:122

(CDM), 4:51
Clean Edge jobs, 1:209, 2:179, 3:177,
4:179, 5:181
4:126
(CUTE), 2:112
1:22 24; reducing, 1:25 33;
1:32f
pump (GCHP), 4:68
uses of, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
1:109 11, 1:128 29; exporters of,
1:116 17, 1:117t; formation of,
1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
and, 1:115 16, 5:106; history of,
of, 1:190t 191t, 2:160t 161t,
196 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,

1:113 15, 1:115f, 1:117; Utah state
5:39
in, 3:34
Columbia, 1:101

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
wind turbines, 3:10
farms, 3:31 32
using, 1:93f
Computers, 5:54
1:xiv, 1:12, 2:xiv, 2:1, 2:35, 2:38f,
of, 2:50 51; land use of, 2:50;
5:113; types of, 2:36 47
Condoor, Sridhar, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
Conduction, 2:68
(CRS), 3:24, 3:30
Conlogue, Fred, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
1:67, 3:67
Conrad, William, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
3:68
Index a 197

2:4
Controller, 3:11
Control rods, 1:142
Convection, 2:68
Coolants, 1:141 42
Copenhagen, 3:58f
Corn kernels, 4:94f
(CAFE), 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
wind energy, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68
Costa Rica, 4:43 44

3:116 18
Cow manure, 4:98
Service
of, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
1:46 47; US imports of, 1:54 56
Cubic foot, 1:18
for Europe
Cut-in speeds, 3:21
Services
Daimler AG, 2:86, 5:119
Dam gates, 3:81
3:78 80; types of, 3:80
Darajat, 4:41
Davy, Humphrey, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:63
Delaware, 3:37
198 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:105
3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138;
vacancies in, 1:212, 2:182, 3:180,
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:174, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Desuperheater, 4:69
Diesel, Rudolf, 1:47, 1:48, 1:199,
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169,
5:171

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
cells
Doping process, 2:7
Drake, Edwin L., 1:67, 1:204, 2:174,
3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:44 45; rig, 1:44f
4:8 9, 4:8f
Headquarters, 5:87
DuPont, 2:102
Durability, 4:70
DVD players, 5:54
2:12f
Index a 199

1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190;
Econar, 4:75
3:16 18
Eco-roofs, 5:65
Ecoversity, 4:127
Edison, Thomas, 1:199, 2:1, 2:169,
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
3:166, 4:168, 5:170
Renewable Energy
Centers
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Einstein, Albert, 1:199, 1:204, 2:169,
2:174, 3:167, 3:172, 4:169, 4:174,
5:171, 5:176

grid; Utility grid
1:114f; energy and, 1:16 17;
3:16, 3:41; homes use of, 3:44,
3:90, 5:48, 5:49f; household
3:16, 3:21 22
Electric motor, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:110
3:25
America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
4:135, 5:77, 5:126, 5:137
200 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
to, 5:125 26; green, 5:71 74;

5:72
Electrolysis, 2:87, 2:91 92, 2:92f
Electrolyte, 2:88
Electrons, 2:92
CO2, 1:95f, 1:119 20, 1:120f; CO2
4:117; US CO2, 1:120f; zero, 1:122,
dioxide
Enel, 4:20

1:24, 1:36 37; future of, 5:129;
3:181 84, 4:183 86, 5:185 88;
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:7 9; Savers, 4:54, 4:76; security,
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73; US history of, 1:3 4,
Energy audits, 5:20, 5:24, 5:54 55
4:118
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; in schools,
1:26 28
and, 5:102; future of, 1:21 22;
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
Index a 201
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,

2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
4:150t 153t, 5:152t 155t; by
sector, 1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t; of US, 1:19f
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; school
Energy (EERE), 1:36, 2:104, 4:76,
4:105, 5:22, 5:128
(EFRC), 1:33
EnergyGuide, 5:50f
Act of 2007, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f,
5:55
4:12 13, 4:41, 4:46 47, 4:47f,
4:48f
Division, 5:22

and, 1:22 24; of coal, 1:109 11,
station, 1:119 20; of CSP, 2:50 51;
1:108; in tidal power, 3:112 13
(EPA), 1:97, 1:166, 2:136, 3:134,
Frontier by, 4:69
Agency
Energy Council
Ericsson, John, 1:198, 1:205, 2:5,
2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
4:175, 5:170, 5:177
Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
4:175, 5:177
Ethane, 1:74 75
202 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Ethylene, 1:53
(EREC), 3:98
3:59
Exxon Mobil, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
Faraday, Michael, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Faya, Antnio, 3:87
2:170, 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
Fermentation, 2:92, 4:94 95, 4:100
Fermi, Enrico, 1:134, 1:200, 1:205,
2:170, 2:175, 3:168, 3:173, 4:170,
4:175, 5:172, 5:177
Finland, 4:88
Fish farms, 4:17, 4:19, 4:50, 4:51f
Fish ladders, 3:97f
4:10f
1:151 52
2:33
1:111
1:121 22
Food Lion, 5:105
Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Ford 999, 2:109
Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
5:72, 5:86, 5:172, 5:188
Forebay, 3:92f
Index a 203
Forklifts, 2:113
4:66 67
Activities, 5:128
2:129 30, 3:127 28, 4:129 30,
5:131 32
4:185, 5:187
Freons, 1:74
Frisch, Otto, 1:134
Fritts, Charles, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177
1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,

world use of, 1:8f
Fuel Cell 2000, 2:103
2:109
about, 2:121 23; cost of, 2:97,
small, 2:106, 2:120, 2:120f; solid
2:104
2:98
2:99, 2:107, 2:108f, 5:69 70; cost
of, 2:114; in Germany, 2:110 11; in
2:107 9
Fuel economy, 1:51
Fuel rods, 1:140 41, 1:141f
Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 72, 4:102
3:173, 4:175, 5:177
204 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Fuller, Calvin, 1:205, 2:5, 2:175,

3:173, 4:175, 5:177
Fumaroles, 4:52
Furling, 3:8
FutureGen, 1:123
Gabcikovo Dam, 3:98
Garden roofs, 5:65, 5:78, 5:84
Garner, Mark, 3:74, 5:108, 5:108f
1:62
Gasholder, 4:98
for, 4:79; coal, 1:125 28, 1:126f;
of wood, 4:97
Gasohol, 4:92
Gasoline, 1:41, 1:47, 4:93f, 4:96
1:91
Gasper, Peter, 3:87
5:125 26
3:183, 4:185, 5:187

5:122
Geology, 4:63
GEO Mission, 4:54
GeoThermal, 4:54
4:8 13; in El Salvador, 4:42 43;
4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
4:5 6; in Iceland, 1:197, 2:167,
3:165, 4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169;
Index a 205

and, 4:24; locations of, 4:6 7, 4:29;
4:15; in New Mexico, 4:17 18;
1:162, 2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134;
2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii, 4:13 20,
4:67; uses for, 4:49 51; in Utah,
using, 4:66 67
1:35, 4:27 28
4:60 61, 4:61f; CO2 reduced

4:70 71; land use and, 4:63 64;
for, 4:63 64; in Sweden, 4:72; in
using, 4:62 63
4:29
4:27
4:67, 4:68, 5:104
3:174, 4:176, 5:178
1:115 16; FCVs in, 2:110 11;
206 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

3:53, 3:57
Geysers, 4:4 5, 4:52
The Geysers, 4:5 6, 4:8 9, 4:14, 4:14f
Gill, Dena, 3:65
5:120
1:103; of energy, 1:18 19, 1:20f,
1:184 87t, 2:154 57t, 3:152 55t,
4:154 57t, 5:156 59t; of natural
gas, 1:72 73, 1:94 95; wind energy
and, 3:56
2:162 65, 3:160 63, 4:162 65,
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 67
1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
1:79 81, 1:79f, 1:188t 189t,
2:158t 159t, 3:156t 157t,
4:158t 159t, 5:160t 161t

1:25 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
gas and, 1:128
Global winds, 3:3f
Glycerin, 4:112
in, 5:3 4; of NASCAR, 5:1 3
Gomez, Cesar, 1:50
Gore, Al, 5:129
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39;
US, 4:80
Grant, John D., 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Gravity dam, 3:80
Great Geysir, 4:37
School, 5:35
Green biz, 1:210, 2:180, 3:178, 4:180,
5:182
5:26 27
Index a 207

3:178, 4:180, 5:182
5:89 92, 5:92t
Green Club, 2:19 20
Green Cluster, 5:77
Green corps, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
Green-e, 3:97
3:179, 4:181, 5:183
1:30
4:50
2:77f, 5:4
of, 2:78, 5:16; emissions of, 4:69;
Greenpeace, 1:36
3:71
Snodgrass), 5:40

5:65 66, 5:65f; issues with, 5:87;
electric, 5:71 74
3:42f
Grove, William, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:120, 5:178
Guatemala, 4:34
Gunung Salak, 4:41
Guorui, Luo, 4:103
5:xvii
Hahn, Otto, 1:134
Halliday, Daniel, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Center, 3:34
208 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:103f
Harris, Matt, 2:8
Hawaii, 4:16 17
the Head, 3:91 92
Heat, 1:6 8
Heating system, 4:22 23, 4:50, 5:25
Heat pumps, 1:13
Cell kit, 2:125
5:10f
4:72
Herschel, John, 2:5
(HLRW), 1:34
High pressure, 3:4
wastes
Hobby Lobby, 5:61

5:56 57; energy saving, 5:47 48;
in, 1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,
5:150t 151t; of future, 5:46 47;
for, 5:63
Hoover Dam, 1:17f, 3:76 77
Hopi Indians, 1:104
2:127, 5:69
3:13f, 3:40 41
Index a 209

3:31, 3:31f
Hot dry rock, 4:12 13, 4:12f,
project of, 4:48 49
Human health, 4:76
Hybrid cars, 5:68, 5:69t, 5:78
3:85 86; dams built for, 3:78 80;
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133;
3:74 77, 3:74f
3:86 87, 3:86f; in Italy, 2:94;
3:89 90; types of, 3:80 81, 3:82f

using, 2:110, 2:110f, 5:69; storage,
2:90 91; vehicle, 2:116
1:15, 2:xv, 2:85 86, 2:128, 3:xv,
2:105; buses using, 2:111 13,
2:100 101; in Germany, 2:117;
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; sales growth
210 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

vehicles
Hydrology, 4:63
5:69, 5:119
Energy Agency
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
energy in, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165,
4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169; geothermal
systems
plants in, 4:15 16
combined cycle
Association
Illinois, 4:119 20
5:12f
5:xi xii
3:80, 3:82f
3:59 60
Indiana, 4:68, 4:120
1:115
steel, 1:20 21; US coal, 1:113 15,
Cell, 2:106
Insulation, 5:52
(ICS), 2:77
cycle (IGCC), 1:122
Gas Vehicles, 1:100
(IAEA), 1:135 36, 1:166, 2:136,
3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 211

and Dams, 3:99
2:124
2:33, 2:83
Coalition, 2:16
Ions, 2:88
Iowa, 5:35
4:71
Energy Agency
3:86 87, 3:86f
James, David, 4:127
Jiu River, 3:88 89

Kalina system, 4:49
Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
Kazimi, Mujid, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Kelp, 1:98
in, 5:32
Kenya, 4:43
Keros, Alex, 2:108f
Kerosene, 1:53
Kibaki, Mwai, 4:43
Kill A Watt, 5:62
1:6
Krocker, J. D., 4:6
5:106
Kyoto Protocol, 1997, 1:32 33, 1:201,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:16, 5:105 6,
5:106f, 5:173
212 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
LaDuke, Winona, 2:8

1:97 98, 2:120, 4:97; nitrogen
energy, 5:56 57
energy and, 2:29
3:109f
3:100
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also
LEED certication

5:102 5
Lewis, Mike, 2:98
Lewis, Zane, 2:95f, 4:110f, 4:111
4:33
Life science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
facilities
Limestone, 1:42
1:85
1:150f
Lithium, 5:124
Local winds, 3:4
1:122 23
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:13, 4:136,
5:138
Louisiana, 4:112
(LIH), 3:97
1:145 46
Low pressure, 3:4
1:12
Index a 213

Luminant, 3:31
Program, 5:62
Mak-Ban, 4:41
Malaysia, 4:87
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
5:173; in energy, 1:213 16,
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
Mariculture, 3:123
Marine plants, 1:98
Maryland, 5:35
4:67 68
Mayer, John, 5:8f
5:16
5:70
McCurdy, Ross, 2:94 99, 2:125,

2:126, 4:110 11
cells
4:119f
5:70f
5:71
Methane, 1:74 75, 1:75f, 4:96; cattle
1:96 97
Methanol, 2:89, 2:120, 2:120f
Mexico, 4:34 35
Michigan, 4:72
3:89 90, 3:91f; China using,
Microturbines, 2:41
4:80f
Middle East, 1:79f
Migratory sh, 3:87
Military, US, 1:137
214 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

1:138 40
project, 5:9, 5:10f
4:43
Mississippi, 4:72
Mojave Desert, 2:36 38, 2:51, 3:32,
4:11
Molecules, 2:10
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119
Montana, 4:20
5:83
Motion, 1:6
2:168, 2:176, 3:166, 3:174, 4:168,
4:176, 5:170, 5:178
4:108
Mt. Washington, 3:5
3:81
Murphy, John, 2:98
Musk, Elon, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Nacelle, 3:11
5:117f
Nanometers, 2:10
Nanosolar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
5:114f, 5:116
2:90, 5:120
4:117, 4:127
4:73
2:52, 3:64 68; mission of, 3:66;
3:66 67
Index a 215

2:103
(NGSA), 1:100
Guide, 5:90
1:36, 3:100
2:33, 2:99 100, 2:103, 2:127,
2:136, 3:14, 3:44, 3:134, 4:118,
4:136, 5:109, 5:115, 5:138
1:217 18, 2:187 88, 3:185 86,
4:187 88, 5:189 90
(NWTC), 3:52
Authority, 3:119
Natural gas, 1:xii, 1:9 10, 1:71 72,
1:71; Chinas use of, 1:197, 2:167,
1:101; consumers of, 1:82 85;
of, 1:74 75; drilling for, 1:76 77;
consumption of, 1:72 73, 1:94 95;
1:79f, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,

and, 1:94; history of, 1:73 74;
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75; advantages
safety of, 1:92
(NRRI), 4:83
Nauen, Andreas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
Reserves, 1:58
Nebraska, 4:68
NECAR 1, 2:90
2:13
Energy Association
Netherlands, 1:84
Net metering, 2:15 16, 3:43, 3:71
University Program
216 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Nevada, 4:15
2:185, 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Newell, Craig, 3:20
New Jersey, 4:118, 5:35 36
New Mexico, 4:17 18
New York, 2:17, 2:114 15, 5:34, 5:82
New York gym, 5:9
3:110 11
Association
Niagara Falls, 3:76
(NiMH), 5:122 23
Nielsen, Carl, 4:6
battery
Resource Service

1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84
North Dakota, 4:72
North Sea, 1:80f
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
3:117 18
Commission
of, 1:132 33; in countries, 5:112;
1:137 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 41,
on, 1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
4:129 30, 5:131 32; in sustainable
Index a 217

source, 1:131 32
1:152, 1:157
(NEUP), 1:131, 5:111
3:168, 4:170, 5:172; Browns Ferry,
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173;
US, 1:136
(NRC), 1:134, 1:147, 1:157, 1:166,
2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
1:146 47
1:150, 5:123
1:131, 1:148, 2:3, 2:3f, 2:86, 3:xiii,
4:xiii, 4:80, 5:xiii, 5:108f, 5:110 11,
5:124, 5:129

(ORPC), 3:124
3:113 18
(OTEC), 1:15, 3:104, 3:118 19,
3:120f; Africa and, 3:122;
Octane rating, 1:47
Development
Oerlikon Solar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
systems, 3:114
Ohio, 5:33
Ohms Law, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
218 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158,

4:160, 5:162
Oil sands, 1:58 59, 1:190, 2:160,
3:158, 4:160, 5:162
Olive oil, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
3:114 16
4:61 63, 4:62f
4:1 2, 4:20 23, 4:21f, 4:24f
4:24f
1:20f, 1:81

2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39
Ormat, 4:20
Company
3:115
Conversion
3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Oxygenates, 1:53
Pacic ocean, 4:6 7
Palapa, Rosy, 1:50
2:37f, 2:43f
Paraguay, 3:86 87
2:67 70, 2:67f; benets of, 2:70;
Index a 219
Paul, Stephen, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
reactor
Peak oil, 1:56, 1:69
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
1: 151
Peck, Rick, 5:13 15, 5:13f
3:92 93, 3:93f, 3:94
membrane
Center, 5:96
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169;
1:60 62; forming of, 1:41 42; as
2:119

uses for, 2:6
5:113
leaders in, 2:24 26
4:187, 5:189
Picohydro, 3:91
5:88
5:33
Poland, 1:116
(PEM), 1:xv, 2:xv, 2:89, 3:xv, 4:xv,
5:xv
Pools, 4:50 51
energy in, 3:59
PowerBuoy, 3:114
binary, 4:9 10, 4:9f, 4:22; CO2
220 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

also Geothermal
plants
Power strips, 5:54
Pressures, 4:3
1:144
Probst, Pete, 4:124
1:213 16, 2:183 86, 3:181 84,
4:183 86, 5:185 88
1:116; coal, 1:115 16, 1:116;
oil, 1:62; hydrogen, 2:91 100;
1:81 82; Polands coal, 1:116;

and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:29 38, 3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115;
1:59
Propane, 1:74 75, 1:76, 1:85
3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Quad, 1:18
Quebec, 3:86
Race cars, 4:107 8, 4:108f
Radiant energy, 1:5
4:16f
Rain barrels, 5:32
Index a 221

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; on fossil fuels,
1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; on nuclear
energy, 1:159 60, 2:129 30,
3:127 28, 4:129 30, 5:131 32; on
solar energy, 1:160 61, 2:130 31,
3:128 29, 4:130 31, 5:132 33; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
5:134 35; on wave energy, 1:161,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
5:133
1:107 8
1:190 91t, 2:160t 161t,
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,
5:162t 163t
1:149, 1:151; of PV, 2:30
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,
5:156t 159t
Regulator, 3:90
1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84; China
of, 5:124; for homes, 5:63 64;
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
(RReDC), 5:125
Renovation, 5:27 28
Revenues, 3:38
Reverb, 5:8f
Rhode Island, 3:37, 4:118 19, 5:126
2:98
Rice paddies, 1:76
222 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Ring of Fire, 4:6 7, 4:7f, 4:18, 4:31,
4:40, 4:44
1:29, 1:31
2:110f, 5:69
Robbins, Steve, 2:9
Rocket stoves, 4:88
Rojas, Fermin, 1:50
Romania, 3:88 89
Rotor blades, 3:7 9
5:31
Data Center
of, 3:62
2:44f

(SAITEM), 2:116
Salter, Steven, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
5:188
Sandstone, 1:42
2:111
2:25
Saturn, 5:71
2:94
Index a 223

wind energy in, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
in, 4:66
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188,
5:190
3:185, 4:187, 5:189
SciKits, 2:127
Scooters, 2:113 14
Scott, Paul, 5:18f
Training
Seaweed, 1:98
1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
5:146t 149t
Sedum, 5:39
Systems
Selsam, Douglas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
5:13 15, 5:13f
Sharp Corp., 2:26
1:135
plants, 3:95f
Siemens Corp., 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Silicon, 2:9
plants, 3:87
4:11
Smaller homes, 5:55
plants, 3:89 90
Smith, David, 5:48
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
224 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:114 15; thin-lm, 2:9 10, 2:9f
5:64 65, 5:64f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185;
of, 2:4 5; benets of, 2:26 27;
2:17 21; collectors for, 2:73 74,
2:5 6, 2:56; for homes, 5:63 64;
2:130 31, 3:128 29, 4:130 31,

5:132 33; schools using, 2:16 17;
2:14 15, 2:28; videos for, 2:34. See
technology
(SEGS), 2:37, 2:51, 2:51f
Cosmos, 2:73f
Solar ovens, 2:71
3:64f
of Spain, 2:47
Solar Two, 2:47 50
Solar wall, 2:60 61
Index a 225

5:66 67; economics of, 2:78;
worlds rst, 2:59
Solatubes, 5:37
5:121
Solix Biofuels, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Solvents, 1:47
Sound, 1:6
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t
South America, 1:84
South Korea, 3:110
Soy crops, 4:125
4:69
Space science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
Spas, 4:50 51

Split systems, 4:59
Sridhar, K. R., 5:121 22, 5:121f
Sri Lanka, 3:95
4:98 102, 4:99f
Stanley, William, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Rotor
Storage tanks, 2:77
1:60f
(SEAT), 1:28
Students, 4:121
Sulfur dioxide, 1:53, 1:111, 1:119,
4:92
Sullivan, Jim, 2:98
226 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:35 36
Sun, 1:5, 2:49, 2:59, 2:107
2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
SunEdison, 5:35
1:107 8; shallow coal, 1:109
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
5:101f

3:116 17
3:9
Sweet Bay, 5:105
Swept area, 3:8
1:127 28
2:80
3:34
5:73f
Tanzania, 4:102
TAPCHAN, 3:115, 3:116f
5:27f
Tax revenue, 4:27
1:121 28; dye-sensitized, 2:11 12,
2:127, 5:69; hydrogen, 2:99 100;
nano, 4:77, 5:114 15, 5:114f,
3:119 22; passive solar, 2:60 61;
photovoltaic, 2:24 25, 2:24 26,
2:25, 2:30 31; Power, 2:83; Prism
4:19f, 4:20; science and, 1:218,
Index a 227

Televisions, 5:54
dierences in, 1:15
3:79
plants, 3:93
Tesla, Nicola, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Tessera Solar, 2:41
3:54; wind farms in, 3:32 33
3:175, 4:177, 5:179
Thailand, 4:39 40, 4:87
Thermal energy, 1:6, 3:118 23, 4:15
5:123f
Thompson, Asa, 4:5

3:84f
Tidal mill, 3:106
US, 3:108 9
Tides, 3:104 5, 3:105f
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73
Tiwi, 4:41
Toledo Zoo, 4:67
Toluene, 1:53
Tower, 3:11
Toyota, 2:86, 2:114, 5:69, 5:119;
FCHV of, 2:109; RAV4, 5:18f
Trac jams, 1:7f
228 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

turbines, 3:9 11
1:146 47
Tree hugger jobs, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
5:91
Trucking, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
Turbines, 3:81 82, 3:90, 3:92 93
Turkey, 2:116, 4:41
3:24
5:27 28
2:54

industry of, 1:113 15, 1:115f,
energy in, 1:132 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 229

of, 3:17 18, 5:115; wind energy
specic states
(USGS), 1:167, 2:137, 3:135,
4:137, 5:139
1:141; processing, 1:140; U-238,
1:144
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Council
(USGBC), 5:26 27, 5:36, 5:42
Survey
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 20
Utility bills, 5:36
2:28
4:123
Veggie Van, 4:127
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75; electric,
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75;
cell vehicles
plant, 3:59
Vermont, 5:10
Verne, Jules, 2:85
3:14 15
Vietnam, 4:87
in, 5:11
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
compounds
Voith Hydro, 3:74
5:108f
1:97, 1:119
Volcanoes, 4:7f, 4:33, 4:35, 4:37, 4:40,
4:44
Volkswagen, 2:111
Walters, Bob, 1:86 89, 1:87f
230 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

farms in, 3:36
Waste, 5:51
Water Furnace, 4:75
Watermill, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
Watt, James, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; Sweden
3:116f
Waves, 3:113

1:145
West Virginia, 5:32
5:28 31
1:111
4:66f, 4:68
California, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
3:69 70; cost of, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68;
3:58f, 5:115; DOE report on, 3:17,
3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 18;
in schools, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
Index a 231

3:68 69; US capacity of, 3:17 18,
3:72
3:32, 3:33f; Bualo Ridge, 3:34;
3:46, 3:46f
Windows, 5:33, 5:51, 5:52f
3:72
Wind speed, 3:5 6, 3:8 9
3:55 56, 3:55f; bats killed by, 3:60;

1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:60f, 3:169,
turbine, 3:13 15, 3:13f;
3:11 12
Wind vane, 3:11
Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 67
Wood alcohol, 2:89
Woods, Mel, 2:18
World oil, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 4:160,
5:162
5:xi xii
232 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4
Xeriscape, 5:87
5:188
Yellowcake, 1:140
4:9, 4:52
2:33
1:131 32
5:94
About the Author

A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 5: Energy Efficiency,

Conservation, and
Sustainability
John F. Mongillo

Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66
2011
621.042dc22
2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11
1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter 1
ix
xiii
Go Green: Energy Eciency and

Energy Conservation
NASCARs Go-Green Program
Go Green: Be Energy Ecient
Carbon Dioxide Emissions Are Increasing
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Carbon Footprint
Rock Bands and Musicians Reducing
Their Carbon Footprints
Carbon Footprints of Homes
Carbon Footprints of Schools and Colleges
Carbon Footprints of Cities
Carbon Footprints of Companies
How Can We Reduce Our Carbon Footprint?
1
1
3
4
5
5
6
8
9
15
18
19
Interview
Rick Peck
Chapter 2
13
Go-Green Schools
25
What Is a Sustainable Green School Building?

The U.S. Green Building Council
26
26
vi a Contents
21st Century Green High-Performing Public

Schools Facilities Act
Go-Green Public Schools
How to Lower Your Schools Utility Bills
27
31
36
Interviews
Marie Norman
Don Carmichael
Chapter 3
28
37
Greener Homes and Greener Vehicles
45
The Home of the Future?

Saving Energy: It Starts at Home
Electricity
Home Heating
Wastes
Help Parents Become More Home Energy Ecient
Home Energy Audits
The Building Trend for Smaller Homes
Home Energy Eciency Outdoors
Renewable Energy Resources for Homes
Solar House Decathlon Homes of 2009
Green Roofs for Homeowners
Greener Vehicles for Travel
Driving and Car Maintenance
46
47
48
50
51
51
54
55
56
63
64
65
68
75
Interviews
Bhavna Rawal
Mr. and Mrs. Gerald McGrath
Chapter 4
57
66
Green Buildings and Green Cities
79
What Is a Green Building?

The Impact of Buildings on the Natural Environment
LEED Leads the Way
Criteria for Residential Green Building Products
Green Roof Architecture
University and College Courses in Green Architecture
Technical School Courses
U.S. Green Cities
Green Cities in Other Countries
79
80
80
80
81
88
88
89
92
Contents a vii
Chapter 5
Renewable Energy Systems for a Sustainable Future

Sustainable Development
Energy Consumption and Environmental Concerns
Changing to Sustainable Energy Systems
Renewable Energy to Power a Sustainable Future
Batteries
The Future of Renewable Energy Sources
and the Challenges
99
100
102
105
107
122
124
Interview
Rande Gray
102
131
137
Energy Data
141
Energy Time Line : 3000 B.C. To A.D. 2009
169
Proles
175
181
185
189
Index
191
About the Author
235
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a
xiv a Introduction
World governments, nongovernmental organizations, international companies, universities and colleges, entrepreneurs, and citizens are debating
present and future energy policies. A few of the questions they are addressing include the following:
21st century.
Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction

Introduction a xvii

Petroleum
Russia, 13 percent
Iran, 5.4 percent
China, 5.1 percent


Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy
Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
New York, and Colorado.
xx a Introduction
usesunshineis free.
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

look at Europe: Europe is high on wind power. In fact, wind turbines generate more electricity in Europe as an alternative source of energy than
Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy
one in France.

Geothermal
xxiv a Introduction
Energys Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
Go Green: Energy
Efficiency and
Energy Conservation
NASCARS GO-GREEN PROGRAM

Can you name a professional sport, aside from football, that has more
American television viewers than any other? If you said NASCAR auto
racing, you are right.
Each year, the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) presents a full schedule of popular, well-attended auto racing
events in the United States and elsewhere. In fact, NASCAR reports that
more than 70 millions fans come to its racetracks during the stock car
races yearly season. Now NASCAR is going green. It wants to be more
energy-ecient.
Recently, NASCAR announced the NASCAR Green Clean Air initiative. The new initiative aims to neutralize the environmental impacts
of racing by capturing carbon emissions. NASCAR is planting 10 new
trees for each green ag that drops, which will amount to approximately
20 acres of trees yearly. Because a tree captures and stores about one ton
of carbon dioxide (CO2) over its lifetime, the emissions produced during a
typical race will be oset.
In explaining NASCARs motives for implementing the new program,
CEO and chairman Brian France said: Fans are concerned about high
fuel cost, global warming, and energy independence. We recognize this
must be one of our priorities moving forward. The tree-planting program
is only one component of NASCARs broader green initiative. NASCAR

also lists the following among its accomplishments:
Bottles and cans are recycled at all NASCAR-sanctioned race tracks.
All oils and car uids used at the track are recycled by Safety-Kleen,
Incorporated.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company recycles all tires used in racing.
Exide Technologies provides a recycling program for the batteries
used in the races.
All NASCAR oces have introduced a recycling program aimed at
100 percent recycling, and the new NASCAR plaza in Charlotte,
North Carolina, and the Daytona Speedplex will be built using Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standards.
Brian France has set NASCAR the ambitious goal of being an environmental leader not only in sports but in all industry. He describes the
new program as a rst, important step in an ambitious ve-year plan to
signicantly reduce the environmental footprint of NASCAR, while raising awareness of conservation among fans.
NASCAR Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Brian France announces that
NASCAR will move to a 15 percent ethanol fuel mix for the 2011 season, October 16, 2010. (Rusty Jarrett/Getty Images for NASCAR)
Go Green a 3
VIDEO
To learn more about NASCARs go-green efforts, check out the video NASCAR
Revs Up Green Effort: http://www.environmentalleader.com/2009/12/03/nascarrevs-up-green-efforts/ (1:41 minutes).
GO GREEN: BE ENERGY EFFICIENT

Everyone in the energy eld believes that we need to become more ecient
in using our energy resources. In fact, many believe that energy eciency is
the rst step before considering renewable energy sources. Becoming more
energy ecient means wasting less.
In this volume in chapter 1, we look at energy eciency and the steps
needed to reduce our carbon footprint in our homes, schools, cities, and
businesses.
Chapter 2 discusses how school committees, teachers, and students
have made their schools more sustainable.
Chapter 3 details how homeowners, assisted by their children, can
make their homes more energy-ecient by using a home energy
audit plan.
Chapter 4 features green buildings and green cities that provide less
impact on the environment and a comfortable workplace for employees.
Chapter 5 covers the power for a sustainable future through renewable energy.
There are many things we can do to use less energy and use it more
wisely. Two main ways to save energy are energy conservation and energy
eciency. As discussed in volume 1, people often think these terms mean
the same thing, but they are dierent. The Department of Energy draws
the distinction in the following terms:
Energy conservation is any behavior that results in the use of less energy. Turning the lights o when you leave the room and recycling
aluminum cans are both ways of conserving energy.
Energy eciency is the use of technology that requires less energy
to perform the same function. A compact uorescent light bulb that
uses less energy than an incandescent bulb to produce the same
amount of light is an example of energy eciency. However, the
decision to replace an incandescent light bulb with a compact uorescent is an act of energy conservation.
Both energy conservation and energy eciency will be key in reducing
CO2 emissions.
CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
ARE INCREASING
Most would agree that any excess CO2 in the atmosphere can have negative eects on the environment. Carbon dioxide emissions are of concern
to scientists because CO2 is the greenhouse gas that contributes most to
the greenhouse eect. The greenhouse eect maintains a global climate by
trapping heat near the surface of Earth. As with the glass panes of a greenhouse, atmospheric gases, such as CO2, help warm the planet and make
Earth hospitable to all living organisms. However, scientists are concerned
that if the level of greenhouse gases continues to rise, an increase in Earths
temperatures will result and a climate-warming trend will follow. This condition is known as global warming.
Breakdown of global human-caused greenhouse gas emissions by each gas

measured on a CO2-equivalent basis, 2004. (Source: IPCC 4th Assessment
Report: Climate Change 2007 Synthesis Report)
Go Green a 5
DID YOU KNOW?

The countries with the highest industrial emissions of carbon dioxide, in order, are
the United States, China, Russia, Japan, Germany, India, Ukraine, and the United
Kingdom. Some countries with the lowest industrial emissions of carbon dioxide
include Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Singapore.
According to the World Resources Institute, CO2 emissions have increased from about one billion tons to more than six billion tons over the
past 47 years, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels by vehicles, factories, buildings, and electrical power plants. Additional increases in CO2
levels are caused by deforestation. When trees are cut down and burned
to clear land for agriculture, CO2 is released. In addition, as forests are cut
down, there are fewer carbon sinks such as forests and other green plants
to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.
In 1997, according to one research study, CO2 in Earths atmosphere
reached 336.6 parts per million (ppm). In the future, if CO2 levels reach
550 ppm, the worlds average surface temperature will increase to about
3 degrees Celsius (37F). The increase will have an impact on the human
population and on Earths ecosystems.
WORLD CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
As energy consumption increases with economic and population growth,
CO2 emissions are projected to rise from 29.0 billion metric tons in 2006
to 33.1 billion metric tons in 2015 and 40.4 billion metric tons in 2030.
This is an increase of 39 percent in just 24 years.
One idea for reducing carbon emissions and becoming more energy efcient is to examine and analyze our carbon footprint in our homes, buildings, and schools and even in our daily personal habits.
CARBON FOOTPRINT
Most denitions describe a carbon footprint as the total amount of greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly to support all of our activities.
Some of these activities include eating, riding the school bus, turning on
the lights, watching television, and the heating and cooling of the house.
Carbon footprints are usually expressed in equivalent tons of CO2 in a
given time period.
(Source: Carbon Footprint Ltd.)
You can divide the carbon footprint into a sum of two parts: the primary
footprint and the secondary footprint. The primary footprint is a measure of
the direct emissions of CO2 from, for example, the burning of fossil fuels
for energy consumption and transportation.
The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from
the entire life cycle of a product. This cycle includes the early stage of the
manufacturing and producing of goods at the plant, which are then sold
to the consumer. The nal stage of the used product is that it can either be
recycled or transported as trash to waste sites or incinerators.
Collecting and analyzing data on our carbon footprint is an excellent
way to understand the impact of our personal behavior on global warming.
However, reducing ones carbon footprint takes a bit of planning to initiate
and is a major challenge for all of us in the 21st century. It may be hard to
get rid of some of our habits related to reducing our carbon footprint.
ROCK BANDS AND MUSICIANS REDUCING
THEIR CARBON FOOTPRINTS
In California, one popular go-green rock band is planning to record its
newest album in the bands studio, the electricity for which is completely
supplied by solar energy. Other performers around the country are using
Go Green a 7
DID YOU KNOW?

Carbon is a naturally occurring nonmetallic element that is present in the cells of all
organisms. Carbon makes up approximately 19 percent of the mass of the human body
and is an essential component of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids.
FEATURE
Ecological Footprint
You may have heard of the ecological footprint. The ecological footprint measures
how much demand humans place on Earths ecosystems. The footprint compares
human demand with Earths ecological ability to recycle the resources a human
population consumes.
Some of the strategies for reducing our ecological footprint are to purchase and
use more ecologically friendly products, reuse and recycle natural resources, and consume cleaner energy. The carbon footprint is 50 percent of the ecological footprint.
solar power and other renewable forms of energy to power such equipment
as speakers, lights, and sound equipment on their tours.
Heres a short list of what some of rock bands, hip-hop singers, and
other musicians are doing to use energy more eciently at concerts and at
the same time reduce their own carbon footprint:
Going on tours using biofuel-powered buses
Selling eco-friendly organic cotton and bamboo merchandise at concerts
Using low-energy LED lights, solar-powered amps, and even electricity produced by wind power at their concerts
Manufacturing concert merchandise strictly from recyclable materials
Encouraging their fans to use rellable water bottles
Distributing energy-ecient CFL bulbs to attendees
Participating in student groups to discuss how students can calculate
their own carbon footprints and nd ways to cut down on their carbon footprints
Providing separate bins, with biodegradable bags, at concerts for
waste and for recycling bottles and cans
Delivering unused backstage concert food to local homeless shelters
John Mayer performs at a concert

in Nashville, Tennessee, October 5,
2010. The environmentally conscious
performer tours using biodieselfueled buses, sells eco-friendly merchandise, and partnered with the
nonprofit eco-organization Reverb
on his 2010 tour. (Rick Diamond/
Getty Images)
One rock group has even hired an eco-crew to check tire air pressure for
concert fans attending their events. How are your favorite singers and rock
bands going green?
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF HOMES
The average American generates about 15,000 pounds of CO2 every year
from personal transportation and home energy use.
A partial list of items in the home that generate CO2 emissions include
such items as air conditioners, water heaters, electric ranges, furnaces, ceiling fans, gas dryers, DVD players, power tools, exterior lights, electric heat
pumps, indoor lighting, freezers, cordless phones, stereos, hair dryers, and
the list goes on and on.
All of the products mentioned need electricity to operate and function,
and as a result they produce pounds of CO2. According to recent government estimates, the average CO2 emissions associated with a two-person
household living a typical American lifestyle amount to about 42,000
pounds (22 tons) each year. Other energy reports state that a typical household produces about 150 pounds of CO2 a day.
Reduction in carbon emissions can be accomplished through greater
energy eciency. Homeowners, business owners, and schools and colleges
Go Green a 9
FEATURE
Pounds of CO2 Emissions per Item Each Year
Central air conditioning: 4,000 pounds
Refrigerator: 1,200 pounds
Television: 540 pounds
Oil furnace: 14,000 pounds
Indoor lighting: 2,200 pounds
Gas furnace: 6,900 pounds
Cell phone: 5 pounds
Source: U.S. Department of Energy.
are turning to energy eciency to control CO2 emissions and to save fuel
costs, as well.
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
In response to mounting concern for the environment and to be more energy ecient, many schools and colleges throughout the United States are
actively involved in reducing their carbon footprint.
Minnesota
The Minnesota Schools Cutting Carbon project is an innovative three-year
initiative with 100 participating public schools, colleges, and universities.
Student teams are charged with designing and creating projects to increase
campus energy eciency, save money, and reduce carbon emissions under
the guidance of a faculty coach and with the support of campus sta and
administrators.
DID YOU KNOW?

In a New York gym, clients, using stationary spin bicycles, pedal hard and fast for
exercise and to generate electricity to reduce the carbon footprint of the gym. According to the owner, the dynamos on the spin bicycles transfer 12 volts of electricity produced by the pedaling to a generator, which produces an alternating current
of 110 volts to power the gyms electrical needs.
During the fall of 2009, the 100 participating schools competed for
ten $20,000 grants for the most innovative projects to lower their carbon
emissions, save energy, and/or produce clean energy.
To view the schools participating across the state, you can visit www.
SchoolsCuttingCarbon.org.
Vermont
An energy-eciency program in Vermont schools reduced carbon emissions by more than 100 tons. One school tallied up almost 23 tons of
reduced emissions.
New Hampshire
The Richmond Middle School in Hanover, New Hampshire, reduced its
emissions by more than 22 tons. One of the elementary schools in the state
Mark Fortman, assistant director of building and grounds, shows off one of the
many new air handling units in Henry Sibley Senior High School in Mendota
Heights, Minnesota, March 13, 2009. The new units adjust more efficiently to
demand and resulted in about 30 percent savings in 2008, in addition to reducing
the schools carbon footprint. The school is one of more than 100 participating
in the Minnesota Schools Cutting Carbon program. (AP Photo/Craig Lassig)
Go Green a 11
reduced emissions by 5 tons, and one state high school reduced its CO2
emissions by more than 30 tons.
Washington
At the Redmond High School in Washington, students reduced the
schools carbon footprint by 72 tons and saved the school about $7,500 in
its electric bill alone.
Virginia
The Seneca Ridge Middle School in Sterling, Virginia, has an experiment
to teach students how they can reduce their carbon footprint by conserving
energy. The experiment focuses on one wing of the school where electricians had set up a meter to monitor how many kilowatts were being used
at a given time in that section of the school.
In one test, teachers plugged in every electrical appliance they could,
and students monitored the usage. The students also checked to see how
much electricity they were using on a typical day. The students observe the
actual kilowatts used at a particular moment.
Texas
Another green school building is in Houston, Texas. The Chrysalis building is the new campus for the Monarch School. The Monarch School is
a national leader in therapeutic education for hundreds of children with
neurological dierencesmany related to autism. The Chrysalis building
will use much less energy than an average, comparably sized building. The
new building will save more than $170,000 in energy bills over the next
25 years, according to the Environmental Protection Agency.
Idaho
In 2009 the Van Buren Elementary School in Boise, Idaho, was designed
and constructed to conserve energy and enhance learning. The improvements were specially designed to provide classroom windows to illuminate
90 percent of the building with sunlight. Other improvements included
high-performance kitchen and bathroom xtures to maximize water efciency and ecient heating and cooling systems that will keep classroom temperatures consistent. The school is not only saving money while
decreasing its carbon footprint but it also is improving the teachers ability
to do their job and the students abilities to learn, according to one of the
schools ocials.
Some Ideas for Reducing Carbon
Footprints in Schools
Building networks with other schools and environmental organizations
can help generate ideas, increase buying power, increase a schools inuence on local authorities, and motivate pupils to be involved in practical
projects around the school. As an example, some schools have enlisted
pupils to read energy meters, recycle paper and plastic bottles, and monitor
and report energy consumption in a school energy audit.
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Green Schools Checklist. The

Illinois EPA publishes a green-school energy efficiency checklist that includes
a list of actions that the states schools can take to become more energy efficient. (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency)
Go Green a 13
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate : Rick Peck, Science Teacher, Seneca Ridge Middle School, Sterling, Virginia
Go-Green Project Goal: Reducing the middle schools carbon footprint.
Rick Pecks goal in his project was to help reduce the carbon footprint of his middle
school by measuring and then reducing the schools electrical consumption.
I am a sixth-grade science teacher at Seneca Ridge Middle School, where I have
been teaching for 10 years.
What career did you have before switching to teaching?
Before teaching I had an active career in the financial world. I began as a CPA
(certified public accountant) where I became a partner of one of the big worldwide
firms. I spent over 29 years in the business world, and enjoyed the challenging and
fascinating times very much. But when the company I was working for got sold,
I decided it might be cool to teach. Because I have always been interested in the
natural world, the principal who hired me suggested I go with science rather than
the English position. That was a great suggestion, since teaching science has
Science teacher Rick

Peck with his students
at Seneca Ridge Middle
School checks the light
intensity in the main
locker area. (Sophia Syed)
become my passionits both what I do and who I am, not just during the school
day but all 365.25 days a year.
In science nothing is more important than experiments, and you cant do experiments without measuring something. That thought was the one of the two main
motivations for the project. While you can measure the electricity on a micro basis
(one appliance, for example), and on a large macro basis (the entire school), you
often cant measure on anything in between, and that is where the more meaningful experimentation can occur.
With my background in the private sector, I knew that it was possible to submeter portions of a large building, or to measure the electrical consumption of any
one part of a large facility. Its done all the time, such as in residential apartments,
but never in K12 education. If we could actually measure the electricity a meaningful unit of students used, then we could conduct an experiment about its use. So
I applied for a grant that would let us measure the electricity we used, and even
figure out how much carbon emissions resulted from our use. It was important that
students see the data in a convenient location for them, and that it be presented
visually.
How did you measure the electrical pulses?
We found some software that would let us take the electrical pulses from the high
voltage transformer in the sixth-grade wing and translate those pulses into minuteby-minute reports of kilowatts used, daily kilowatt-hours of use, and even the carbon footprint for each kilowatt-hour. We then had a large screen monitor fixed high
on a wall in the sixth-grade locker area. Before we even had set up the electrical
meter, we showed the weather report, the lunch menu for the day, and even pictures of students. This got students used to looking up at the monitor.
Then the second motivation for the project was the environment. Its not just me,
but the students who, I have found, felt strongly about the environment. So, instead
of making energy usage the major dependent variable in an experiment, I thought it
made sense to make something more directly related to the environment be the dependent variable. Reducing the carbon footprint seemed like a great objective, something that students would buy into. The idea is that they might not want to help the
school system save money and reduce energy use, but for sure they wanted to help
save the polar bears, since the Arctic is an area most threatened by climate change.
Even if they didnt reduce our carbon footprint, at the very least students should
realize that the use of energy in the school does have an effect on more greenhouse gas emissions. If they realize that there is an effect, then its a small step
for them to realize that their actions can affect what happens in the world and its
environment.
Climate change is a very real and students, especially young ones, often have a
sense of helplessness in the face of global issues.
Go Green a 15
What did you hope to change about students thinking as a result of the project?
I wanted to change the feeling of helplessness that many students had that no action
they took could have an effect. By measuring the effects of meaningful actions, and
by seeing many of the lights in the halls turned off permanently, students saw that
they could have an effect on energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Overcoming
the sense of futility was the major objective of the project, and we believe it achieved
excellent success. The students are not suddenly going to change the world, but by
realizing they could change the energy use in one environment (the school), they
know they can apply that lesson to the larger environments around them.
What did your school system learn as a result of the project?
The major thing the school system learned was that their interest in our environment could motivate students. Our energy guru said that he used to try and explain
to assemblies how important it was to the school to save energy and money. Now,
his story is that if students want to save the polar bears, they have to do a better
job of saving energy.
Understand the plans for your school building and get some support on the facilities side. Also, measuring the pulses is not enough; you have to think about how to
present measurements to students.
The people who were doing our energy submetering told us that businesses
looked at the energy use over a 15-minute or longer period, but we felt that was
way too long for middle school students. When we turned off all the lights or turned
them all on, plus hot plates, we wanted students to see the immediate change in
energy use. That turned out to be a good decision.
Discuss some of the students contributions in working with you on this project.
We had two town hall meetings of all 320 students and received their strong
support of the project. If they had not overwhelmingly voted to reduce lighting, we
would not have been able to do the project.
Three years. These things take time.
Yes, I hope to extend the experiment to the eighth-grade wing next, since their science standards include energy also. I also want to tie in outside temperatures so
that we can factor in air conditioning demands.
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF CITIES

The U.S. Conference of Mayors hosted a 2007 summit in Seattle, Washington, to discuss how to take local and federal action in the ght against
climate change.
Mayors of U.S. cities applaud during the opening session of the U.S. Conference of Mayors Climate Protection Summit, November 1, 2007, in Seattle,
Washington. More than 100 mayors from across the country met to discuss
steps U.S. cities can make to address the effects of climate change. (AP
Photo/Ted S. Warren)
Out of this summit emerged the Mayors Climate Protection Center,

tasked with administering and tracking the U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement of 2005. As of 2007, there were more than 710 signatories
to the agreement.
Under the agreement, participating cities are committed to take the following three actions:
Strive to meet or beat the Kyoto Protocol targets in their own
communities through actions ranging from anti-sprawl land-use
policies to urban forest restoration projects to public information
campaigns.
Urge their state governments, and the federal government, to enact
policies and programs to meet or beat the greenhouse gas emission reduction target suggested for the United States in the Kyoto
Protocol7 percent reduction from 1990 levels by 2012.
Urge the U.S. Congress to pass the bipartisan greenhouse gas reduction legislation, which would establish a national emission trading
system.
Go Green a 17
Cities Get Ranked for Their Carbon Footprint

In 2008 the Brookings Institution published a report that quantied the
carbon footprint for the nations 100 largest metro areas. The data in the
report was based on fuels used by vehicles (personal and freight) and
the energy used in residential buildings. Some of the cities with the smallest carbon footprint included Boise, Idaho; Honolulu, Hawaii; Santa Ana,
California; and El Paso, Texas. A few of the cities with the largest carbon
footprint included Tulsa, Oklahoma; Knoxville, Tennessee; Toledo, Ohio;
and Indianapolis, Indiana.
The report showed that per capita emissions vary widely from city to
city. Availability of rail transit and population density both appear to have
a strong impact on emissions. Densely populated areas such as New York
and Los Angeles, despite being two of the countrys largest metropolitan
areas, actually have smaller footprints per capita than smaller, less-compact
populated cities such as Nashville and Oklahoma City.
Cities Are Reducing Their Carbon Footprint
Many cities are taking matters into their own hands to reduce their carbon
footprint. Here are just a few of the cities that are doing energy-eciency
projects.
Santa Monica, California: Santa Monica was recently recognized as
being one of the ve most sustainable cities in the United States. Santa
Monica has been able to balance its economy and protect the environment for future generations, while at the same time remain a sustainable
city.
Tucson, Arizona: All new city buildings and renovations in Tucson
greater than 5,000 square feet must meet the U.S. Green Building Councils LEED qualications for a silver rating. According to the citys
Sustainability Report, a range of renovations, including solar systems and
automated light controls, collectively reduced city greenhouse gas emissions by 7,000 tons in 2007roughly equivalent to the emissions produced by 400 city residents.
Albuquerque, New Mexico: The city of Albuquerque has purchased
only alternative-fuel vehicles for its eet since March 2006. Additionally, city parking is free for hybrid and alternative fuel vehicles, and approximately 20 percent of the citys electric power is produced by wind
turbine.
Energy efficiency solar specialist Paul Scott recharges his 2002 Toyota RAV4
electric vehicle at a free power outlet at the Santa Monica City Hall in Santa
Monica, California, in August 2005. (AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes)
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF COMPANIES

In 2009 Newsweek magazine evaluated the 500 largest U.S. companies
based on their environmental impact, their green policies, and their reputation among their peers and environmental experts. For more information
about the companies, the members of Newsweeks advisory panel, and the
methodology, go to http://newsweek.com/green.
FEATURE
AutoDesk Helps Cities Track Their Carbon Emissions
In 2009 AutoDesk, Inc., a world leader in 2D and 3D design and engineering software, announced that it would collaborate with the Clinton Climate Initiative and
the Microsoft Corporation to provide visualization technology for Project Two Degrees. Project Two Degrees is an Internet-based application that provides cities
with a set of tools to measure, compare, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions at
a local level.
Go Green a 19
In a short, the magazine report indicated that a number of the companies made solid eorts to go green. One company oered software products to help customers reduce their own greenhouse emissions. Another
company provided a personal computer policy that paid its customers to
ship back to them any obsolete equipment. According to this company,
it had reclaimed almost two billion pounds of waste in the 10 years since
starting the program.
A heavy equipment company announced plans to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions of all of its big machines by 20 percent by 2020. A major
food outlet had set up three goals: to operate solely using renewable energy
sources, to create zero wastes, and to sell products that conserve natural
resources. Another large food market is reducing its number of grocery refrigerators. The store is making eorts to use less energy, reduce emissions,
and recycle obsolete machines.
HOW CAN WE REDUCE OUR CARBON FOOTPRINT?
How can we reduce our carbon footprint? Here are a few tips from the
Environmental Protection Agency:
Contact a utility company that uses renewable energy sources as part
of its portfolio. Does the company supply electricity from renewable
sources such as wind and hydroelectric power? If it does, you will
reduce your carbon footprint contribution from electricity to zero.
Turn o such items as lights, televisions, DVD players, computers,
and video games when they are not in use.
Turning down the heating system a few degrees Fahrenheit will
translate into signicant savings on the utility bill.
Use compact uorescent bulbs.
Insulate the attic and walls.
Replace the old refrigerator (more than 10 years old) with a new one
with an energy eciency rating of A.
Replace the old furnace with a new energy-ecient condensing
boiler.
Carpool to work or school.
Use the bus or a train rather than the car.
For short journeys, either walk or cycle to the destination.
FEATURE
Use the EPA Online Calculator: Estimate Your Carbon Footprint
To quantify how you are reducing your carbon footprint, try using an online carbon footprint calculator. There are a number of free carbon footprint calculators
online that can help you assess your carbon footprint, including one from the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/
wycd/calculator/ind_calculator.html), which has developed tools to help individuals (and households) reduce greenhouse gas emissions and take action. Businesses and organizations interested in educating their employees and members
about what they can do at home to help protect our climate can also use these
tools.
Use the EPAs online calculator to obtain an estimate of your personal greenhouse gas emissions or your familys greenhouse gas emissions. Then move on
to the next section of the calculator to explore actions you and/or your family
can take to lower your emissions while reducing your energy and waste disposal costs. For each action you choose to take, the calculator displays the
amount of emissions you could avoid and how that amount relates to your total
emissions.
Allow yourself 1015 minutes to enter the data. Follow these instructions for
using the calculator:
1. To get the most accurate results, gather your recent electric, gas, and/
or oil bills so that you can use real numbers for your households energy
consumption.
2. After entering data, use the TAB key to continue moving through the
calculator.
3. The calculator is designed to give you a ballpark estimate of your emissions and the savings you may achieve from taking certain actions.
4. The What You Can Do section of the climate change site (http://www.
epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/index.html) identifies many steps that individuals can take to decrease greenhouse gas emissions such as CO2 to
save money at home, at the office, on the road, and at school. Another
online calculator you can use is the University of California at Berkeleys
Cool Climate Calculator (http://coolclimate.berkeley.edu/).
VIDEO
Energy Audits: For more information on saving money and helping the environment
through audits, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXsN8cZMRoM&feature=
related (04:16 minutes).
Go Green a 21
FEATURE
What Are the Most Energy-Efficient Countries in the World?
According to a Forbes business report published in 2009, the top energy-efficient
countries in the world, in order, are Japan, Denmark, Switzerland, Hong Kong,
Ireland, the United Kingdom, Israel, Italy, Germany, and Austria. According to the
report, a country with a very high gross domestic product and relatively little energy consumption was likely to be a very energy-efficient economy and the most
energy-efficient countries were all similar to Japan. In many cases these countries
had turned to energy efficiency to keep down their nonrenewable fuel requirements and to control their CO2 emissions.
Legislative Efforts to Reduce

Carbon Footprint
Lawmakers in the U.S. Congress are studying plans to reduce the nations greenhouse gas output from three major sources of emissions. These
sources include electric utilities, the transportation sector, and major industrial companies.
In one legislative plan, the utility power plants would face an overall cap
on emissions that would become more stringent over time. Motor fuels
may be subject to a carbon tax, funds from which might be used to increase
the mass transportation sector. The industrial facilities would be exempted
from a cap on emissions for several years before the plan for them to reduce emissions was phased in.
The legislation would also expand domestic oil and gas drilling oshore
and would provide federal assistance for constructing nuclear power plants
and carbon sequestration and storage projects at coal-red utilities.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. If your family uses two or more vehicles for their normal daily activities, devise a plan in which one less vehicle is used over a two-week
period. Chart the advantages and disadvantages of the plan for each
family member.
2. Plan a visit to a local car dealership. Develop questions that focus
on the types of models that are most popular and why; how gasoline
mileage is determined; the appeal, safety, and cost-eectiveness of
hybrid vehicles; what the dealer feels will be future energy sources
for automobiles; and how the vehicle support structure will have to
be modied to adjust to the new technology.
3. Help plan a visit to your local power-generating plant. Ask questions
relating to how a turbine works, what its power source is, how the
electricity is distributed, what plans are in place to prevent brown
outs, and whether they have plans for using sustainable energy
sources.
Krigger, John, and Chris Dorsi. The Homeowners Handbook to Energy
Eciency. Helena, MT: Saturn Resource Management, 2008.
Schor, Juliet B., and Betsy Taylor. Sustainable Planet: Solutions for the
Twenty-First Century. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2002.
2006.
WEB SITES
nongovernmental organizations in energy program initiatives.
www.eere.energy.gov/topics/buildings.html
The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Eciency and Renewable
Energy funds research and development to help commercial builders, businesses, and home owners reduce energy use through energy
eciency and renewable energy technology.
www.energizedlearning.lbl.gov
Energized Learnings Web site is designed for educators, parents and
students to participate in lessons and activities that develop specic
skills and knowledge that can foster a better understanding of energy
and its complex interrelationship with science, economics, and the
social studies.
www.eetd.lbl.gov/eetd
The Environmental Energy Technologies Division of the Berkeley
National Laboratory provides research in the elds of advanced
energy technologies, atmospheric sciences, buildings energy efciency, energy analysis, and indoor and outdoor environmental
quality.
Go Green a 23
www.epa.gov.gov/epawaste
The Environmental Protection Agency is challenging all citizens to
conserve our natural resources by committing to reduce, reuse, and
recycle and to learn the fundamentals of reducing waste, reusing materials, managing hazardous waste, and disposing of solid wastes and
nonhazardous material.
www.business.gov/manage
The Small Business Guide to Energy Eciency is a guide to help small
businesses become more energy ecient by using energy saving ideas,
improving energy ecient practices for better savings and identifying energy ecient upgrades.
www.allamericanhomes.com/greenoptions
All American Homes suggests energy ecient options to reduce
monthly energy bills through the use of compact uorescent lighting,
tankless water heaters, Energy Star appliances, and home insulating
materials.
www.seeprograms.com
Schools for Energy Eciency provides schools with the strategies,
resources, and support necessary to implement an energy management program geared toward reducing energy costs and saving
energy.
VIDEOS
version.
A Global ProblemRenewable Energy: India and China are integral to emission reductions and climate change. But both are sti
arming carbon capping proposals. To hear more about a weapon of
mass reconstruction, go to http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2009/07/renewable-energy-a-weapon-of-massreconstruction#podcast/
Be a Go-Green Rock Star: You can recycle like a rock star by going
to the waste management site at https://www.thinkgreenfromhome.
com/ThinkGreenFromHome.cfm.
Energy Audits: For more information on saving money and helping
the environment with energy audits, go to http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=GXsN8cZMRoM&feature=related (04:16 minutes).
Bioclimatic Architecture: For more information about utilizing Earths
raw materials and the azimuth of the sun to determine the site of a
house, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lBoG0Medyfo&fea
ture=related.
Ecological Architecture: To learn more about waste from buildings
and construction and its impact on sustainable development, view
the following video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7qocT9wu
YQ&feature=related (07:35 minutes).
Chapter 2
Go-Green Schools
In 2009 a beautiful new go-green high school located on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation in Browning, Montana, opened its doors to 750 students.
Browning is located at an elevation of 4,375 feet in the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains in northwestern Montana and is the largest community
on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation.
The 125,000-square-foot Browning High School has numerous sustainable design features, including a biomass boiler system for heating.
Local-forest biomass materials fuel this heating system. The biomass includes small-diameter trees, shrubs, and debris leftover from logging operations and forest fuel reduction projects. If it were not recycled, it would
be gathered and piled up to be burned as waste by the foresters. The boiler
is expected to burn 1,250 tons of locally grown biomass fuel each year. This
heating system can save the district approximately $50,000 annually, according to school ocials.
The school is impressive to look at according to many who have visited it. Every school day, students walk through a tepee-style entrance and
learn in classrooms painted in soft earth tones, the colors of the local environment. When touring the corridors and rooms of the school, you will see
oor tiles patterned in traditional Native American symbols, and in a few
classrooms there are views of a sacred Blackfeet landmark Chief Mountain, a mountain in Glacier National Park.
VIDEO
To get a view of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, go to http://www.youtube.com/
watch%3Fv%3DcQ3ER0Mmy0I.
For further information about the Blackfeet Nation, contact tribal personnel at Blackfeet Planning, PO Box 850, Browning, MT 59417 or call
406-338-7406.
Today, many schools, such as the Browning High School in Montana,
are going green. And there is a good reason for schools to go green and
to be more energy ecient. One school ocial stated that the annual energy bill to run Americas primary and secondary schools is a staggering
$6 billionmore than is spent on textbooks and computers combined. The
least energy-ecient school uses three times more energy than the typical
green school.
WHAT IS A SUSTAINABLE GREEN
SCHOOL BUILDING?
According to the denition of the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC),
a green school is a school building or facility that creates a healthy environment that is conducive to learning while saving energy, resources and
money. In other words, green schools cost less to operate and create an
atmosphere where students are more comfortable learning with abundant
daylight and clean air. Furthermore, the design of green schools provides
students with numerous hands-on learning opportunities.
THE U.S. GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL
The USGBC, a nonprot organization that certies sustainable business,
homes, and schools, has certied nearly 100 public and private schools
nationwide since 2000, and another 800 are seeking certication. The
USGBC is dedicated to expanding green building practices and education
and its LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green
Building Rating System.
The LEED Green Building Rating System is the national benchmark
for the design, construction, and operation of high-performance green
Go-Green Schools a 27
Fourth-grade teacher Natasha Schaefer greets students at the new Tarkington elementary, Chicagos first green school, on the first day of classes,
September 6, 2005. Tarkington is one of about 110 schools in the United States
that have either been certified or are seeking green certification from the U.S.
Green Building Council. (AP Photo/Nam Y. Huh)
buildings and features ve tiers (certied, bronze, silver, gold, and platinum) of environmentally sustainable construction. The USGBC developed
the rating systems. To motivate school districts to go green, federal funds
are available to implement green building practices for the construction of
new buildings and for retrotting and repairing older ones.
21ST CENTURY GREEN HIGH-PERFORMING
PUBLIC SCHOOLS FACILITIES ACT
The U.S. House of Representatives passed the 21st Century Green HighPerforming Public Schools Facilities Act on May 14, 2009. The bill authorizes $6.4 billion in grant funding for the renovation and modernization
of school facilities across the country. The bill requires school districts to
spend the majority of funds received on projects compliant with identied
green building standards and, by 2015, 100 percent of funds must be used
on such projects. Because of these requirements, the bill will encourage

energy eciency and the use of renewable resources in schools.
The benets of building to LEED standards are becoming apparent to
school districts across the United States. By telling their elected ocials
that they want their schools built green, students, parents, and teachers
help spur legislation that makes a dierence.
DID YOU KNOW?

Sandia National Laboratories, working on behalf of the U.S. Department of Energy, helps promote sustainable photovoltaic projects on American Indian lands
throughout the United States. For more than 20 years, Sandia has been involved
in helping tribes study the feasibility of implementing solar (and other renewable
energy) resources to meet their energy needs.
INTERVIEW
The author had the opportunity to interview Marie Norman, principal of the Westwood Elementary School in Zimmerman, Minnesota. The school was the first LEEDcertified school in Minnesota. I asked her to comment on how the school received
the certification.
Green Advocate: Marie Norman, Principal, Westwood Elementary School
Go-Green Project: Westwood Elementary School, first LEED-certified school in
Minnesota
How Did Your School Qualify for LEED Certification?
Westwood Elementary School qualified for LEED certification in August 2004.
There are several components to LEED certification. This school received a total of
28 points in the following categories:
1. Sustainable sites
a. A smaller footprint because of being a two-story building.
b. Stormwater management: There is a natural pond and wetland on
site. Two additional ponds receive all the runoff from snowmelt and
rainwater, away from the building. The environmental site assessment
provided the knowledge needed to develop a plan that minimized
erosion.
c. Reduced light pollution from the building to the neighborhoods surrounding the school.
2. Water efficiency
Westwood received 2 points for 30 percent reduction in water usage;
most faucets are low-flow.
Marie Norman was the acting principal

of the Westwood Elementary School in
Zimmerman, Minnesota, when the school
became the first LEED-certified school in
Minnesota. (Courtesy Marie Norman)
3. Energy and atmosphere

a. Ventilation and heat recovery systems that reduce energy consumption by 3540 percent.
b. High-efficiency windows.
c. High-efficiency boilers, furnaces, water heaters, and food service
equipment.
d. Desiccant displacement systems: Fresh air comes into each classroom
at seated students level. The warmer air rises and goes out of the room.
That is when the heat recovery system kicks in. For example, assume
it is 4 degrees Fahrenheit outside. The incoming air mixes with the recovered air from the building to about 55 degrees. The result is that the
55-degree air needs to use only 15 degrees worth of additional energy.
e. Automatic lighting sensors.
4. Materials and resources
a. Construction waste was minimized by recycling. For instance, removed trees were ground into wood chips and then used to make an
on-site trail in the woods.
b. Materials for this building were produced locally or regionally. The
rule was that materials could be shipped within no more than a 500mile radius.
5. Indoor air quality
a. All rooms are monitored for carbon dioxide. The lead custodian has
received training, including on how to use computer software to monitor CO2, when to change air filters, etc.
b. Effective ventilation is noticeably present in the building. There is a
definite sense of incoming fresh air while a comfortable temperature
level is maintained.
c. Low-emitting carpet choices. The use of carpet is minimal; the media
center, office areas, and music rooms have carpet. All other flooring is
easier to maintain than some other types of flooring.
d. Monitoring system for temperature control in every room.

e. At least 90 percent of the building has natural daylight and views.
6. Innovations and design process
Signage and teaching displays are throughout the building and include names
and explanations for the sustainable features of Westwood. A team of teachers has
been trained to improve understanding of green-building attributes. When interest
in Westwood was high, fifth-grade students learned about the elements present at
Westwood in the science classes. Then they became a team of tour guides whenever we had school personnel or architects from other regions.
It is appropriate to teach students about good practices of sustainable building.
This building has been open for six years, and students are living inside a green
building. Their awareness of what that means will be dependent on the importance
that remains with their teachers and societal leaders. In order for our students to
understand green-building elements, it took the talents of teachers to help students
understand the vocabulary. Once they understood, our fifth-grade tour guides could
explain the concepts so that visiting adults could understand them.
Westwoods sustainable design was made possible because of the commitment of school board members and school district officials to constructing longlasting buildings. They studied school buildings in Europe (at their own expense).
The school districts architectural firm, mechanical and engineering consultants,
landscape consultant, and educators learned and solved problems together. The
result was an energy-efficient building that met the educational requirements and
financial plan of the school district.
Name one feature that makes your school special.
Our school is special because of its big windows. Each classroom has 9-foot by 20foot windows. Its almost like a whole wall of daylight. The fresh air coupled with the
presence of natural light is the feature that everyone notices and appreciates. In years
prior, school buildings were built having small or no windows. Our present energy savings compared to other district buildings ranges from $45,000 to $50,000 per year.
What renewable or alternative energy sources does your school have?
Our school does not have alternate or renewable energy sources. However, one
teacher has submitted a request to construct a windmill on the property with the
idea that it would provide our school with electricity. The project is still under consideration because we are dependent on a number of other people to give us the
information we need.
How many students in your classes took part in the program?
The number of students who have taken part in increasing their knowledge of the
elements of sustainable buildings ranges from 400 in 2003 to the present yearly
population of 580 students.
How many groups took part in achieving the LEED certification?
School district officials and school board members from 2000 to 2004; KKE Architects of Minneapolis, Minnesota; Johnson Controls, building management systems;
and Anderson-Johnson Associates, landscape architects.
Are there any plans for other future school buildings to achieve LEED certification?
It is questionable to me whether future buildings in our district will aspire to have
LEED certification. It appears to me that green building has inherited a political status. Various viewpoints about the wisdom of maintaining environment have somehow entered party politics. Because public schools are a political entity, the value
associated with green building is dependent on elected leaders. For Westwood, the
people of the time and interest level in green buildings came together. People were
willing to work hard and solve the problems that had not been encountered before.
In order for this project to succeed, people had to work extra hard and take some
risks into the unknown. For us, the result was well worth the effort. Westwood is a
blend of a lovely, practical (it was built for less than budgeted), and healthy environment. Children like to come to school, and employees like working here.
We are not able to use student data to show that a healthy facility will improve
attendance and test results. We have too many other variables. We do have students and parents who say that asthmatic students fare better in Westwood.
GO-GREEN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

Pennsylvania
The Council Rock School District is located in southeastern Pennsylvania.
This district has several school buildings attended by 12,000 students. The
school district received the Energy Star recognition in 2009 for its continued progress in improving energy eciency. The Environmental Protection Agencys Energy Star Program assists decision makers in improving their schools energy performance and labels their buildings as Energy
Starcertied.
The Council Rock School Districts plan was to reduce its energy costs
by more than 30 percent. Over roughly a three-year period, the district
reported that it had saved more than $4 million in energy costs.
Texas
Students learn about the environment, energy eciency, and sustainability
at the Roy Lee Walker Elementary School in McKinney, Texas, which
the American Institute of Architects has deemed one of the 10 Most
Environmentally Responsible Design Projects in the United States. The
school collects rainwater from the roof in six stone cisterns, each of which
contains up to 10,000 gallons. A wind-powered ltration system then removes sediment from the rainwater, which is used for irrigation of the
school grounds. Electronic sensors monitor light levels in the classrooms
and supplement natural light with articial light only when it becomes
necessary. Solar panels provide all the energy needed to heat water for
cafeteria and bathroom use.
Kentucky
The rst qualied LEED silvercertied school in Kentucky is the
Twenhofel Middle School, located in Independence. The gymnasium,
the library, and all academic classrooms are naturally day-lit 70 percent of the time. This feature reduces energy costs from using articial
lighting.
The schools 204 roof-mounted photovoltaic panels produce 24,000
watts of electrical energy. This is enough energy to power the articial
lighting when natural light is not sucient.
Rain barrels located throughout the courtyards collect rainfall from the
entire roof. All of the water is stored in a 115,000-gallon underground
concrete storage tank. The water is used to ush all toilets and to irrigate
the football eld and vegetation.
The school also has a geothermal heat pump system. The underground
system is located some 300 feet below the surface of the sports stadium.
The geothermal energy provides 100 percent of the schools heating and
cooling needs. The use of a geothermal heat pump system allows the school
considerable energy savings.
The school design also provides interactive opportunities for students
to learn about their schools green design. TV monitors equipped with
touchpads inside the school connect students with a series of Vital Signs
screens. By consulting these screens, students can call up a range of statistics, including dollar savings the school has seen as a result of its green
design or pounds of CO2 emissions avoided.
West Virginia
In 2009 West Virginias rst green elementary school in northern Berkeley County was constructed. The new elementary school, Spring Mills, is
a prototype for environmentally and energy conservationminded construction for the rest of the state. The new building has water faucets
that turn themselves on and o automatically and a geothermal-based
heating and cooling system to reduce the cost of heating and cooling
requirements.
DID YOU KNOW?

Windows are important in energy savings. School budgets are getting tight, and,
therefore, school districts are looking for cost-effective ways to improve buildings
energy efficiency. Installing more efficient windows not only saves energy and
money but also enhances the learning environment with natural daylight.
Florida
The Neal Armstrong Elementary School located in Charlotte County,
Florida, is a LEED-certied elementary school. Some of the reasons the
school qualied for LEED certication included use of recyclable materials; non-noxious paint, carpet, and adhesives. The roof was designed
to reduce the heat-island eect. On a hot, sunny day, roof temperatures
can range between 50 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Another reason for the
LEED certication is that the landscaping of the school conforms to sustainable use in watering the lawn areas.
Ohio
In 2009 the Ohio School Facilities Commission announced that the
Cincinnati School Districts Pleasant Ridge Montessori School had
been certied as achieving silver status under the LEED standards. The
75,310-square-foot building makes full use of natural light and also boasts
such features as a white reective roof and a high-eciency heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system.
Ohio is a major leader in the green school movement. In 2008 Ohio
was planning to build 250 green schools in two years. According to school
ocials, when the green schools are completed, the state expects to save
$1.4 billion in energy costs over the next 40 years thanks to the program.
California
The Athenian School in Danville, California, has announced plans to implement a new 220-kilowatt photovoltaic system, projected to supply almost
half the schools annual energy needs. For the project, the school will install
approximately 1,300 ground-mounted Mitsubishi Electric solar panels.
In 2008 the San Domenico School planned to install a 412-kilowatt solar
energy system on its campus of 500 students. The goal is to reduce more
than 70 percent of the schools electricity costs. Several solar power developers, including Recurrent Energy, Solaris Solar, and GreenLight Solar, are
handling all construction and installation. When nished, the installation
will be owned and operated by Recurrent Energy, which will sell all power
back to San Domenico through a power purchase agreement. Through such
a program, the school itself does not incur upfront capital costs.
New York
A.A. Kingston Middle School in Potsdam, New York, has installed a
2-kilowatt photovoltaic system that includes solar panels and an inverter
that converts the direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) to power
a data collection and monitoring system, which uses sensors to measure air
temperature, solar radiation, and other variables. This system oers learning opportunities to both students and teachers.
The A.A. Kingston Middle School in Potsdam, New York, generates electricity using a two-kilowatt photovoltaic system on the roof of the school.
The system includes solar panels and an inverter that converts direct current (DC) from the solar array to the alternating current (AC) the school
uses. (Courtesy Brad Filiatrault, Technology Educator/A. A. Kingston Middle
School)
Maryland
The Great Seneca Creek Elementary School was the rst public school
in Maryland to receive certication as eco-friendly. Eco-friendly schools
oer ways to save energy, improve air quality, and educate students about
the environment.
The school conserves water by using waterless urinals and motionactivated faucets. All the cabinets in the school are made from wheatboard,
which is recycled wheatgrass, the young grass of the wheat plant. The bathroom partitions are made of recycled bottles.
Montgomery County Maryland Public Schools announced it would
install solar photovoltaic systems on the roofs of several schools. When
in operation, each solar photovoltaic system will be capable of producing
between 100 and 400 kilowatts of electric power.
The board of education has contracted with SunEdison, North
Americas largest solar energy services provider, to develop the program.
SunEdison has installed similar systems on commercial and institutional
buildings, primarily in California, New Jersey, and Connecticut.
Iowa
As mentioned in a previous chapter, the rst school district in the nation to
be powered entirely by wind energy is the Spirit Lake Community School
District in northern Iowa.
The districts two tall wind turbines provide all the electricity needs
for the districts middle school, high school, district oces, maintenance
building, football eld, and baseball and softball elds. Both turbines have
been paid for.
Excess electricity is fed into the local utility system and has earned the
school $25,000 in the systems rst ve years of operation. In fact, the
district counts on the savings and income annually to use to improve education for the children of the Spirit Lake Community School District.
The wind energy program in the Spirit Lake Community School District is just one of many success stories of schools, homes, and other institutions that are using wind power to produce energy.
New Jersey
Summereld Elementary School in Neptune, New Jersey, received the
second-highest LEED certication in 2006. The school uses 40 percent
The Spirit Lake Community District in Spirit Lake, Iowa, has wind turbines
that have supplied electricity for the districts middle school, high school, and
other nearby buildings. Excess electricity is routed to the local utility company.
(Courtesy Iowa Energy Center)
less water and 30 percent less energy than the school it replaced, according
to school ocials. Students take care of the plants in the water retention
area and check the rainwater gauge.
HOW TO LOWER YOUR SCHOOLS UTILITY BILLS
The U.S. Green Building Council has several suggestions for how schools
can reduce their utility bills without spending a lot of money. Some of
those suggestions include the following:
Control classroom thermostats.
Turn o outside lighting.
Establish a plug load system. Unplug certain machines and other
equipment when not in use. Plug loads on copies and computers can account for as much as 20 percent of the power load in
schools.
FEATURE
American Federation of Teachers and LEED-Certified Schools
In 2009 the executive council of the American Federation of Teachers approved a
resolution calling for the promotion of state policies that fund the building of LEEDcertified and other green schools. The teacher organization states that public
education institutions are experiencing a historic decline in the condition of buildings, structures, and equipment, with significant health and safety implications for
faculty, staff, and students. The federation states that the General Accountability
Office has established that 25,000 schools nationally are in need of extensive repair
or replacement and also reports that 67 percent of central city schools report at
least one building feature in need of repair or replacement. The American Federation of Teachers is one of the nations largest teachers unions, with more than
1.4 million members.
Keep doors and windows closed.

Control exhausts fans. When the buildings ventilation system is o,
exhaust fans can create a negative pressure that allows outside air to
enter through numerous cracks and holes in the building walls. This
brings in unwanted temperatures and humidity levels.
FEATURE
Using More Natural Lighting in Schools
Many studies show that natural lighting improves students reading and math
scores. Using strategies such as placing windows on multiple sides of classrooms
and installing Solatubes can bring natural light into interior spaces.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Don Carmichael, High School Science Teacher
Go-Green Project: Constructing the High Schools Green Roof
program.
I teach freshman accelerated biology and Advanced Placement environmental science at Adlai E. Stevenson High School. I am also the earth science core leader for
our science department. I am also the girls diving coach.
Where is the school located? How many students attend the high school?
The school is located in the Chicago suburbs. It is a public school with an enrollment of 4,500 students.
Why did you get interested in this project?
I got interested in the project because of the curriculum in AP environmental science. We have a unit on energy that includes methods of improving efficiency.
A few years ago, I was on the OHare airport transportation system and noticed
flats of planters on top of the fire station. Because it is a Chicago public building,
I figured the plants were part of Chicagos effort to become a green city. After a
little research, I became familiar with the concept of green roofs and decided it
would be interesting to see if they actually save money by reducing heating costs
or by providing increased insulation.
British Petroleum provided the funding through an A+ for Energy Grant that
I submitted with a team of teachers: Jason Carlson, Deanna Warkins, Jill Lisius,
and Kim Lubeke.
Describe the size of the green roof. What are the dimensions?
The roof is constructed of 180 four-square-foot plastic trays, which cover a total
area of 720 square feet. For the purpose of the study, we wanted the green roof to
nearly cover the roof over one of our science classrooms so that we could compare
Jason Carlson (left) and Don Carmichael (right) stand on the newly installed
green roof of the Adlai E. Stevenson High School. (Courtesy Jeff Green)
temperatures in the experimental classroom and an identical classroom adjacent

to the green roof.
How long has the green roof been on top of the school building?
The roof was installed by our maintenance crew under the direction of Weston
Solutions in May 2008.
What were some of the stages in designing and constructing a green roof?
We applied for the grant in March 2007. When we were awarded the grant, we
began the process of ordering the supplies. We planted test plots and placed them
on display on the visible portion of our roof in October 2007. Before the trays could
be placed, we needed to gain the approval of the building architects and engineers
because of the weight that would be added to the roof. In May 2008, all of the supplies were delivered to the school.
How many students were involved in this project?
It took seven sections of AP environmental science seniors and juniors two days to
fill the trays with plants and growth medium. A crane lifted the trays to the roof at
the end of May. The trays were arranged on the roof in just a few hours.
What was the most challenging part in doing this project?
The greatest challenge was securing the funding. The rest was fun. The students
were excited to be a part of the project, and the school and community were both
supportive and enthusiastic.
When was most of the work done on the project?
Some of the curriculum was completed in class. Dee Abate, the director of the
South Lake Campus of the College of Lake County (CLC), gave students a presentation on green roofs. CLC also has a green roof, not for study purposes, but for
utilitarian purposes. Green roofs increase the life of the roofing membrane, decrease water runoff from the campus buildings, and decrease energy costs (we
suspect).
We planted the demonstration trays and the trays that were lifted to the roof
during the regular school day.
Because of safety considerations, students were not allowed to be in the building while the crane was operating. Students were also not allowed on the roof. The
roof was installed on a Saturday.
What kinds of plants did you select for the green roof?
We planted seven species of sedum. We selected these plants because they are
known to be able to survive the harsh conditions on flat roofs in temperate climates.
Consider that the roof surface without plants may exceed 140 degrees Fahrenheit
on a hot summer day and plunge well below 0 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter.
These are desert species that can survive without additional water for a couple
months. Sedum is also a perennial.
Describe the upkeep of the green roof, if any. Do you need to water and weed the
green roof?
Very little upkeep is necessary. I have weeded three times and have never pulled
more than a handful of weeds. We have watered the roof only once, immediately
after the trays were installed on the roof.
What kinds of data would you like to collect from your observations of the green
roof experiment?
Our hypothesis is that the green roof will reduce heating and cooling costs. The
experimental group, the green roof, is situated over a biology classroom on the third
floor of our building. The control is an identical classroom adjacent to the experimental, but separated by a storeroom.
We are collecting two sets of data for each group. For both rooms we are
tracking the temperature of the air one meter above the roof, the temperature
of the roof surface, and the temperature of the ceiling inside the building immediately under the roof. Besides the temperature data, we are also monitoring
the airflow into each room. Our rooms are heated and cooled by forced air that
is delivered to the classroom by a large trunk line. A valve separates the main
duct from the room. If the temperature in the room is too warm in the summertime, the valve opens to allow more cool air into the room. Really, we are
tracking the position of the valve and looking for a difference between the two
classrooms.
Did you receive any community help in designing and constructing the green
roof?
The school district provided the necessary labor to install the roof and the access
to the engineers to determine whether the roof could handle the additional weight.
They also provided a crane and computer to track the temperature data. Johnson
Controls is providing the valve-monitoring data, and our IT department is helping
with computer support.
What kinds of costs were involved in designing and constructing the green
roof?
The money from the grant went toward purchasing the Green Grid trays from
Weston Solutions. We also purchased temperature probes and monitoring software. The school has provided all other expenses.
Do you have any references for our readers if they wanted to consider a green roof
for their school?
I read the book Green Roof Plants by Snodgrass and Snodgrass to get an idea
about the plants. Although I have not read it, there is a book called Green Roof
Construction and Maintenance by Kelly Luckett. Much of what I learned came from
speaking with green roof vendors, in particular Weston Solutions. They were based
in nearby Vernon Hills and came to the school to meet with us. Wikipedia has a nice
overview explanation of green roofs.
SOMETHING TO DO
A sustainable or green building, such as a school, is the result of planning
and design that increases the eciency of resources and reduces the buildings impact on human health and the environment.
Research practices and techniques that can reduce or eliminate the
negative impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. In
your research, include eorts to take advantage of renewable resources,
environmentally friendly building materials, harmony of the building with
the surrounding natural features, measures to reduce energy use, on-site
generation of renewable energy, and recycling methods that reduce waste
of energy, water, and building materials.
California Energy Commission, Consumer Energy Center. Energy Tips
for Schools. http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/tips/schools.html.
Pilloton, Emily. Clinton Library Gets LEED Platinum. Inhabitat, November 19, 2007. http://www.inhabitat.com/2007/11/19/clintonlibrary-goes-leed-platinum/.
www.usgbc.org.
WEB SITES
www.aashe.org
The Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher
Education is an association of colleges and universities that are working to create a sustainable future by making sustainable practices the
norm in higher education.
www.usgbc.org/k12toolkit
Green Existing Tool Kit with accompanying training resources will
provide guidance, best practices, policy, and planning models to assist
school ocials in seeking LEED certication for existing buildings.
www.greenroofs.org
Green Roofs for Healthy Cities mission is an eort to increase the
awareness of the economic, social, and environmental benets of
green roofs and green walls and other forms of living architecture
through education, advocacy, and professional development.
www.greenschoolbuildings.org
Green School Buildings is an organization focused on what makes
green schools better for students and how communities can learn
about local, state, and federal initiatives to promote and support
green schools.
http://www.princetonreview.com/green-guide-press-release.aspx
The Princeton Review and the U.S. Green Building Council provide
a free guidebook that focuses on institutions of higher education that
have demonstrated an above average commitment in terms of campus infrastructure, activities, and initiatives.
http://www.fypower.org/inst/edu.html
Most schools spend more money on energy each year than on school
supplies. To read about some energy-saving tips and initiatives, go to
this Flex Your Power article.
http://www.ase.org/section/program/greenschl/aboutgs
The Alliance to Save Energy Green Schools Program empowers students to make a dierence in the way their schools use energy. According to the program, energy costs are an enormous expense for the
nations schools, approximately $6 billion each year, and much of the
energy that is consumed is wasted.
VIDEOS
version.
New York, United States: Twenty percent of New York Citys area is
rooftops. This video on green roof projects in the Bronx discusses the
potential benets in reducing storm water runo and lowering the

energy demands of its citizens by cooling the city. For more information, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17hRZgsFEXE (9:22
minutes).
GeneralRooftop Gardens: This automated PowerPoint presentation
on how to build your own rooftop gardens has it all! For details, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=daKPo00LIFA&feature=related
(0:55 minutes).
Chapter 3
Greener Homes and

Greener Vehicles
In 2007 a massive F5 tornado struck the town of Greensburg, Kansas. This

was the strongest tornado in several years in this location. A F5 tornado
moves at 260320 miles an hour and can lift framed houses o their foundations and carry them away.
Hurricanes, earthquakes, and tornadoes seem to be making more and
more television, radio, and newspaper news around the globe. In recent
years, these forces have devastated small and large communities alike
throughout the world.
When the Greensburg tornado nally subsided, several people had been
killed and 95 percent of the towns homes and businesses were wiped out.
Three years later, in 2010, thousands of lives were lost in the horric earthquakes that struck Haiti and Chile. More than a million homes were destroyed in these countries.
FEATURE
Tips for Implementing a School-Wide Energy Efficiency Program
Are you interested in launching a school-wide energy efficiency program at your
school? The Alliances Green Schools Program has some excellent ideas on how
to get started. Use their 10-step program to get started: http://www.greenschoolsal
liance.org.
THE HOME OF THE FUTURE?

People are realizing the benet of building safe, disaster-resistant homes
and shelters. One kind of structure that is generating a lot of interest
among homeowners and builders is the futuristic-looking concrete monolithic, or one-piece, dome home. These round-shaped homes would look a
bit odd in a typical neighborhood setting, but they are strong and highly
resistant to damage by stormy weather, earthquakes, category 5 hurricanes,
and F5 tornadoes. Because the shell of the dome is made of concrete, it is
reproof too. Another plus is that the lifespan of a concrete dome home
can be hundreds of years, so this type of home does not need to be replaced
during a homeowners lifetime.
Concrete Dome Homes Are Green Buildings Too
Monolithic concrete domes are eco-friendly green buildings too. The shape
of the dome means there is less surface area per square foot inside. Less
surface area equals less area to heat or cool. Ecologically, concrete has some
advantages over wood, because concrete absorbs the heat or cold of the
environment and radiates it back into the room. The domes concrete walls
maintain a constant room temperature longer.
The monolithic dome is energy ecient. It usually saves 50 percent on
heating and cooling costs relative to a comparable conventional building.
The shape and interior construction of a monolithic dome lend themselves
well to alternative forms of energy. Solar power works especially well for
monolithic homes.
Are We Ready for Concrete Dome Homes?
For more than four decades, dome construction has been predicted as the
wave of the future. Presently, concrete domes are becoming an increasingly popular choice for churches, gymnasiums, arenas, storage facilities,
and even airplane hangars because the cost savings increase with the size
of the building. On the other hand, dome homes are still not fashionable in many neighborhoods. They can look a bit out-of-place for some
people.
Will concrete dome homes become popular in the future? They may, if
more people realize how safe and energy ecient these buildings are. The
future will tell.
Greener Homes and Greener Vehicles a 47
DID YOU KNOW?

The city of Greensburg, Kansas, is now rebuilding a model green community with
the help of the U.S. Department of Energy and its National Renewable Energy
Laboratory.
A monolithic dome home in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in south central

Colorado. A monolithic dome is a one-piece structure made with concrete and
steel rods. In addition to reducing heating and cooling costs, the design makes
the home resistant to heavy winds and storm damage. Dome homes are built
in many places throughout the world. (Courtesy www.monolithic.com)
SAVING ENERGY: IT STARTS AT HOME

Now that we know that concrete dome-shaped buildings are energy ecient, how energy ecient is the typical conventional square-shaped house
in the neighborhood?
According to the Department of Energy, the typical U.S. family spends
about $1,900 a year on home utility bills. The government states that a
good home energy-eciency plan is needed to review energy usage such as
electricity, home heating, and household wastes. The rst step is to nd out
which parts of the house use the most energy. To do this, a home energy
audit will pinpoint those areas and suggest the most eective measures
for cutting energy costs. Anyone, including students and homeowners,
can conduct a simple home energy audit. You can also get assistance by
contacting your local utility or an independent energy auditor for a more
comprehensive examination.
For more information about home energy audits, including free tools
and calculators, visit the U.S. Department of Energy Web sites http://
www.energysavers.gov or www.natresnet.org.
ELECTRICITY
The Energy Information Agency (EIA) estimated in their report that in
2007 about 526 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity were used for
lighting by the residential and commercial sectors. This was equal to about
19 percent of the total electricity consumed by both of those sectors and
14 percent of total U.S. electricity consumption. The EIA also reported
that appliances account for 64.7 percent of electricity consumption in the
average American household. Refrigerators consumed the most electricity
(14%), followed by lighting (9%).
Emissions from electricity generation occur at the power plants that
supply consumers electricity. The average household carbon dioxide emissions from electricity are approximately 16,290 pounds.
How to Save on Electricity and Reduce
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Here are some quick tips from the Department of Energy on how to
save on electricity in your home and in your school. Use this list to audit
VIDEO
David Smith of Smith Family Dome Homes in Beaumont, Texas, describes building
an energy-efficient dome home in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
4Udh5L14F9c.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Residential Energy Consumption Survey, 2001, Forms EIA-457 A-C, and H and other
sources)
your home or schools energy usage and to nd ways to reduce its carbon
footprint.
1. Purchase clean electricity. How much clean electricity does your school
use? It is easy to nd out. For example, the homes and schools in
Rhode Island use mostly natural gas and nuclear energy for their
electricity needs. However, the electricity utility industry is changing
and is giving more energy options for homes and schools. Presently,
many consumers have the option to purchase their electricity directly
from companies that generate power from renewable energy sources
such as solar or wind. Such power is sometimes referred to as green
power or clean power.
2. Make your own clean electricity. Generate electricity using your own
small renewable energy system. These systems include small solar
electric systems, small wind electric systems, microhydropower systems, and small hybrid electric systems.
3. Reduce your electricity use. There are many ways you can reduce electricity use in the home and help reduce energy bills. Following are a
few tips.
Appliances and electronics. Purchase Energy Star products and operate them eciently. Energy Star is a program that classies products
in more than 60 categories according to their energy consumption.
What is the age of your home or schools appliances? If they are older
than 10 years, you may want to consider more ecient ones.
Lighting. Purchase energy-ecient products, operate them eciently,
and incorporate more daylighting into your home using energyecient windows and skylights.
Electric space heating and cooling. Purchase energy-ecient electric
systems and operate them eciently. If you can, incorporate passive
solar design concepts into your home.
HOME HEATING
Typically, 45 percent of a homes utility bill goes for heating and cooling.
Of this cost, water heating is the third-largest expense in a home. It accounts for about 13 percent of a homes utility bill. Most oil-red furnaces
emit close to 14,000 pounds of carbon dioxide in a year. However, the
amount of emissions can vary according to fuel, furnace, or boiler eciency
and according to the temperature setting in the home.
The bright yellow EnergyGuide label

appears on Energy Starqualified
appliances and shows the estimated
yearly operating cost of the appliance in dollars per year. The information provides consumers with a
context to compare the energy efficiency of different appliance models. (Federal Trade Commission)
WASTES
Do you know that throwing away trash leads to emissions of greenhouse
gases? According to the Environmental Protection Agency, every pound
of trash emits methane equivalent in eect to approximately 0.94 pounds
of carbon dioxide. The average person in the United States throws away
more than 1,130 pounds of waste per year, meaning the average persons
garbage releases approximately 1,060 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent
annually. If the average recycling rate in the United States increased by
only 5 percentfrom approximately 30 percent to 35 percentthis would
amount to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 67 pounds of carbon
dioxide equivalent per person each year.
HELP PARENTS BECOME MORE HOME
ENERGY EFFICIENT
The U.S. Department of Energy also provides ways that students can help
their parents in making their home more energy ecient. You can go online and contact the U. S. Department of Energy and download a variety of
information for becoming more energy ecient. One site is http://www1.
eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/related_links.html.
Drafty Windows
Windows can account for 1025 percent of the heating bill. During the
summer, the air conditioner must work harder to cool hot air from sunny
windows. Installing Energy Star windows reduces heat loss.
Cold-climate windows keep heat in. Double-pane windows with a lacquered coating on the glass reect heat back into the room during the
winter months.
Warm-climate windows keep heat out. In the summertime, the sun shining through windows heats up the room. Windows with a lacquered coating on the glass reect some of the sunlight, keeping your rooms cooler.
Close curtains on south- and west-facing windows during the day.
Heating and Cooling Tips
Set your thermostat as low as is comfortable in the winter and as high as
is comfortable in the summer. Turning it back a few degrees overnight can
easily save energy.
Cold-climate windows (left) keep heat in. Double-pane windows with low-e
coating on the glass reflect heat back into the room during the winter months.
Warm-climate windows (right) keep heat out. In the summertime, sun shining
through the windows heats up the room. Windows with low-e coatings on the
glass reflect some of the sunlight, keeping the rooms cooler. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
Insulation
Proper insulation can keep homes warm and cool throughout the year.
Insulation should be installed in attics and walls and around windows and
doorframes. There are government R-value ratings for insulation materials. The R values include numbers that are used to rank the quality of the
insulation. The higher the number, say R-30 (in comparison with R-15),
the more resistant the insulation.
Appliances
Appliances account for about 1720 percent of a households energy consumption. At the top of the consumption list are refrigerators, clothes
washers, and clothes dryers.
One practical suggestion from the Department of Energy to consider
when shopping for a new appliance is to imagine that each appliance
comes with two price tags. The rst is the purchase price, but the second
price tag is the cost you will pay to operate the appliance over its lifetime.
That second price tag will be paid every month on your utility bill for an
average of 1020 years, so an energy-ecient appliance will lead to longterm savings.
Lighting Systems
The average household spends 11 percent of its energy budget on lighting xtures. Government reports state that new lighting technologies can
reduce lighting energy in a typical home by 5075 percent. One way of
reducing energy in lighting is to use compact uorescent (CFL) bulbs. In
tests, CFLs burned for 3,000 hours, which is triple the life of incandescent
bulbs. Making improvements to lighting is one of the fastest ways to cut
the energy bills in a home or building.
There are numerous energy-saving products to choose from when selecting outdoor lighting, including low-voltage pathway lighting and lightemitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs last up to 25 times longer than standard
lighting and are even more energy ecient than CFLs. LEDs are also an
excellent choice for outdoor environments because they are durable and
perform well in cold weather.
A compact fluorescent light bulb

(CFL) can save more than $40 in
electricity costs over its lifetime.
According to U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Energy Star, if
every American home replaced just
one light with a light thats earned
the ENERGY STAR, we would save
enough energy to light three million
homes for a year, [and] save about
$600 million in annual energy costs.
(Picstudio/Dreamstime.com)
The Home Entertainment System

Televisions
Americans are spending more time than ever watching television. Would
you believe they spend an average of ve hours a day watching the tube?
However, todays new at-screen televisions use more electricity than the
older models. The fact is that some of these models use more electricity in a
year than many energy-ecient refrigerators. Therefore, monitoring quality time for television viewing is a good way to reduce energy consumption. Also, turn o the DVD player when it is not in use. When electronic
devices such as DVD players and video game systems are left in standby
mode, they continue to use electricity.
Phone Chargers
Cell phone chargers are one of the biggest users of electricity when you
think of the number of hours they are not used. Unplug your cell phone
charger even when it is not connected to a device. Most chargers draw
520 times more power than is needed to maintain a charge.
Computers
When you step away from the computer and do not plan to use it for two
hours, it is best to shut it o. It uses less energy to start a computer than
to let it stay on for a long period of time, even if it is in a sleep mode. If no
one will be using the computer, shut it o.
Power Strips
Appliances that people typically leave plugged in continuously, such as
computers and televisions, draw electricity throughout the day. By plugging these appliances into a power strip, energy-conscious consumers can
cut o this continual supply of so-called phantom energy by ipping a
single switch.
HOME ENERGY AUDITS
The Department of Energy states that the rst step to taking a wholehouse energy-eciency approach is to nd out which parts of your house
use the most energy. A home energy audit shows where the problems are
in the house and suggests the most eective measures for cutting energy
costs. As an example, audits determine the eciency of a homes heating and cooling systems. An audit may also show you ways to conserve
hot water and electricity. For more information about home energy audits,
including free tools and calculators, visit www.energysavers.gov or www.
natresnet.org.
Professional Home Energy Audits
Professional energy audits generally go into great detail as to which sections of a house use the most energy. Many professional energy audits
will include a blower door test. Blower door tests are used to determine a
homes air tightness.
The setup for the blower door test includes a frame and a exible panel
that ts inside a doorway. Once the panel is installed, a special highpowered speed fan and a pressure gauge are used. These instruments measure the air pressure dierences inside and outside the home. The fan pulls
a large quantity of air out of the house. This action lowers the air pressure
inside. The high outside air pressure then ows into all the cracks and
openings in the house. Sometimes a smoke pencil is used to detect air
leaks. These tests can determine the drafts and air leaks in a building that
need to be xed.
THE BUILDING TREND FOR SMALLER HOMES
Research suggests that the average size of a home built today is getting
smaller. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2009 the median size
of a new house was 2,438 square feet, down from 2,629 square feet in
2008. This was a drop of 9 percent in about one years time. Large houses
generally use a tremendous amount of energy to heat and cool. This energy usually comes from fossil fuels, depleting these resources and emitting
greenhouse gases and pollutants into the air. A smaller house means less
emissions and a reduction in the carbon footprint as well.
VIDEO
See Energy Star videos on home performance here: http://www.energystar.gov/
index.cfm?c=home_improvement.hm_improvement_hpwes_video.
Homeowners today can use a blower door to check heat loss. A blower door
is a powerful fan that mounts into the frame of an exterior door. The fan pulls
air out of the house, lowering the air pressure inside. The higher outside air
pressure then flows in through all unsealed cracks and openings. The auditors
may use a smoke pencil to detect air leaks. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
HOME ENERGY EFFICIENCY OUTDOORS

The Department of Energy reports that properly positioned trees can save
up to 25 percent on a homes energy consumption for heating and cooling.
Trees and tall bushes around a house can reduce windy conditions during
the cold seasons and during the warmer seasons can keep the house cooler
and protected from the hot summer sun.
DID YOU KNOW?

The potential energy savings from reducing drafts in a home may range from
5 percent to 30 percent per year.
Proper landscaping is another way homeowners can reduce heating and cooling costs. Using natural shading from trees and adding buffers like porches
and garages on the south and west sides of a house will help with heating and
cooling and yield significant energy savings. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Bhavna Rawal, High School Science Teacher, Northbrook, High
School, Houston, Texas
Go-Green Project: Building and Using Alternative Energy Resources in a Model
Home
program.
I have been teaching chemistry, physics, AP chemistry, and dual-credit chemistry
at Northbrook High School, Spring Branch Independent School District, since 2006.
During my teaching at Northbrook High School, I received the MIT Leadership in
Education Award for 2009 and attended an intense summer program at MIT, Boston. I also received a Fund for Teachers Award to visit Europe to explore alternative
energy resources and mass transit and received the Jones New York award with
an Adopt a Classroom grant for the year 2009.
I grew up in Ahmedabad, a city in India 200 miles north of Mumbai. I attended
Sardar Patel High school in Ahmedabad. I went to a Government Polytechnic and
then L. D. Engineering College in Ahmedabad, where I received a BS in engineering. After college, I worked at Government Polytechnic as an assistant professor
Bhavna Rawal is a high

school science teacher
at the Northbrook High
School in Houston, Texas.
(Courtesy Bhavna Rawal)
for one year. Then I decided to study further. I came to the United States and earned
a Masters in chemistry and a Masters in education.
I had really good teachers in math and science classes when I was in high school.
My favorite activities were learning new things, play sports with my friends and my
sisters, helping mom in a kitchen, helping and teaching other girls in my class. In
fact, I loved teaching. We had a teaching day where a student could be a teacher
and teach the whole class. The student had to dress up like a teacher and act like
that particular teacher. I really enjoyed being a science teacher during that time. I
had always loved science and had wonderful science teachers when I was in the
9th and 10th grades. I still remember some of those labs and the science fair projects that I worked on. I never lost my love for teaching science subjects.
When I graduated from college, my first career was not in teaching. I worked as a
chemist and research assistant for one year. But I feel that teaching has helped me
merge many of my interests together. During the one year of my work as a chemist, I got to work in the lab even on the weekends. I had to do lots of research and
work on projects more than 10 hours. This made me think about trying to have more
balance in my life, and I wanted to make a positive difference in the worldmore
than just working as a research chemist. I decided to get a teaching certification

and become a teacher.
Describe the project or program.
This project is for high school students who are taking physics during their senior year. This project is incorporated into the physics curriculum for energy, work,
power, and alternative energy units. Students on each team study different types
of alternative energy sources (i.e., solar, wind, geothermal, tidal and wave energy,
hydroelectric, hydrogen, fuel cells, biomass, and nuclear energy) to discover how
the technology works and produces electricity.
Each team analyzed an alternative energy source for its advantages, disadvantages, locations for most effective use, percentage of the world that uses this
energy, and its use in Texas. Each team uses the Internet and other information
resources to research the latest discoveries and uses of the source of alternative
energy that the team is studying. A total of at least 20 citations (e.g. web sites, periodicals, books or expert opinions) are required.
The team then works on building an alternative energy model home from the materials, equipments and kits given. Students then calculated the energy produced
per house and compare with the electricity consumed by a conventional house.
What materials do they need for the project?
Each team had materials such as dollhouse kit, balsa wood sheets, small scale
photovoltaics, wind turbines, green house kits, solar ovens kits, tools and calculators to build models. Project information was distributed to each team. Each team
leader picked a slip of paper out of the box, which told the team which alternative
energy source the team must investigate. Each team worked on building models
for the project such as solar ovens, windmill, solar cars, hydropower, green house,
biomass, etc. Each team member had access to his or her own computer for six
days during the project to research and prepare the oral presentation and slide
show.
What else do the students do in the project?
My students performed experiments such as determining the ideal angle for photovoltaics to produce optimum energy, the shape of wind turbine blades needed
for optimizing efficiency etc. The models for each team were put up in the hallway
to promote alternative energy use. The slide show, model/diagram, and brochures
were used during the oral presentation to introduce the members of the class to
the teams energy source.
Students filled out an evaluation sheet on the other teams and filled out a group/
self-evaluation for their own team. Advertisement for a solar oven, solar panel,
windmill, hydrodynamic model, solar car, greenhouse, window shield, and foam insulation were created to help market these alternative energy ideas to all students
who passed by our classroom. Project participants included diagrams, pictures,
and information that would interest other students and give them background information regarding the teams alternative energy source. Each team used the model
during an oral presentation to demonstrate how the alternative energy source is

utilized and produces electricity.
The idea for the project came from my previous project that involved building model
homes. Through this project, students learned about homes and worked with different types of electrical circuits.
I decided to enhance this project and to incorporate alternative energy resources such as solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, geothermal, and hydrogen into
the model homes. I decided that using these alternative energy sources could result in energy savings of approximately 15 percent in the model homes that we are
building. Students can also determine the amount of energy used in each home
and then calculate percentages of energy savings by comparing the original model
with alternative resources model. I came to know about the BP A+ for Energy Grant
and decided to apply. BP awarded me $5,000 for this project.
Global warming is a problem faced by the entire planet and requires global efforts
to resolve. As a physics teacher running an after-school green club for five years,
I investigated our science curriculum and found that there was a need to showcase examples from countries that have increased their use of alternative energy
resources. I hope to prepare part of our next generation to resolve this global issue
by illustrating it in the classroom.
My students regularly study alternative energy resources and their advantages
and disadvantages. But my passion is to show my students the big picture of how
to increase the use of alternative energy resources, to compare and contrast countries with small-scale usage of alternative energy resources with other countries
with large-scale usage of alternative energy resources, and to let my students
analyze the resulting impact on the environment and the price they are paying for
consuming this energy. I want to focus on real-life use of alternative energy resources such as solar and wind to awaken students to the possibilities. If oil were
not desperately needed, perhaps the conflicts surrounding it might find a respite.
The central driving force, though, comes from a desire of mine to obtain electricity from a clean, non-polluting, renewable source without consumers paying more
than a small premium or drastically changing their lifestyle.
Our science department, our school, and the school district itself are requiring
students to complete two high school science projects. My after-school green club
also requires students to build and experiment with science projects and to participate in science fair competitions. Project-based learning benefits students by
reinforcing their learning for alternative energy usage. Labs recreating and demonstrating the efficient uses of different types of equipment for solar and wind power
explain the process and the inner working of equipment. This experience ensures
deeper learning. It also helps students meta-cognitive learning process of the subject to apply this knowledge in the long run.
There are many resources online about alternative energy resources and building
a model home. The books Basics of Energy Efficient Living: A Beginners Guide to
Alternative Energy and Home Energy Savings by Lonnie Wibberding and Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes, 2nd edition, by Aldo V. da Rosa were
very helpful. We build and use alternative energy in a model house, the supplier of
which is www.discoverthis.com. Kits for making solar ovens are available at www.
thamesandkosmos.com; Pico turbine windmillmaking kits are available at www.
picoturbine.com; and infrared, 175-watt heat lamps and miniature greenhouse kits
are available at www.growersupply.com.
Although this project is very time-consuming, I highly recommend it. You can buy a
dollhouse kit from Hobby Lobby and integrate many alternative resources instead
of cutting out a form foam board, which is very time-consuming. But the community
event is fun for us when we see the students model homes as well as their presentation. It would have been difficult to do this project without the grant I received
from BP. That grant allowed me to purchase house kits and buy tools and other
wind turbine kits.
The students spent a whole year after school one day a week in the green club to
get this project done. They did all the work, from researching various alternative
energy kits to doing all the hands-on lab work, assembling the model home, and
finally decorating the home. In the process, students also did some labs such as
comparing the energy content of nuclear plants versus green energy plants.
The students really enjoyed building a model home from cutting the balsa
boards and gluing them together. They also figured out how to solve problems as
they came up and how to use the tools to build the house. For example, we were
planning to use solar panels on the roof of the house, but our school district banned
our going out for testing just as we started our project. The students searched for
the open light area in the school for testing solar panels. Students also found ways
to test solar panel in class by using high-intensity bulbs.
Once we finished the project, the students designed a brochure that would
teach people about the alternative energy and the process of using it in the home
during the community event.
The students spent a whole year after school one day a week in the green club to
get this project done.
Do you have any current plans to improve on or extend this program? If not, what
My next plan in the field of energy is to build an alternative-energy model city using
information collected from city of Freiburg, citizens interviews, and pictures taken
by me during my Europe visit. My students will design and build a model city with
proper installations of photovoltaics, solar thermal collectors, solar ovens, solar
water heaters, and wind turbines and sustainable mass transit systems. My students will experiment in their model city to increase the usage of alternative energy
resources. There will be a competition among each group; whichever group most
increases the alternative energy usages will receive a prize and a certificate.
This project on an alternative-energy city will awaken students to increase the
usages of alternative energy. Students will also build efficient and faster routes of
rail in their model city using the documentary that I made during my fellowship in
Europe. Students will also make a list of the things in their city such as inexpensive
cost of rail, faster and efficient rail, and toll charges for individual cars in order to
decrease traffic congestion in their city. Within the context of our world as a fragile
place, students will be exposed to a culture that maintains a high standard of living without total dependence on fossil fuels and while contributing less to global
warming.
FEATURE
Maine Public Utilities Commission Program
The Maine Public Utilities Commission has a unique way to help people detect
their power consumption from appliances and electronics in their homes and business, using a device called the Kill A Watt. The Kill A Watt monitor and tool kit was
scheduled to be on loan in most Maine public libraries starting January 12, 2010, as
part of a statewide community outreach campaign by Efficiency Maine, a program
of the Maine Public Utilities Commission. Mainers can check out the Kill A Watt
monitors, just as they would check out a book, at no charge. These monitors simply
plug into electrical outlets and then allow a consumer to plug in any appliance to
get a readout on how much electricity the appliance uses and then calculate how
much money it is costing. The educational tool kits include a brochure offering tips
for home energy savings. Efficiency Maines Residential Lighting Program enlists
the participation of, and works closely with, manufacturers and lighting retailers
to encourage them to produce and sell energy-efficient lighting products to the
residents of Maine.
Are you interested in using a Kill A Watt meter? Here are some suggestions for
using the meter:
Try using a plug strip or a grounded extension cord for ease of use.
Read the device before unplugging.
Test for one hour; press the purple button to read the kilowatt-hours. Multiply the kilowatt-hour reading by $0.17 or your utility rate to find the cost
to operate for the hour.
Suggested appliances to test include computers, hair dryers, lamps,
toasters, refrigerators, coffee makers, space heaters, microwave ovens,
air conditioners, and televisions, cable boxes, and DVRs.
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES FOR HOMES

After receiving a home energy audit and purchasing the materials to make
a home more energy ecient, such as applying more insulation, purchasing Energy Star appliances, and installing double-pane windows, the next
step is to consider using renewable energy resources and fuels.
Homeowners are warming up to a variety of renewable energy resources
that include wind turbines, solar energy, and geothermal energy. For more
specic information about these three major renewable resources, refer to volumes 2, 3, and 4 in this series. However, here is a quick description of each.
Wind Turbines for Homes
Most wind turbines in general are installed on top of a tall tower or pole.
Wind turbines collect the winds energy and transfer it to electricity that
can directly be used with a houses existing electrical system. Residential
wind turbines are fairly common, having been installed in most of the
states. It is easy to install a wind turbine, and they can be added to virtually
any home without a change to any electrical wiring system or bringing in
additional appliances.
A growing number of homeowners are interested in replacing their conventional heating system with a new geothermal system. As mentioned
in volume 4, geothermal energy is stored below Earths surface. In some
geothermal units, a series of pipes buried below ground carry a mixture of
alcohol and a water solution in a loop. The loop carries the heated solution
into the home plus hot water. An added benet is that the geothermal
system uses no fossil fuels and emits no carbon dioxide.
Small Solar Electric Systems
A small photovoltaic system can be a reliable renewable energy resource for
a home. There are plenty of solar resources throughout the United States
appropriate for small solar electric systems, especially in the southwestern

United States, which receives the greatest amount of solar energy.
Solar Water Heaters
Solar water heaters, also called solar domestic hot water systems, are a
cost-eective way to generate hot water for home use. Those adopting
solar water heating may also opt for a backup system, given that weather
or increased demand may make the system inconsistent.
SOLAR HOUSE DECATHLON HOMES OF 2009
In October 2009, 20 teams of college and university students competed in
the biennial Solar Decathlon at the National Mall in Washington, D.C.,
hosted by the U.S. Department of Energy. Teams compete to design and
build solar-powered homes and are judged in 10 categories: appliances,
architecture, communications, comfort zone, engineering, home entertainment, hot water, lighting design, market viability, and net metering.
Iowa State University student Timothy Lentz and Team Alberta student Leah
Battersdy work on the roofs of their houses during the U.S. Department of
Energy Solar Decathlon 2009 on the National Mall in Washington, DC, October 6, 2009. (Stefano Paltera/U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon)
The competition furthers several dierent goals, which include objectives to educate students and the public, to help promote solar technologies, to promote whole building design, and to demonstrate the potential
for net zero energy homes. Plus, the homes are beautiful and exciting.
GREEN ROOFS FOR HOMEOWNERS
In chapter 2, we learned how some school buildings have green roofs. In
this chapter we touch on how homeowners are planning and designing
green roofs.
Green roofs are also called vegetative, living, or eco-roofs, and in some
areas, they are garden roofs. No matter what they are called, green roofs are
The density of vegetation on the green roof of this home will help control major
storm water run-off. A four-inch-thick green roof can hold a gallon of water
per square foot. (iStockphoto)
DID YOU KNOW?

Does a green roof have to be mowed? Most drought-resistant roof plants such as
sedums grow only a few inches tall and are fairly self-weeding.
installed on top of conventional roofs. Properly designed, a green roof can

keep homes cooler in the summer and warmer during the winter. Why?
The dense green plants act like a layer of insulation. A green roof can also
provide a habitat for some birds and insects.
Note, however, that installing a green roof onto an existing house is
not a simple matter. Most roofs are not structurally strong enough to support a vegetated roof without some reinforcement. For more information
about installing a green roof, go to chapter 4, Green Buildings and Green
Cities.
INTERVIEW
Go-Green Advocates: Mr. and Mrs. Gerald McGrath of Massachusetts have used
solar water heaters for 27 years. They were kind enough to give us an interview
regarding their installed solar heater.
Go-Green Project: Solar Water Heater
What kind of preliminary work did you do before selecting a new solar water
heater for your home?
We checked out the costs and the government credits and how solar collectors
would look on our roof. In an emergency, we wanted to make sure that our existing conventional system would still be available. Looking at plans, we wanted to
check how the solar collectors on the roof were connected to the storage tank in
the cellar.
What kind of solar water heating system is installed in your home?
We purchased the Reynolds Aluminum Solar System in September 1983. In 2009,
we replaced the original storage tank with a Bradford White Tank. The capacity of
this storage tank is 80 gallons. Both solar panels were repaired in the early 1990s
following a severe winter.
What is the approximate cost of installing a solar hot water system?
The cost of the system in 1983 was $5,600. The federal tax credit was 40 percent,
and the state tax credit was $1,000.
Briefly state how your solar water heating systems works.
In the cellar there are two 80-gallon storage tanks connected to each other by
pipes and shutoff valves. One tank is the conventional one, and the other is the
solar tank. Each tank can serve the house separately or together as a solar system
with a backup conventional system.
The solar tank is equipped with a crown top heat exchanger. Two low-voltage
AC pumps run simultaneously. One pump carries solar fluid to the roof collectors,
A conventional water
heater (left) sits next
to a solar water heater
(right) in the basement
of Mr. and Mrs. Gerald
McGraths home in Massachusetts. The heat
exchanger sits on top of
the solar tank. The piping is arranged to run
the house on solar only,
conventional hot water
only, or a combination of
the two. Solar collectors
are located on top of the
roof, facing south. (Courtesy Mr. and Mrs. Gerald
McGrath)
and the other carries water from the tank to the heat exchanger. A control box
mounted on the exchanger controls the pumps. A daylight/heat sensor turns the
pumps on and off.
How much maintenance, if any, is required to keep the solar water heating system
operating efficiently?
An annual tune-up is recommended, or when the solar fluid pressure per square
inch (PSI) drops below 10. The homeowner can also periodically check to see if
the control box LED lights are blinking during the day, which indicates everything
is working.
How did you determine the size of your solar water heating system for your household needs? Does it provide enough hot water?
Prior to the solar heating system, the house had an 80-gallon electric hot water
tank, which served us fine. Size is based, however, on usage and the number of
users in the household.
Is there a need for a backup system during a cloudy week or a sunless period?
Yes, definitely. Backup is needed when you have several cloudy days in a row. Also,
the winter months require continuous backup help.
How energy efficient is your solar hot water system compared to the conventional
electric hot water?
It depends on the time of the year. From May to September, it is 100 percent efficient. In March, April, October, and November, it is 60 percent efficient. From December to February, it is 40 percent efficient. Overall, our annual utility savings is
about 20 percent.
Did you determine a payback period of investing in this solar hot water system?
Yes, approximately seven years.
What kind of advice would you give homeowners who are interested in installing
a solar hot water system?
A solar hot water system works very nicely and is operationally cost-efficient. Homeowners should take advantage of government and state tax credits. To get the
maximum benefit of a solar hot water system, the bulk of hot water usage should
be during the day.
Are you planning any other renewable energy source for your home, in the
future?
Not at this time.
GREENER VEHICLES FOR TRAVEL

Presently, many automobile companies are oering greener vehicles. Car
buyers can now purchase a variety of super low-emission vehicles, known
as SULEVs. SULEV gasoline/electric hybrid vehicles and alternative-fuel
vehiclesthose that run on natural gas, propane, ethanol, or methanol
are being more noticed on the highways.
The cleanest of the clean cars are the electric cars and hydrogen cars,
given that they emit zero pollutants. The next group of greener cars includes the natural gas and hybrid vehicles, which release next to zero emissions. Following is a brief description of some greener vehicles.
Hybrid Cars
A hybrid car features a small fuel-ecient gas engine combined with an
electric motor that assists the engine when accelerating. The electric motor
is powered by batteries that recharge automatically while you drive.
The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight
in 1999 (see Table 3.1).
TABLE 3.1
Present-Day Hybrid Vehicles
Some gas-electric hybrid cars are now available in North America:

Honda Civic Hybrid
Saturn Aura Hybrid
Toyota Prius
Toyota Camry Hybrid
Nissan Altima Hybrid
Honda Insight Hybrid
Ford Fusion Hybrid
Ford Escape Hybrid SUV
Lexus 250h Hybrid
Lexus 450h Hybrid SUV
Toyota Highlander Hybrid SUV
Mercury Mariner Hybrid SUV
Fuel-Cell Vehicles
Hydrogen fuel-cell cars are electric cars that convert the chemical energy of
hydrogen into usable electric energy without combustion. If pure hydrogen
is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit only heat and water, eliminating concerns
about air pollutants or greenhouse gases. Fuel cells are more energy ecient than combustion engines, and the hydrogen used to power them can
come from a variety of sources. Some hydrogen fuel-cell cars operate on a
6-kilowatt fuel cell. Fuel cells can be as expensive as $1,000 per kilowatt.
Although the United States may have cut back a bit on fuel-cell vehicle
technology, not all automobile companies are doing so. Automakers in
Japan, Germany, and South Korea are expanding fuel-cell programs. Toyota plans to sell fuel-cell cars in 2015, and South Koreas Hyundai Motor
Company is also planning to sell hydrogen vehicles to retail customers
in the immediate future. However, some auto researchers admit that it
may be decades before hydrogen vehicles and the infrastructure to support
them are as commonplace as reneries and gas stations. For now, here are
some other available fuel-cell vehicles.
Riversimple. The 2009 Riversimple is a small fuel-cell vehicle that uses a
6-kilowatt fuel cell from Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. First presented
in the United Kingdom, the Riversimple urban car is a two-seater with a
top speed of around 50 miles per hour.
Mercedes. The 2009 Mercedes BlueZero F-Cell was rst introduced at

the 2009 Detroit Auto Show. The BlueZero F-Cell has a B-class body
style and was built with modular design. Acceleration from 0 to 60 miles
per hour is around 11 seconds.
General Motors. GM debuted the Equinox Fuel Cell SUV in 2008.
Under its Project Driveway program, GM will be building100 hydrogen
vehicles, which will be test-driven by consumers in Los Angeles, New
York, and Washington, D.C.
Chrysler. Chryslers ecoVoyager, which has a range of 300 miles and a
060 mile-per-hour speed of 8 seconds, made its rst appearance at the
2008 Detroit Auto Show.
Mazda. The Mazda company has a hybrid, the Premacy Hydrogen RE,
that uses a hydrogen rotary engine to create the electricity that powers the
motor. The system is said to boost the fuel range of the vehicle to around
125 miles.
The Mercedes-Benz Concept BlueZero E-Cell car combines both a batteryelectric drive and a turbo-charged combustion gasoline engine. The vehicle
can travel up to 370 miles, with 60 miles solely under electric power, and can
accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour in 10.8 seconds. (Breezeart/Dreams
time.com)
Electric Vehicles
During the early 1900s, approximately 50,000 electric cars powered by
batteries were in used in the United States. However, the introduction of
the internal combustion engine, the cheap economy of gasoline and petroleum, and the ability of gasoline-powered engines to travel long distances
caused the decline of battery-powered engines. By the 1920s, electric cars
had all but disappeared in the United States. However, in 1996 the Saturn
division of General Motors manufactured and leased electric vehicles for
a short time. The Saturn electric vehicle was highlighted in a documentary
lm titled Who Killed the Electric Car?
Now electric vehicles are back; spurred on by government pressure to
reduce harmful vehicle emissions around the world. Major automakers are
now producing electric vehicles. Here is a brief overview of some of them.
In 2010 Nissan Motor Co. announced plans to produce an all-electric
car that will use advanced lithium-ion batteries and should be able to go
100 miles on one charge. The dashboard gives detailed information about
the state of the batteries and the location of charging stations. The battery
pack is at and sits right under the car seats.
The Mitsubishi iMiEV is an electric vehicle with zero emissions. Using
the onboard charger, the vehicle can be charged with either a 100V or
200V power source in the home. In addition, if quick chargers currently
being developed by power companies are used, it will be possible to charge
the vehicle in a short time.
General Motors is selling its electric vehicle, the 2011 Chevy Volt. The
electric vehicle uses a lithium-ion battery pack system. A small, quiet onboard gas generator creates electricity that powers the Volt for hundreds of
miles on both battery and gas power.
Tesla Motors has produced high-performance electric cars. Its sports
car can accelerate as fast as many gas-powered cars. In tests, the car can
DID YOU KNOW?

In 2009 two students at Mercymount Country Day School in Cumberland, Rhode
Island, and a team of professionals converted a 1998 Saturn sedan into a 100 percent electric plug-in that is registered and licensed in the state of Rhode Island.
See volume 5, chapter 5, for more information.
reach 60 miles per hour in 3.6 seconds. The company is now developing an
electric sedan.
Ford company will be selling a battery electric-powered light commercial vehicle. The electric van will give an expected maximum range of 100
miles on a single charge. In 2011 Ford will introduce their new batterypowered small car.
The BMW Mini E is an electric vehicle that was introduced during a
eld test in June 2009. The Mini E is a lithium-ion battery-powered twoseater.
Daimler plans to produce and release 400 electric versions of its Smart
commuter vehicle in several pilot programs worldwide.
The Chinese company BYD plans to sell its plug-in hybrid in the United
States soon. The country has invested billions in an infrastructure network
and charging stations to support the new electric vehicles on the road.
Electric Vehicles Need Infrastructure

With major automakers expected to roll out all-electric and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles in the coming years, California and Oregon are starting to
build the electric charging infrastructure.
In Californias Bay Area, the mayors of San Francisco, San Jose, and
Oakland have announced a joint plan aiming to encourage the use of electric vehicles. All government buildings will have charging outlets, and further outlets will be installed throughout each city. The mayors also plan
to establish programs to discount large purchases of electric vehicles for
public and private eets.
Nissan will be working with county and city governments in Sonoma
County to promote its electric vehicles and develop a charging network
throughout the area.
DID YOU KNOW?

General Motors introduced the 1999 Saturn model EV-1 electric car with GM Ovonic
nickel-metal hydride batteries.
DID YOU KNOW?

An authority on electric cars states that to drive 30 miles in a day, you need 300
watts. That is the equivalent of having your computer turned on all day.
The nozzle for a new electric car charging station is shown at the opening of
North Americas first public-use, quick-charge station for electric vehicles in
Portland, Oregon, August 5, 2010. The Takasago rapid-charging station is specialized to recharge lithium-ion batteries and requires only 2030 minutes to
restore up to 80 percent of the batterys full strength. (AP Photo/Don Ryan)
In Oregon, Portland General Electric has already installed six charging

stations in the Portland and Salem metropolitan areas and plans to install
six more to support electric vehicles.
Electric Vehicle Benets and Challenges
Although electric vehicles produce zero emissions, generating the electricity to charge them from electric power plants using fossil fuels produces
air-borne pollutants and solid waste at the plants. There are environmental
concerns with the use of batteries for electric and hybrid cars. They contain
toxic chemicals and produce some toxic emissions, which can make battery production and disposal a waste issue. Other criticisms include the
assertion that todays batteries are still too expensive, store little energy, are
heavy, and need to be replaced eventually. However, the future for electricvehicle battery technology looks promising, given that it represents another option for producing zero- or low-emission vehicles.
FEATURE
How Do You Estimate Miles Per Gallon (mpg) Driving an Electric Vehicle?
It is not easy. Today, all car owners, those that drive gasoline-powered vehicles,
want to know how many miles their cars or trucks can go on a gallon of gasoline.
Will it be 28 miles per gallon? More? Less?
To help car owners and those who are buying a new car, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) publishes a special vehicle report. In the report, the EPA
lists and labels all vehicles that are on the road today with their estimated miles
per gallon. As an example, the label will show a small, two-door, four-cylinder, 2010
car getting 30 miles per gallon in city traffic and 35 miles per gallon traveling on the
highway. Obviously, the report will state that a larger and heavier vehicle with an
eight-cylinder engine will get less mileage per gallon than the smaller car. All new
cars have an EPA sticker on their windows posting the miles per gallon for that
particular car or truck.
But how do you determine the miles per gallon for a 100 percent electric car?
To help answer the question, the EPA has come up with one method of rating miles
per gallon for electric cars. They had to compare the equivalent of gasoline energy
with electrical energy for the new rating system for electric vehicles. They used a
formula in which 33-kilowatt hours of electricity is the equivalent of one gallon of
gasoline. So the rating system label is now renamed as miles per gallon equivalent
(or mpge) for electrics. How does the rating system work for the new electric cars?
In one study, the 2011 Nissan Leaf, an all-electric car, will get the miles per gallon
equivalent of 99 miles per gallon of fuel, according to the EPA fuel economy label.
Not everyone agrees with the miles per gallon equivalent rating. So the EPA
and others are establishing other options for rating clean-fuel vehicles for future
buyers. Note that even though an electric vehicle produces zero emissions, if the
vehicles batteries are being charged from fossil fuel power stations, the electric
vehicle is still not 100 percent emission-free. Why? The fossil fuel power company
emits greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, as it generates and transmits
electricity to the electric vehicle charging station.
Other Green Vehicles

Natural Gas Vehicles
Natural gas vehicles use compressed natural gas or liqueed natural gas
for fuel. Although such vehicles have existed since the 1930s, they are
only recently becoming more popular because of rising public concerns
about pollution. Most vehicles that run on gasoline can be converted to
run on natural gas. There are more than 120,000 natural gas vehicles on
U.S. roads today. Worldwide, there were 9.6 million natural gas vehicles
in 2008, led by Pakistan (2.0 million), Argentina (1.7 million), and Brazil
(1.6 million.)
Biodiesel Vehicles
Many consumers are using biodiesel (from 20% to 100% blends with diesel) in diesel vehicles or converting diesel vehicles to run on used vegetable oil. More than 25,000 vehicles in commercial and government eets
currently run on biodiesel blends in the United States. In Europe, where
diesel vehicles already account for more than 40 percent of the passenger
car market, biodiesel may be an attractive option. In fact, all new diesel vehicles can use biodiesel when available. Many vehicles can run on
biodiesel, and the price of these vehicles is not signicantly higher than
traditional diesel vehicles. For details on how two teachers and their students built a biodiesel pickup truck and a biodiesel car, refer to volumes
1 and 4.
How Do You Find the Greenest Vehicle Possible?
The Environmental Protection Agency has identied the lowest-emitting
and most fuel-ecient vehicles with a SmartWay designation. Look up
all SmartWay and SmartWay Elite vehicles with the Look Up Greenest
Vehicles search at http://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/. Click on the logos
there to learn more about the SmartWay rating system.
DRIVING AND CAR MAINTENANCE
Because transportation accounts for more than half of U.S. oil use, making
some simple changes in your driving habits can have a major impact. Here
are some tips courtesy of the U.S. Department of Energy:
Idling gets you 0 miles per gallon. The best way to warm up a vehicle
is to drive it. No more than 30 seconds of idling on winter days is
needed. Anything more simply wastes fuel and increases emissions.
Aggressive driving (speeding, rapid acceleration, and hard braking)
wastes gas. It can lower your highway gas mileage by 33 percent and
city mileage by 5 percent.
Avoid high speeds. Above 60 miles per hour, gas mileage drops rapidly.
Clear out your car; extra weight decreases gas mileage by 12 percent
for every 100 pounds.
Reduce drag by placing items inside the car or trunk rather than
on roof racks. A roof rack or carrier provides additional cargo space
and may allow you to buy a smaller car, but a loaded roof rack can
decrease your fuel economy by 5 percent or more.
Check into telecommuting, carpooling, and public transit to cut
mileage and car maintenance costs.
SOMETHING TO DO
The urban heat island eect is thought to produce temperatures 710
degrees warmer than surrounding suburban and rural areas. Research
in Europe has shown that construction and use of green roof technology in cities can have a signicant impact on lowering the costs of energy as well as provide social and environmental benets for a buildings
inhabitants.
Extensive and intensive green roof designs are two types of green roof
systems. Dene and research the advantages and disadvantages of each
type. Based on your research, plan a green roof using one of the designs.
See the Web sites www.greenroofs.org and www.buildinggreen.com.
California Energy Commission. Energy Tips for Schools. http://www.con
sumerenergycenter.org/tips/schools.html.
Flex Your Power. Energy Solutions. http://www.fypower.org/inst/edu.
html.
Pilloton, Emily. Clinton Library Gets LEED Platinum. Inhabitat,

November 19, 2007. http://www.inhabitat.com/2007/11/19/clintonlibrary-goes-leed-platinum/.
WEB SITES
www.energy.gov/buildings/technologies
Building technology programs work to improve the energy eciency
of our nations building through innovative techniques and better
building practices.
www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/Basic
The Green Vehicle Guide gives information about the environmental
performance of vehicles and provides side-by-side comparison search
capability.
www.avere.org
The European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles is committed to the development of battery, hybrid, and
fuel-cell technology to bring about a new age of driving and transportation with cleaner air and less noise.
www.evaa.org
The Electric Vehicle Association of America consolidates information and research on sustainable transportation, hybrid vehicles, fuelcell cars, battery cars, and fuel-ecient cars and the production of
alternate types of fuels.
www.greencluster.org
Green Cluster is dedicated to providing the general public with basic
information about the world of renewable energy and nding ways
to power our homes and cities without damaging the environment.
www.homesolarpanels.org
Home Solar Panels provides information on the uses of solar energy
and descriptions of retail products directly related to the construction
of photovoltaic energy systems for residential applications.
www.hybridcars.com/cars
Hybrid Cars provides hybrid car shopping information ranging from
major trends in hybrid car technology, new models, cost comparisons,
and current research in the evolving green car production.
VIDEOS
version.
New York, United States: Twenty percent of New York Citys area is
rooftops. This video on green roof projects in the Bronx discusses the
potential benets in reducing storm water runo and lowering the
energy demands of its citizens by cooling the city. For more information, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17hRZgsFEXE
(09:22 minutes).
Rooftop Gardens: This automated PowerPoint presentation on how
to build your own rooftop garden has it all! For details, go to: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=daKPo00LIFA&feature=related
(0:55 minutes).
Chapter 4
Green Buildings and

Green Cities
Chevrons Northpark building, located just outside of New Orleans, is one

example of the growing green movement in construction. This 300,000square-foot oce is the rst gold-certied LEED building in the state of
Louisiana. To see a video of the green building, visit http://www.willyou
joinus.com/commitment/whatweredoing/wwd3/?autoplay=True.
WHAT IS A GREEN BUILDING?
Simply stated, a green building is a structure that is planned and designed
to use energy, water, natural resources, and materials eciently and to reduce wastes and pollution. The basic principles of green building apply to
all types of new construction and renovation, from remodeling a kitchen
to constructing a gymnasium or a four-story building.
Some of the components of green buildings should include:
conserving natural resources

increasing energy and water eciency
reducing wastes an toxic materials
improving indoor air quality
THE IMPACT OF BUILDINGS ON

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Most people think of vehicle exhausts and factory emissions when they
consider the impact of humans on the natural environment. However, according to the Environmental Protection Agency, each year buildings are
responsible for
65 percent of all energy consumption

39 percent of what is classied as greenhouse gas emissions
36 percent of all energy consumption
30 percent of all raw materials usage
12 percent of potable (drinking-quality) water usage
30 percent of waste output
Based on these facts, many communities, cities, and municipalities have

drafted green building guidelines.
LEED LEADS THE WAY
A U.S. eort to set standards for design and construction practices is exemplied by the Leadership in Energy and Environment Design (LEED)
program. As per the LEED standards, factors such as sustainable sites,
water eciency, energy and atmosphere, material, resources, and indoor
environmental quality are given dierent weighted points. Based on these
weighted points, certication levels are calculated and graded as certied,
silver, gold, and platinum. The highest certication level oered by LEED
is platinum. The U.S. LEED standards are being used by Canada, India,
and Israel for some of their green architecture projects. Other countries use
their own standards for green architecture. Some of these nations include
Australia, France, Germany, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, and
the United Kingdom, to name a few.
CRITERIA FOR RESIDENTIAL
GREEN BUILDING PRODUCTS
According to green builders and architects, there are four key decisions to
be made when choosing and installing sustainable construction materials
into a green building. These include indoor air quality, energy eciency,
resource eciency, and water conservation.
Green Buildings and Green Cities a 81
A plaque shows the LEED Platinum

certification earned for the green
design of the Department of Natural Resources building in Jefferson
City, Missouri, June 28, 2007. (AP
Photo/Kelley McCall)
Indoor air quality: All air conditioning units and heating units must
be ecient at ltering indoor air pollutants.
Energy eciency: Install energy-ecient appliances such as Energy
Star refrigerators, central air conditioners, and other appliances that
will reduce the homes carbon footprint.
Resource eciency: Use recycled building material when possible, such
as paneling, hardwood ooring, doors, and staircase material. Use
locally available material goods and renewable materials.
Water conservation. Install showerheads and low-ow toilets to conserve water. The current standard for toilets in the United States is
1.6 gallons per ush.
GREEN ROOF ARCHITECTURE
Chapters 2 and 3 included discussions of green roofs installed in schools
and in homes. As mentioned before, green roofs are living plants installed
on top of conventional roofs. A green roof can keep buildings cooler,
save energy, extend the useful life of the roof, and add beauty and usable
space.
FEATURE
A Rating System for Go-Green Sustainable Buildings
The organization Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a leader
in sustainable construction. It has developed LEED for Homes, which is a rating
system for dwellings that have been built with a plan toward lower utility bills, minimized greenhouse gas emissions, and reduced indoor toxin levels.
According to LEED, once a home or building has been inspected and is LEEDcertified, the owner will be reassured that the home is not only environmentally
friendly but also more attractive to potential buyers in the future. The LEED checklist for certification is very detailed and includes such areas as
project planning
building site selection (above the floodplain defined by FEMA, no endangered species, etc.)
proximity to mass transit systems
landscaping methods (drought tolerance, mulch, reduced irrigation demand, etc.)
nontoxic pest control
water reuse
indoor water use (low-flow toilets and shower heads, etc.)
Energy Star performance appliances
HVAC refrigerants
construction materials
interior heating methods
radon protection
VIDEO
New York, United States: America reinvents itself! To learn about the Empire State
Building going green and, in doing so, becoming 40 percent more energy efficient, go
to http://greenlivingideas.com/topics/green-building/empire-state-building-green
(02:22 minutes) or http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17i7Q5Dr3PA&NR=1 (05:48
minutes).
VIDEO
For a story on a rooftop farm in New York, go to http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/
2009/10/02/eveningnews/main5361333.shtml?tag=contentBody;featuredPost-PE.
Around the World with Green Roofs

If you traveled to most cities in the world, you would nd green-roof
buildings. In Europe, you would see one of the oldest green roofs created.
In 1914 a green roof was installed at the Moos lake watertreatment plant.
The more than 90-year-old plant near Zurich, Switzerland, has a huge
nine-acre roof that looks like a meadow.
Germany is well known for its thousands and thousands of homes with
green roofs. In fact, it has been estimated that 10 percent of the buildings
in this country have green roofs.
The city of Linz in Austria has been installing green roofs since the
1980s. In France, a huge green roof of roughly 86,000 square feet has been
incorporated into the new museum LHistorial de la Vende that opened
in June 2006 at Les Lucs-sur-Boulogne.
Back home in the United States, the Gap Headquarters in San Bruno,
California, includes a 69,000-square-foot green roof. The new California
Academy of Sciences building in San Franciscos Golden Gate Park has a
Aerial photo of the green roof on LHistorial de Vende, France. The green roof
is 8,000 square meters in area. LHistorial de la Vende is a museum recounting the history of the Vende from prehistory to the present that also houses
a small museum for children about the history of food. (Conseil Gnral de la
VendePhoto Historial de la VendeFrance)
DID YOU KNOW?

Germany has more than one billion square feet of green roofs, which are mainly
built for storm water runoff reduction.
green roof that provides 2.5 acres of native vegetation designed as a habitat
for indigenous species, including the threatened Bay Checkerspot Buttery. Going south to Atlanta, Georgia, the green roof on Atlantas city hall
became the rst municipal green roof in the Southeast.
Green Roofs Are Effective
The Environmental Protection Agency states that green roofs can be effectively used to reduce storm water runo from commercial, industrial,
and residential buildings. In contrast to asphalt or metal roong, green
roofs absorb and store large quantities of precipitation. Thereby, the green
roofs act as a storm water management system that reduces the volume of
storm water entering waterways and sewer systems. This is important because during periods of heavy rainfall and snow melt, storm water systems
and sewer systems can become overwhelmed by the volume of water and
can overow into nearby water bodies. This can cause a large discharge of
millions of gallons of sewage into local waterways. Green roofs oer additional benets, too. The green roof provides more thermal and acoustic
insulation when compared to the insulation found in conventional roofs.
Many residential, commercial, and industrial buildings are suitable for
green roof programs.
What Is a Green Roof Made Of?
Lets start at the top of a green roof. Here you will nd a layer of rows and
rows of plants. These plants have shallow rooting systems, grow low to
DID YOU KNOW?

A waterfront hotel in Tokyo, Japan, has a roof garden that produces vegetables,
fruits, herbs, and even honey, which are worth about $15,000 a year and are used
by the hotels restaurant.
the ground, and are drought-tolerant. Plants found on many green roofs
include delosperma, chives, talinum, and the popular sedum. The variety
of coloration of these plants provides a colorful mosaic on any rooftop.
The plants can be grown in a mixture of lightweight soils, crushed shale,
vermiculite, and other material.
The shallow depth of the soil helps in keeping weeds from establishing themselves on the roof. Most gardeners know that most weeds cannot
survive in the arid and shallow soil conditions found on a vegetated green
roof.
Now lets look at what is underneath the garden roof. Here you nd
either a membrane of rubberized asphalt or a layer of synthetic rubber.
These are root-repellant materials that function to stop the moisture of the
growing plant roots from damaging the roof.
Components in a well-designed green roof include thermal insulation, filter

membranes, a drainage layer, growing medium, and vegetation. (Source:
National Research Council, Institute for Research in Construction)
FEATURE
A Green Roof in Dearborn, Michigan
One of the largest green roofs to be found in the United States and in the world
is located at the Ford Motor Companys River Rouge Plant. The plant in Dearborn,
Michigan, has 450,000 square feet of green roof covered with sedum, a succulent
groundcover, and other plants. The roof reduces storm water runoff by holding an
inch of rainfall. The roof also provides a habitat for some local wildlife.
The River Rouge Plant, also known as Ford Dearborn Truck Assembly Plant, won
the 2004 Green Roofs for Healthy Cities Award of Excellence in the Extensive Industrial Commercial category. William McDonough designed the green roof.
A layer of pebbles or special drain matting that acts as a drainage layer

is placed on the membrane. The drainage layer allows excess water to move
freely and prevents the soil from lifting up and owing o the roof.
Maintenance
Keeping up with an extensive green roof is not dicult because they are
low-maintenance. The drought-resistant plants used on these green roofs
do not need additional watering after they get established, except in extreme conditions. In many green roofs, weeding tasks for gardeners takes
place only once or twice a year.
Benefits of Green Roofs
As mentioned previously, green roofs have many benets. Green roofs can
save homeowners on cooling and heating costs. The leafy cover of a green
roof helps cool the air through evaporation, by providing shade, and by
forming a more lightly colored surface than the dark roof underneath. The
insulation provided by the green roof can also help lower heating costs during the winter months and keep the home cooler during the hot weather.
A green roof can help to reduce noise level in a home.
What kind of savings does a green roof provide? Savings on heating
and cooling costs depends on the size of the building, the local climate,
and the type of green roof installed. Using a simulation model, Environment Canada found that a typical one-story building with a grass roof and
3.9 inches of growing medium would result in a 25% reduction in summer
cooling needs.
FEATURE
Xeriscape
Xeriscape is a term derived from the Greek xeros, meaning dry. Xeriscape gardens
are composed of drought-tolerant plants similar to the roof garden types that can
survive in very hot and dry conditions year-round. These kinds of gardens conserve
water and are less susceptible to pests. Xeriscape includes creative landscaping
for water and energy efficiency and lower maintenance. The seven xeriscape principles are good planning and design; practical lawn areas; efficient irrigation; soil
improvement; use of mulches; low-water-demand plants; and good maintenance.
One study reported that by using the principles of xeriscape, gardeners would
save from 50 to 60 percent of the water that would otherwise be used for growing
other plants. Drought-tolerant plants include Mexican sage, yellow potentilla, California poppies, African daisies, aloe vera, and century plant.
FEATURE
Controlled Burning on a Green Roof?
The Ducks Unlimited National Headquarters in Winnipeg, Manitoba, has a green
roof, which is planted with native prairie grasses. Every three years or so, the organization uses a controlled burn program, similar to some forestry practices, to
regrow the prairie plants. This roof has 16 inches of soil that protects the building
from any fire damage. The grass fire helps remove weed species and assists the
young prairie species to grow.
DID YOU KNOW?

According to installers of green roofs, a green roof can range in price from approximately $5 per square foot to $20 per square foot.
Some Issues with Green Roofs

Before planning and constructing a garden roof, experts agree that the underlying roof system must accommodate increased maintenance trac and
be designed to meet or exceed expected garden service life. They all agree
that leak detection is dicult and that roof repair and maintenance may be
more complicated than originally planned.
DID YOU KNOW?

In European studies, green roofs can easily double the life span of a conventional
roof and therefore decrease the need for reroofing the building.
DID YOU KNOW?

The largest green wall in North America is on the exterior wall of the headquarters
of the Pittsburgh National Corporation; the corporation has successfully installed
an almost 2,400-square-foot living wall with 600 modular panels. Each 2-foot by
2-foot panel holds roughly 24 plants. Counting up all of the panels, this adds up to
about 14,000 plants growing on the wall of a 30-story building.
UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE COURSES IN GREEN

ARCHITECTURE
The interest in going green and the creation of green jobs has resulted in
the growth of green degree programs at universities near and far.
As one example, the University of Texas, Austin, oers a number of
environmental engineering programs. Another university, Cornell, oers
a range of green programs in biological and environment engineering as
well as design and environmental analysis. There are many other colleges
that oer green degree programs, too. To get a suggested list, including
the top 10 colleges that oer go-green degrees, check the following Web
site: http://www.campuscorner.com/articles/top-ten/top-colleges-greendegrees.htm.
TECHNICAL SCHOOL COURSES
U.S. technical high schools and community colleges provide hands-on opportunities and experience for students in green building programs as well.
In classes and in workshops, students learn how to make buildings less
wasteful and more energy ecient.
Some of the energy-ecient construction courses include everything
from how to seal walls against energy leaks to how to install and insulate dry walls for soundproong. Students in one technical high school in
Rhode Island partnered with a local community organization to build an
energy-ecient home for a low-income family. Establishing an energysavvy, highly trained workforce in the construction trades is vital to increase green building projects.
U.S. GREEN CITIES
The Natural Resources Defense Council recently announced on a new
Web site called Smarter Cities its list of the greenest cities in the United
States.
The survey includes all cities in the United States with populations larger
than 50,000. Smarter Cities is considered to be one of the nations most
comprehensive databases of U.S. cities working toward sustainability. The
cities are grouped into three size categories to enable comparison between
those with similar environmental challenges and constraints on social and
nancial resources.
Out of 67 cities with a population greater than 250,000 that were ranked
in the survey, Seattle is Americas greenest and most sustainable large city.
Seattle is followed by two other western cities, San Francisco and Portland.
Among the 176 medium-sized cities evaluated in the survey, Madison,
Wisconsin, placed rst, and Santa Rosa, California, came in second.
The following criteria were used to rank the cities: air quality, energy
production and conservation, environmental standards and participation,
The city of Seattle, Washington,

uses electric street cars. Seattle
was rated Americas greenest city
in 2010 by the National Resources
Defense Council. (iStockphoto)
green building, green space, recycling, transportation, standard of living,

and water quality and conservation.
How Do the Rankings Work?
The data for the rankings came from the U.S. Census Bureau and the National Geographic Societys Green Guide. The data included government
statistics for American cities of over 100,000 people in more than 30 categories. As noted, the listing includes areas such as air quality, electricity use, and
transportation habits. The data were divided into four broad categories. Each
scored out of either 5 or 10 possible points. The sum of these four scores determined a citys place in the rankings. The four categories were as follows:
Electricity (10 points): Cities scored points for drawing their energy
from renewable sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and hydroelectric power, as well as for oering incentives for residents to invest in
their own power sources, such as roof-mounted solar panels.
Transportation (10 points): High scores went to cities whose commuters take public transportation or carpool. Air quality also plays a
role.
Green living (5 points): Cities earn points for the number of buildings
certied by the U.S. Green Building Council, as well as for devoting
areas to green space, such as public parks and nature preserves.
Recycling and green perspective (5 points): This evaluates a citys recycling program and how important its citizens consider environmental
issues. If you are interested in more information and advice, contact
the U.S. Green Building Councils Green Home Guide at http://
greenhomeguide.com.
A Snapshot of Some Cities Going Green
San Jose, California: The city has a green city plan called the Green Vision
program. The 15-year goal is the creation of 25,000 clean technology jobs
and a reduction in nonrenewable energy use by 50 percent by using a larger
percentage of its electrical power from renewable resources. The citys public transportation vehicles will run on alternative fuels.
Portland, Maine: Portland was among the rst communities to sign
the U.S. Conference of Mayors Climate Protection Agreement. The city
plans to take steps to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 7 percent
over ve years. All city-owned diesel vehicles run on a mix of 20 percent

vegetable-based biodiesel fuel and 80 percent regular diesel.
Little Rock, Arkansas: The city hosts the headquarters building for Heifer
International, a nonprot organization dedicated to combating hunger.
The structure was named one of the 10 greenest buildings in the United
States by the American Institute of Architects. The building is designed to
use up to 55 percent less energy than a standard building of its size.
Billings, Montana: In Billings, the Trash into Trees program has diverted 3.9 million pounds of newspaper and 68 tons of aluminum cans
from landlls. The program earned enough money to purchase and plant
2,152 trees in Billings.
Austin, Texas: Austin has pledged to meet 30 percent of its energy needs
with renewable sources by 2020. Its plan is to install more ecient wind
generators.
Boulder, Colorado: Boulder imposed the countrys rst electricity tax to
pay for greenhouse-gas emission reductions.
Boston, Massachusetts: In Boston there is a special power plant that can
convert 50,000 tons of grass and leaves into power and fertilizer. In the
plant, anaerobic bacteria feeding on the grass can make enough methane
to power several electrical generators. The heat in the machine can break
down leaves, twigs, and grasses into compost.
Heifer Internationals headquarters

is located in downtown Little Rock,
Arkansas. Heifer International is a
nonprofit organization, the goal of
which is to help end world hunger
and poverty through self-reliance
and sustainability. In August 2007
the U.S. Green Building Council
gave the charitys headquarters
a platinum rating, its highest possible certification. (AP Photo/Danny
Johnston)
TABLE 4.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Twenty-five Top Green Cities, United States (2008)
Corvallis, OR
PortlandVancouverBeaverton, OR
Bellingham, WA
Santa RosaPetaluma, CA
Boulder, CO
EugeneSpringfield, OR
Santa CruzWatsonville, CA
MinneapolisSt. PaulBloomington, MN
Bend, OR
Santa BarbaraSanta Maria, CA
San FranciscoSan MateoRedwood City, CA
La Crosse, WI
SeattleBellevueEverett, WA
Fort CollinsLoveland, CO
St. Cloud, MN
Salem, OR
Madison, WI
Iowa City, IA
Ames, IA
San Luis ObispoPaso Robles, CA
Salinas, CA
BremertonSilverdale, WA
Duluth, MN
Pittsfield, MA
Medford, OR
Table 4.1 lists some of the top green cities or metropolitan areas in the
United States as of 2008.
GREEN CITIES IN OTHER COUNTRIES
Masdar City, United Arab Emirates
Masdar City in the United Arab Emirates will be the worlds rst zerocarbon and zero-waste city. The new city will be powered entirely by renewable energy sources. Masdar City will be built on the outskirts of
the city of Abu Dhabi over seven years. The Masdar headquarters building will receive much of its power from a large photovoltaic array on its
roof.
The surrounding communities will be linked to Masdar City by a network of existing roads and new railways and public transport routes. The
city will be car-free and pedestrian-friendly. Utility services in the city
will include energy, district cooling, water, wastewater, re-use water, storm
water, and telecommunications and waste management.
Design for the headquarters of the International Renewable Energy Agency

(IRENA) in Masdar City, Abu Dhabi. Scheduled for completion in 2020, Masdar
City will be the worlds first carbon-neutral, zero-waste city powered entirely
by renewable energy. (PRNewsFoto/United Arab Emirates)
In 2008 Masdar developed a CO2 capture network system. The network

is capable of creating a large reduction in Abu Dhabis carbon footprint.
The rst phase of the network will capture and store around 6.5 million
tons of CO2 from power plants and industrial facilities in Abu Dhabi by
2013. Once the CO2 is captured and stored, it will be transported and injected in oil reservoirs for enhanced oil recovery. Under this type of system,
gas injected into the reservoir expands, pushing additional oil to the production site. As it dissolves, the injected gas also lowers the oils viscosity,
thus improving the ow rate.
London, England
There are plans in London to establish future green communities in some
of the citys boroughs. One of the areas is Gallions Park at the Royal Albert
Dock. When completed, the neighborhood will have 200 or more apartments surrounded by greenhouses, as well as roof-mounted solar panels and
some wind turbines. The heat and power plant will use biomass for fuel.
Dongtan, China
In China, the government has started constructing a city on a small island
o the coast of Shanghai. Plans for the city include using renewable resources such as wind and solar and zero-emission vehicles. They also will
be installing green roofs to collect and lter rainwater to be used as irrigation for local farmers. One of the most ambitious plans is to design the city
to consume 40 percent less water than a conventional city. After completion, the goal is to have 500,000 people living in the green city by 2050.
SOMETHING TO DO
A sustainable or green building is the result of planning techniques that
increase the eciency of resources and reduce the buildings impact on
human health and the environment.
Research practices and techniques that can reduce or eliminate the negative impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. In your
research, include eorts to take advantage of renewable resources, environmentally friendly building materials, harmony of the building with the
surrounding natural features, measures to reduce energy use, on-site generation of renewable energy, and recycling methods that reduce waste of energy, water, and building materials. Consult the following Web sites: www.
epa.gov/greenbuilding, www.energystar.gov, and www.en.wikipedia.org.
Bauer, Seth, ed. Green Guide. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic,
2008.
Casey Trees Endowment Fund and Limno-Tech, Inc. Re-greening Washington DC: A Green Roof Vision Based on Quantifying Stormwater and
Air Quality Benets. http://www.caseytrees.org.
Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. http://www.greenroofs.org.
Jerry Yudelson: Top Ten Green Building Trends for 2009. Island Press
blog, January 28, 2009. http://blog.islandpress.org/296/jerry-yudel
son-top-ten-green-building-trends-for-2009.
Jones, R. C., and C. C. Clark. Impact of Watershed Urbanization on
Stream Insect Communities. Water Resources Bulletin 23, no. 6
(1987): 10471055.
Osmundson, Theodore. Roof Gardens: History, Design, and Construction.

Scholz-Barth, K., 2001. Green Roofs, Stormwater Management from the
Top Down. Environmental Design and Construction. http://www.
edcmag.com.
Van Metre, P. C., and B. J. Mahler. The Contribution of Particles Washed
from Rooftops to Contaminant Loading to Urban Streams. Chemosphere 52 (2003): 17271741.
WEB SITES
www.epa.gov/greenkit/basicinformation
Green Communities is a Web-based tool kit and planning guide
designed to help communities access tools and information to help
them become more sustainable green communities.
www.asla.org/greenroofeducation
The Roof Is Growing is a classroom program developed by the
American Society of Landscape Architecture to engage and educate
students about green roofs and their environmental benets.
www.toronto.ca/livegreen
Eco-Roof Incentive Programs are designed to promote the use of
green and cool roofs on Torontos commercial, industrial, and institutional buildings in order to reduce urban heat and manage storm
water runo.
www.thegbi.org
The Green Building Initiatives mission is to accelerate the adoption
of building practices that result in energy ecient, healthier, and environmentally sustainable buildings.
www.greenroofs.com
Greenroofs.com is an Internet news media organization that serves
as a portal for information and a database for the green roof movement worldwide.
www.igra-world.com
The International Green Roof Association is a global network for the
promotion and distribution of information on green roof topics and
green roof technology.
www.horticulture.psu.edu
Penn State Green Roof Research Center demonstrates and promotes
green roof research, education, and technology distribution in the
northeastern United States.
www.roofmeadows.com
Roofscapes, Inc., develops green roof assemblies that work to manage
objectives for storm water runo, water quality improvement, aesthetic appeal, and energy cost reduction.
VIDEOS
version.
California, United States: San Francisco champions an explosion of
green buildings in the Bay area, all graded according to LEED standards. For more on this comprehensive program and self-acclaimed
world model, go to http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/greenbuilding-revolution (11:42 minutes).
Florida, United States: To learn about the Miami eco-structure called
the COR Tower, which fuses ecology and architecture with the idea
that less is more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyDnC4
NQTbc&feature=related.
New York, United States: America reinvents itself! To learn about
the Empire State Building going green and, in doing so, becoming
40 percent more energy-ecient, go to http://greenlivingideas.com/
topics/green-building/empire-state-building-green (02:22 minutes)
or http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17i7Q5Dr3PA&NR=1 (05:48
minutes).
General: For examples of green architecture, go to http://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=A2bYPFKlKeo (02:54 minutes).
General: The American Institute of Architects (AIA) and AIA Committee on the Environment (COTE) published their selections for
the top 10 green projects for 2009. To view the slide show, go to
http://www.treehugger.com/les/2009/04/aia-top-buildings.php.
Chapter 5
Renewable Energy
Systems for a
Sustainable Future
Human activities are placing more and more pressure on Earths ecosystems, its natural resources, and even its nonrenewable energy sources. Each
day there are environmental reports about collapsing sh stocks, massive
wastes of natural resources and energy, soil erosion, deteriorating rangelands, loss of forests, endangered species, and the increase of air, land, and
water pollution. The degradation of the environment has led to issues of
poverty, malnutrition, disease, and social, economic, and energy inequalities throughout the world.
The challenge in the 21st century will be to reverse the doom-and-gloom
exploitation of Earths resources and improve social and economic systems.
The participation and commitment of businesses, government agencies,
nongovernmental organizations, and even individual activism is needed to
meet the challenge of a sustainable future. The major goal will be to create
a long-term energy, environmental, and economic strategy that ensures a

more sustainable society.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Most dictionaries dene sustainable as able to sustain, to keep in existence, to maintain, or to endure. A sustainable system would be one
that can be continued indenitely without depleting any of the resources
and materials on which it depends. Lets look at one example of a sustainable system. An agricultural system is sustainable if, during the production
of food, it incorporates the preservation of natural resources, such as soil
and water, and other supplies for human welfare while generating a prot.
Sustainable agriculture also requires technology that does not degrade or
spoil the potential of the land to produce.
In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development
called for sustainable development to meet the needs of the present
generation without compromising or forfeiting the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Five years later, the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development proposed the Agenda
21 action plan. The plan called for all governments to adopt a national
strategy for sustainable development that includes balancing the needs of
our society, economy, energy, and environment, while improving the quality of life for us and for future generations. Since then, sustainable development programs, sometimes known as green plans, have been adopted by
many nations throughout the world.
The term sustainable development has met some opposition. Some critics dislike the use of the word development because it is associated with
growth, and growth cannot be sustained in a world whose natural resources
are nite. They would prefer alternative language such as sustainable communities. However, the United Nations and the majority of world governments accept the usage of the term sustainable development in their
policies.
The Goals of Sustainable Development
Many experts believe that for too long, social, economic, environmental,
and even energy issues were addressed separately without regard for each
other. In the creation of a sustainable society, there needs to be an integration of goals related to economic growth, environmental protection,
Renewable Energy Systems for a Sustainable Future a 101
Children sing in front of a huge globe at the welcoming ceremony of the World
Summit on Sustainable Development at Ubuntu village in Johannesburg, South
Africa, on August 25, 2002. The 10-day summit was aimed at developing a firm
plan of action for lifting people out of poverty; providing health care, clean
water, and sustainable energy supplies to those without them; and protecting
the environment. (AP Photo/Karel Prinsloo)
and social equity. Some of these integrated sustainable goals include the
following:
Improve the quality of human life.

Conserve Earths diversity.
Minimize the depletion of nonrenewable resources.
Keep within Earths carrying capacity.
Enable communities to care for their own environments.
Integrate the environment, economy, energy needs, and human health
into decision making.
Promote caretakers of Earth.
Implement energy-eciency measures and the use of renewable
energy resources.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
In 2009, 90 percent of the worlds energy was derived from the consumption of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. According to government reports,
by 2030 or so, fossil fuels will still be the major source of energy for the
transportation, industrial, and residential sectors. For example, the worlds
demand for petroleum is projected to increase from 85 million barrels per
day in 2006 to 91 million barrels per day in 2015. After that, by 2030,
consumption will reach 107 million barrels per day. Overall, global energy
consumption is projected to grow by 44 percent from 2006 to 2030.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Rande Gray, Design Project Manager, Hannaford Supermarkets,
Maine
Go-Green Project: A LEED PlatinumCertified Supermarket
Describe your current position and your responsibilities at the Hannaford
Supermarkets.
Hannaford Supermarkets originated in Maine and has always been a communitybased company. For many years Hannaford has been researching ways to save
energy and be environmentally friendly. We decided to take the next step to become certified through the USGBCs LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) program. This is an independent, third-party rating system that looks at
all aspects of the site and building to determine how environmentally responsible
a building is. With the gained knowledge of our living laboratory, we can extend
this experience and know-how from this store into our other stores.
Describe your current position, background, and responsibilities.
I am currently a design project manager, which means that I manage the design of
the project and lead the team, providing the basis for opportunities for communication, coordination, and the integrated design process, enabling the team to perform
to their potential. I am also responsible for contracts, payments, and implementing
the schedule. I have a background in architecture and project management, and
I am a LEED-accredited professional so was able to contribute to the individual
components of design as well the documentation of the point requirements. During the construction phase, I gave support to the construction project manager in
completion of the LEED requirements and design aspects of the project.
How did Hannaford qualify as LEED platinumcertified building?
LEED is structured with a point system in each of the following areas: sustainable
sites, water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, indoor
Hanneford Supermarkets solar array includes a 182-panel, 41-kilowatt

solar photovoltaic system providing more than 50,000 kilowatt hours per
year. (Courtesy Rande Gray)
environmental quality, and innovation and process. The requirement for LEED platinum is to fulfill the point requirements for at least 52 of the 70 possible points. Not
all points are attainable in any project. We received 57 points after submission of
the documentation, which qualified us to be platinum.
Describe the green roof of your building and how it has helped keep the building cool during the hot days and ward off the cold during the cold spells.
The green roof serves multiple purposes in our project. It is constructed of twoby-four-foot trays with cups at the bottom, a membrane, and four inches of soil in
which sedums are grown. These plants were chosen because they do not need
to be mowed, are native to the area, and can hold on to water during times of
drought, so they will not need to be watered. When it rains, the cups under the
plants hold on to the storm water and can then water the plants through evaporation during dry times. We decided to incorporate this feature in our platinum
building because it provides more natural habitat and green space to the site,
decreases the amount of storm water going into our filtration system, and provides added insulation to help to keep the building cool in the summer and warm
in the winter.
Where are the photovoltaic solar panels located?
The 180 photovoltaic panels are located on top of our daylight pop-up pavilion and
produce electricity from the suns rays, even on a cloudy day. Our store uses this
energy first, and then, as it needs more than the panels supply, we use green
electricity, purchased in support of a wind farm in Maine, and so we call it green
power.
Describe the buildings geothermal wells.
Our site and building have two geothermal wells that are 750 feet deep, that is,
longer than the length of two football fields! The water is pumped up from the wells
at a constant 50 degrees and goes into our mechanical room. A heat exchanger
draws heat from the water if it is winter or puts heat into the water if it is summer.
This helps to provide heating and cooling in our building. The water goes back
down to the well and is cooled or heated by the inside surface of the well and water
that is still there, and the journey starts again.
How do you recycle materials?
In our stores, we recycle in a variety of ways. We have a bottle return for our customers and in the back room have bins for cardboard, paper, plastics, metal, glass,
and batteries. These are all safely recycled. There is also a program for composting our food waste. This goes to a company that turns the waste into compost,
which goes to the farms that then use it to give the soil added nutrients with which
to grow vegetables and fruit.
How does Hannaford store keep track of its carbon footprint?
Calculating the carbon footprint of a building is extremely difficult, and we are
working to clarify this. We use no fossil fuels to heat or cool our store or heat our
water. Our water is heated with reclaimed heat from our refrigeration process, and
our store is heated and cooled with reclaimed heat and our geothermal wells. The
electricity that we use is clean electricity from the photovoltaic panels and a wind
farm in Maine. We also use radiant heat and radiant snow melt, daylighting that
reduces our use of lights, and very efficient refrigerated cases, and we have put
doors, LED lights, and motion sensors on most of our refrigerated and frozen cases.
With these changes, we were able to save over 50 percent of our energy usage in
comparison with a typical supermarket.
Tell us about the program called Guiding Stars.
Guiding Stars is a science-based program that evaluates foods in Hannaford stores
for nutritional value. Foods are credited for positive attributes, such as fiber and a
diversity of vitamins, and foods are assigned zero, one, two, or three stars based
on their nutritional value. This program makes it easy for people, both adults and
children, to evaluate and compare different foods for purchase so that we can eat
healthier.
What is the Interactive Education Center in the stores lobby used for?
We have created a learning center in the vestibule of the store that has different
pod locations where all ages can learn about healthy people, a healthy planet, and
healthy products. Many of the stations allow people to interact by moving objects
or pressing buttons to view the results of questions and information.
How has the store conserved its water resources?

We have been able to reduce the water usage in our store by 38 percent over a
typical grocery store by using all iceless cases, low-flow faucets, dual-flush toilets,
waterless urinals and by looking at our misting process in our produce department
to finely regulate it to obtain the optimum performance with the minimum water
usage.
How does the store maximize the natural lighting in the building?
We have designed into the store six different types of daylighting. A large portion
of our center store roof pops up with windows around it, with daylight shelves,
letting in daylight throughout the general sales area while stopping any glare from
the sun. We have also installed windows, transoms, and skylights in many spaces,
solar tubes in the prep areas, bathrooms and pharmacy that provide borrowed light
from glazing in doors, and clear ceiling tiles that bring natural light into some interior spaces.
Does Hannaford have any future plans for new and other stores to become more
energy efficient?
Hannaford, along with our sister banners, Food Lion and Sweetbay, in the Delhaize
America organization, are working on additional new LEED stores that will soon
be submitted for certification, and we are also evaluating our existing stores for
certification.
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions

As energy consumption increases, carbon dioxide emissions increase as
well. Approximately 80 percent of all of the worlds carbon dioxide emissions and other harmful byproducts are derived from the burning of fossil
fuels.
Carbon dioxide emissions are projected to rise from 29 billion metric
tons in 2006 to 33 billion metric tons in 2015. By 2030, 40 billion metric
tons of carbon dioxide emissions are projected.
CHANGING TO SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
Kyoto Protocol
For many years, nations have been working on plans to establish regulations to reduce overall emissions. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which mandates the curbing of emissions, was signed by 182 nations to meet targets
for reducing emissions of greenhouse gasesclimate-warming gases that
include common industrial byproducts such as carbon dioxide. Although
the United States did not sign the Kyoto Protocol, many U.S. state governments are already moving forward with carbon-cutting plans on their own.
Several states are requiring electricity utility producers and companies to
reduce carbon emissions by 10 percent by 2018. Other states are requiring
that a certain percentage of their electricity be produced from renewable
energy sources such as wind and solar.
Along with the United States, countries such as Germany and China
are replacing some of their fossil fuel plants with renewable resources such
as hydropower, wind power, solar energy, hydrogen, geothermal, and biofuels. In fact, Germany is planning to remove all of its coal-producing plants
in the near future. Many countries in Europe and Asia are installing solarpowered, wind-powered, and geothermal energy systems to reduce their
needs for fossil fuels. If predictions are correct, by the mid-21st century,
renewable energy sources could supply about 60 percent of the worlds
electricity and about 40 of its nonelectrical energy requirements.
Delegates from more than 150 countries at the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change listen to Japanese prime minister Ryutaro
Hashimoto deliver an opening speech at the Kyoto International Convention
Hall in Kyoto, Japan, on December 8, 1997. Representatives from most nations
signed the resulting Kyoto Protocol, which called for immediate measures to
lower the emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
(AP Photo/Katsumi Kasahara)
Energy Efficiency: The First Step in a

Sustainable Energy System
Most energy experts believe that at least by 2030 we are going to still depend much on fossil fuels for transportation and electricity needs. Therefore, it is necessary to be more ecient using these energy sources. There
are many ideas and plans we can implement to use less energy and use it
more wisely. Two main ways to save energy are energy conservation and
energy eciency.
Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency
As mentioned in a previous chapter, energy conservation is the practice
of decreasing the quantity of energy used. On the other hand, energy efciency is the use of technology that requires less energy to perform the
same function. A compact uorescent light bulb that uses less energy than
an incandescent bulb to produce the same amount of light is an example
of energy eciency. However, the decision to replace an incandescent light
bulb with a compact uorescent is an example of energy conservation.
As mentioned in chapters 2, 3, and 4, energy eciency starts at home,
in oce buildings, and in schools. Buildings contribute approximately
43 percent of our nations carbon dioxide emissions. So if we want to cut
down on greenhouse gases, many of our buildings need to be upgraded
for eciency and equipped with renewable energy sources. Even recycling
saves energy and natural resources through conservation. All of these measures reduce carbon emissions.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TO POWER
A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
However, together, energy conservation and energy eciency are not
enough to cut down the growth of emissions. To get deeper reductions,
there is a need to use more clean and renewable energy sources.
DID YOU KNOW?

It is projected that by 2030 China and India will use 25 percent of the worlds energy
budget.
Lets look at renewable and clean energy resources that will power a
sustainable future.
Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power accounts for 6 percent of the U.S.s electricity consumption and nearly 75 percent of renewable power, according to the
Energy Information Administration, the statistical arm of the U.S. Department of Energy. Mark Garner, chief executive ocer of Voith Hydro,
said hydroelectric power plants generate 98,000 megawatts of electricity
and support about 300,000 jobs in the United States. Voith Hydro is one
of the worlds largest dedicated hydro turbine equipment manufacturing
facilities.
U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu also announced up to $30.6 million in Recovery Act funding for the selection of seven hydropower projects,
In September 2008, presidential candidate Senator Barack Obama, left, walks

with Mark Garner, plant president and CEO, during a tour of the Voith Siemens Hydro Power Plant in York, Pennsylvania. Mark Garner said he hoped
the visit by Senator Obama would help raise awareness about the importance
of hydroelectric power in Americas energy future. (AP Photo/Alex Brandon)
DID YOU KNOW?

Making a ton of paper from recycled stock saves up to 17 trees and uses 50 percent
less water.
explaining that these projects would modernize hydropower infrastructure

by increasing eciency and reducing environmental impacts at existing
facilities.
Presently, hydroelectric power plants produce about 24 percent of the
worlds electricity. This is enough electricity to supply more than one billion people with electrical power for their household needs. The worlds
hydroelectric power plants output a combined total of 675,000 megawatts,
the energy equivalent of 3.6 billion barrels of oil, according to the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Although hydroelectric power may not be a major renewable resource,
it will be a part of the energy portfolios of many countries, including Sweden, Iceland, and Norway.
Geothermal Energy
Presently, geothermal energy is the fourth-largest source of renewable energy in the United States. As of 2010 the United States has about 3,000
megawatts of geothermal electricity connected to the grid. According to
the Department of Energy, energy generated from geothermal sources
accounted for 4 percent of renewable energybased electricity consumption in the United States. The United States continues to produce more
geothermal electricity than any other country, making up approximately
30 percent of the worlds total.
According to the U.S. Energy Information Agency, geothermal energy
provided the United States with approximately 12,000 megawatts of electricity in the year 2010 and will produce 49,000 megawatts by 2030. Geothermal energy is an alternative energy and renewable resource that can be
used for the direct heating of buildings or for generating electricity.
According to the Energy Information Administration, since 2007 the
U.S. geothermal heat pump manufacturing activities reported a doubledigit growth each year, fueled in part by the increasing energy prices
for conventional fuels as well as the desire for reliable and clean energy
Geothermal resources in the United States, by application. Geothermal heat

pumps can be used anywhere. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy)
alternatives. In 2008 total shipments of geothermal heat pumps surged

more than 40 percent to 121,243 units, while capacity shipped rose almost 43 percent to 416,105 tons. The Energy Information Agency further stated that despite costing more initially than traditional heating and
cooling systems, the high eciency and ongoing cost-saving potential of
geothermal heat pumps have resulted in their becoming the heating and
cooling system of choice for many consumers.
Every year in the United States, thousands of units are installed. These
numbers of units sold makes the United States the largest user in the world
of geothermal heat pumps. However, although most of this growth has occurred in the United States and Europe, other countries such as Japan and
Turkey have shown interest in this application of this renewable energy
source as well.
Will geothermal energy be a major player in the renewable energy eld?
Presently, geothermal heat pumps will continue to be popular sources of
energy in several countries.
Nuclear Energy
In 2010 President Barack Obama announced an $8.3 billion federal loan
to build two new reactors in Georgia. Well have to build a new generation
of safe, clean nuclear power plants in America, said President Obama.

This was big news because there have been no new nuclear units licensed
since the near-meltdown at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant
near Middletown, Pennsylvania, in 1979.
Prior to the presidents announcement, U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven
Chu commented on the prospects of nuclear energy. In 2009 Chu reported
the selection of 71 university research project awards. The awards were part
of the Department of Energys investments in nuclear energy research and
development.
According to the Nuclear Energy University Program (NEUP), the
71 projects will receive approximately $44 million over three years, starting in 2009. The NEUP program will help advance new nuclear technologies in support of the nations energy goals and will play a key role
in addressing the global climate crisis and moving the nation toward
greater use of nuclear energy.
As a zero-carbon energy source, nuclear power must be part of our
energy mix as we work toward energy independence and meeting the
challenge of global warming, said Secretary Chu. The next generation of
nuclear power plantswith the highest standards of safety, eciency and
The U.S. map shows existing, as well as proposed and decommissioned,

nuclear power plants. Observe the states that use nuclear power for electricity. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration,
Electric Power Annual 2005)
environmental protectionwill require the latest advancements in nuclear

science and technology. These research and development university awards
will ensure that the United States continues to lead the world in the nuclear eld for years to come.
On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries, including the United
States, had chosen nuclear power to meet part of their energy needs.
Other nuclear-energy countries include China, Russia, France, Belgium, Germany, India, Japan, Poland, and South Korea. According
to the World Nuclear Association, there were 442 nuclear power reactors worldwide. These reactors supply approximately 15 percent of
the worlds electrical needs for more than one billion people without
emitting any carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases during their
operation.
The United States remains the worlds largest nuclear energy producer,
supplying more than 750 billion kilowatt-hours per year.
Solar Energy
energy as a renewable energy resource for heat and electricity. The three
key technologies include photovoltaic cells (or solar cells), concentrating
solar power systems, and special solar collectors for space heating and hot
water.
Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. The cells are
made of semiconductors such as crystalline silicon or various thin-lm
materials.
Concentrating solar power technologies use reective materials to concentrate the suns heat energy. The high-temperature heat is eventually
used to drive a steam generator to produce electricity.
Low-temperature solar collectors, such as active and passive solar energy
systems, absorb the suns heat energy. The thermal energy is used directly
for space heating or hot water for homes and businesses.
DID YOU KNOW?

In Norway hydroelectric power generates more than 90 percent of the countrys
electricity needs.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1996 Watts Bar Unit 1 was the latest completed U.S. reactor.
Concentrated Solar Power Technologies

Solar power towers oer large-scale, distributed solutions to global energy
needs, particularly for peaking power. Like all solar technologies, they are
fueled by sunshine and do not release greenhouse gases. Such towers collect and store solar energy, which can be released into the electrical grid
when needed. One thousand acres of nonproductive land developed with
solar reectors and a 100-megawatt tower can supply enough electricity
for 50,000 homes. In the United States, the Southwest is a viable location
for such installations.
What is the future for concentrating solar power technologies? Solar
advocates have increased their forecasts for the amount of electricity that
could be supplied by concentrating solar power. They report that concentrating solar power may be able to deliver up to 7 percent of the electricity
demand worldwide by 2030.
Photovoltaics
According to economists, the global photovoltaic industry will continue
to grow. The large manufacturers of photovoltaics are reducing costs and
at the same time increasing volume, which will in turn stimulate demand
from customers. The price per watt of solar panels increased starting in
2003 because the supplies of silicon were tight. Silicon, which is derived
from quartz, accounts for as much as 30 percent of the cost of making a
solar panel. In 2003 the price of a kilogram of silicon used for solar cells
was less than $30. By 2007 the price had increased substantially to $400
per kilogram of silicon. As a result, the silicon shortages raised the prices of
photovoltaic solar cells. However, since 2006 the average price per watt has
been dropping a bit. Most economists agree that the prices will continue
to come down. If so, the photovoltaic industry may likely be the major
growth industry for the next several decades. Again, building a new grid
transmission system for using solar energy may still be a challenge to the
growth of solar power in the United States.
Nanotechnology and Solar Cells

What Is Nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology is the ability to observe, measure, manipulate, and manufacture things at the nanometer scale. A nanometer (nm) is an SI unit of
10-9 meters, or one-billionth of a meter. At this scale, we are talking about
the size of atoms and molecules.
For a visual image of a nanometer, observe the nail on your little nger.
The width of your nail on this nger is about 10 million nanometers across.
To get a sense of some other nano-scaled objects, a strand of human hair
is approximately 75,000100,000 nanometers in diameter. A head of a pin
is about a million nanometers wide, and it would take about 10 hydrogen
atoms end-to-end to span the length of one nanometer.
Quantum Dots for Solar Cells
Much of the suns energy is wasted by todays photovoltaic cells. When
solar photons strike a solar cell, they release electrons in the semiconductor
University of Minnesota professor Eray Aydil poses with a solar simulator at

the universitys Chemical Engineering and Materials Science laboratory. Aydil
and his team of researchers were using nanotechnology to build a prototype
solar cell that could be used to generate electricity. (AP Photo/Jim Mone)
to produce an electric current. However, when an electron is set free by the

photon, it collides often with a nearby atom, making it less likely to set
another electron free. So even though the suns solar photons carry enough
energy to release several electrons, producing more electricity, they are limited to one electron per solar photon. As a result, conventional solar cells
operate at 1520 percent eciency using solar energy.
Scientists have been doing a lot of research and experiments with
quantum dots to make photovoltaic cells more ecient. Quantum dots,
also known as nanocrystals, are a special class of materials known as
semiconductors. Quantum dots are a unique class of semiconductor
because they are so small, ranging from 2 to 10 nm (1050 atoms) in
diameter.
Researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and the Los
Alamos National Laboratory have been experimenting with quantum dots
as a semiconductor in a solar cell. They have discovered that the use of
the quantum dots allows solar energy to release multiple electrons, not
just one. This research has the potential to lead to major improvements
in the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells. The two research teams have
calculated that a maximum of a 42 percent eciency rate is possible from
the conversion of solar energy to electricity. The solar cells could be used to
make hydrogen directly from water for fuel cells. The researchers still need
more time and research to complete their studies.
Wind Energy
In 2008 the United States became one of the fastest-growing windpower marketplaces in the world. That year, wind power accounted for
approximately 40 percent of all new U.S. electricity-generating capacity.
The Department of Energy reported that wind power could generate
20 percent of all U.S. electricity needs by 2030. Although wind power
currently produces less than 2 percent of U.S. electrical needs, it is the
fastest-growing renewable energy resource, and the future looks even
more promising.
The development of wind power technology is not unique to the United
States. Many countries are developing this renewable energy resource. For
example, according to the American Wind Energy Association, Denmark
leads the world, producing more than 20 percent of its electricity needs at
home from wind energy.
Most economists predict that the largest growth markets for wind turbines are in Germany, India, Spain, Great Britain, and China. In 2010
China became the number one manufacturer of wind turbines. The Worldwatch Institute estimates that wind energy could easily provide 2030 percent of the electricity needed by many countries.
Wind and Nanotechnology
Tom Ashwill, who leads blade research at the Sandia National Laboratories, has said that developing new concepts that reduce the rate of turbine weight growth is the new challenge in wind energy. Many researchers
agree that composites using nanoscale materials may benet wind energys
future by making turbines lighter and more durable.
Incorporating nanostructures into wind turbine blades as composite
materials can enhance their mechanical strength considerably and allow
these blades to be built with longer spans, increasing the power delivered
from each wind turbine, said Pradeep Haldar, director of the Energy and
Environmental Technology Applications Center in Albany, New York.
Researchers can use nanotechnology to
reduce the friction in the rotation of the turbines
decrease wear-and-tear on the turbine parts throughout its life cycle
apply de-icing and self-cleaning technologies to prevent ice and dirt
buildup on the turbine blades
implement nanocomposites to build lighter and stronger blades
Fuel Cells
The fuel cell industry in 2007 reported that there had been substantial
job growth and gains in sales and research, according to the Worldwide
Industry Survey. Participating companies reported a 22 percent gain in
fuel cellspecic employment, to 8,647 employees. Global sales were up
10 percent to $387 million, with research spending about $829 million.
These sales dollars show that the fuel cell industry is growing in the renewable energy sector.
According to the Department of Energy, a fuel cell is a device that uses
hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create electricity by an
electrochemical process. Fuel cells have several benets over conventional
fossil fuel technologies currently used in many power plants and passenger
Margaret Blohm monitors a turbine blade inside a wind tunnel at the Nanocoatings Subscale Laboratory at General Electric Companys (GE) Global
Research Center in Niskayuna, New York, in 2010. The laboratory develops
hydrophobic nanocoating technologies, which are used to improve the performance of other industrial products. (Vijay Paruchuru/Bloomberg via Getty
Images)
vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cells produce much smaller quantities of greenhouse gases and none of the air pollutants that create smog and cause
health problems. In fact, if pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit
only heat and water as byproducts.
There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each
with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications. They include polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, direct methanol
fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, and phosphoric acid fuel cells. Fuel cells can
run on a variety of fuels, both nonrenewable and renewable.
Fuel Cell Applications in Transportation
As mentioned previously, the worlds leading automakers are working
on alternative technologies using fuel cells for cars, buses, and trucks.
Hiroko Mochida of Toshiba Corporation charges the worlds smallest

direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)
unit with 10 milliliters of methanol in
Tokyo, Japan, September 2005. The
new units have an output power
of 100 milliwatts and 300 milliwatts
and have been applied to a flashmemory-based digital audio player
and an HDD-based digital audio
player, respectively. Shown in the
photo is the 300-milliwatt unit that
can keep the HDD-based audio
player running for about 60 hours
on a 10-milliliter charge. (AP Photo/
Koji Sasahara)
Presently, about 60 million new cars are sold worldwide each year. Automotive industry leaders have speculated that fuel-cell vehicles could
account for 2025 percent of new car sales within the next 2025
years. This would be a potential market of 1215 million vehicles each
year.
Fuel Cell Applications in Homes
According to Allied Business Intelligence, Inc., the current $40 million
stationary fuel cell market grew to approximately $10 billion in 2010. Fuel
cells are currently being developed in sizes appropriate for use in homes
and other residential applications.
The stand-alone residential fuel cell systems can be operated to provide
primary or backup power for the home. The fuel cells can run independently or in parallel to an existing power grid.
You can place a fuel cell system in the basement or backyard. A fuel cell
takes up about as much space as an ordinary refrigerator. It provides clean,
quiet, and reliable power. Fuel cell systems with fuel reformers can extract
hydrogen for the fuel cell from a variety of sources, such as natural gas
pipelines and propane distribution systems. Consumers may also be able
to sell excess power produced by their fuel cell units back to their electric
utility companies.
Toyota plans to sell fuel-cell cars in 2015, and South Koreas Hyundai Motor Co. and Germanys Daimler AG automaker also are planning
to sell hydrogen vehicles. However, it may be decades before hydrogen
power is as conventional as the reneries and the local gas stations we
have today.
FEATURE
Improve the Electric Grid System
All of our electricity needs depend on the efficiency of the extensive U.S. electric
power grid system. The electrical power grid refers to the large infrastructure that
covers the vast sections of the United States.
Electric power grids are the overhead, high-voltage transmission lines that
crisscross our nations. Often located along major highways, forests, railroad
tracks, and other land easements, these grids act as a sky high highway for the
delivery of electrical power. To transfer electricity into towns and cities, the grid
system includes high-voltage transmission lines, substations, and step-up and
step-down transformers.
Three main power grids serve the country: the Western Interconnection, the
Eastern Interconnection, and the Texas Interconnection. Each of the power grids
contains hundreds and hundreds of local and regional distribution power utility
companies.
The lack of new transmission grids is a major challenge facing the solar and
wind industry, according to the Congressional Research Service. The components
of the transmission system, those tall power lines we see everyday, are aging and
many are overloaded in some regions of the country. Unfortunately, the good sites
for wind energy plants or wind farms are located in isolated regions with limited
available capacity on a transmission network. Many are just too far away from any
existing transmission lines.
Planning and building the infrastructure necessary for the new transmission lines can take many years, and the wind plant developers in those regions
may have to incur all construction costs or get cash subsidies from local, state,
and government funds. As of 2008, new transmission lines could cost from 1.5 to
2 million dollars per mile. The costs of the materials and labor to build the new
transmission lines will increase over time. If this is a too costly endeavor, some
energy experts believe that one of the best solutions for our future energy needs
is the installation of on-site fuel-cell units that do not need extensive transmission
lines.
VIDEO
How a Fuel Cell Works: To see how a hydrogen fuel cell works, go to the Web site:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esuAlB4NVi0.
Biofuels
In 2009 U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu announced plans for biofuel research as part of a broader strategy to increase the domestic use
of renewable fuels. Funding in the amount of $786.5 million from the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act was set aside for research and
development.
Developing the next generation of biofuels is key to our eort to
end our dependence on foreign oil and address the climate crisiswhile
creating millions of new jobs that cant be outsourced, Secretary Chu
said. With American investment and ingenuityand resources grown
right here at homewe can lead the way toward a new green energy
economy.
Global biofuel production tripled between 2000 and 2007 but still accounts for less than 3 percent of the global transportation fuel supply.
However, global demands for biofuels are expected to more than double from 2009 to 2015, according to data from Global Biofuels Outlook:
20092015.
and 2015 include Indonesia, France, China, India, Thailand, Colombia,
Malaysia, Philippines, and Argentina.
Brazil, a major biofuel-producing country, will grow domestic supplies
by 30 percent and will more than double export volume. Indonesia and
Malaysia will more than double their production of palm-oil biodiesel.
DID YOU KNOW?

The first fuel cell was built in 1839 by Welsh judge and scientist Sir William Grove.
However, the use of fuel cells as a practical generator began in the 1960s, when
the National Space Administration (NASA) chose fuel cells over nuclear power and
solar energy to power the Gemini and Apollo spacecrafts. Today, fuel cells provide
electricity and water on the space shuttles.
FEATURE
The Bloom Energy Fuel Cell
In early 2010 the Bloom Energy Corporation in Sunnyvale, California, announced a
fuel cell called the Bloom Energy Server. The server is a patented solid oxide fuel
cell (SOFC). According to the company, the SOFC technology provides a cleaner,
more reliable, and more affordable alternative both to todays electric grid and to
traditional renewable energy sources. The Bloom Energy Server will allow customers to create their own electricity on-site.
The Blooms fuel cell technology is different from the hydrogen fuel cells that
most people are familiar with. According to the company, the Bloom Energy Server
is distinct in four ways:
It uses lower cost materials.
It provides unmatched efficiency in converting fuel to electricity.
KR Sridhar, cofounder and CEO of Silicon Valley startup Bloom Energy,

holds up a fuel cell at a news conference at eBay offices in San Jose, California, in February 2010. The companys first product is a huge box of fuel
cells that it hopes will allow homes and businesses to generate their own
electricity. (AP Photo/Paul Sakuma)
It has the ability to run on a wide range of renewable or traditional fuels.

It is more easily deployed and maintained.
The fuel cell can provide 100 kilowatts of renewable power in roughly the footprint of a parking space. Each system generates enough power to meet the needs
of approximately 100 average U.S. homes or a small office building. For more power,
customers simply add on multiple servers side by side. Depending on whether the
customers are using fossil fuel or renewable fuel, fuel cells can achieve a major
reduction in their carbon footprint. Dr. K. R. Sridhar is the principal and cofounder
and CEO of Bloom Energy.
Germany will continue to be the largest producer of biofuels in Europe,

according to the analysis. Overall, biofuels will be a part of the renewable
energy portfolios for many countries.
BATTERIES
To achieve the goal of producing future batteries, manufacturers will
need to design and build new kinds of batteries that are less costly, more
durable, and stronger than todays batteries. Most of the future research
will be geared toward building a new generation of advanced batteries,
including nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and lithium-ion battery types.
NiMH Battery
Presently, the battery type most commonly used in hybrids is the NiMH,
or nickel-metal hydride battery. General Motors introduced the 1999
model EV-1 electric car with GM Ovonic nickel-metal hydride batteries.
The batteries in these cars have a range of about 100 miles per charge, and
the life expectancy of this battery is about 100,000 miles.
NiMH rechargeable batteries are used in laptop computers, in some
small appliances, and in electronic devices such as toys and video game
DID YOU KNOW?

In 2008, the United States exported more than 300 million gallons of biodiesel fuel,
mostly to European countries.
FEATURE
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is one of the most innovative tools used in the production of biofuels.
Biotechnology is the involvement of living organisms in such fields as engineering
and technology. Some of the biotechnological techniques can help to
increase biomass yield per acre

improve crop quality for higher yields
reduce crop losses from insects, viruses, and bad weather conditions
develop efficient microorganisms and enzymes to convert cellulose to
sugars, which can then be fermented into biofuel
controllers. The batteries also power electric razors, toothbrushes, cameras,

camcorders, and mobile phones.
Thin-Film Lithium-Ion Battery
Today, lithium-ion is the fastest-growing and most promising battery
chemistry. A lithium-ion battery (sometimes called a Li-ion battery) is a
type of rechargeable battery. Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. Thin-lm rechargeable lithium batteries were developed
by Dr. John Bates and his team of scientists and engineers from more
than a decade of research at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Unlike
conventional batteries, thin-lm batteries can be deposited directly onto
special chips in any shape or size. The batteries are quite exible. Wind and
solar power can be stored by using thin-lm batteries.
Thin film batteries are manufactured by depositing the components of the battery as thin layers of film on a substrate. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
DID YOU KNOW?

There are researchers in the United States who are using nanotechnology-based
catalytic filters to clean emissions from coal-fired plants and natural gasfired
electricity-generating stations.
DID YOU KNOW?

Lithium (Li) is the lightest metal on Earth and a thin layer of it can float on water. It
is a strong alloy used in building aircraft and space vehicles.
THE FUTURE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOURCES AND THE CHALLENGES
In 2009 President Barack Obama stated an interesting hypothesis about
the future of energy: The country that gures out how to make cheaper
energy thats also clean, that country is going to win the economic competition of the future. President Obama has argued that manufacturers and
customers both need to be encouraged to pursue renewable energy alternatives through tax breaks and loan guarantees and that the U.S. government
must invest in new technologies to drive down costs over the long term.
President Obama has also called for legislation that would require utilities
to gradually increase the percentage of their electricity supply derived from
renewable sources to 20 percent by 2039.
SUMMARY
As you have read through A Student Guide to Energy series, a number of
green advocates have been introduced and interviewed. Many of them are
teachers who, along with their students, have completed a number of rather
impressive renewable energy activities.
As we look into the future, we need to inspire our young people who,
hopefully, will become more involved in being energy ecient, in exploring
hands-on green energy projects, and in investigating and shadowing careers in go-green vocations in science, math, engineering, and technology.
Of course, global governments, research laboratories, activists, and other
groups will continue their goals to provide a more sustainable, renewable-
FEATURE
States Can Take Advantage of Renewable Energy Technologies
The Renewable Resource Data Center (RReDC) provides access to an extensive
collection of renewable-energy resource data, maps, and tools. Biomass, geothermal, solar, and wind resource data for locations throughout the United States can
be found through the RReDC. Almost every area of the country can take advantage of renewable energy technologies, but some technologies are better suited
for particular areas than others. Knowing the resources of a region, state, city, or
neighborhood is therefore critical to renewable-energy planning and siting. RReDC
provides detailed resource information through tools, reports, maps, and data collections. For more information, go to http://www.nrel.gov/rredc.
energy future. However, it is the young people of today who will be needed
to champion the cause in order to reach these goals. The opportunity to
inspire, encourage, and motivate them to accomplish these goals, some of
them uncommon, lies in the hands of their teachers, communities, neighbors, relatives, mentors, peers, religious groups, and, of course, their parents.
What follows is the last feature of another go-green advocate story.
FEATURE
Students Convert a Gas-Powered Vehicle to a Plug-In Electric Car
In 2010 two students, Jarred Lorusso and Patrick Collins, with family help, a
grant, and a team of skilled technicians assisted in converting a 1998 Saturn fourpassenger sedan into a 100 percent electric vehicle. The plans were started in 2009
with the assistance and encouragement from their science teacher, author John
Mongillo. At that time the students were seventh-graders at Mercymount Country
Day School in Cumberland, Rhode Island. The students first got the idea of converting an automobile to electric power from a book on Mr. Mongillos desk. The book
detailed how to convert a gas-powered vehicle into an electric plug-in.* Mr. Mongillo had plans someday to convert one of his vehicles into an electric car, using
this book as a reference.
Once the plans and a budget were approved by their teacher, the students, their
families, and a team of technicians went to work for a few months building the electric car. The vehicle and the electric components were purchased using start-up
funding from the schools Macari Family Foundation. The Macari Family Foundation
was established in 2009 to support go-green projects initiated in the middle school
science classes at Mercymount. Additional funding was provided by the students
parents and others. The vehicle team also received advice and input from the staff
Jarred Lorusso and Patrick Collins, with science teacher and author John
Mongillo, display the 1998 Saturn sedan that the students and a team of
professionals converted into a 100 percent electric plug-in vehicle. The
photo was taken at the Mercymount Country Day School in Cumberland,
Rhode Island. (Courtesy Lisa H. Lydon)
at Electric Vehicles of America (EVA), located in New Hampshire. EVA has many
years of experience in converting gas-powered vehicles into plug-ins.
As the work progressed over three months or so, the 1998 Saturn no longer had
a radiator, gasoline engine, muffler and tailpipe, oil pan, or gas tank. In March 2010
the conversion was finished and during that summer the converted Saturn EV was
registered, licensed, and inspected by the Motor Vehicle Department of Rhode Island. The vehicle, now on the road, can be plugged directly into a 220-volt outlet for
charging the batteries, has a top speed of 60 miles per hour, and a range of 30 miles
before recharging. For more information go to www.mercymount.org.
*The book, From Gasoline to Electric Power: A Conversion Experience, was written by Gary Powers, who
spent 15 months converting a 1986 Chevrolet S-10 pickup truck into an electric vehicle.
SOMETHING TO DO
The U.S. Department of Energy originally determined that Yucca Mountain in Nevada would be a suitable long-term depository for high-level
radioactive waste. Although the project was rejected by the government in

2009, research the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why was Yucca Mountain chosen?

Why do we need a long-term repository?
How do we know the repository will be safe?
How will the radioactive waste get to Yucca Mountain?
What are the concerns about transporting the material crosscountry?
WEB SITES
commercial organizations.
www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/education
The Florida Solar Energy Center provides solar energy units for
grades K12 and oers lesson plans as well.
www.re-energy.ca
GreenLearning Canada introduces students to both solar energy and
solar electricity with teacher lesson plans and tools for assessing student progress.
www.globallearningnj.org/Solar1.htm
Global Learning, Inc., is located in New Jersey and has compiled
many lessons and units for exploring solar energy. Topics range from
schools using solar energy to ideas for science projects.
www.energy.gov
The Department of Energys mission is to advance the national, economic, and energy security of the United States by promoting and
strengthening energy security, nuclear security, scientic discovery,
and innovation and environmental responsibility through sound
management policies.
www.afdc.energy.gov
Alternate Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center provides a collection of tools, data bases, calculators, and interactive maps concerning research on advanced fuels and vehicles; specically on fuels and
fuel stations, comparisons of advanced fuel types in light and heavy
duty vehicles, fuel economy calculators, and a publication database
on alternate fuels and advanced vehicles.
www.energy.gov/energyeciency
leads the governments research, development, and deployment efforts in energy eciency. It is committed to reducing Americas dependency on foreign oil and developing energy ecient technologies
for buildings, homes, transportation, and power systems.
www.doe.gov/Study_Guides_and Activities
Fossil Energy Study Guides and Activities provides principal study
guides and activities emphasizing the importance of coal, natural gas,
and petroleum in our daily lives and to make students familiar with
modern scientic and technological eorts to make using fossil fuels
cleaner for the environment.
www.bloomenergy.com
Bloom Energy utilizes an innovative new fuel cell technology developed from the NASA Mars program to produce from a common
sand-like powder, clean, reliable, and aordable power.
www.understandingnano.com
Nanotechnology and Energy presents information on the application of nanotechnology to improve the eciency of energy generation and the development of new methods to generate energy
using nanotechnology in fuel cells, batteries, wind, and solar power
production.
www.newplanetenergy.com
New Planet Energy was formed to assist in commercializing
new technologies that utilize waste materials and other sustainable resources in the production of renewable energy and related
products.
VIDEOS
version.
Abu Dhabi, AsiaThe Masdar Initiative: To learn more about this

pioneering construction of the worlds rst 100 percent carbon-free
community, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovly1dQGKH4
(5:52 minutes).
Energy Future: To watch the video on Al Gores Generational Challenge to Repower America or read the script, go to http://www.
wecansolveit.org/pages/al_gore_a_generational_challenge_to_
repower_america/ (27:18 minutes).
Energy Future: The Obama Administration and Steven Chu announced
major changes to energy conservation. To learn more, watch this
video: http://theenergycollective.com/TheEnergyCollective/44414
(09:29 minutes).
Energy FutureCalifornia, United Stats: To hear Green Talk Radio
interview Tom Shay of Minimal Homes in California about Homes
of the Future, follow this podcast link: http://greenlivingideas.com/
topics/green-building/homes-future-tom-schey-minimal-productions
(27:33 minutes; interview starts after advertisements, 01:22 minutes
long).
BOOKS AND
a

www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
2003.
2003.
2002.
2008.
2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.

2007.
awea.org.
2006.
the Pacic, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.
2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
19492008
142 a Energy Data
TABLE 1

Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Coal
11,980,905
12,347,109
12,552,996
11,306,479
11,372,684
9,714,667
11,167,259
11,349,723
10,820,631
9,533,287
9,518,353
9,837,785
9,623,351
9,906,454
10,412,538
10,964,385
11,580,608
12,143,080
11,913,750
12,330,677
12,381,540
12,264,528
11,598,411
12,076,917
12,971,490
12,662,878
12,662,786
13,584,067
13,922,103
13,765,575
15,039,586
15,422,809
15,907,526
15,321,581
15,894,442
17,070,622
17,478,428
17,260,405
18,008,451
18,846,312
19,069,762
19,172,635
18,991,670
19,122,471
19,835,148
19,909,463
20,088,727
21,001,914
Coal
Coke Net
Importsb
6,671
992
21,452
11,879
9,002
6,746
10,044
13,020
17,459
6,721
8,358
5,630
7,886
5,506
7,390
10,441
18,451
24,949
15,326
17,310
36,109
57,660
33,108
25,966
7,465
56,098
13,541
99
14,582
124,719
62,843
35,018
15,946
21,650
15,624
11,482
13,491
16,740
8,630
39,556
30,405
4,786
9,697
34,621
27,106
58,330
61,058
22,816
Natural Gasc
5,145,142
5,968,371
7,048,518
7,549,621
7,906,645
8,330,202
8,997,935
9,613,975
10,190,753
10,663,199
11,717,422
12,385,366
12,926,392
13,730,841
14,403,306
15,287,850
15,768,667
16,995,332
17,944,788
19,209,656
20,677,984
21,794,707
22,469,052
22,698,190
22,512,399
21,732,488
19,947,883
20,345,426
19,930,513
20,000,400
20,665,817
20,235,459
19,747,309
18,356,222
17,220,836
18,393,613
17,703,482
16,591,364
17,639,801
18,448,393
19,601,689
19,603,168
20,032,957
20,713,632
21,228,902
21,728,065
22,671,138
23,084,647
Petroleumd
11,882,722
13,315,484
14,428,043
14,955,682
15,555,829
15,839,176
17,254,955
17,937,473
17,931,667
18,526,937
19,322,650
19,919,230
20,216,387
21,048,981
21,700,828
22,301,257
23,245,680
24,400,523
25,283,661
26,979,447
28,338,336
29,520,695
30,561,290
32,946,738
34,839,926
33,454,627
32,730,587
35,174,688
37,122,168
37,965,295
37,123,381
34,202,356
31,931,050 [R]
30,231,608 [R]
30,053,921 [R]
31,051,327
30,922,149 [R]
32,196,080
32,865,053 [R]
34,221,992 [R]
34,211,114
33,552,534
32,845,361
33,526,585 [R]
33,744,490 [R]
34,561,665
34,436,967 [R]
35,673,290 [R]
Total
29,002,099
31,631,956
34,008,105
33,799,903
34,826,156
33,877,300
37,410,105
38,888,151
38,925,592
38,716,702
40,550,068
42,136,751
42,758,243
44,680,770
46,509,283
48,543,050
50,576,504
53,513,987
55,126,873
58,502,470
61,361,751
63,522,269
64,595,645
67,695,880
70,316,351
67,906,091
65,354,796
69,104,082
70,989,367
71,855,989
72,891,627
69,825,607
67,569,939
63,887,761
63,153,575
66,504,079
66,090,567
66,031,109
68,521,935
71,556,253
72,912,970
72,333,123
71,879,686
73,397,310
74,835,647
76,257,523
77,257,890
79,782,668
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
112
1,915
2,187
6,026
19,678
26,394
38,147
39,819
43,164
64,158
88,456
141,534
153,722
239,347
412,939
583,752
910,177
1,272,083
1,899,798
2,111,121
2,701,762
3,024,126
2,775,827
2,739,169
3,007,589
3,131,148
3,202,549
3,552,531
4,075,563
4,380,109
4,753,933
5,586,968
5,602,161
6,104,350
6,422,132
6,479,206
6,410,499
6,693,877
7,075,436
7,086,674
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Energy Data a 143
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PV
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Wind
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Biomass
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554
6,034,459
6,562,330
6,523,526
6,186,780
6,224,827
5,741,161
5,570,238
6,393,667
6,208,290
6,240,085
5,995,131
6,264,397
6,157,054
6,706,907
7,169,179
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Importsb
5,420
6,094
7,461
7,740
6,852
7,983
13,879
15,519
12,288
11,320
12,127
15,474
7,689
1,829
334
6,671
482
3,725
1,020
2,152
3,656
6,688
12,046
26,227
48,715
43,311
21,103
29,378
59,422
67,318
69,381
71,399
113,406
100,026
120,547
135,323
139,655
122,481
158,101
108,399
37,450
7,888
66,965
86,733
94,910
152,937
133,856
137,144
Total
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
144 a Energy Data
TABLE 1
(Continued )
Renewable Energya
Fossil Fuels
Coal
Coke Net
Year
Coal
Importsb
1997 21,445,411
46,450
1998 21,655,744
67,084
1999 21,622,544
57,685
2000 22,579,528
65,348
2001 21,914,268
29,264
2002 21,903,989
60,760
2003 22,320,928
50,518
2004 22,466,195
137,739
2005 22,796,543
44,194
2006 22,447,160
60,810
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197
2008 P 22,420,827
40,771
Natural Gasc
23,222,718
22,830,226
22,909,227
23,823,978
22,772,558
23,558,419
22,897,268
22,931,481
22,583,385
22,223,903 [R]
23,627,629 [R]
23,837,695
Petroleumd
36,159,835 [R]
36,816,619
37,838,081 [R]
38,264,303 [R]
38,186,476 [R]
38,226,666 [R]
38,809,183 [R]
40,294,351
40,393,325
39,958,151 [R]
39,773,213 [R]
37,136,675
Total
80,874,414
81,369,672
82,427,536
84,733,157
82,902,566
83,749,834
84,077,896
85,829,766
85,817,446
84,690,024
86,175,506
83,435,968
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Nuclear
Electric
Power
6,596,992
7,067,809
7,610,256
7,862,349
8,032,697
8,143,089
7,958,858
8,221,985
8,160,028
8,213,839
8,457,783 [R]
8,455,236
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Energy Data a 145
Renewable Energya
Geothermal
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PV
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
Wind
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Biomass
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
7,178,202
6,657,589
6,680,737
6,264,394
5,315,670
5,893,795
6,149,881
6,260,276
6,422,883
6,908,484
6,813,935
7,300,048
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electricity
Net
Total
Importsb
116,203
94,765,811 [R]
88,224
95,183,293 [R]
98,924
96,817,452 [R]
115,199
98,975,100 [R]
75,156
96,326,089 [R]
71,595
97,858,314 [R]
21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
38,597
100,350,624 [R]
84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
62,849
99,875,196 [R]
106,632
101,553,855 [R]
112,381
99,303,634
146 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Biofuelsb
Totalc
Energyd
NA
1,549,262
2,973,984
NA
1,562,307
2,977,718
NA
1,534,669
2,958,464
NA
1,474,369
2,940,181
NA
1,418,601
2,831,460
NA
1,394,327
2,754,099
NA
1,424,143
2,783,987
NA
1,415,871
2,850,582
NA
1,333,581
2,849,194
NA
1,323,123
2,915,090
NA
1,352,874
2,901,339
NA
1,319,870
2,928,619
NA
1,294,762
2,953,406
NA
1,300,242
3,118,714
NA
1,323,316
3,098,396
NA
1,336,802
3,227,637
NA
1,334,761
3,398,036
NA
1,368,985
3,434,674
NA
1,340,249
3,693,799
NA
1,419,495
3,777,541
NA
1,440,487
4,101,751
NA
1,430,962
4,075,857
NA
1,432,323
4,268,335
NA
1,503,065
4,398,409
NA
1,529,068
4,433,121
NA
1,539,657
4,769,395
NA
1,498,734
4,723,494
NA
1,713,373
4,767,792
NA
1,838,332
4,249,002
NA
2,037,605
5,038,938
NA
2,151,906
5,166,379
NA
2,475,500
5,485,420
12,979
[R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
35,106
[R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
64,432
[R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
78,880
[R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
95,052
[R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R]
192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R]
144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R]
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
1,424,722
1,415,411
1,423,795
1,465,812
1,412,859
1,359,772
1,359,844
1,434,711
1,515,613
1,591,967
1,548,465
1,607,975
1,656,463
1,816,141
1,771,355
1,886,314
2,059,077
2,061,519
2,346,664
2,348,629
2,647,983
2,633,547
2,824,151
2,863,865
2,861,448
3,176,580
3,154,607
2,976,265
2,333,252
2,936,983
2,930,686
2,900,144
2,757,968
3,265,558
3,527,260
3,385,811
2,970,192
3,071,179
2,634,508
2,334,265
2,837,263
3,046,391
3,015,943
2,617,436
2,891,613
2,683,457
3,205,307
3,589,656
Geo-thermalf
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
774
2,181
2,331
3,726
4,520
4,197
4,170
6,886
9,416
13,281
11,347
11,862
31,479
42,605
53,158
70,153
78,154
77,418
64,350
83,788
109,776
123,043
104,746
129,339
164,896
198,282
219,178
229,119
217,290
317,163
335,801
346,247
349,309
363,716
338,108
293,893
315,529
Solar/PVg
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55
111
147
109
94
55,291
59,718
62,688
63,886
66,458
68,548
69,857
70,833
Energy Data a 147
Windh
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
28
68
60
44
37
9
22,033
29,007
30,796
29,863
30,987
35,560
32,630
33,440
Woodi
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,428,649
1,430,229
1,500,992
1,527,012
1,537,755
1,496,928
1,711,484
1,836,524
2,036,150
2,149,854
2,473,861
2,495,563
2,510,048
2,684,271
2,685,817
2,686,765
2,562,134
2,463,159
2,576,663
2,679,623
2,216,165
2,214,083
2,313,471
2,259,774
2,323,820
2,369,869
2,437,027
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2,313
NA
2,094
NA
2,073
NA
2,056
NA
1,902
NA
1,806
NA
1,889
NA
1,808
NA
1,455
NA
2,052
NA
1,639
NA
88,000
12,979
[R]
119,000
35,106
[R]
157,000
64,432
[R]
208,000
78,880
[R]
236,317
95,052
[R]
262,861
109,285
[R]
289,000
125,229
[R]
315,328
126,589
[R]
354,357
127,936
[R]
408,078
113,129
[R]
439,715
130,612
[R]
473,201
147,965
[R]
479,336 [R]
172,512
[R]
515,324
192,236
[R]
531,476 [R]
203,875
[R]
576,990
145,703
[R]
Total
1,549,262
1,562,307
1,534,669
1,474,369
1,418,601
1,394,327
1,424,143
1,415,871
1,333,581
1,323,123
1,352,874
1,319,870
1,294,762
1,300,242
1,323,316
1,336,802
1,334,761
1,368,985
1,340,249
1,419,495
1,440,487
1,430,962
1,432,323
1,503,065
1,529,068
1,539,657
1,498,734
1,713,373
1,838,332
2,037,605
2,151,906
2,475,500
2,596,542
2,664,154
2,905,703
2,972,697
3,018,134
2,934,280
2,877,388
3,018,580
3,161,916
2,737,372
2,784,410
2,934,637
2,911,622
3,031,380
3,105,220
3,159,720
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
2,973,984
2,977,718
2,958,464
2,940,181
2,831,460
2,754,099
2,783,987
2,850,582
2,849,194
2,915,090
2,901,339
2,928,619
2,953,406
3,118,714
3,098,396
3,227,637
3,398,036
3,434,674
3,693,799
3,777,541
4,101,751
4,075,857
4,268,335
4,398,409
4,433,121
4,769,395
4,723,494
4,767,792
4,249,002
5,038,938
5,166,379
5,485,420
5,477,554 [R]
6,034,459 [R]
6,562,330 [R]
6,523,526 [R]
6,186,780 [R]
6,224,827 [R]
5,741,161 [R]
5,570,238 [R]
6,393,667 [R]
6,208,290 [R]
6,240,085 [R]
5,995,131 [R]
6,264,397 [R]
6,157,054 [R]
6,706,907 [R]
7,169,179 [R]
148 a Energy Data
TABLE 2
(Continued )
Productiona
Biomass
Total Renewable
Energyd
Year
Biofuelsb
Totalc
1997
190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R]
1998
206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R]
1999
215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R]
2000
237,904
3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R]
2001
259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R]
2002
314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R]
2003
411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R]
2004
500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R]
2005
580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R]
2006
743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R]
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R]
2008P 1,428,745
3,899,915
7,315,711
Consumption
Hydro-electric
Powere
3,640,458
3,297,054
3,267,575
2,811,116
2,241,858
2,689,017
2,824,533
2,690,078
2,702,942
2,869,035
2,446,389 [R]
2,452,073
Geo-thermalf
324,959
328,303
330,919
316,796
311,264
328,308
330,554
341,082
342,576
342,876
348,730 [R]
358,497
Solar/PVg
70,237
69,787
68,793
66,388
65,454
64,391
63,620
64,500
66,130
72,222
80,943 [R]
91,003
g
fuels).
Energy Data a 149
Windh
33,581
30,853
45,894
57,057
69,617
105,334
114,571
141,749
178,088
263,738
340,503 [R]
514,224
Woodi
2,370,991
2,184,160
2,214,167
2,261,715
2,005,833
1,995,283
2,002,040
2,121,251
2,136,351
2,151,731
2,142,417
2,040,616
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Consumption
Biomass
Wastej
Biofuelsk
550,602 [R]
187,375
[R]
542,295
205,137
[R]
540,156
213,232
[R]
510,800 [R]
240,523
363,874
257,769
[R]
402,006
309,456
[R]
401,347
413,217
[R]
389,044 [R]
512,571
[R]
403,219 [R]
593,576
[R]
414,226 [R]
794,656
[R]
430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R]
430,554
1,413,082
Total
3,108,968
2,931,592
2,967,555
3,013,038
2,627,476
2,706,745
2,816,604
3,022,866
3,133,146
3,360,613
3,597,370
3,884,252
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total Renewable
Energy
7,178,202 [R]
6,657,589 [R]
6,680,737 [R]
6,264,394 [R]
5,315,670 [R]
5,893,795 [R]
6,149,881 [R]
6,260,276 [R]
6,422,883 [R]
6,908,484 [R]
6,813,935 [R]
7,300,048
150 a Energy Data
TABLE 3

End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Primary
4,475,121
4,847,590
5,124,031
5,178,644
5,074,890
5,286,016
5,633,095
5,866,467
5,771,579
6,155,096
6,223,822
6,688,963
6,814,611
7,122,112
7,135,126
7,161,257
7,328,128
7,549,262
7,740,902
7,963,327
8,276,760
8,352,750
8,456,799
8,655,327
8,250,226
7,927,553
8,005,740
8,408,252
8,207,376
8,272,389
7,933,806
7,453,254
7,057,589
7,154,067
6,840,628
7,220,681
7,160,776
6,921,722
6,940,917
7,372,024
7,586,093
6,570,463
6,758,442
6,963,482
7,155,529
6,990,569
6,946,268
7,471,455
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
5,613,938
6,006,806
6,399,747
6,580,694
6,581,124
6,869,767
7,303,271
7,689,809
7,739,679
8,230,400
8,447,378
9,077,668
9,325,376
9,825,201
10,034,384
10,290,804
10,688,770
11,218,183
11,669,926
12,368,421
13,205,347
13,798,057
14,277,629
14,890,531
14,929,771
14,683,314
14,841,755
15,440,661
15,688,729
16,155,929
15,841,970
15,786,781
15,295,246
15,557,340
15,456,669
15,998,041
16,088,348
16,029,197
16,321,196
17,186,278
17,858,128
17,014,681
17,490,321
17,426,920
18,288,984
18,181,216
18,577,978
19,562,439
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
2,660,963
2,824,267
2,727,158
2,661,902
2,500,330
2,444,814
2,547,641
2,592,274
2,434,391
2,541,202
2,630,274
2,702,042
2,743,974
2,901,109
2,896,921
2,949,284
3,150,462
3,383,741
3,738,448
3,866,000
4,045,666
4,196,051
4,282,718
4,369,078
4,381,061
4,221,192
4,022,853
4,332,587
4,217,258
4,268,843
4,333,251
4,074,270
3,805,343
3,835,241
3,806,026
3,968,567
3,694,740
3,656,730
3,736,106
3,957,548
4,004,442
3,858,007
3,905,836
3,951,199
3,933,859
3,978,979
4,063,119
4,234,533
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
3,660,910
3,883,472
3,862,700
3,862,377
3,758,937
3,720,157
3,881,530
4,008,279
3,945,887
4,103,153
4,353,069
4,588,973
4,706,925
5,013,919
5,226,862
5,438,649
5,819,530
6,299,383
6,870,845
7,296,778
7,795,301
8,307,155
8,681,492
9,144,775
9,506,982
9,362,537
9,465,906
10,035,225
10,177,267
10,480,604
10,626,851
10,562,769
10,601,863
10,847,354
10,922,977
11,436,092
11,443,724
11,603,742
11,943,383
12,575,483
13,202,580
13,332,926
13,512,501
13,453,951
13,835,823
14,111,283
14,697,525
15,181,207
Industrialb
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
12,626,532
13,881,079
15,118,070
14,661,778
15,328,413
14,305,657
16,090,702
16,562,350
16,512,867
15,797,985
16,518,951
16,977,066
16,993,115
17,589,807
18,365,964
19,426,503
20,123,911
21,029,715
21,012,628
21,872,069
22,653,721
22,974,833
22,732,356
23,532,489
24,740,862
23,816,329
21,454,213
22,685,371
23,192,694
23,276,491
24,211,500
22,610,288
21,338,216
19,075,786
18,578,019
20,197,515
19,467,805
19,098,662
19,977,070
20,884,381
20,897,403
21,208,225
20,854,317
21,786,666
21,784,999
22,422,272
22,747,660
23,443,770
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 151
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
14,716,733
16,232,875
17,669,234
17,301,575
18,200,961
17,146,242
19,472,329
20,196,256
20,204,730
19,306,571
20,315,979
20,823,424
20,936,742
21,768,109
22,729,891
24,089,579
25,074,894
26,397,297
26,615,564
27,888,371
29,114,339
29,641,226
29,600,938
30,952,764
32,652,616
31,818,721
29,447,184
31,429,542
32,306,559
32,733,452
33,962,118
32,077,090
30,756,076
27,656,788
27,481,484
29,624,598
28,877,080
28,333,363
29,443,635
30,738,557
31,397,833
31,895,492
31,486,967
32,661,236
32,721,292
33,607,366
34,046,786
34,988,791
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
7,879,581
8,383,528
8,933,753
8,907,235
9,030,518
8,823,059
9,475,032
9,791,039
9,837,442
9,952,797
10,298,441
10,560,452
10,734,679
11,185,922
11,621,165
11,964,508
12,400,149
13,069,166
13,718,214
14,831,020
15,470,880
16,061,232
16,693,481
17,681,086
18,576,065
18,085,915
18,209,133
19,065,144
19,784,143
20,580,415
20,436,369
19,658,353
19,476,200
19,050,580
19,132,451
19,606,799
20,040,687
20,739,703
21,419,125
22,266,855
22,424,597
22,366,185
22,065,034
22,363,309
22,716,447
23,311,806
23,793,148
24,383,906
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
7,990,087
8,492,594
9,042,162
9,003,096
9,123,484
8,903,125
9,550,811
9,860,083
9,897,017
10,004,893
10,349,357
10,596,801
10,770,077
11,220,519
11,654,898
11,998,284
12,433,906
13,101,884
13,752,106
14,865,583
15,506,152
16,097,603
16,729,212
17,716,273
18,611,660
18,119,206
18,243,706
19,099,331
19,819,581
20,614,766
20,470,711
19,696,034
19,512,537
19,087,723
19,175,075
19,653,933
20,087,315
20,788,771
21,469,449
22,318,176
22,478,708
22,419,888
22,118,484
22,415,918
22,769,843
23,367,224
23,848,651
24,438,890
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Primary
Itemf
4,339,470
165
4,679,283
21
5,070,830
188
5,338,183
82
5,730,355
39
5,779,745
91
6,461,471
30
6,942,296
174
7,231,035
128
7,197,936
11
7,794,295
61
8,158,344
3
8,452,741
103
9,028,798
42
9,626,860
124
10,315,765
140
11,014,449
121
11,984,863
203
12,698,249
333
13,886,738
238
15,174,112
260
16,259,175
119
17,123,917
307
18,466,362
75
19,752,816
7,334 [R]
19,932,789
7,102 [R]
20,306,611
640 [R]
21,513,405
7,613 [R]
22,590,665
7,418 [R]
23,586,613
1,619 [R]
23,986,723
1,564
24,326,509
1,080 [R]
24,488,373
2,766 [R]
24,033,531
4,189 [R]
24,679,081
2,796 [R]
25,719,102
2,794 [R]
26,132,459
3,903 [R]
26,338,257
3,452
27,104,445
2,533 [R]
28,337,687
3,364 [R]
30,024,713 [4]
8,999 [R]
30,660,106
9,335 [R]
31,024,645
595 [R]
30,893,368
355 [R]
32,025,108
10,490 [R]
32,563,463
5,698
33,620,747
3,148 [R]
34,637,665
4,336 [R]
Totalg
31,981,503
34,615,768
36,974,030
36,747,825
37,664,468
36,639,382
40,207,971
41,754,252
41,787,186
41,645,028
43,465,722
45,086,870
45,739,017
47,827,707
49,646,160
51,817,177
54,017,221
57,016,544
58,908,107
62,419,392
65,620,879
67,844,161
69,288,965
72,704,267
75,708,364
73,990,880
71,999,191
76,012,373
77,999,554
79,986,371
80,903,214
78,121,594
76,168,488
73,153,394
73,039,001
76,715,459
76,492,565
76,758,526
79,175,130
82,821,858
84,946,248
84,653,651
84,608,869
85,958,380
87,605,453
89,261,391
91,174,089
94,175,664
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
152 a Energy Data
TABLE 3
(Continued )
End-use Sectors
Commerciala
Residential
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008 P
Primary
7,039,505
6,423,825
6,783,779
7,168,979
6,878,917
6,938,187
7,251,896
7,019,274
6,920,879
6,190,514
6,625,793
6,778,379
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
19,025,680
19,020,712
19,620,860
20,487,621
20,106,132
20,873,763
21,208,021
21,177,889
21,697,240
20,769,777
21,619,373
21,636,900
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
4,256,507
3,963,729
4,007,378
4,227,143
4,036,108
4,099,189
4,238,672
4,180,422
4,013,701
3,703,258
3,895,928
3,972,150
Industrialb
e
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
15,693,953
15,979,296
16,383,617
17,176,087
17,141,259
17,366,740
17,351,447
17,664,445
17,875,276
17,723,994
18,287,222
18,541,387
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
23,721,864
23,210,838
22,990,578
22,870,804
21,835,587
21,857,313
21,575,582
22,454,620
21,465,855
21,632,057
21,454,002
20,630,137
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
c
d
power producers.
f
g

Energy Data a 153
End-use Sectors
Industrialb
Totale
35,288,218
34,928,190
34,855,491
34,757,478
32,806,204
32,764,483
32,649,843
33,609,067
32,545,253
32,541,235
32,523,120
31,210,299
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Electric Power
Sectorc,d
Transportation
Primary
24,697,145
25,203,168
25,893,727
26,491,500
26,215,564
26,787,738
26,927,646
27,820,116
28,279,693
28,761,209
29,046,175
27,842,133
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Totale
24,751,817
25,258,473
25,951,203
26,551,610
26,278,577
26,848,508
27,002,137
27,899,279
28,361,295
28,840,577
29,134,189
27,924,560
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Primary
35,044,648
36,385,110
37,135,709
38,214,371
37,365,995
38,171,067
38,217,654
38,876,247
39,798,935
39,588,544
40,542,007
40,090,347
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Balancing
Itemf
6,142 [R]
3,378 [R]
6,281 [R]
2,304 [R]
6,084 [R]
4,820 [R]
2,908 [R]
55 [R]
5,694 [R]
385 [R]
10,049 [R]
9,512
Totalg
94,765,811
95,183,293
96,817,452
98,975,100
96,326,089
97,858,314
98,208,541
100,350,624
100,484,758
99,875,196
101,553,855
99,303,634
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
154 a Energy Data
TABLE 4
Year
Appliance

Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Wood
Central Systemc
Window/wall unitc
None
Natural Gas
Electricitya
Distillate fuel oil
Refrigeratord
One
Two or more
Separate freezer
Clothes washer
Clothes dryerTotal
Natural gas
Electric
Dishwasher
Range/stove/oven
Natural gas
Electric
Microwave oven
Television
One or two
Three or more
Personal computer
One
Two or more
1978
1979
1980
1982
1984
1987
77
78
82
83
84
1981
86
91
55
16
4
20
2
3
55
17
5
17
4
2
55
18
5
15
6
2
56
17
4
14
6
3
57
16
5
13
7
3
55
17
5
12
7
3
55
20
5
12
6
3
23
33
44
24
31
45
27
30
43
27
31
42
28
30
42
30
30
40
34
30
36
55
33
4
8
0
55
33
4
7
0
54
32
4
9
1
55
33
4
7
1
56
32
4
7
1
54
33
4
6
1
54
35
3
6
1
100
86
14
35
74
59
14
45
35
99
48
53
8
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
38
74
61
14
47
37
99
46
57
14
98
85
14
NA
NA
NA
100
87
13
38
73
61
16
45
37
100
46
56
17
98
84
14
NA
NA
NA
100
86
13
37
71
60
15
45
36
99
47
56
21
98
83
15
NA
NA
NA
100
88
12
37
73
62
16
46
38
99
46
57
34
98
80
18
NA
NA
NA
100
86
14
34
75
66
15
51
43
99
43
60
61
98
75
23
NA
NA
NA
Retail electricity.

Energy Data a 155
Year
1990
1993
Change
1997
2001
2005
94
97
101
55
23
5
11
4
2
53
26
5
11
3
2
52
29
5
9
2
2
39
29
32
44
25
32
47
25
28
55
23
23
59
25
16
32
5
27
53
37
3
5
1
53
38
3
5
1
52
39
3
5
1
54
38
3
4
0
53
39
4
4
0
1
7
0
5
1
100
84
15
34
76
69
16
53
45
100
42
59
79
99
71
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
35
77
70
14
57
45
100
33
63
84
99
70
28
NA
NA
NA
100
85
15
33
77
71
15
55
50
99
35
62
83
99
69
29
35
29
6
100
83
17
32
79
74
16
57
53
100
35
62
86
99
63
36
56
42
15
100
78
22
32
83
79
17
61
58
99
35
62
88
99
56
43
68
45
23
0
8
8
6
9
18
3
14
21
0
11
5
74
1
29
29
NA
NA
NA
[R]
[R]
[R]
107
1980 to 2005
[R]
[R]
[R]
55
29
5
7
2
2
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
111
29
52
30
5
7
3
3
3
12
0
8
3
1
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
156 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
Region and Country

North America
1997
1998
113.13
1999
113.53
Mexico
5.68
5.96
6.04
6.32
94.77
95.18
96.82
98.98
.02
.02
.02
.02
19.45
20.12
20.27
20.84
Argentina
2.47
2.58
Brazil
7.86
8.12
Venezuela
2.66
2.85
[R]
12.96
118.26
12.67
Other
12.37
115.82
Canada
United States
[R]
2000
[R]
2.61
[R]
8.27
[R]
2.67
[R]
2.73
6.57
12.95
8.55
[R]
2.77
Other
6.46
Europe a
79.87
[R]
80.44
[R]
80.51
6.67
[R]
81.53
6.85
[R]
Belgium
2.65
[R]
2.70
[R]
2.66
[R]
2.73
[R]
France
10.36
10.58
10.71
10.85
Germany
14.26
14.36
14.34
14.13
Italy
7.22
7.43
7.56
7.63
Netherlands
3.70
3.70
3.69
3.79
Poland
4.09
3.85
3.98
3.62
Spain
4.76
4.99
5.26
Sweden
2.32
Turkey
2.93
United Kingdom
[R]
[R]
2.40
[R]
3.00
2.37
5.62
[R]
2.91
9.75
9.74
Other
17.74
17.72
Eurasia b
39.02
[R]
38.73
Russia
25.81
[R]
25.93
Ukraine
6.07
5.85
5.76
5.75
Uzbekistan
1.88
1.84
1.86
1.94
Other
5.26
5.11
5.19
5.45
15.61
16.28
16.62
17.32
Iran
4.43
4.58
4.83
5.01
Saudi Arabia
4.37
4.54
4.60
4.85
Other
6.81
7.15
7.18
11.40
11.30
1.79
1.85
Middle East
Africa
Egypt
[R]
2.27
[R]
3.16
9.79
[R]
9.72
17.47
[R]
17.87
[R]
39.83
[R]
40.61
[R]
[R]
27.01
[R]
27.47
[R]
[R]
[R]
11.62
[R]
[R]
7.46
[R]
1.92
12.03
[R]
2.00
South Africa
4.56
4.35
4.46
4.59
Other
5.05
5.10
[R]
5.23
5.44
[R]
101.98
[R]
105.28
107.33
[R]
Asia and Oceaniaa

Australia
102.89
[R]
[R]
4.56
4.59
4.82
4.85
China
37.91
37.32
37.23
37.18
India
11.64
12.17
12.99
13.46
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
3.66
21.91
1.67
3.56
[R]
21.52
1.69
3.91
[R]
21.97
1.74
[R]
4.06
[R]
22.43
1.87
[R]
Energy Data a 157
2001
2002
115.36
12.76
2003
117.25
[R]
2004
118.20
2005
120.74
13.13
[R]
13.56
[R]
13.84
6.26
6.25
[R]
6.42
[R]
96.33
97.86
98.21
2006 P
121.62
[R]
121.18
14.23
[R]
6.53
6.86
[R]
13.95
7.36
100.35
100.51
[R]
99.86
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
21.16
21.12
21.61
22.44
23.40
24.18
2.61
8.47
[R]
2.48
[R]
2.67
8.58
[R]
8.69
2.78
[R]
9.02
[R]
2.95
[R]
3.15
9.37
[R]
9.64
[R]
3.19
86.18
[R]
86.42
2.78
[R]
2.75
11.36
[R]
11.44
3.03
2.93
2.72
2.93
3.12
7.05
7.13
7.54
7.71
7.96
82.77
[R]
2.70
[R]
82.50
[R]
2.68
[R]
84.24
[R]
85.70
[R]
[R]
8.20
2.78
[R]
2.81
11.00
11.11
[R]
11.39
14.33
14.59
[R]
14.74
[R]
14.50
[R]
14.63
7.70
7.99
[R]
8.08
[R]
8.14
[R]
8.07
3.93
3.94
4.00
4.11
4.23
[R]
4.14
3.45
3.44
3.60
3.70
3.68
[R]
3.86
5.87
5.95
6.26
6.39
[R]
6.51
[R]
6.51
2.30
[R]
11.08
14.62
7.67
2.40
[R]
[R]
2.89
2.27
[R]
3.15
2.17
[R]
3.32
3.51
2.33
[R]
2.22
3.73
[R]
3.91
9.86
[R]
9.72
[R]
9.86
[R]
9.88
[R]
9.92
[R]
9.80
18.28
[R]
18.33
[R]
18.56
[R]
18.77
[R]
19.01
[R]
19.10
40.94
[R]
41.59
[R]
43.37
[R]
44.69
[R]
45.79
[R]
45.88
27.72
[R]
27.93
[R]
28.77
[R]
29.60
[R]
30.06
[R]
30.39
5.87
5.64
5.82
6.28
6.26
6.32
[R]
2.03
2.08
2.10
2.22
2.13
[R]
2.21
7.27
[R]
7.41
5.55
[R]
5.75
[R]
6.22
[R]
6.62
[R]
17.95
18.98
19.76
20.89
22.75
[R]
23.81
5.39
5.89
6.18
6.39
7.22
[R]
7.69
5.14
5.38
5.76
6.21
6.59
[R]
6.89
7.42
7.71
7.82
8.29
8.93
[R]
9.23
13.36
[R]
13.97
14.54
[R]
14.50
2.44
[R]
2.59
2.73
[R]
2.54
5.21
5.12
[R]
5.18
12.63
[R]
12.72
2.23
[R]
2.26
4.66
[R]
4.54
4.88
[R]
5.74
[R]
5.91
[R]
6.04
[R]
6.18
[R]
6.69
[R]
6.77
111.34
[R]
116.41
[R]
125.48
[R]
138.71
[R]
147.78
[R]
156.31
5.14
[R]
5.26
[R]
5.57
[R]
5.61
[R]
43.30
[R]
50.62
[R]
59.99
[R]
66.80
[R]
73.81
17.68
5.02
39.44
5.13
13.94
13.84
14.29
15.54
[R]
16.34
[R]
4.46
4.64
4.56
[R]
4.88
[R]
4.91
[R]
4.15
22.15
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.74
[R]
22.79
2.58
[R]
2.56
22.24
2.11
[R]
22.15
2.18
[R]
2.42
2.66
158 a Energy Data
TABLE 5
(Continued )
Region and Country

South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Other
World
1997
7.41
3.21
2.60
8.34
381.35
1998
[R]
6.83
3.40
2.44
8.47
[R]
382.38
1999
[R]
7.55
3.55
2.50
9.01
[R]
389.95
2000
[R]
7.89
3.77
2.58
9.23
[R]
[R]
397.93
[R]
Energy Data a 159
2001
8.10
3.86
2.70
9.47
402.15
2002
2003
[R]
[R]
8.39
4.02
2.94
9.80
[R]
410.56
2004
[R]
[R]
8.64
4.21
3.22
10.23
[R]
8.91
4.36
3.45
10.92
[R]
426.02
[R]
447.15
2005
[R]
2006 P
[R]
[R]
9.23
4.43
3.67
11.52
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
9.45
4.57
3.74
11.97
[R]
462.06
[R]
472.27
160 a Energy Data
TABLE 6

Crude Oil
Oil & Gas Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
211.6
178.6a
11.7
21.3
57.5
25.2b
11.1
21.3
309.8
58.2
13.9
237.7
314.1
58.3
18.1
237.7

Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Peru
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela
Otherc
109.9
2.6
.5
12.2
.2
1.5
.1
4.5
.4
.7
87.0
.2
104.8
2.7
.5
12.5
.0
1.5
.7
4.8
.4
.6
81.0
.2
261.8
15.8
26.5
12.3
3.5
4.3
2.5
NA
11.9
18.8
166.3
(s)
247.0
16.5
28.0
12.9
1.0
6.7
.8
.3
12.0
16.7
152.0
(s)
Europed
Austria
Croatia
Denmark
Germany
Hungary
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Romania
Serbia
United Kingdom
Otherc
14.3
.1
.1
1.2
.4
(s)
.4
.1
6.9
.1
.6
.1
3.6
.8
13.8
.1
.1
1.1
.2
.1
.4
.2
6.7
.2
.5
NR
3.6
.7
172.0
.6
1.0
2.5
9.0
.3
3.3
50.0
79.1
5.8
2.2
1.7
14.6
1.9
169.0
1.1
1.1
2.6
5.2
.6
3.0
48.8
81.7
4.7
4.2
NR
14.0
2.1
Eurasiae
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Otherc
98.9
7.0
30.0
60.0
.6
.4
.6
.3
126.0
NR
NR
76.0
NR
NR
NR
50.0
2,014.8
30.0
100.0
1,680.0
100.0
39.0
65.0
.8
2,104.0
NR
NR
1,654.0
NR
NR
NR
450.0
Energy Data a 161
Crude Oil
Oil & Gas
Journal
Region and Country
Natural Gas
World Oil
Billion Barrels
Oil & Gas

Journal
World Oil
Trillion Cubic Feet
Middle East
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwaitf
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabiaf
Syria
Yemen
Otherc
748.3
.1
138.4
115.0
104.0
5.5
15.2
266.8
2.5
97.8
3.0
(s)
727.3
NR
137.0
126.0
99.4
5.7
20.0
264.8
2.9
68.1
2.7
.7
2,548.9
3.3
948.2
111.9
56.0
30.0
905.3
253.1
8.5
214.4
16.9
1.3
2,570.2
NR
985.0
91.0
66.3
32.0
903.2
254.0
12.1
196.3
16.8
13.6
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Cameroon
Congo (Brazzaville)
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Libya
Mozambique
Nigeria
Sudan
Tunisia
Otherc
114.8
12.2
9.0
.2
1.6
3.7
1.1
2.0
41.5
.0
36.2
5.0
.4
1.9
114.7
11.9
9.5
NR
1.9
3.7
1.7
3.2
36.5
.0
37.2
6.7
.6
1.8
489.6
159.0
9.5
4.8
3.2
58.5
1.3
1.0
50.1
4.5
184.0
3.0
2.3
7.6
504.2
160.0
5.7
NR
4.1
68.5
3.4
2.5
52.8
.0
184.5
4.0
3.5
15.4
Asia and Oceaniad

Australia
Bangladesh
Brunei
Burma
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
New Zealand
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Thailand
Vietnam
Otherc
34.3
1.5
(s)
1.1
.1
16.0
5.6
4.4
(s)
4.0
.1
.3
.1
.5
.6
.2
40.0
4.2
NR
1.1
.2
18.1
4.0
4.5
NR
5.5
.1
.3
.2
.4
1.3
.2
415.4
30.0
5.0
13.8
10.0
80.0
38.0
93.9
.7
83.0
1.0
28.0
8.0
11.7
6.8
5.5
527.6
151.9
NR
11.0
15.0
61.8
31.8
92.0
NR
88.0
2.0
29.8
14.7
11.2
8.2
10.2
1,332.0
1,184.2
6,212.3
6,436.0
World
162 a Energy Data

a
oil sands.
c
Arabia.
TABLE 7
Region and Country

North America
Canada
Greenland
Mexico
United Statesa
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Peru
Other
Europeb
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Turkey
United Kingdom
Other
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
126,271
3,826
0
948
121,496
7,969
0
34
7,251
154
529
9,296
6
1,844
7
168
0
219
6,627
13
0
171
241
145,206
3,425
202
387
141,193
9,973
7,791
1,268
420
0
494
41,485
2,195
3,117
15,299
7,227
4,299
3,420
1,642
452
2,000
0
1,834
[R]
[R]
[R]
[R]
Total
271,477
7,251
202
1,335
262,689
17,941
7,791
1,302
7,671
154
1,023
50,781
2,200
4,962
15,306
7,394
4,299
3,640
8,270
465
2,000
171
2,076
[R]
[R]
Energy Data a 163
TABLE 7
(Continued )
Region and Country

Eurasiac
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Other
Middle East
Iran
Africa
Botswana
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Other
Asia and Oceaniab
Australia
China
India
Indonesia
North Korea
Pakistan
Thailand
Other
World
Anthracite and
Bituminous Coal
Subbituminous
Coal and Lignite
103,186
31,052
54,110
16,922
1,102
0
1,528
1,528
54,488
44
52,911
553
980
169,994
40,896
68,564
57,585
1,897
331
1
0
721
472,731
145,931
3,450
118,964
20,417
2,205
895
0
0
192
0
0
0
192
113,813
43,541
57,651
4,694
2,874
331
2,184
1,493
1,046
456,599
[R]
[R]
Total
249,117
34,502
173,074
37,339
3,307
895
1,528
1,528
54,680
44
52,911
553
1,172
283,807
84,437
126,215
62,278
4,771
661
2,185
1,493
1,767
929,331
[R]
R = Revised.
164 a Energy Data
TABLE 8

Region and Country

North America
Canada
Mexico
United States
Other
1997
1998
1999
2000
6,492
[R]
6,547
[R]
6,615
[R]
6,810
[R]
549
[R]
554
[R]
568
[R]
565
[R]
350
[R]
372
[R]
364
[R]
383
[R]
5,592
[R]
5,620
[R]
5,682
[R]
5,860
[R]
1
950
1
[R]
975
[R]
984
[R]
993
[R]
136
[R]
140
[R]
138
[R]
[R]
325
[R]
336
[R]
345
[R]
[R]
142
Argentina
130
Brazil
326
Venezuela
135
Other
359
[R]
372
[R]
374
[R]
375
Europeb
4,503
[R]
4,487
[R]
4,436
[R]
4,500
[R]
Belgium
146
[R]
151
[R]
143
[R]
149
[R]
France
385
[R]
410
[R]
404
[R]
402
[R]
Germany
889
[R]
872
[R]
841
[R]
857
[R]
Italy
425
[R]
441
[R]
441
[R]
448
[R]
Netherlands
240
[R]
242
[R]
239
[R]
252
[R]
Poland
339
[R]
316
[R]
329
[R]
295
[R]
Romania
120
[R]
101
[R]
91
Spain
272
[R]
282
[R]
309
[R]
327
[R]
Turkey
182
[R]
184
[R]
182
[R]
202
[R]
United Kingdom
569
[R]
564
[R]
559
[R]
561
[R]
Other
935
[R]
924
[R]
898
[R]
913
[R]
Eurasiac
2,244
[R]
2,235
[R]
2,320
[R]
2,356
[R]
120
[R]
116
[R]
133
[R]
143
[R]
1,483
[R]
1,482
[R]
1,560
[R]
1,582
[R]
344
[R]
333
[R]
328
[R]
327
[R]
Kazakhstan
Russia
Ukraine
133
134
93
Uzbekistan
103
102
[R]
103
Other
194
[R]
201
[R]
195
[R]
197
989
[R]
1,019
[R]
1,057
[R]
1,094
[R]
291
[R]
295
[R]
317
[R]
321
[R]
Middle East
Iran
106
[R]
Saudi Arabia
255
[R]
258
[R]
264
[R]
291
[R]
Other
443
[R]
467
[R]
475
[R]
483
[R]
[R]
Africa
872
[R]
861
[R]
877
[R]
892
Egypt
112
[R]
115
[R]
117
[R]
119
South Africa
388
[R]
370
[R]
381
[R]
392
[R]
Other
371
[R]
376
[R]
378
[R]
381
[R]
7,197
[R]
7,035
[R]
7,247
[R]
7,366
[R]
334
[R]
340
[R]
359
[R]
360
[R]
Asia and Oceaniac

Australia
China
3,133
[R]
3,029
[R]
2,992
[R]
2,967
[R]
India
878
[R]
914
[R]
971
[R]
1,012
[R]
247
[R]
241
[R]
266
[R]
274
[R]
1,161
[R]
1,116
[R]
1,158
[R]
1,204
[R]
Indonesia
Japan
Energy Data a 165
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
6,697
[R]
6,782
[R]
6,870
[R]
6,970
[R]
7,034
[R]
6,954
554
[R]
573
[R]
602
[R]
615
[R]
632
[R]
614
380
[R]
384
385
[R]
407
[R]
436
5,762
[R]
5,824
[R]
5,969
[R]
5,994
[R]
5,903
1,016
[R]
128
349
149
389
[R]
5,878
1,005
[R]
1,023
[R]
1,066
[R]
1,111
[R]
1,138
[R]
121
[R]
134
[R]
141
[R]
152
[R]
162
[R]
347
[R]
346
[R]
356
[R]
371
[R]
377
[R]
147
[R]
134
[R]
143
[R]
150
[R]
152
390
[R]
408
[R]
426
[R]
438
389
447
4,559
[R]
4,532
[R]
4,679
[R]
4,713
[R]
4,717
[R]
4,721
146
[R]
143
[R]
151
[R]
154
[R]
151
[R]
148
406
[R]
402
[R]
409
[R]
416
[R]
414
[R]
418
878
[R]
857
[R]
874
[R]
872
[R]
853
[R]
858
445
[R]
453
[R]
475
[R]
470
[R]
473
[R]
468
278
[R]
259
[R]
261
[R]
271
[R]
273
[R]
260
279
[R]
276
[R]
289
[R]
295
[R]
290
[R]
303
102
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
100
[R]
98
[R]
99
332
[R]
349
[R]
357
[R]
371
[R]
384
[R]
373
184
[R]
195
[R]
207
[R]
211
[R]
231
[R]
236
575
[R]
564
[R]
575
[R]
582
[R]
585
[R]
586
934
[R]
934
[R]
980
[R]
972
[R]
966
[R]
973
2,332
[R]
2,354
[R]
2,471
[R]
2,529
[R]
2,600
[R]
2,601
[R]
148
[R]
154
[R]
166
1,571
[R]
1,572
[R]
1,627
319
[R]
327
[R]
357
114
[R]
115
206
111
184
185
[R]
203
[R]
213
1,663
[R]
1,699
[R]
1,704
[R]
347
[R]
350
[R]
329
[R]
122
[R]
117
[R]
121
[R]
212
[R]
231
[R]
233
[R]
188
1,119
[R]
1,175
[R]
1,240
[R]
1,330
[R]
1,444
[R]
1,505
334
[R]
365
[R]
387
[R]
407
[R]
446
[R]
471
301
[R]
312
[R]
347
[R]
389
[R]
406
[R]
424
483
[R]
499
[R]
506
[R]
535
[R]
593
[R]
610
923
[R]
924
[R]
975
[R]
1,025
[R]
1,062
[R]
1,057
130
[R]
134
[R]
144
[R]
153
[R]
161
[R]
152
399
[R]
385
[R]
418
[R]
448
[R]
438
[R]
444
394
[R]
405
[R]
413
[R]
424
[R]
463
[R]
461
7,608
[R]
8,050
[R]
8,806
[R]
9,821
[R]
10,517
[R]
11,220
374
[R]
383
[R]
381
[R]
391
[R]
417
[R]
417
3,108
[R]
3,441
[R]
4,062
[R]
4,847
[R]
5,429
[R]
6,018
1,035
[R]
1,034
[R]
1,048
[R]
1,151
[R]
1,194
[R]
1,293
300
[R]
315
[R]
305
[R]
323
[R]
324
[R]
280
1,197
[R]
1,203
[R]
1,253
[R]
1,258
[R]
1,250
[R]
1,247
166 a Energy Data
TABLE 8
(Continued )
Region and Country
1997
Malaysia
102
South Korea
435
Taiwan
1998
1999
2000
103
[R]
107
[R]
112
[R]
[R]
375
[R]
433
[R]
446
[R]
210
[R]
225
[R]
224
[R]
252
[R]
Thailand
177
[R]
162
[R]
171
[R]
162
[R]
Other
520
[R]
530
[R]
567
[R]
578
[R]
23,247
[R]
23,160
[R]
23,535
[R]
24,011
[R]
World
a
international.
Energy Data a 167
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 P
125
[R]
134
[R]
150
[R]
166
[R]
160
[R]
164
452
[R]
468
[R]
478
[R]
489
[R]
497
[R]
515
249
[R]
274
[R]
290
[R]
287
[R]
290
[R]
300
172
[R]
187
[R]
206
[R]
226
[R]
243
[R]
245
594
[R]
612
[R]
633
[R]
683
[R]
714
[R]
741
24,253
[R]
24,823
[R]
26,064
[R]
27,453
[R]
28,485
[R]
29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:

3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a
3000 B.C.

2800
1100
various localities.
200
500 900
600
874
1400s
1626
1769
1800s
1800 1826
1816
1830 1839
1860
18701880

trains.
conrmed.
and transmission.
transportation.
1878
18811887
1883
18831884
1885
1888
1890s
1900
19001910
19061970
gas and air.
purposes.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
1910
1920
1940s1960s
1942
1950
1956
Mid-1950s
1957
1958
1961
1973
1986
1987
1990

large numbers.
War II.
source.

1997
2005
standard.
2007
2008
for the rst time.
for the rst time.
2009
2010
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
176 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
CONRAD, WILLIAM
DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 177
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
178 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 179
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a

and recruiters.

positions.
businesses.
GREEN CAREERS GUIDE
economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS
GREEN ENERGY JOBS
GREEN JOBS NETWORK
WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.
WWW.DOE.GOV

WWW.KAHKE.COM

AND MANUFACTURERS
a
altarockenergy.com
FARMINGTON, CT
SAN FRANCISCO, CA
BREVARD, NC
dupont.com

FEIBURG, GERMANY
IBM, SAN JOSE, CA
www.acciona-na.com

energysiemens.com
suncor.com
DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function
Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell
Geochemical cycles
Grades 912
Population growth
Natural resources
History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f
Abate, Dee, 5:39
Abengoa Solar, 1:213, 2:40, 2:55,
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Abu Dhabi, 5:92 93, 5:93f, 5:129
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185
1:109 11, 1:110f
Active yawing, 3:12
Adams, William, 1:198, 1:203, 2:5,
2:168, 2:173, 3:166, 3:171, 4:168,
4:173, 5:170, 5:175

5:38f
motor, 2:96
Aeroturbine, 3:14
Afghanistan, 3:94
eld, 4:43
5:29 30
192 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Aleman, Angel, 1:50
2:92 94
2:117, 5:118
3:33f
3:181, 4:183, 5:185
Center, 2:103, 4:105
1:129
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170
5:37
1:100, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137

2:127
5:91
1:157, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
5:137
1:66
3:169, 4:89, 4:171, 5:120, 5:173
(ASES), 1:35, 1:165, 1:209, 2:33,
2:80, 2:135, 2:179, 3:133, 3:177,
4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
(AWEA), 1:165, 2:135, 3:2, 3:26,
3:133, 4:135, 5:137
Anode, 2:88
Refuge
5:52 53; fuel use and, 1:178t 179t,
2:148t 149t, 3:146t 147t,
4:148t 149t, 5:150t 151t
Aquaculture, 4:50
Arch dam, 3:80
Archimedes, 2:35
5:88 89; for green roof, 5:81 82
(ANWR), 1:61
Index a 193

Tucson, 5:17
Arkansas, 4:5, 4:118, 5:91, 5:91f
Society
5:41
Atoms, 2:10
Austin, Texas, 5:91
2:25
AutoDesk, 5:18
1:213 14, 2:183 84, 3:181 82,
4:183 84, 5:185 86
Association
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f
B20 fuel, 4:119f, 4:120
Babcock Ranch, 2:22
Bacon, Francis T., 1:203, 2:90, 2:173,
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Bacteria, 4:103
Baez, Ana, 1:50
3:55 56, 3:55f
Bantam, Doug, 4:1

(Wibberding), 5:61
Bates, John, 5:123
Bats, 3:60
of, 5:122 23; NiMH, 5:122 23;
Bay Localize, 1:28
Bay of Fundy, 3:110
3:171, 4:173, 5:175
Belize, 4:34
Belote, Dave, 2:3f
Benz, Daimler, 2:90
Benzene, 1:53
Biliran, 4:33
4:22, 4:40f
Biodiesel, 1:48, 1:49, 1:51, 1:53 54,
4:127 28; advantages of, 4:121;
194 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

using, 4:117 20, 4:119, 4:119f;
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75
Biodigester, 4:98, 4:99f, 4:101
Bioethanol, 4:91 92
5:123; buses, 5:7, 5:8f; dening,
of, 4:102 3; CO2 from, 4:96; cow
Biojet, 4:107
Biomass, 1:13 14, 2:64 65; Asian
of, 4:103 4; dening, 4:81 82;

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
4:82 83, 4:82f; types of, 4:81f; US
2:64
Bioreactors, 2:93f
4:42
Bitumen, 1:58, 1:59
5:25 26
Blade design, 3:9
Blenders, 1:53 54
5:121 22, 5:121f, 5:128
3:14
BMW Mini E, 5:72
2:105, 2:106f
1:143f
Index a 195

Brazil, 2:113, 3:86 87
2:103
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Brush, Charles F., 1:199, 1:203, 2:169,
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173,
5:171, 5:175
Bunsen, Robert, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Burdin, Claude, 3:7
farms, 3:39 40
Butane, 1:74, 1:76
Buttress dam, 3:80
C. reinhartii, 2:92

eciency
Caithness/COC, 4:20
2:17; wind energy in, 1:200, 2:170,
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:115 16
3:32
(CYES), 1:30
Calorie, 1:18
Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
Canola, 4:115
Caprocks, 1:74
Carbon, 1:94, 5:7
1:122 23, 1:124f
Carbon cycle, 4:91f
196 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
1:119 20, 1:120f; emissions

emissions of, 1:192 95, 2:162 65,
3:160 63, 4:162 65, 5:5, 5:105,
2:179 82, 3:177 80, 4:179 82,
5:181 84

Carrier Corp., 1:214, 2:184, 3:182,
4:184, 5:186
Cathode, 2:88
Cattle, 1:76
Mechanism
3:182, 4:184, 5:186
bulb
Chaplin, Daryl, 2:5
Charcoal, 4:102
Chen, David, 2:52 54, 2:52f
Chernobyl plant, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
4:170, 5:172
Chevron, 1:67, 4:41
1:214, 2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Chevy Volt, 5:71
of, 1:114, 1:116; Dongtan, 5:94;
Index a 197

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
in, 1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:61f, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
4:102
Chu, Steven, 1:125, 1:131, 2:85, 3:73,
4:80, 4:89, 5:108, 5:111, 5:120,
5:129
2:17 21
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
4:115 16
2:135, 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
1:122

(CDM), 4:51
Clean Edge jobs, 1:209, 2:179, 3:177,
4:179, 5:181
4:126
(CUTE), 2:112
1:22 24; reducing, 1:25 33;
1:32f
pump (GCHP), 4:68
uses of, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
1:109 11, 1:128 29; exporters of,
1:116 17, 1:117t; formation of,
1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
and, 1:115 16, 5:106; history of,
of, 1:190t 191t, 2:160t 161t,
198 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,

1:113 15, 1:115f, 1:117; Utah state
5:39
in, 3:34
Columbia, 1:101

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
wind turbines, 3:10
farms, 3:31 32
using, 1:93f
Computers, 5:54
1:xiv, 1:12, 2:xiv, 2:1, 2:35, 2:38f,
of, 2:50 51; land use of, 2:50;
5:113; types of, 2:36 47
Condoor, Sridhar, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
Conduction, 2:68
(CRS), 3:24, 3:30
Conlogue, Fred, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
1:67, 3:67
Conrad, William, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
4:174, 5:176
3:68
Index a 199

2:4
Controller, 3:11
Control rods, 1:142
Convection, 2:68
Coolants, 1:141 42
Copenhagen, 3:58f
Corn kernels, 4:94f
(CAFE), 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
wind energy, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68
Costa Rica, 4:43 44

3:116 18
Cow manure, 4:98
Service
of, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
1:46 47; US imports of, 1:54 56
Cubic foot, 1:18
for Europe
Cut-in speeds, 3:21
Services
Daimler AG, 2:86, 5:119
Dam gates, 3:81
3:78 80; types of, 3:80
Darajat, 4:41
Davy, Humphrey, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:63
Delaware, 3:37
200 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:105
3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138;
vacancies in, 1:212, 2:182, 3:180,
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:174, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Desuperheater, 4:69
Diesel, Rudolf, 1:47, 1:48, 1:199,
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169,
5:171

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
cells
Doping process, 2:7
Drake, Edwin L., 1:67, 1:204, 2:174,
3:172, 4:174, 5:176
1:44 45; rig, 1:44f
4:8 9, 4:8f
Headquarters, 5:87
DuPont, 2:102
Durability, 4:70
DVD players, 5:54
2:12f
Index a 201

1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190;
Econar, 4:75
3:16 18
Eco-roofs, 5:65
Ecoversity, 4:127
Edison, Thomas, 1:199, 2:1, 2:169,
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
3:166, 4:168, 5:170
Renewable Energy
Centers
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Einstein, Albert, 1:199, 1:204, 2:169,
2:174, 3:167, 3:172, 4:169, 4:174,
5:171, 5:176

grid; Utility grid
1:114f; energy and, 1:16 17;
3:16, 3:41; homes use of, 3:44,
3:90, 5:48, 5:49f; household
3:16, 3:21 22
Electric motor, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
3:110
3:25
America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
4:135, 5:77, 5:126, 5:137
202 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
to, 5:125 26; green, 5:71 74;

5:72
Electrolysis, 2:87, 2:91 92, 2:92f
Electrolyte, 2:88
Electrons, 2:92
CO2, 1:95f, 1:119 20, 1:120f; CO2
4:117; US CO2, 1:120f; zero, 1:122,
dioxide
Enel, 4:20

1:24, 1:36 37; future of, 5:129;
3:181 84, 4:183 86, 5:185 88;
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:7 9; Savers, 4:54, 4:76; security,
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73; US history of, 1:3 4,
Energy audits, 5:20, 5:24, 5:54 55
4:118
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; in schools,
1:26 28
and, 5:102; future of, 1:21 22;
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
Index a 203
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,

2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
4:150t 153t, 5:152t 155t; by
sector, 1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t; of US, 1:19f
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; school
Energy (EERE), 1:36, 2:104, 4:76,
4:105, 5:22, 5:128
(EFRC), 1:33
EnergyGuide, 5:50f
Act of 2007, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169,
4:171, 5:173
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f,
5:55
4:12 13, 4:41, 4:46 47, 4:47f,
4:48f
Division, 5:22

and, 1:22 24; of coal, 1:109 11,
station, 1:119 20; of CSP, 2:50 51;
1:108; in tidal power, 3:112 13
(EPA), 1:97, 1:166, 2:136, 3:134,
Frontier by, 4:69
Agency
Energy Council
Ericsson, John, 1:198, 1:205, 2:5,
2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
4:175, 5:170, 5:177
Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
4:175, 5:177
Ethane, 1:74 75
204 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Ethylene, 1:53
(EREC), 3:98
3:59
Exxon Mobil, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
Faraday, Michael, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Faya, Antnio, 3:87
2:170, 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
Fermentation, 2:92, 4:94 95, 4:100
Fermi, Enrico, 1:134, 1:200, 1:205,
2:170, 2:175, 3:168, 3:173, 4:170,
4:175, 5:172, 5:177
Finland, 4:88
Fish farms, 4:17, 4:19, 4:50, 4:51f
Fish ladders, 3:97f
4:10f
1:151 52
2:33
1:111
1:121 22
Food Lion, 5:105
Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Ford 999, 2:109
Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
5:72, 5:86, 5:172, 5:188
Forebay, 3:92f
Index a 205
Forklifts, 2:113
4:66 67
Activities, 5:128
2:129 30, 3:127 28, 4:129 30,
5:131 32
4:185, 5:187
Freons, 1:74
Frisch, Otto, 1:134
Fritts, Charles, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168,
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175,
5:170, 5:177
1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,

world use of, 1:8f
Fuel Cell 2000, 2:103
2:109
about, 2:121 23; cost of, 2:97,
small, 2:106, 2:120, 2:120f; solid
2:104
2:98
2:99, 2:107, 2:108f, 5:69 70; cost
of, 2:114; in Germany, 2:110 11; in
2:107 9
Fuel economy, 1:51
Fuel rods, 1:140 41, 1:141f
Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 72, 4:102
3:173, 4:175, 5:177
206 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
Fuller, Calvin, 1:205, 2:5, 2:175,

3:173, 4:175, 5:177
Fumaroles, 4:52
Furling, 3:8
FutureGen, 1:123
Gabcikovo Dam, 3:98
Garden roofs, 5:65, 5:78, 5:84
Garner, Mark, 3:74, 5:108, 5:108f
1:62
Gasholder, 4:98
for, 4:79; coal, 1:125 28, 1:126f;
of wood, 4:97
Gasohol, 4:92
Gasoline, 1:41, 1:47, 4:93f, 4:96
1:91
Gasper, Peter, 3:87
5:125 26
3:183, 4:185, 5:187

5:122
Geology, 4:63
GEO Mission, 4:54
GeoThermal, 4:54
4:8 13; in El Salvador, 4:42 43;
4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
4:5 6; in Iceland, 1:197, 2:167,
3:165, 4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169;
Index a 207

and, 4:24; locations of, 4:6 7, 4:29;
4:15; in New Mexico, 4:17 18;
1:162, 2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134;
2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii, 4:13 20,
4:67; uses for, 4:49 51; in Utah,
using, 4:66 67
1:35, 4:27 28
4:60 61, 4:61f; CO2 reduced

4:70 71; land use and, 4:63 64;
for, 4:63 64; in Sweden, 4:72; in
using, 4:62 63
4:29
4:27
4:67, 4:68, 5:104
3:174, 4:176, 5:178
1:115 16; FCVs in, 2:110 11;
208 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

3:53, 3:57
Geysers, 4:4 5, 4:52
The Geysers, 4:5 6, 4:8 9, 4:14, 4:14f
Gill, Dena, 3:65
5:120
1:103; of energy, 1:18 19, 1:20f,
1:184 87t, 2:154 57t, 3:152 55t,
4:154 57t, 5:156 59t; of natural
gas, 1:72 73, 1:94 95; wind energy
and, 3:56
2:162 65, 3:160 63, 4:162 65,
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 67
1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,
1:79 81, 1:79f, 1:188t 189t,
2:158t 159t, 3:156t 157t,
4:158t 159t, 5:160t 161t

1:25 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
gas and, 1:128
Global winds, 3:3f
Glycerin, 4:112
in, 5:3 4; of NASCAR, 5:1 3
Gomez, Cesar, 1:50
Gore, Al, 5:129
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39;
US, 4:80
Grant, John D., 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Gravity dam, 3:80
Great Geysir, 4:37
School, 5:35
Green biz, 1:210, 2:180, 3:178, 4:180,
5:182
5:26 27
Index a 209

3:178, 4:180, 5:182
5:89 92, 5:92t
Green Club, 2:19 20
Green Cluster, 5:77
Green corps, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
Green-e, 3:97
3:179, 4:181, 5:183
1:30
4:50
2:77f, 5:4
of, 2:78, 5:16; emissions of, 4:69;
Greenpeace, 1:36
3:71
Snodgrass), 5:40

5:65 66, 5:65f; issues with, 5:87;
electric, 5:71 74
3:42f
Grove, William, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:120, 5:178
Guatemala, 4:34
Gunung Salak, 4:41
Guorui, Luo, 4:103
5:xvii
Hahn, Otto, 1:134
Halliday, Daniel, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Center, 3:34
210 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:103f
Harris, Matt, 2:8
Hawaii, 4:16 17
the Head, 3:91 92
Heat, 1:6 8
Heating system, 4:22 23, 4:50, 5:25
Heat pumps, 1:13
Cell kit, 2:125
5:10f
4:72
Herschel, John, 2:5
(HLRW), 1:34
High pressure, 3:4
wastes
Hobby Lobby, 5:61

5:56 57; energy saving, 5:47 48;
in, 1:178t 179t, 2:148t 149t,
3:146t 147t, 4:148t 149t,
5:150t 151t; of future, 5:46 47;
for, 5:63
Hoover Dam, 1:17f, 3:76 77
Hopi Indians, 1:104
2:127, 5:69
3:13f, 3:40 41
Index a 211

3:31, 3:31f
Hot dry rock, 4:12 13, 4:12f,
project of, 4:48 49
Human health, 4:76
Hybrid cars, 5:68, 5:69t, 5:78
3:85 86; dams built for, 3:78 80;
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133;
3:74 77, 3:74f
3:86 87, 3:86f; in Italy, 2:94;
3:89 90; types of, 3:80 81, 3:82f

using, 2:110, 2:110f, 5:69; storage,
2:90 91; vehicle, 2:116
1:15, 2:xv, 2:85 86, 2:128, 3:xv,
2:105; buses using, 2:111 13,
2:100 101; in Germany, 2:117;
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; sales growth
212 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

vehicles
Hydrology, 4:63
5:69, 5:119
Energy Agency
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
energy in, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165,
4:37 38, 4:167, 5:169; geothermal
systems
plants in, 4:15 16
combined cycle
Association
Illinois, 4:119 20
5:12f
5:xi xii
3:80, 3:82f
3:59 60
Indiana, 4:68, 4:120
1:115
steel, 1:20 21; US coal, 1:113 15,
Cell, 2:106
Insulation, 5:52
(ICS), 2:77
cycle (IGCC), 1:122
Gas Vehicles, 1:100
(IAEA), 1:135 36, 1:166, 2:136,
3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 213

and Dams, 3:99
2:124
2:33, 2:83
Coalition, 2:16
Ions, 2:88
Iowa, 5:35
4:71
Energy Agency
3:86 87, 3:86f
James, David, 4:127
Jiu River, 3:88 89

Kalina system, 4:49
Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
Kazimi, Mujid, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Kelp, 1:98
in, 5:32
Kenya, 4:43
Keros, Alex, 2:108f
Kerosene, 1:53
Kibaki, Mwai, 4:43
Kill A Watt, 5:62
1:6
Krocker, J. D., 4:6
5:106
Kyoto Protocol, 1997, 1:32 33, 1:201,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:16, 5:105 6,
5:106f, 5:173
214 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
LaDuke, Winona, 2:8

1:97 98, 2:120, 4:97; nitrogen
energy, 5:56 57
energy and, 2:29
3:109f
3:100
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also
LEED certication

5:102 5
Lewis, Mike, 2:98
Lewis, Zane, 2:95f, 4:110f, 4:111
4:33
Life science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
facilities
Limestone, 1:42
1:85
1:150f
Lithium, 5:124
Local winds, 3:4
1:122 23
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:13, 4:136,
5:138
Louisiana, 4:112
(LIH), 3:97
1:145 46
Low pressure, 3:4
1:12
Index a 215

Luminant, 3:31
Program, 5:62
Mak-Ban, 4:41
Malaysia, 4:87
3:168, 4:170, 5:172
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
5:173; in energy, 1:213 16,
2:183 86, 3:181 84, 4:183 86,
Mariculture, 3:123
Marine plants, 1:98
Maryland, 5:35
4:67 68
Mayer, John, 5:8f
5:16
5:70
McCurdy, Ross, 2:94 99, 2:125,

2:126, 4:110 11
cells
4:119f
5:70f
5:71
Methane, 1:74 75, 1:75f, 4:96; cattle
1:96 97
Methanol, 2:89, 2:120, 2:120f
Mexico, 4:34 35
Michigan, 4:72
3:89 90, 3:91f; China using,
Microturbines, 2:41
4:80f
Middle East, 1:79f
Migratory sh, 3:87
Military, US, 1:137
216 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

1:138 40
project, 5:9, 5:10f
4:43
Mississippi, 4:72
Mojave Desert, 2:36 38, 2:51, 3:32,
4:11
Molecules, 2:10
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119
Montana, 4:20
5:83
Motion, 1:6
2:168, 2:176, 3:166, 3:174, 4:168,
4:176, 5:170, 5:178
4:108
Mt. Washington, 3:5
3:81
Murphy, John, 2:98
Musk, Elon, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
4:176, 5:178
Nacelle, 3:11
5:117f
Nanometers, 2:10
Nanosolar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
5:187
5:114f, 5:116
2:90, 5:120
4:117, 4:127
4:73
2:52, 3:64 68; mission of, 3:66;
3:66 67
Index a 217

2:103
(NGSA), 1:100
Guide, 5:90
1:36, 3:100
2:33, 2:99 100, 2:103, 2:127,
2:136, 3:14, 3:44, 3:134, 4:118,
4:136, 5:109, 5:115, 5:138
1:217 18, 2:187 88, 3:185 86,
4:187 88, 5:189 90
(NWTC), 3:52
Authority, 3:119
Natural gas, 1:xii, 1:9 10, 1:71 72,
1:71; Chinas use of, 1:197, 2:167,
1:101; consumers of, 1:82 85;
of, 1:74 75; drilling for, 1:76 77;
consumption of, 1:72 73, 1:94 95;
1:79f, 1:188t 189t, 2:158t 159t,
3:156t 157t, 4:158t 159t,

and, 1:94; history of, 1:73 74;
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75; advantages
safety of, 1:92
(NRRI), 4:83
Nauen, Andreas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
Reserves, 1:58
Nebraska, 4:68
NECAR 1, 2:90
2:13
Energy Association
Netherlands, 1:84
Net metering, 2:15 16, 3:43, 3:71
University Program
218 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Nevada, 4:15
2:185, 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Newell, Craig, 3:20
New Jersey, 4:118, 5:35 36
New Mexico, 4:17 18
New York, 2:17, 2:114 15, 5:34, 5:82
New York gym, 5:9
3:110 11
Association
Niagara Falls, 3:76
(NiMH), 5:122 23
Nielsen, Carl, 4:6
battery
Resource Service

1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84
North Dakota, 4:72
North Sea, 1:80f
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
3:117 18
Commission
of, 1:132 33; in countries, 5:112;
1:137 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 41,
on, 1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
4:129 30, 5:131 32; in sustainable
Index a 219

source, 1:131 32
1:152, 1:157
(NEUP), 1:131, 5:111
3:168, 4:170, 5:172; Browns Ferry,
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173;
US, 1:136
(NRC), 1:134, 1:147, 1:157, 1:166,
2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
1:146 47
1:150, 5:123
1:131, 1:148, 2:3, 2:3f, 2:86, 3:xiii,
4:xiii, 4:80, 5:xiii, 5:108f, 5:110 11,
5:124, 5:129

(ORPC), 3:124
3:113 18
(OTEC), 1:15, 3:104, 3:118 19,
3:120f; Africa and, 3:122;
Octane rating, 1:47
Development
Oerlikon Solar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
4:185, 5:187
systems, 3:114
Ohio, 5:33
Ohms Law, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
220 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158,

4:160, 5:162
Oil sands, 1:58 59, 1:190, 2:160,
3:158, 4:160, 5:162
Olive oil, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
3:114 16
4:61 63, 4:62f
4:1 2, 4:20 23, 4:21f, 4:24f
4:24f
1:20f, 1:81

2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
3:133 35, 4:135 37, 5:137 39
Ormat, 4:20
Company
3:115
Conversion
3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Oxygenates, 1:53
Pacic ocean, 4:6 7
Palapa, Rosy, 1:50
2:37f, 2:43f
Paraguay, 3:86 87
2:67 70, 2:67f; benets of, 2:70;
Index a 221
Paul, Stephen, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
reactor
Peak oil, 1:56, 1:69
3:167, 4:169, 5:171
1: 151
Peck, Rick, 5:13 15, 5:13f
3:92 93, 3:93f, 3:94
membrane
Center, 5:96
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169;
1:60 62; forming of, 1:41 42; as
2:119

uses for, 2:6
5:113
leaders in, 2:24 26
4:187, 5:189
Picohydro, 3:91
5:88
5:33
Poland, 1:116
(PEM), 1:xv, 2:xv, 2:89, 3:xv, 4:xv,
5:xv
Pools, 4:50 51
energy in, 3:59
PowerBuoy, 3:114
binary, 4:9 10, 4:9f, 4:22; CO2
222 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

also Geothermal
plants
Power strips, 5:54
Pressures, 4:3
1:144
Probst, Pete, 4:124
1:213 16, 2:183 86, 3:181 84,
4:183 86, 5:185 88
1:116; coal, 1:115 16, 1:116;
oil, 1:62; hydrogen, 2:91 100;
1:81 82; Polands coal, 1:116;

and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
3:29 38, 3:56 58, 3:58f, 5:115;
1:59
Propane, 1:74 75, 1:76, 1:85
3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Quad, 1:18
Quebec, 3:86
Race cars, 4:107 8, 4:108f
Radiant energy, 1:5
4:16f
Rain barrels, 5:32
Index a 223

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
4:132 33, 5:134 35; on fossil fuels,
1:159 60, 2:129 30, 3:127 28,
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
1:160 61, 2:130 31, 3:128 29,
4:130 31, 5:132 33; on nuclear
energy, 1:159 60, 2:129 30,
3:127 28, 4:129 30, 5:131 32; on
solar energy, 1:160 61, 2:130 31,
3:128 29, 4:130 31, 5:132 33; on
2:132 33, 3:130 31, 4:132 33,
5:134 35; on wave energy, 1:161,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
5:133
1:107 8
1:190 91t, 2:160t 161t,
3:158t 159t, 4:160t 161t,
5:162t 163t
1:149, 1:151; of PV, 2:30
1:184t 187t, 2:154t 157t,
3:152t 155t, 4:154t 157t,
5:156t 159t
Regulator, 3:90
1:209 12, 2:179 82, 3:177 80,
4:179 82, 5:181 84; China
of, 5:124; for homes, 5:63 64;
and, 1:180t 183t, 2:150t 153t,
3:148t 151t, 4:150t 153t,
2:150t 153t, 3:148t 151t,
(RReDC), 5:125
Renovation, 5:27 28
Revenues, 3:38
Reverb, 5:8f
Rhode Island, 3:37, 4:118 19, 5:126
2:98
Rice paddies, 1:76
224 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

Ring of Fire, 4:6 7, 4:7f, 4:18, 4:31,
4:40, 4:44
1:29, 1:31
2:110f, 5:69
Robbins, Steve, 2:9
Rocket stoves, 4:88
Rojas, Fermin, 1:50
Romania, 3:88 89
Rotor blades, 3:7 9
5:31
Data Center
of, 3:62
2:44f

(SAITEM), 2:116
Salter, Steven, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
4:177, 5:179
2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
5:188
Sandstone, 1:42
2:111
2:25
Saturn, 5:71
2:94
Index a 225

wind energy in, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
in, 4:66
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188,
5:190
3:185, 4:187, 5:189
SciKits, 2:127
Scooters, 2:113 14
Scott, Paul, 5:18f
Training
Seaweed, 1:98
1:174t 177t, 2:144t 147t,
3:142t 145t, 4:144t 147t,
5:146t 149t
Sedum, 5:39
Systems
Selsam, Douglas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,

4:177, 5:179
5:13 15, 5:13f
Sharp Corp., 2:26
1:135
plants, 3:95f
Siemens Corp., 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Silicon, 2:9
plants, 3:87
4:11
Smaller homes, 5:55
plants, 3:89 90
Smith, David, 5:48
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
226 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:114 15; thin-lm, 2:9 10, 2:9f
5:64 65, 5:64f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185;
of, 2:4 5; benets of, 2:26 27;
2:17 21; collectors for, 2:73 74,
2:5 6, 2:56; for homes, 5:63 64;
2:130 31, 3:128 29, 4:130 31,

5:132 33; schools using, 2:16 17;
2:14 15, 2:28; videos for, 2:34. See
technology
(SEGS), 2:37, 2:51, 2:51f
Cosmos, 2:73f
Solar ovens, 2:71
3:64f
of Spain, 2:47
Solar Two, 2:47 50
Solar wall, 2:60 61
Index a 227

5:66 67; economics of, 2:78;
worlds rst, 2:59
Solatubes, 5:37
5:121
Solix Biofuels, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
4:186, 5:188
Solvents, 1:47
Sound, 1:6
1:170t 173t, 2:140t 143t,
3:138t 141t, 4:140t 143t,
5:142t 145t
South America, 1:84
South Korea, 3:110
Soy crops, 4:125
4:69
Space science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
4:188, 5:190
Spas, 4:50 51

Split systems, 4:59
Sridhar, K. R., 5:121 22, 5:121f
Sri Lanka, 3:95
4:98 102, 4:99f
Stanley, William, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Rotor
Storage tanks, 2:77
1:60f
(SEAT), 1:28
Students, 4:121
Sulfur dioxide, 1:53, 1:111, 1:119,
4:92
Sullivan, Jim, 2:98
228 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

5:35 36
Sun, 1:5, 2:49, 2:59, 2:107
2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
SunEdison, 5:35
1:107 8; shallow coal, 1:109
on, 1:162 63, 2:132 33, 3:130 31,
5:101f

3:116 17
3:9
Sweet Bay, 5:105
Swept area, 3:8
1:127 28
2:80
3:34
5:73f
Tanzania, 4:102
TAPCHAN, 3:115, 3:116f
5:27f
Tax revenue, 4:27
1:121 28; dye-sensitized, 2:11 12,
2:127, 5:69; hydrogen, 2:99 100;
nano, 4:77, 5:114 15, 5:114f,
3:119 22; passive solar, 2:60 61;
photovoltaic, 2:24 25, 2:24 26,
2:25, 2:30 31; Power, 2:83; Prism
4:19f, 4:20; science and, 1:218,
Index a 229

Televisions, 5:54
dierences in, 1:15
3:79
plants, 3:93
Tesla, Nicola, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Tessera Solar, 2:41
3:54; wind farms in, 3:32 33
3:175, 4:177, 5:179
Thailand, 4:39 40, 4:87
Thermal energy, 1:6, 3:118 23, 4:15
5:123f
Thompson, Asa, 4:5

3:84f
Tidal mill, 3:106
US, 3:108 9
Tides, 3:104 5, 3:105f
2:167 71, 3:165 69, 4:167 71,
5:169 73
Tiwi, 4:41
Toledo Zoo, 4:67
Toluene, 1:53
Tower, 3:11
Toyota, 2:86, 2:114, 5:69, 5:119;
FCHV of, 2:109; RAV4, 5:18f
Trac jams, 1:7f
230 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

turbines, 3:9 11
1:146 47
Tree hugger jobs, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179,
4:181, 5:183
5:91
Trucking, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
5:173
Turbines, 3:81 82, 3:90, 3:92 93
Turkey, 2:116, 4:41
3:24
5:27 28
2:54

industry of, 1:113 15, 1:115f,
energy in, 1:132 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 231

of, 3:17 18, 5:115; wind energy
specic states
(USGS), 1:167, 2:137, 3:135,
4:137, 5:139
1:141; processing, 1:140; U-238,
1:144
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Council
(USGBC), 5:26 27, 5:36, 5:42
Survey
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 20
Utility bills, 5:36
2:28
4:123
Veggie Van, 4:127
4:110 11, 4:117 20, 5:75; electric,
1:85 86, 1:89 92, 5:75;
cell vehicles
plant, 3:59
Vermont, 5:10
Verne, Jules, 2:85
3:14 15
Vietnam, 4:87
in, 5:11
3:180, 4:182, 5:184
compounds
Voith Hydro, 3:74
5:108f
1:97, 1:119
Volcanoes, 4:7f, 4:33, 4:35, 4:37, 4:40,
4:44
Volkswagen, 2:111
Walters, Bob, 1:86 89, 1:87f
232 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

farms in, 3:36
Waste, 5:51
Water Furnace, 4:75
Watermill, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
5:169
Watt, James, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
4:168, 5:170
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; Sweden
3:116f
Waves, 3:113

1:145
West Virginia, 5:32
5:28 31
1:111
4:66f, 4:68
California, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
3:69 70; cost of, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68;
3:58f, 5:115; DOE report on, 3:17,
3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 18;
in schools, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
Index a 233

3:68 69; US capacity of, 3:17 18,
3:72
3:32, 3:33f; Bualo Ridge, 3:34;
3:46, 3:46f
Windows, 5:33, 5:51, 5:52f
3:72
Wind speed, 3:5 6, 3:8 9
3:55 56, 3:55f; bats killed by, 3:60;

1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:60f, 3:169,
turbine, 3:13 15, 3:13f;
3:11 12
Wind vane, 3:11
Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 67
Wood alcohol, 2:89
Woods, Mel, 2:18
World oil, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 4:160,
5:162
5:xi xii
234 a Index

Cells
Hydropower
and Sustainability

2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4
Xeriscape, 5:87
5:188
Yellowcake, 1:140
4:9, 4:52
2:33
1:131 32
5:94
About the Author


A Study Guide To Energy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Study Guide To Energy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Student Guide to Energy

Volume 1: Oil, Natural Gas,

Copyright 2011 by John F. Mongillo

Energy and Energy Sources

How Do We Use Petroleum Today?

World Consumption of Natural Gas

Coal: A Major Source of the Worlds Energy

Why the Interest in Nuclear Energy?

Books and Other Reading Materials

Government and Nongovernmental Organization Web Sites

Energy Time Line: 3000 B.C. To A.D. 2009

Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Careers

Energy Product Developers and Manufacturers

National Science Education Standards, Content Standards

About the Author

Mary E. Spruill, Executive Director of the National Energy Education

World governments, nongovernmental organizations, international

Additional topics, including carbon and ecological footprints and

National Science Education Standards. The content in A Student

Following are the top ve exporting countries, accounting for 59 percent

Venezuela, 0.803 million barrels per day

countries, and the development of wind power technology is not unique

Although much of the electricity produced in France is from nuclear

The Northeast Blackout of 1965 was a signicant disruption in the supply

2 a A Student Guide to Energy

magazines, newspapers, periodicals, newsletters, radio, and television and

Energy and Energy Sources a 3

Nonrenewable energy sources like petroleum will continue to play a major

Energy and Energy Sources a 5

DID YOU KNOW?

6 a A Student Guide to Energy

Electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy consists of waves

DID YOU KNOW?

Energy and Energy Sources a 7

8 a A Student Guide to Energy

Energy and Energy Sources a 9

Nonrenewable Energy Sources

10 a A Student Guide to Energy

DID YOU KNOW?

Energy and Energy Sources a 11

On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries included nuclear power as

According to the World Nuclear Association, mainland China has 12 nuclear

12 a A Student Guide to Energy

Renewable Energy Resources

Energy and Energy Sources a 13

electricity. Some of the largest hydroelectric power producers are Canada,

14 a A Student Guide to Energy

Energy and Energy Sources a 15

DID YOU KNOW?

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

16 a A Student Guide to Energy

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) uses hydrogen

Energy and Energy Sources a 17

View of the massive Hoover Dam

DID YOU KNOW?

18 a A Student Guide to Energy

HOW IS ENERGY MEASURED?

Energy and Energy Sources a 19

U.S. energy consumption by quad. A quadrillion is equal to 1 trillion megawatts

in comparison with 2005 consumption. Through 2030, fossil fuels such as

20 a A Student Guide to Energy

Members of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

Energy and Energy Sources a 21