Single Cylinder News JanMar09

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Single-Cylinder News
Delivering Value Through Innovation & Technology
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RICARDO INFORMATION SERVICES

SINGLE-CYLINDER NEWS
JANUARY MARCH 2009
Edited by
Donna Wild
Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009
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CONTENTS
OPTICAL RESEARCH ENGINES ............................................................................................................... 4

DIESEL RESEARCH ENGINES .................................................................................................................. 7
Biodiesel ......................................................................................................................................... 14
GASOLINE RESEARCH ENGINES .......................................................................................................... 18
GAS RESEARCH ENGINES ..................................................................................................................... 22
DUAL FUEL RESEARCH ENGINES......................................................................................................... 23
HYDROGEN RESEARCH ENGINES ........................................................................................................ 24
HCCI ........................................................................................................................................................... 25
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Notes
Single-Cylinder News is a quarterly newsletter, published by the Ricardo Information Services

Department. It summarizes the published literature related to single-cylinder research engines and
optical engines. Items included in this publication are based on literature added to the Ricardo Library
from January to March 2009.
Copies of the source documents may be obtained by quoting the Library reference, which appears in
bold at the bottom of each article. Items not published in English may be translated by Ricardos
Translation Service, on request. An additional charge would be made for these services.
Other services offered by Ricardo Information Services include:
New Engine News - A newsletter covering new and modified engines
Transmission and Driveline News - A newsletter covering new and modified transmissions
Components News - A newsletter covering internal combustion engine components
Vehicle Engineering News - A newsletter covering chassis, brakes and other vehicle parts
Alternative Powertrain News - A newsletter covering fuel cells, hybrids and other unconventional
powerplants
POWERLINK - A database containing abstracts of engine and vehicle articles
EMLEG - A database of Worldwide exhaust emission legislation
Fuels and Lubricants News - A newsletter dedicated to current developments in fuels and
lubricants
Control and Electronics News - A newsletter covering control, electrical and electronic
technology
Gas Engine News A newsletter covering natural gas, CNG and LPG engines
Forthcoming Conferences - An updating service of interest to all users of our other services.
For further details of these and other Ricardo services, please contact:
Roland Christopher, Information Manager, Ricardo Consulting Engineers
Tel. +44 (0) 1273 794230, email: Roland.Christopher@ricardo.com.
Ricardo has used reasonable endeavours to ensure that the information supplied in this service is
correct. However, no responsibility or liability can be accepted for any errors or omissions. Entries in this
publication do not imply endorsement of any product or service by Ricardo.
Ricardo plc. 2009
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OPTICAL RESEARCH ENGINES

IN-CYLINDER STUDIES OF FUEL INJECTION AND COMBUSTION FROM A NARROW CONE FUEL
INJECTOR IN A HIGH SPEED SINGLE CYLINDER OPTICAL ENGINE
Brunel University
Over the last decade, the high speed direct injection (HSDI) diesel engine has made dramatic progress in
both its performance and market share in the light-duty vehicle market. However, with ever more stringent
emission legislation to be introduced over coming years, the simultaneous reduction of NOx and
Particulate Matter (PM) from the HSDI diesel engine is being intensively researched. As part of a
European Union NICE integrated project, research has been carried out to investigate the fuel injection
and combustion from a narrow cone fuel injector in a high speed direct injection single-cylinder engine
with optical access utilising a multiple injection strategy and various alternate fuels (BtL 46% and 50%
blends with diesel). The fuel injection process was visualised using a high speed imaging system
comprising a copper vapour laser and a high speed video camera. The autoignition and combustion
process was analysed through the chemiluminescence images of CHO and OH using an intensified CCD
camera. The combustion temperature and soot loading distributions were measured using the two-colour
method.
Conclusions reflect low IMEP, sub-optimal muliple fuel injection strategy, poor combustion performance
of BtL fuels, value of optical access, effects of fuels on combustion, optimisation opportunities.
See SAE 2008-01-1789 (2008, 14pp.)
IGNITION IN AN SI ENGINE USING NANOSECOND DISCHARGES GENERATED BY A SPARK GAP
PLASMA IGNITER (SGPI)
CORIA
This paper describes a novel ignition system which delivers nanosecond discharges for SI engine
ignition. The main advantages of very fast-pulsed discharges for SI engine applications are: to reduce
heat losses, to minimize the effect of turbulence on the initial stage of ignition and to potentially generate
a larger ignition volume. This new ignition system has been set up on an optical single-cylinder engine
test-bench and compared with a conventional ignition system. In order to evaluate combustion
characteristics, in-cylinder pressure and the pollutant emissions of the exhaust gases have been
measured.
Spark Gap Plasma Igniter (SGPI) comprises a modified spark plug connected to a spark gap and uses a
standard ignition coil as its power supply. It has been validated on an optical single-cylinder engine testbench and compared with a conventional ignition system. In the first part of the paper, the igniter will be
described; the second part of the paper will be devoted to the results of live engine tests.
Benefits of SGPI include higher UMEP, faster heat release, greater cyclic stability, no misfire at lean AFR,
faster combustion, reduced CO and HC, hotter combustion, hence more NOx.
See SAE 2008-01-1628 (2008, 10pp.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHANOL, BUTANOL, ISO-OCTANE AND GASOLINE SPRAYS AND
COMBUSTION FROM A MULTI-HOLE INJECTOR IN A DISI ENGINE
University College London and Jaguar
Recent pressures on vehicle manufacturers to reduce their average fleet levels of CO2 emissions have
resulted in an increased drive to improve fuel economy and enable use of fuels developed from
renewable sources that can achieve a net reduction in the CO2 output of each vehicle. The most popular
choice for spark-ignition engines has been the blending of ethanol with gasoline, where the ethanol is
derived either from agricultural or cellulosic sources such as sugar cane, corn or decomposed plant
matter. However, other fuels, such as butanol, have also arisen as potential candidates due to their
similarities to gasoline, e.g. higher energy density than ethanol. To extract the maximum benefits from
these new fuels through optimized engine design and calibration, an understanding of the behaviour of
these fuels in modern engines is necessary. In particular, the use of direct injection spark-ignition
technology requires spray formation and combustion characteristics to be quantified in order to improve
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both injector design and operating strategies. To this end an optical investigation of spray development
and combustion was undertaken in a single-cylinder direct-injection spark-ignition engine with a centrally
mounted multi-hole injector. Specifically, crank-angle resolved imaging studies were performed and
batches of images from 100 consecutive cycles were acquired with synchronised in-cylinder pressure
logging. The engine was motored and fired at 1500 RPM stoichiometrically under part load (0.5 bar intake
pressure), with injection timing set early in the intake stroke to promote homogeneous mixture formation.
The effects were investigated at engine coolant temperatures of 20C and 90C using gasoline, isooctane, ethanol and butanol. Projected spray areas as seen through the piston crown were calculated to
reveal information about the atomization and evaporation processes for each fuel. Additionally, flame
areas and centroids were calculated to analyse the combustion process relative to measured in-cylinder
pressure histories.
See SAE 2008-01-1591 (2008, 19pp, 31 refs.)
EARLY DIRECT-INJECTION, LOW-TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION OF DIESEL FUEL IN AN OPTICAL
ENGINE UTILIZING A 15-HOLE, DUAL-ROW, NARROW-INCLUDED-ANGLE NOZZLE
Sandia National Laboratories and Caterpillar
Low-temperature combustion of diesel fuel was studied in a heavy-duty, single-cylinder, optical engine
employing a 15-hole, dual-row, narrow-included-angle nozzle (10 holes x 70 and 5 holes x 35) with 103m-diameter orifices. This nozzle configuration provided the spray targeting necessary to contain the
direct-injected diesel fuel within the piston bowl for injection timings as early as 70 before top dead
centre. Spray-visualization movies, acquired using a high-speed camera, show that impingement of liquid
fuel on the piston surface can result when the in-cylinder temperature and density at the time of injection
are sufficiently low.
Seven single- and two-parameter sweeps around a 4.82bar gross indicated mean effective pressure
load point were performed to map the sensitivity of the combustion and emissions to variations in
injection timing, injection pressure, equivalence ratio, simulated exhaust-gas recirculation, intake
temperature, intake boost pressure, and load. High-speed movies of natural luminosity were acquired by
viewing through a window in the cylinder wall and through a window in the piston to provide quasi-3D
information about the combustion process. These movies revealed that advanced combustion phasing
resulted in intense pool fires within the piston bowl, after the end of significant heat release. These pool
fires are a result of fuel-films created when the injected fuel impinged on the piston surface. The
emissions results showed a strong correlation with pool-fire activity. Smoke and NOx emissions rose
steadily as pool-fire intensity increased, whereas HC and CO showed a dramatic increase with near-zero
pool-fire activity.
See SAE 2008-01-2400 (2008, 28pp.)
TRACER LIF VISUALISATION STUDIES OF PISTON-TOP FUEL FILMS IN A WALL-GUIDED, LOWNOX DIESEL ENGINE
IFP
Tracer laser induced fluorescence (LIF) imaging of piston-top fuel films has been performed within the
combustion chamber of an optically-accessible, single-cylinder Diesel engine. The first objective of the
study was to adapt the tracer LIF technique so as to perform in-cylinder imaging of the fuel films under
reacting (i.e. combustion) conditions. The results obtained in a wall-guided, combustion chamber
operating under highly dilute, Diesel low temperature combustion (LTC) conditions reveal the significant
presence of late-cycle piston-top fuel films. Furthermore, it is believed that these fuel films contribute to
engine-out hydrocarbon (HC) emissions via a mechanism of flash boiling.
An attempt was also made to evaluate the role of fuel volatility on fuel film lifetimes. This was achieved by
using a 50/50 fuel mixture of two single component fuels whose boiling points correspond to moderately
high and low volatility components of standard Diesel fuel. Several fuel tracers were considered such as
5-nonanone, tetramethyl-p-phenylendiamine (TMPD) and naphthalene. Finally, the tracer naphthalene
with a boiling point of 218C, coupled with dodecane (boiling point 216C) was used to represent the
higher volatility component of Diesel fuel. An attempt to trace the lower volatility fuel components using
the tracer TMPD (boiling point 260C) proved unsuccessful due to excessive oxygen-induced quenching
of the TMPD fluorescence signal. However, experiments performed with the single component fuel n-
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tetradecane (boiling point 253C) revealed significant 'natural fluorescence', probably due to the presence
of trace impurities within the fuel. These characteristics were exploited so as to allow qualitative studies of
the evolution of the lower volatility component of Diesel fuels. The results presented here reveal that late
cycle pistontop fuel films are preferentially due to the presence of the lower volatility (i.e. heavier)
components of the fuel whilst the LIF signal corresponding to the higher volatility tracer/fuel combination
is detected until about mid-way through the expansion stroke clearly suggesting that these lighter
components undergo faster evaporation.
On a broader note, the present study highlights the problems/challenges of performing tracer-LIF studies
of Diesel-type fuels due to an apparent lack of appropriate high boiling point fuel tracers.
See SAE 2008-01-2474 (2008, 14pp.)
OPTICAL IN-CYLINDER MEASUREMENTS OF A LARGE-BORE MEDIUM-SPEED DIESEL ENGINE
Helsinki University of Technology and ABB Oy
The objective of this study was to build up an optical access into a large bore medium-speed research
engine and carry out the first fuel spray Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements in the running
large bore medium-speed engine in high pressure environment. The aim was also to measure spray
penetration with same optical access and apparatus.
The measurements were performed in a single-cylinder large bore medium-speed research engine, the
Extreme Value Engine (EVE) with optical access into the combustion chamber. The authors are not
aware of any other studies on optical spray measurements in large bore medium-speed diesel engines.
Successful optical measurements of the fuel spray penetration and the velocity fields were carried out.
This confirms that the exceptional component design and laser sheet alignment used in this study proved
to be valid for optical fuel spray measurements in large-bore medium-speed diesel engines.
See SAE 2008-01-2477 (2008, 10pp.)
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DIESEL RESEARCH ENGINES

SURFACE PROPERTIES OF CRN COATED ENGINE CYLINDERS
Firat University and Abant Izzet Baysal University
In an experimental study performed on a single-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine, the cylinder was
coated with CrN by PVD and its surface behaviour were investigated. The wear behaviour of the engine
with CrN coated cylinder and with uncoated, cast iron, cylinder were compared. The effect of hardness,
surface topography, microstructure, and running conditions were studied. With X-ray analysis, the
structural changes on the surface due to thermal and mechanical shocks were examined.
Covers ceramic coating processes.
See Doc.136517 (Materials & Design, Mar 2009, pp914-920, 21 refs.)
EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUES FOR TRANSIENT PM-MEASUREMENTS
Royal Institute of Technology
PM-emissions during a load transient have been measured regarding particle mass, exhaust
transparency and particle number concentrations in different size ranges. The load transient was from
low to medium load at constant speed and was performed with a single-cylinder research engine. Mass
measurements were conducted with a Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance. Exhaust transparency
was measured with an Opacimeter. Particle Number Concentrations were measured with two different
Condensation Particle Counters, CPCs, where one of them was equipped with a Particle Size Selector,
PSS, in order to distinguish accumulation mode particles from nucleation mode. An Engine Exhaust
Particle Sizer, EEPS, was also used in parallel with the CPCs and provided a full size distribution. For
dilution, a rotating disc diluter and a two stage ejector diluter was used. In total two stages of hot dilution
and one unheated. It was found that all instruments, except the TEOM, had acceptable time resolution for
dynamic measurements with the dilution and acquisition setup used in this experiment. In most aspects,
the measurements from the different instruments were consistent and the discrepancies could be
explained by their measuring principles. In some cases, simultaneous use of different instruments could
provide a more detailed description of the emitted PM. It was also concluded that the rotating disc diluter,
with some reservations, could be used for transient measurements.
Base engine: Scania D12 6-cylinder HDD.
Problems: roles of stored PM, role of non-solid PM.
See SAE 2008-01-1680 (2008, 12pp.)
COMPRESSION RATIO INFLUENCE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF AN ADVANCED SINGLECYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE OPERATING IN CONVENTIONAL AND LOW TEMPERATURE
COMBUSTION MODE
Istituto Motori - CNR
The present paper describes a detailed experimental analysis on the effect of the compression ratio on
the performance of a single-cylinder research diesel engine operating with both conventional combustion
and Low Temperature Combustion mode for low NOx emissions.
The single-cylinder engine was developed with the same combustion system architecture of the fourcylinder FIAT 1.9-litre Multi-Jet.
Starting from an engine configuration with a compression ratio of 16.5, the compression ratio was
reduced to 14.5. For both the geometric configurations, engine performance was evaluated in terms of
thermodynamic parameters, emissions and fuel consumption in some operating test points representative
of the engine behaviour running on the NEDC cycle.
The results of compression ratio reduction evidenced a strong improvement in NOx-particulate trade-off
coupled with penalties in unburned compounds emissions (HCs+CO) and fuel consumption, highlighting
advantages and limits of low compression ratio engines employing low temperature combustion concept.
Covers - attainment of LTC combustion, LTC vs conventional combustion, means of alleviating the
problems of LTC, LTC operates range retention.
See SAE 2008-01-1678 (2008, 16pp.)
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INVESTIGATION OF A NEW INJECTION STRATEGY FOR SIMULTANEOUS SOOT AND NOX

REDUCTION IN A DIESEL ENGINE WITH DIRECT INJECTION
Universitat Karlsruhe
An important source for soot formation during the combustion of diesel engines with direct injection is the
interaction of liquid fuel or a very rich air/fuel-mixture with the flame. This effect appears especially in
modern direct injection engines where the injection is often split in a pre- and a main injection due to
noise reasons. After the ignition of the pre-injected fuel a part of the main injection can interact with the
flame still in liquid phase as the fuel is injected straight towards the already burning cylinder areas. This
leads to high amounts of soot.
The injection strategy for this experimental study overcomes this problem by separating the injections
spatially and therefore on the one hand reduces the soot formation during the early stages of the
combustion and on the other hand increases the soot oxidation later during the combustion. In particular
an injection configuration is used which gives the degree of freedom to modify the injection in the
described manner. Therefore the cylinder head of a heavy-duty single-cylinder research engine is
equipped with a second common-rail injector. This second injector is used for the pilot injection which is
injected centrally in the combustion chamber while the main injection is done in a conventional manner
using a seven-hole injector.
In the first step the mixture formation of the spatially separated pre- and main injection is simulated with
the 3D-CFD code KIVA-3V to get a first impression on the mixture formation. Then the effects of the new
injection strategy on the combustion process itself are investigated with the single-cylinder engine in
comparison to a conventional engine operation using cylinder pressure indication and exhaust gas
analysis as well as the Two-Colour-Method for observing the soot production and soot oxidation in the
combustion chamber during the combustion process.
See SAE 2008-01-1790 (2008, 12pp.)
INFLUENCE OF THE DIFFERENT FUEL SPRAY WALL IMPINGEMENT ANGLES ON SMOKE
EMISSION IN A DI-DIESEL ENGINE
Mitsubishi Fuso
Reduction of smoke emission from diesel engines is important in order to meet upcoming stringent
exhaust gas regulations and also for improving fuel economy. In this paper, the reduction of smoke from
DI diesel engines for heavy-duty vehicles is discussed. A single-cylinder engine test and threedimensional numerical analysis were carried out in order to obtain necessary and useful information for
designing a combustion chamber and a fuel injection nozzle that could realize reduced smoke emission.
This study is focused particularly on the behaviour of the fuel spray which impinges on the piston cavity
wall in the case of a re-entrant type combustion bowl. As a result, it was found that the spray wallimpingement angle performs an important role in promoting fuel-air mixing. It is thus an important
parameter which controls the main combustion region. It was also found that the optimized spray wallimpingement angle contributes to the efficient utilization of the air trapped in the cylinder, leading to a
reduction in smoke emission
See SAE 2008-01-1791 (2008, 13pp.)
IMPACT THEORY BASED TOTAL CYLINDER SAMPLING SYSTEM AND ITS APPLICATION
Jilin University and FAW
A novel non-destroy repeatable-use impact theory based total cylinder sampling system has been
established. This system is mainly composed of a knocking body and a sampling valve. The knocking
body impacts the sampling valve with certain velocity resulting in huge force to open the sampling valve
and most of the in-cylinder gas has been dumped to one sampling bag for aftertreatment.
The feasibility and sampling response characteristics of this impact theory based total cylinder sampling
system were investigated by engine bench testing. Within 0 to 35 Crank Angle After Top Dead Centre
sample timing 50 percent to 80 percent of in-cylinder mass would be sampled, which was a little less
compared with the traditional system. The half decay period of pressure drop was 10 to 20 degrees crank
angle within 0 to 60CA ATDC sample timing, which was about 2-3 times of the traditional system.
The in-cylinder pressure histories were of highly consistency which certificated the application ability in
engine chemical kinetics research.
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The PM and its DS (dry soot) fraction shaped one-peak history, the peak value appeared at 20CA
ATDC. The PM quantity history reaches its peak value at about 30CA ATDC. At any crank angle the
diameters of formed PM own two centres, one is smaller than 0.01m and the other is 0.133m. NOx
formation history shaped like S, and most of the NOx formed within 20CA after combustion began. The
PM quantity kept almost the same, however the DS fraction increased under transient operations. The
effects of EGR on in-cylinder PM and DS behaviour investigation showed that the weak oxidation of DS
resulted from recirculated gas was the main reason for lower in-cylinder PM and DS peak value and
higher PM emission.
Base engine: 4-stroke, single-cylinder Di diesel engine of 14.7 kW output.
See SAE 2008-01-1795 (2008, 12pp.)
DIESEL EMISSIONS IMPROVEMENT BY RME IN A HIGH BOOST AND EGR SINGLE CYLINDER
ENGINE
New ACE Institute Co and National Traffic Safety and Environment Laboratory
The biomass fuel is expected to solve the global warming due to a carbon neutral. A rapeseed oil methyl
ester (RME) as biomass fuel was selected, and also a low sulfur diesel fuel is tested as reference fuel in
this study. The experiments were carried out to improve diesel emissions and engine performance using
high boost and high rate EGR system and a common rail injection system in a single-cylinder engine.
The diesel emissions and engine performance have been measured under the experimental conditions
such as charging boost pressure from atmospheric pressure to 401.3kPa maximum and changing EGR
rate from 0% to 40% maximum. RME contain about 10 mass % oxygen in the fuel molecule.
Furthermore, RME does not contain aromatic hydrocarbons in the fuel. Due to these chemical properties,
RME can be used at 40% high EGR condition. It is effective to use high-pressure fuel injection such as
150MPa in order to reduce smoke at engine out and using an oxidation catalyst is effective to reduce
BSHC and PM at exhaust pipe, though the higher temperature of RME boiling point compared to that of
diesel fuel. From the experimental results, RME can reduce BSNOx and PM in comparison with a low
sulphur diesel fuel in the case of increasing EGR rate and with oxidation catalyst, unless there was
deterioration of smoke.
See SAE 2008-01-1376 (2008, 13pp.)
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A VARIABLE VALVE ACTUATION SYSTEM TO A HD
DIESEL ENGINE
Technische Universitat Braunschweig
This paper describes the development process and the implementation of an electro-hydraulic variable
valve actuation system to a heavy-duty single-cylinder research Diesel engine. Because of the
requirements of this special application the described development process deviates strongly from past
publications. These requirements are directly derived from results of the combustion process
development on a HD engine and their fulfilment by the VVA is simulated both for the mechanical design
and the gas exchange. On the one hand the software AMESim is used on the other hand Ricardo Wave.
Finally some experimental results of the prototype system are shown.
See SAE 2008-01-1359 (2008, 24pp.)
ADVANCED EGR CONTROL CONCEPT FOR HD-TRUCK-ENGINES
Technische Universitat Braunschweig and MAHLE International
A new technology will be presented to introduce EGR in the high pressure loop of a turbocharged heavyduty truck engine without penalty of fuel economy caused by the increase of pumping losses.
The application of an EPV into the EGR line of a heavy-duty truck engine combines several benefits
which are normally achieved with different equipment. This test series demonstrated that exhaust gas
recirculation by means of an Exhaust Pulse Valve (EPV) is an alternative method to realize EGR.
Benefits of EPV include rapid cycling, low power consumption, multiple cylinder capability, self-cleaning
capability, superior to reed valves, low back pressure, increased EGR rate, 2.5% fuel economy gain.
The test engine is a supercharged single-cylinder engine based on the MAN D28 Series.
See SAE 2008-01-1200 (2008, 12pp.)
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A NEW INJECTION STRATEGY FOR IN-CYLINDER REDUCTION OF POLLUTANT

EMISSIONS FOR DIESEL ENGINES WITH DIRECT INJECTION
University of Kaiserslautern
This powerpoint-style presentation explores:
PILOT INJECTION
Benefits of pilot injection, e.g. NVH reduction, facilitation of main injection, reduction of combustion
temperature and hence of NOx, amelioration of combustion pressure gradient
Penalties: enhances diffusion combustion fraction, increases PM, necessitates careful control of injection
quantity/mass
PM/SOOT FORMATION AND OXIDATION
NOVEL FUEL INJECTION STRATEGY
Spatial separation of pilot and main injections and their combustion (SSI)
Benefits:
Optimisation of local AFR for main injection - lean
Uses excess O2 in centre of combustion chamber
Reduces soot/PM formation and enhances its oxidation
Drawback - no injector exists which can perform spatially separated injections hence need for second
injector for pilot, offset to main injector
CAE - simulation of SSI
Experiment:
With single-cylinder research engine (Daimler OM450 with EGR, common rail and external boosting).
Head modified. Switchable pilot injection spray generation capability. Combustion visualisation using
optical/2-colour method.
Results - spray characteristics of new combustion system. Optimum pilot spray angle for PM control. PM
concentration in combustion chamber - its shape has been optimised. 19% reduction in NOx from main
injection. Pressure gradient reduced. Improved NOx/PM tradeoff.
New combustion systems offers low NOx and PM even at low load and with high EGR rate.
See CD ROM 389 Merkel.pdf (MTZ Conference on Heavy Duty Engines, Bonn, Nov 2008, 26pp.) (In
German.)
AN INVESTIGATION OF HIGH LOAD (COMPRESSION IGNITION) OPERATION OF THE NAPHTHA
ENGINE A COMBUSTION STRATEGY FOR LOW WELL-TO-WHEEL CO2 EMISSIONS
Toyota and ExxonMobil
A computational and experimental study has been carried out to assess the high load efficiency and
emissions potential of a combustion system designed to operate on low octane gasoline (or naphtha).
The 'naphtha engine' concept utilizes spark ignition at low load, HCCI at intermediate load, and
compression ignition at high load; this paper focuses on high load (compression ignition) operation.
Experiments were carried out in a single-cylinder diesel engine with compression ratio of 16 and a
common rail injector/fuel delivery system. Three fuels were examined: a light naphtha (RON~59, CN~34),
heavy naphtha (RON~66, CN~31), and heavy naphtha additized with cetane improver (CN~40). With
single fuel injection near top dead center (TDC) (diesel-like combustion), excessive combustion noise is
generated as the load increases. This noise limits the maximum power, in agreement with the CFD
predictions. The noise-limited maximum power increases somewhat with the use of single pilot injection.
Operation at peak loads comparable to conventional light duty diesel power levels requires a 'split
combustion' approach that utilizes a widely-separated pilot and main injection. The engine results show
good performance and efficiency at low speeds across medium to high loads. High speed operation of
split combustion is limited to engine speeds of < 2700 rpm due to insufficient ignitability of the naphthas
even when cetane improver is added. While the large amount of premixed combustion at low and
medium loads results in low NOx and PM emissions, high (diesel-like) emissions are observed at high
load with the split combustion approach. Thus, while the approach yields promising peak load levels and
high efficiency operation speed and emission considerations limit the utility of this approach at present
and further research is required to improve its attractiveness.
See SAE 2008-01-1599 (2008, 15pp.)
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COMBUSTION OF THE ALTERNATIVE MARINE DIESEL DUEL LCO IN LARGE DIESEL ENGINES
Kyushu University
The IMO are planning drastic reductions of nitrogen oxide and sulphur oxide emission limitations from
marine diesel engines. At the Laboratory of Engine and Combustion (ECO) of the Kyushu University in
Fukuoka (Japan), experiments were carried out on a medium size, single-cylinder, diesel engine with
two-stroke technology in order to investigate the use of Light Cycle Oil (LCO) in large diesel engines with
new combustion processes.
Covers - IMO Tier II NOx regulations, benefits of HCCI combustion, particle HCCI (PCCI), fuel blends
HFO + LCO/CLO, novel combustion system developed by ECO laboratory of Kyushu University.
Work by Eco: Use of LCO and MDO in PCCI in an engine with optical access and combustion
visualisation technology.
Fuel is injected in 2 stages pre-ignition and main injection through 3 nozzle holes
Notes low quality LCO, high quality MDO ignites too soon, no good for PCCI, LCO is aromatic and
delays ignition, increasing thermal efficiency (enhanced by charge cooling). Also evaporates well. LCO
+ PCCI reduces NOx without PM penalty.
See Doc.136926 (ATZ Worldwide, Nov 2008, pp54-59.)
STUDY ON HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATION IN IC ENGINES
Sri Siddhartha Institute of Technology, Sahydri Institute of Technology and NMAMIT
Heat transfer in reciprocating combustion engine is an intricate phenomenon involving rapid cyclic
variation of cylinder pressure temperature density and area of contacting surfaces. Rate of heat transfer
in internal combustion engine is further complicated greatly due to the gas turbulence and flame radiation
effects, the magnitudes of which depend on the engine type and operating conditions. It is necessary to
calculate the heat flow, the temperature distribution and the temperature stresses. Hence, an accurate
model for estimation of heat transfer in various phases of the cycle is an important factor which influences
the accuracy of all parameter in the cycle analysis.
Nearly more than twenty correlations have been proposed to find the heat transfer coefficient in the
combustion chamber wall among which some of theoretical concepts. The large disagreement among the
various proposed formulae for reciprocating engine heat transfer made it hard to choose any adequate e
formula for universal application to various combustion engines.
This paper proposes a modified heat transfer correlation based on experiments conducted in motored
diesel engine with natural aspiration of hot air at around 150C-300C. The author considered the Intake
jet velocity in place of mean piston speed in Reynold parameter in proposed heat transfer coefficient
equation. The Intake jet velocity is better representative of gas velocity than the mean piston speed since
it takes into account the diameter of inlet port of an engine and diameter of piston. Further, the proposed
heat transfer correlation for Compression Ignition engine is validated by conducting experiments on a
direct injection, four stroke, single-cylinder, water-cooled Diesel engine under fired conditions at different
loads and different speeds. The formulated new heat transfer correlation is finally compared with other
earlier correlations proposed by other researchers.
See SAE 2008-01-1816 (2008, 10pp.)
PERFORMANCE, EFFICIENCY AND EMISSIONS COMPARISON OF DIESEL FUEL AND A FISCHERTROPSCH SYNTHETIC FUEL IN A CFR SINGLE CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE DURING HIGH LOAD
OPERATION
United States Naval Academy
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthetic fuels have been shown to produce lower soot and oxides of nitrogen
emissions than petroleum-based diesel #2 (D2) in previous studies. This performance is frequently
attributed to the very low aromatic content as well as essentially zero sulphur content. The objective of
this empirical study was to investigate the high engine load regime using a military FT and D2 fuel in a
CFR diesel engine at fueling levels approaching stoichiometric. A testing matrix comprised of various
injection advance set points, fueling amounts (e.g. load) above 6 bar gross indicated mean effective
pressure (IMEPg), and three different compression ratios (CR) was pursued. The results show that
oxides of nitrogen emissions are always equal to or lower running FT compared to diesel. This result is
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attributed to the higher cetane number of FT leading to lower peak in-cylinder pressures as compared to
D2. FT fuel CO2 emissions are always lower than D2 as a result of the higher H/C ratio of the FT fuel. At
CRs of 15 and 16.5 as well as for near maximum brake torque (MBT) injection advance timings, the FT
cumulative PM emission levels are lower than diesel approaching 8 bar IMEPg, but are similar at the
highest loads attained with both fuels. At intermediate-advanced injection timings and high CR, the FT
fuel showed no PM advantage with possibly worse levels at some operating conditions. An
accompanying heat release analysis showed that the pre-mix burn fraction of FT is always less than D2,
and that this pre-mix fraction increases with decreasing CR and injection advance. PM was seen to
always decrease with increasing pre-mix burn fraction. However, FT always yielded much less soot that
D2 for similar pre-mix burn fractions indicating a more effective diffusion burning phase for FT.
See SAE 2008-01-2382 (2008, 14pp.)
FUEL INJECTION STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE EMISSIONS AND EFFICIENCY OF HIGH
COMPRESSION RATIO DIESEL ENGINES
University of Windsor
Simultaneous low NOx (< 0.15 g/kWh) and soot {< 0.01 g/kWh) are attainable for enhanced premixed
combustion that may lead to higher levels of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions as the
engine cycles move to low temperature combustion, which is a departure from the ultra low hydrocarbon
and carbon monoxide emissions, typical of the high compression ratio diesel engines. As a result, the fuel
efficiency of such modes of combustion is also compromised (up to 5%). In this paper, advanced
strategies for fuel injection are devised on a modern 4-cylinder common rail diesel engine modified for
single-cylinder research. Thermal efficiency comparisons are made between the low temperature
combustion and the conventional diesel cycles. The fuel injection strategies include single injection with
heavy EGR, and early multi-pulse fuel injection under low or medium engine loads respectively. The
empirical studies have been conducted under independently controlled exhaust gas recirculation, intake
boost, and exhaust backpressure. Multiple fuel injection pulses per cycle and heavy EGR have been
applied to modulate the homogeneity history in order to improve the phasing and efficiency of the
combustion process. The new low temperature combustion trade-off, that is, CO and THC vs NOx and
soot is presented in the context of the different fuel injection strategies.
See SAE 2008-01-2472 (2008, 16pp.)
EFFECT OF FUEL CHARACTERISTICS ON THE PERFORMANCES AND EMISSIONS OF AN EARLYINJECTION LTC / DIESEL ENGINE
IFP
New combustion processes like LTC (Low Temperature Combustion) that includes HCCI, PCCI and
PPCI are promising ways to reduce simultaneously NOx and PM. Nevertheless, these combustion
processes can be used only on a limited part of the engine load and speed map. Therefore, it appeared
interesting to assess how the fuel, through its characteristics, could enhance the operating range in such
combustion processes. That was the aim of an international consortium carried out by IFP and supported
by numerous industrial companies.
First a specific procedure has been developed to compare the different fuels on an early injection HCCI
single-cylinder engine. Then, using this procedure, a matrix of fuels having different cetane numbers,
volatilities and chemical compositions has been tested. Their propensity to increase the operating range
limited by some criteria like smoke or noise has been measured and compared to a conventional Diesel.
Using this methodology, it has been shown that a low CN fuel leads to a long auto ignition delay, which
lets more time for the fuel vaporization process and, consequently, gives a better homogenization of the
fuel, air and exhaust gases mixture. A high fuel volatility also favours the homogenization process.
Moreover, it has been shown that in addition to these classical physical properties, the fuel composition
highly impacts the combustion behaviour and, therefore, noise and smoke emissions. For instance, it has
been observed that an appropriate fuel combining all these parameters could improve the operating
range of more than 30%.
These results are a first step in the definition and the validation of the Combustion Driving Concept: the
way to obtain the optimum combustion development through the fuel formulation.
See SAE 2008-01-2408 (2008, 13pp.)
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DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACCELERATED ASH LOADING PROTOCOL FOR DIESEL PARTICULATE

FILTERS
University of Tennessee and Oak Ridge National Laboratory
The accelerated ash loading of diesel particulate filters (DPFs) with diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs)
mounted upstream by lube-oil derived products was investigated using a single-cylinder diesel engine
and fuel blended with 5% lube oil. An ash loading protocol is developed which combines soot loading,
active soot regeneration, and periodic shutdowns for filter weighing. Active regeneration is accomplished
by exhaust injection of diesel fuel, initiated by a backpressure criteria and providing DPF temperatures up
to 700C. In developing this protocol, five DPFs of various combinations of substrates (cordierite, silicon
carbide, and mullite) and washcoats (none, low PGM, and high PGM) are used and evaluated. The initial
backpressure and rate of backpressure increase with ash varied with each of the DPFs and ash was
observed to have an effect on the active soot light-off temperature for the catalyzed DPFs. Multiple
characterization techniques are performed on the ash layers and ash distribution was found to be
weighted towards the back of the DPFs with ash layer topography a function of channel wall topography.
Ash balances indicate an average recovery of 65% for calcium and zinc and 10% for sulphur and
phosphorous and CaSO4 and Zn(PO3)2 account for a large portion of the total ash.
See SAE 2008-01-2496 (2008, 14pp.)
POTENTIAL OF DIETHYL ETHER AS SUPPLEMENTARY FUEL TO IMPROVE COMBUSTION AND
EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF DIESEL ENGINES
Indian Institute of Technology
The potential of Diethyl ether (DEE) as a supplementary oxygenated fuel in a compression ignition engine
has been identified through an experimental investigation. In this study the tests were conducted on a
single-cylinder DI diesel engine fueled with neat diesel fuel and addition of 2, 5, and 10% DEE in diesel
fuel to find out the optimal blend on the basis of performance and emission characteristics. Some
physicochemical properties of test fuels were determined in accordance to the ASTM standards. The
heating value of the blends reduces with addition of DEE. Front end volatility of the blends improves by
addition of DEE which in turn improves the cold starting property. Some tests were repeated up to six
times to carry out statistical analysis. The uncertainty associated with measurements was also measured.
The results derived were at the 95% confidence level. Experimental results showed that there is a slight
increase in brake specific fuel consumption, brake power and brake thermal efficiency as compared to
diesel fuel. In addition, it was found that there is a decrease in smoke, oxides of nitrogen, unburned
hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and ignition delay along with increase in carbon dioxide. A global
overview of the results was shown that the 5% DEE-Diesel blend is the most effective combination on the
basis of performance and emission characteristics.
See SAE 2008-28-0044 (2008, 8pp.)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS TO IMPROVE THE PERFORMANCE OF RUBBER SEED OIL BY
EXHAUST GAS PREHEATING
Anna University and KCG College of Technology
In the context of fossil fuel crisis and ever increasing vehicle population, the search for alternative fuel
has become necessary. Vegetable oil can be used as an alternative fuel for the diesel engine operation.
However, engine performance is inferior to diesel due to the higher viscosity. The higher viscosity of
vegetable oil causes improper atomization of fuel during injection resulting in incomplete combustion.
This leads to smoky exhaust in a diesel engine. While pre-heating of vegetable oil, it was found that
viscosity reduces exponentially with temperature. The high temperature of the exhaust, which is
otherwise wasted, can be used to preheat the vegetable oil. For this purpose a heat exchanger has to be
designed. It was observed that the rubber seed oil (RSO) requires a heating temperature of 155C to
bring down its viscosity to that of diesel. The objective of this paper is to study the performance,
combustion and emission characteristics of a single-cylinder diesel engine using exhaust gas preheated
rubber seed oil (155C) and rubber seed oil (without preheating) and compare the results with that of
base diesel fuel. The experimental results show that the brake thermal efficiency increases from 26.56%
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to 27.89% when the fuel is preheated to a temperature of 155C. The CO and smoke emission of
preheated RSO reduces by about 15% and 34% at 155C compared with RSO (without preheating). It is
also seen that the ignition delay and combustion duration decreases with preheated oil, which indicates
faster heat release and leads to higher thermal efficiency.
See SAE 2008-28-0049 (2008, 7pp.)
Biodiesel
POTENTIAL OF DIETHYL ETHER AS A BLENDED SUPPLEMENTARY OXYGENATED FUEL WITH
BIODIESEL TO IMPROVE COMBUSTION AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF DIESEL ENGINES
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi
In this research, the potential of Diethyl ether (DEE) which is a renewable bio-based fuel has been
identified, through an experimental investigation, as a supplementary oxygenated additive to improve fuel
properties and combustion characteristics of biodiesel (Karanja oil methyl ester - KOME) such as its high
viscosity, cold starting problems and a high level of NOx emissions. The tests were conducted on a
single-cylinder DI diesel engine fueled with neat KOME as a base fuel and blends of 5, 10, 15 and 20%
DEE on a volume basis.
Some physicochemical properties of test fuels such as heating value, viscosity, specific gravity and
distillation profile were determined in accordance to the ASTM standards.
The results obtained from the engine tests have shown a significant reduction in NOx emissions
especially for DEE addition of more than 10% on a volume basis and a little decrease in smoke of DEE
blends compared with neat KOME. A global overview of the results has shown that the 15% DEE-KOME
blend is the most effective combination based on performance and emission characteristics.
See SAE 2008-01-1805 (2008, 8pp.)
REDUCING NOX EMISSIONS FROM A BIODIESEL-FUELLED ENGINE BY USE OF LOWTEMPERATURE COMBUSTION
North Carolina State University, National Sun Yat-Sen University and University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
Previous studies have shown higher NOx emissions relative to petroleum diesel in traditional directinjection (DI) diesel engines. In this study, effects of injection timing and different biodiesel blends are
studied for low load [2 bar IMEP (indicated mean effective pressure)] conditions. The results show that
maximum heat release rate can be reduced by retarding fuel injection. Ignition and peak heat release rate
are both delayed for fuels containing more biodiesel. Retarding the injection to post-TDC (top dead
centre) lowers the peak heat release and flattens the heat release curve.
The levels of NOx of B20 (20 vol % soy biodiesel and 80 vol % European low-sulphur diesel), B50, and
B100 all with post-TDC injection are 68.1%, 66.7%, and 64.4%, respectively, lower than pure European
low-sulphur diesel in the conventional injection scenario.
Base engine: single-cylinder Ford DIATA research engine with optical access, common rail, electronic
fuel injection.
See Doc.136799 (Environmental Science & Technology, 1 Dec 2008, pp8865-8870, 49 refs.)
EFFECT OF THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF BIODIESEL ON THE DIESEL COMBUSTION
PROCESS
University College London and BP
Issues discussed in this powerpoint-style presentation:
Properties of diesel vs biodiesel, especially regarding combustion behaviour/cetane number/ignition
quality, thermal efficiency, NOx, PM,
Unexplained increase of NOx from biodiesel
Limitations of previous studies, e.g. findings on combustion pressure, emissions, effects of operating
mode, ignition quality, heat release rate.
Experimental work - base engines are Ricardo Hydra and Ford Puma (single-cylinder) with common rail
and solenoid injector - see SAE 2008-01-1578
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Measurement objectives: cylinder pressure, emissions, molecular fuel properties

Test conditions: constant injection timing and ignition
Effects of fatty acid chain length, saturation, double bonds
Conclusions:
Shorter fatty acid chained molecules only emit higher NOx due to their lower ignition quality. If this effect
is removed they produce lower NOx than longer Biodiesel molecules or fossil Diesel fuel. High NOx in
biodiesel stems mainly from unsaturated fatty acid esters. Fatty acids with high boiling points produce
large number of small particulates.
Other issues: FAME molecule combustion, effects on NOx emissions of O/C, N/C and H/C ratios.
See CD ROM 387 Paper 3.pdf (UnICEG Meeting on Fuels, Fuelling and Lubrication, Shell, Thornton,
Sep 2008, 68pp.)
INVESTIGATION OF DIESEL ENGINE USING BIO-DIESEL (METHYL ESTER OF JATROPHA OIL)
FOR VARIOUS INJECTION TIMING AND INJECTION PRESSURE
Annamalai University
The increased number of automobiles in recent years has resulted in great demand for diesel and petrol.
This has led to the development of renewable energy. Energy from biomass and more specific bio-diesel
is one of the opportunities that could cover the future. The biodiesel is derived from vegetable oil and
transesterified vegetable oil are promising alternative fuel for diesel engine. This experiment is conducted
in a single-cylinder water cooled DI diesel engine with different injection timings and injection pressures.
From the experimental investigation performance, combustion and emission characteristics are studied.
The engine is made to run on diesel and bio-diesel by various blend ratios of B20, B40, B60, B80 blend of
MEOJ (Methyl Ester of Jatropha Oil) and B100 at 1500 RPM. The engine is coupled to an eddy current
dynamometer. The emissions NOx and smoke density were measured at different injection timing and
different injection pressure at different load conditions. Using AVL combustion analyzer the combustion
parameters such as cylinder pressure, heat release rate and cycle to cycle variation were analyzed.
See SAE 2008-01-1577 (2008, 11pp.)
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF
BIODIESELS FROM DIFFERENT VEGETABLE OILS WITH DIESEL
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering and Rajalakshmi Engineering College
This paper is concerned with the comparison and analysis of the performance and emission
characteristics of methyl esters of sunflower oil, palm oil, pungam oil, Jatropha oil, Rice bran oil and
waste cooking oil with those of diesel. The need to select the biodiesels source for standardization of
biodiesels blends necessitates this comparison. In addition to the various vegetable oils, sunflower oil
that has been hydrogenated after cooking has also been considered for this comparison. All the above
mentioned vegetable oils are transesterified with methanol in presence of alkaline catalyst to obtain the
respective methyl esters. The above obtained biodiesels are tested on a single-cylinder Direct Injection
CI engine. The engine is loaded with an electrical dynamometer. The performance parameters, namely
Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) and Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) are calculated form brake power
and total fuel consumption. Emissions of Carbon Monoxide (CO), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX) and Unburnt
Hydrocarbons (HC) are measured using MRU delta 1600 L Exhaust Gas Analyzer. The emissions of soot
are measured by AVL smoke meter. The measured performance and emissions of the biodiesels are
compared with that of diesel.
It is found that sunflower oil methyl ester (SUME) has highest BTE across the range of loads while Palm
oil methyl ester (PAME) has the lowest specific fuel consumption among the biodiesels. NOX emissions
are highest for SUME. All biodiesels record lesser CO, HC and soot emissions compared to diesel.
See SAE 2008-01-1581 (2008, 7pp.)
EFFECT OF THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF INDIVIDUAL FATTY ACID ALCOHOL ESTERS
(BIODIESEL) ON THE FORMATION OF NOX AND PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE DIESEL
COMBUSTION PROCESS
University College London and BP
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Biodiesel is a renewable fuel which can be used as a direct replacement for fossil Diesel fuel as a
calorific source in Diesel Engines. It consists of fatty acid monoalkyl esters, which are produced by the
transesterification reaction of plant oils with monohydric alcohols. The Plant oils and alcohols can both be
derived from biomass, giving this fuel the potential for a sustainable carbon dioxide neutral life-cycle,
which is an important quality with regard to avoiding the net emission of anthropogenic greenhouse
gases. Depending on its fatty ester composition, Biodiesel can have varying physical and chemical
properties which influence its combustion behaviour in a Diesel engine. It has been observed by many
researchers that Biodiesel can sometimes lead to an increase in emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
compared to fossil Diesel fuel, while emitting a lower amount of particulate mass. The work described in
this paper examines the influence of the detailed molecular structure of fatty acid ester molecules on the
formation of NOx and particulate matter. Several individual fatty acid alcohol esters were synthesised and
tested as fuel in a single-cylinder direct injection Diesel engine under carefully controlled operating
conditions. Cylinder pressure and exhaust gas emissions were measured and exhaust particulate
number and size distribution were recorded using a differential mobility spectrometer. An ignition
improving additive was used in certain experiments to eliminate the influence of ignition delay on the
combustion characteristics of the various molecules. It was observed that the chain length and the
degree of saturation of the fatty acids, as well as the type of alcohol used for the fuel synthesis, have
distinct effects on the formation of NOx and particulate matter during Diesel combustion.
See SAE 2008-01-1578 (2008, 26pp, 42 refs.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS IN A DI ENGINE FUELED WITH BIODIESEL
BLENDS FROM SOYBEAN OIL
Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Tongji University
Combustion and emission characteristics of diesel and biodiesel blends (soybean methyl ester) were
studied in a single-cylinder Direct Injection engine at different loads and a constant speed. The results
show that NOx emission and fuel consumption are increased with increasing biodiesel percentage.
Reduction of smoke opacity is significant at higher loads with a higher biodiesel ratio. Compared with the
baseline diesel fuel, B20 has a slight increase of NOx emission and similar fuel consumption. Smoke
emission of B20 is close to that of diesel fuel. Results of combustion analysis indicate that start of
combustion (SOC) for biodiesel blends is earlier than that for diesel. Higher biodiesel percentage results
in earlier SOC. Earlier SOC for biodiesel blends is due to advanced injection timing from higher density
and bulk modulus and lower ignition delay from higher cetane number. Peak of heat release rate of
biodiesel blends is further decreased with increasing the biodiesel percentage, which is due to poor
evaporation and atomization characteristics of biodiesel blends and lower ignition delay from higher CN
(Cetane Number). Additionally, hot EGR will significantly decrease the NOx emission for diesel and
biodiesel blends. NOx emission of pure biodiesel is lower than baseline of diesel at about 10% EGR rate.
However, EGR rates have little influence on the peak of heat release rate for pure biodiesel.
See SAE 2008-01-1832 (2008, 10pp.)
PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIRECT INJECTION DIESEL ENGINE
FUELED WITH CNG-BIODIESEL
National Institute of Technology Karnataka and Reva Institute of Technology and Management
This work studies the feasibility of using Jatropha oil Methyl ester (JOME) as an alternative fuel for a
diesel engine under dual-fuel mode combustion, with CNG as inducted pilot fuel with respect to its
performance and emission levels. The test engine was a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine.
Comparative results are given for various loads under constant speed for conventional diesel and dualfuel operation, revealing the effect of dual-fuel combustion on engine performance and emissions.
A slightly higher BSFC and lower value of BTE were observed. This is due to the lower calorific value
compared to neat diesel operation. Emission levels were also comparable to that of neat diesel fuel
operations. JOME can be used as a fuel either in neat form or in dual-fuel mode with CNG in diesel
engines without any engine modifications.
Engine running tests were conducted on a Kirloskar single-cylinder, 4-stroke, constant speed, vertical,
water-cooled, direct injection diesel engine.
See Doc.137228 (Journal of Middle European Construction & Design of Cars, 2008, No. 2, pp32-36.)
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ACTIVITY OF PROTOTYPE CATALYSTS ON EXHAUST EMISSIONS FROM BIODIESEL FUELLED

ENGINES
University of Birmingham and Johnson Matthey
A prototype catalyst has been developed and integrated within the aftertreatment exhaust system to
control the HC, CO, PM and NOx emissions from diesel exhaust gas. The catalyst activity in removing
HC and nanoparticles was examined with exhaust gas from a diesel engine operating on biodiesel Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME). The tests were carried out at steady-state conditions for short periods of
time, thus catalyst tolerance to sulphur was not examined. The prototype catalyst reduced the amount of
hydrocarbons (HC) and the total PM. The quantity of particulate with electrical mobility diameter in
nucleation mode size < 10nm, was significantly reduced over the catalyst. Moreover, it was observed that
the use of EGR (20% vol) for the biodiesel fuelled engine significantly increases the particle concentration
in the accumulation mode with simultaneous reduction in the particle concentration in the nuclei mode.
The effectiveness of the prototype catalyst in reducing PM from the combustion of biodiesel was
dependent on the engine operating condition and EGR. However, up to 50% and 30% reduction in total
particulate number and mass, respectively, was seen due to oxidation of the soot free PM (nuclei) and
organic carbon from the rest of the PM. When EGR was used the catalyst effectiveness in controlling PM
and especially total number was reduced to as low as 5%, due to increased PM concentration and
modified PM composition. The results suggest that the use of this prototype catalyst can aid
aftertreatment system performance and the control of environmental pollution.
Base engine: single-cylinder DI diesel of 773 cc capacity.
Catalyst features: two way - converts NOx and carbon-based exhaust emissions.
Test objective: synergies between catalyst, biodiesel (RME) and EGR.
Catalyst effects: reduces PM and unregulated HC but not NOx. Potential benefits in conjunction with
other aftertreatment methods are predicted.
Fuel effects: reduces HC, CO and PM but increases NOx.
EGR effects: reduces nuclei mode PM, increases accumulation mode PM, reduces NOx.
See SAE 2008-01-2514 (2008, 10pp.)
JATROPHA DERIVED BIODIESEL ITS SUITABILITY AS CI ENGINE FUEL
Roy Engineering College and Jadavpur University
The increased demand of energy in the next millennium will bring two major challenges, namely energy
crisis and environmental degradation. The crying need of the day is to have energy which in simple terms
means fuel. Bulk of the petroleum fuels are being consumed by agriculture and transport sector for which
diesel engines happen to be the prime mover. Though there are wide varieties of alternative fuels
available, the research has not yet provided the right renewable fuel to replace diesel. In the present
study biodiesel is produced from jatropha by transesterification plant indigenously developed by the
authors and their properties were measured to compare with diesel fuel. The blends of varying
proportions of this biodiesel with diesel were prepared, analyzed and compared with diesel oil. The
engine performance and emission characteristics were evaluated in a single-cylinder CI engine and a
comparison was made to suggest the better option among the biodiesels under study.
See SAE 2008-28-0040 (2008, 5pp.)
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GASOLINE RESEARCH ENGINES

ELECTRONIC CONTINUOUS VARIABLE VALVE TIMING FOR SMALL SI ENGINE
University of Sussex
An electronic variable valve timing system for a spark ignition engine was designed and built in order to
investigate the performance of ideal valve actuation timing and facilitate further research. The solenoid
actuated EVVT system was installed on a single-cylinder 80 ccm, 1.7 kW Briggs & Stratton SI engine.
The system is controlled by a PIC micro-controller unit, which in turn controls a 120V solenoid driver
circuit to power the solenoids.
The continuous variable valve timing adjustment enables ideal combustion conditions during all speed
ranges and loads. This leads to cleaner, more efficient and more powerful combustion once the control
algorithm is mapped for all conditions. Furthermore, it makes controlled auto ignition achievable using
negative valve overlap, which is a promising emission-reducing combustion mode.
A DC dynamometer engine test bed was used to compare the performance of normal SI operation and
improved operation using the EVVT system with regular 95-octane petrol. Rotational sensors and a PIC
control unit, on which valve opening and closing can be altered, control the valve operation.
The obtained results demonstrate improved efficiency with the application of the EVVT system when
electrical energy is neglected and valve timing remains unchanged. During testing, the solenoids used as
valve actuators proved to be suitable for this application due to their high precision timing capabilities
when operated by a digital control unit. However, they require a lot of power to open and close and have
limited minimum holding times, which implies the use of more efficient devices for further implementation.
See SAE 2008-01-1778 (2008, 9pp.)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF COMBUSTION AND HEAT TRANSFER IN A DIRECTINJECTION SPARK IGNITION ENGINE VIA INSTANTANEOUS COMBUSTION CHAMBER SURFACE
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
University of Michigan and General Motors
An experimental study was performed to provide the combustion and in-cylinder heat transfer
characteristics resulting from different injection strategies in a direct-injection spark ignition (DISI) engine.
Fast-response thermocouples were embedded in the piston top and cylinder head surface to measure
the instantaneous combustion chamber surface temperature and heat flux.
Two distinctive operating modes, homogeneous and stratified were considered and their effect on
combustion and heat transfer in a DISI engine was investigated. The stratified operating mode yielded
significantly higher spatial variations of heat flux than the homogeneous mode.
Comparison between the calculated global heat fluxes and measured local heat fluxes were performed in
order to assess the behaviour of classic heat transfer models. Comparisons between the global and local
heat fluxes provide additional insight into spatial variations, as well as indications about the suitability of
different classic models for investigations of the heat transfer aspect of DISI engines. Special
consideration is required when applying classic heat transfer correlations to stratified DISI operation.
Single-cylinder GDI engine used deep-bowl piston, wall-guided combustion system, variable swirl, hollow
cone swirl-type fuel injection.
See Doc.136791 (I.Mech.E Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Nov 2008, pp22192233, 34 refs.)
EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND DILUTION ON FLAME FRONT DISPLACEMENT IN BOOSTED SPARKIGNITION ENGINE COMBUSTION
Universite dOrleans and PSA Peugeot Citroen
Explores the prediction of downsized SI engine performance when the air-fuel mixture is diluted by EGR
to reduce NOx.
This paper investigates experimentally the local flame propagation of iso-octane-air-diluents in
stoichiometric mixtures in a boosted SI engine. The Mie scattering laser tomography technique is used to
obtain the local flame front displacement in typical operating conditions of a downsizing SI engine (i.e.
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high pressure level and high dilution rate). The turbulence and the flame front displacement
characterizations are performed for the same burnt fraction angle (~5%) over the intake pressure and
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) ranges: pressure = 0.70 to 1.50 bars and EGR = 10 to 35% by volume.
The experiments were performed in a transparent boosted pent-roof single-cylinder engine.
Covers - mean flame front displacement velocity, mean aerodynamic flow field, turbulent burning velocity,
combustion rate.
See SAE 2008-01-1625 (2008, 11pp, 32 refs.)
COMPARISON BETWEEN UNTHROTTLED, SINGLE AND TWO-VALVE INDUCTION STRATEGIES
UTILISING DIRECT GASOLINE INJECTION: EMISSIONS, HEAT-RELEASE AND FUEL
CONSUMPTION ANALYSIS
University College London, Loughborough University, Lotus and Continental Automotive
For a spark-ignition engine, the parasitic loss suffered as a result of conventional throttling has long been
recognised as a major reason for poor part-load fuel efficiency. While lean, stratified charge, operation
addresses this issue, exhaust gas aftertreatment is more challenging compared with homogeneous
operation and three-way catalyst after-treatment. This paper adopts a different approach: homogeneous
charge direct injection (DI) operation with variable valve actuations which reduce throttling losses. In
particular, low-lift and early inlet valve closing (EIVC) strategies are investigated.
Results from a thermodynamic single-cylinder engine are presented that quantify the effect of two low-lift
camshafts and one standard high-lift camshaft operating EIVC strategies at four engine running
conditions; both, two- and single-inlet valve operation were investigated. Tests were conducted for both
port and DI fuelling, under stoichiometric conditions.
Measurements of specific fuel consumption and exhaust emissions were carried out, while the
combustion was analysed using heat release analysis. These tests were carried out in a thermodynamic
single-cylinder engine. In parallel, tests were conducted in a second engine having the same combustion
chamber geometry but with extensive optical access through a transparent cylinder liner. The results from
the thermodynamic engine were correlated with in-cylinder measurements in the optical engine of the fuel
spray. The results show that there are worthwhile fuel consumption and exhaust emission benefits to be
gained through de-activation of one of the two inlet valves at part-load conditions. The performance
characteristics under certain load conditions were dependent on which intake valve was actuated.
See SAE 2008-01-1626 (2008, 14pp.)
SIMULATION IN ENGINE DEVELOPMENT ON THE WAY TO VIRTUAL APPLICATION
Ricardo
The development of low-emission vehicles requires integrated tools and methods for describing a virtual
vehicle and a virtual application. Here the detailed modeling of the combustion process, as it has been
further developed by Ricardo, is decisive. This article describes a new tool for calculating the energy
release under changing operating conditions. In addition, validation results for stratified charge operation
of a turbocharged direct-injection gasoline engine with a jet-directed combustion process.
Covers - integrated development tool set, base engine single-cylinder research GDI engine, role of vibe
function, combustion analysis, role of stochastic process models, role of DoE, model of energy release,
model validation, development process injection.
See Doc.136929 (ATZ Worldwide, Nov 2008, pp12-22.)
THE RELEVANCE OF FUEL RON AND MON TO KNOCK ONSET IN MODERN SI ENGINES
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Octane Index (OI) relates a fuels knocking characteristics to a Primary Reference Fuel (PRF) that
exhibits similar knocking characteristics at the same engine conditions. However, since the OI varies
substantially with the engine operating conditions, it is typically measured at two standard conditions: the
Research and Motor Octane Number (RON and MON) tests. These tests are intended to bracket the
knock-limited operating range, and the OI is taken to be a weighted average of RON and MON: OI = K
MON + (1-K) RON, where K is the weighing factor. When the tests were established, K was
approximately 0.5. However, recent tests with modern engines have found that K is now negative,
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indicating that the RON and MON tests no longer bracket the knock-limited operating conditions.
Experiments were performed to measure the OI of different fuels in a modern engine to better understand
the role of fuel sensitivity (RON-MON) on knock limits. The experiments were conducted in a singlecylinder test engine that had been fitted with a modern pent-roof head. At each test condition, the spark
timing was advanced until the engine transitioned into audible knock. Then, at each spark timing,
pressure, microphone, and accelerometer data were collected to verify knock onset.
Fuels with higher sensitivities (RON-MON), but the same RON, were found to have better anti-knock
performance. The results also show that the knock limited spark advance and maximum pressure of the
engine increase linearly with increasing fuel sensitivity.
Similar experiments were performed to study the dependency of K on spark location, compression ratio,
relative air/fuel ratio, engine speed, intake air temperature, and intake air pressure. The results show that
K has a strong dependence on the intake air temperature, engine speed, and intake air pressure.
Recommendations are then made for modifications to the octane number tests to better bracket the
knock limited operating conditions of modern engines.
Since K is essentially independent of compression ratio and spark location, the tests can still be done in a
CFR Engine, following the test methodology outlined in the ASTM Standards, but at modified test
conditions. The modified RON test would have an engine speed of 900 rpm, an intake air temperature of
30C, and an intake air pressure of 1.4 bar. The modified MON test would have an engine speed of 1500
rpm, an intake air temperature of 70C, and an intake air pressure of 1 bar.
See SAE 2008-01-2414 (2008, 14pp.)
KNOCK IN A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE FUELLED WITH GASOLINE-KEROSENE BLENDS
The University of Auckland
The current study involves the use of known gasoline-kerosene blends to fuel a single-cylinder Ricardo
E6 engine and characterize the knocking of such blends. This paper presents results and discusses the
variation of knock limited spark timing with change in kerosene proportion in the blend and with air-fuel
ratio. Knock characterization is quantitatively evaluated by applying Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and
bandpass filtering techniques to the cylinder pressure data. Knock intensity of the gasoline-kerosene
blends with varying proportion of kerosene is compared. An increasing amount of kerosene in the blends
has been shown to increase both the knocking tendency as well as the intensity of knock.
Comparison is also made between the data processing techniques based on data recorded at
approximately 10 samples per crank angle and data recorded at 1 sample per crank angle. Results
indicate that the lower sampling rate is also satisfactory for identifying knock. It has also been shown that
the cylinder pressure traces have similar characteristic frequencies irrespective of knock intensity.
See SAE 2008-01-2417 (2008, 13pp.)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON CATALYST-HEATING STRATEGIES AND POTENTIAL OF GDI
COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Continental Automotive
Beside the fuel consumption reduction the emission reduction is one of the main development objectives.
The oncoming increasingly stringent emission limits demand improvements to the emission level
especially in the cold start and engine warm-up phase when the catalyst is still inactivate.
In this phase it is necessary to produce raw emissions on a very low level and to reach the catalyst lightoff temperature as fast as possible using a suitable injection strategy. In this paper the potentials and
risks of injection strategies for efficient catalyst heating with piezo and solenoid GDI combustion systems,
in side and central mounting position, are introduced. The main emphasis is to obtain low HC emissions
and high exhaust heat flow with acceptable engine smoothness by deriving suitable tuning parameters.
The basic investigations were carried out with steady state single-cylinder engine dyno tests and cold
engine conditions. For a deeper understanding of the in-cylinder processes, such as spray penetration
and soot formation, an optical measurement technique based on high-speed video-endoscopy was used.
It is shown that the Piezo and Solenoid GDI Combustion Systems of the Continental Automotive GmbH
have the potential to perform a highly efficient catalyst heating engine operation, by means of suitable
double and triple injection strategies.
See SAE 2008-01-2517 (2008, 16pp.)
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BREAK-IN LINER WEAR AND PISTON RING ASSEMBLY FRICTION IN A SPARK-IGNITED ENGINE
Wayne State University, US Army TARDEC and Ford
Cylinder liner wear and surface roughness were measured at the top-ring reversal point of a singlecylinder, air-cooled, spark-ignition (gasoline) engine during break-in. In addition, the instantaneous
friction torque of the engine was determined and correlated with the wear rate and surface roughness.
Correlations developed for wear rate, surface roughness and friction indicated that friction was a linear
function of the surface roughness over the whole period. However, friction was not an indicator of the
wear rate.
Covers - in-situ wear probe.
See Doc.137250 (Presented at the 53rd STLE Annual Meeting in Detroit, Michigan, 17-21 May 1998,
8pp.)
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GAS RESEARCH ENGINES

NATURAL GAS SPARK IGNITION ENGINE EFFICIENCY AND NOX EMISSION IMPROVEMENT
USING EXTREME EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION ENABLED BY PARTIAL REFORMING
Canada National Research Council and University of Alberta
Investigates the application of reformer gas (RG) to enable a higher mixture dilution of an NG SI engine
using EGR. RG enrichment allows an increase in the EGR dilution of a stoichiometric NG-air mixture from
12 percent to more than 35 percent. The experimental data suggest that NOx emissions comparable with
the forthcoming 2010 US Environmental Protection Agency heavy-duty diesel engine regulations may be
achieved using EGR, RG enrichment, and a three-way catalytic converter (TWC). The approach of EGR,
fuel reforming, and a TWC is suitable for retrofits because it can be accomplished without modifying the
engine geometry.
Covers - high efficiency clean combustion (HECC), efficiency-emissions trade-off.
Base engine: single-cylinder CFR burning gas.
See Doc.136854 (I.Mech.E Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Dec 2008, pp24972510.)
PERFORMANCE, ECONOMY AND EMISSIONS OF A CI ENGINE FUELLED WITH NATURAL GAS
AND USING DIESEL, RME AND DME FOR PILOT IGNITION - SUSTAINABLE FUELS
Queen Mary, University of London
Issues discussed in this powerpoint-style presentation:
Benefits of natural gas and biogas as motor fuels, especially in dual fuel engines.
Experimental work
Base engine: Gardner 1L2 single-cylinder 1395 cc HDD
Combustion visualisation - instruments
Fuel properties: diesel, RME, NG
Combustion features: rate of reaction (ROR)
Test results: combustion pressure, ROR with different fuels and proportions, NOx, HC, CO, CO2
emissions
Conclusions:
Dual fuel efficiencies similar to neat diesel
Diesel and RME pilots in NG fuel, similar trends
DME slower combustion rate, lower LHV, worst pilot Ignition delay periods: RME shortest, diesel-DME
similar
Lower CO2 (higher H2O)
Lower specific CO2 in most cases (except DME at 1500 rpm)
Other emissions at full load: similar trends all fuels
Specific emissions at part load: dual fuelling produces lower specific CO2, higher specific HC, higher
specific CO and lower specific NOx, due to incomplete combustion
No smoke
Flexibility: Increases applications of CI engines
Complexity: requires two fuel sources, delivery, storage, injection
Since most engines operate at part load most of the time, dual fuelling has measurable advantages for
emissions reductions.
See CD ROM 387 Paper 2.pdf (UnICEG Meeting on Fuels, Fuelling and Lubrication, Shell, Thornton,
Sep 2008, 18pp.)
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DUAL FUEL RESEARCH ENGINES

COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE-CYLINDER ENGINE EQUIPPED WITH GASOLINE
AND ETHANOL DUAL-FUEL SYSTEMS
Michigan State University, Visteon and Mid Michigan Research
The requirement of reduced emissions and improved fuel economy led the introduction of direct-injection
(DI) spark-ignited (SI) engines. Dual-fuel injection system (direct-injection and port-fuel-injection (PFI))
was also used to improve engine performance at high load and speed. Ethanol is one of the several
alternative transportation fuels considered for replacing fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Ethanol
offers high octane quality but with lower energy density than fossil fuels. This paper presents the
combustion characteristics of a single-cylinder dual-fuel injection SI engine with the following fueling
cases: a) gasoline for PFI and DI, b) PFI gasoline and DI ethanol, and c) PFI ethanol and DI gasoline. For
this study, the DI fueling portion varied from 0 to 100 percentage of the total fueling over different engine
operational conditions while the engine air-to-fuel ratio remained at a constant level. It was shown in all
cases that the IMEP (indicated mean effective pressure) decreases by as much as 11% as DI fueling
percentage increases, except in case b) where the IMEP increases by 2% at light load. The combustion
burn duration increases significantly at light load as DI fueling percentage increases, but only moderately
at WOT (wide open throttle). In addition, the percentage of the ethanol in the total fueling plays a
dominant role in affecting the combustion characteristics at light load; but at heavy load (WOT), the DI
fueling percentage becomes an important parameter, regardless of the percentage of ethanol content in
the fuel.
See SAE 2008-01-1767 (2008, 13pp.)
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON PERFORMANCE EMISSIONS, AND COMBUSTION IN A
MANIFOLD INJECTION FOR DIFFERENT EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION FLOWRATES IN
HYDROGEN-DIESEL DUAL-FUEL OPERATIONS
Tata Motors and Anna University
In this experimental investigation a single-cylinder diesel engine was converted to operate in hydrogendiesel dual-fuel mode. Hydrogen was injected in the intake manifold and the diesel was injected directly
inside the cylinder. The injection timing and the injection duration of hydrogen were optimized on the
basis of performance and emissions. Best results were obtained with hydrogen injection at gas exchange
top dead centre with an injection duration of 30 crank angle. The flowrate of hydrogen was optimized as
7.5 l/min with optimized injection timing and duration. The optimized exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
flowrate was 20 percent at 75 percent load. The optimized timings were chosen on the basis of
performance, emission, and combustion characteristics. The EGR technique was adopted in the
hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel mode by varying the EGR flowrate from 0 percent to 25 percent in steps of 5
percent. The maximum quantity of exhaust gases recycled during the test was 25 percent (up to 75
percent load); beyond that unstable combustion was observed with an increase in smoke. The brake
thermal efficiency with 20 percent EGR decreases by 9 percent compared with diesel. The nitrogen oxide
(NOx) emission in hydrogen manifold injection decreases by threefold with 20 percent EGR operation at
full load. The NOx emission tends to reduce drastically with increase in the EGR percentage at all load
conditions owing to the increase in heat capacity of the exhaust gases. The smoke decreases by 80
percent in the dual-fuel operation compared with diesel at 75 percent load.
See Doc.136785 (I.Mech.E Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Nov 2008, pp21312145, 21 refs.)
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HYDROGEN RESEARCH ENGINES

EVALUATION OF INJECTOR LOCATION AND NOZZLE DESIGN IN A DIRECT-INJECTION
HYDROGEN RESEARCH ENGINE
Argonne National Laboratory and Michigan Technological University
The favorable physical properties of hydrogen (H2) make it an excellent alternative fuel for internal
combustion (IC) engines and hence it is widely regarded as the energy carrier of the future. Hydrogen
direct injection provides multiple degrees of freedom for engine optimization and influencing the incylinder combustion processes. This paper compares the results in the mixture formation and
combustion behaviour of a hydrogen direct-injected single-cylinder research engine using two different
injector locations as well as various injector nozzle designs.
For this study the research engine was equipped with a specially designed cylinder head that allows
accommodating a hydrogen injector in a side location between the intake valves as well as in the
centre location adjacent to the spark plug. Indicated efficiency, emissions as well as in-cylinder
pressure data and endoscopic images are used to evaluate the effects of injector location on the
mixture formation and consequently the combustion process. In addition to the injector location,
different nozzle designs specifically designed for either location are being investigated. The results
showed significant differences in combustion and emissions performance between the central injector
location and the side location.
See SAE 2008-01-1785 (2008, 10pp.)
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HCCI
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF MIXTURE HOMOGENEITY ON STRATIFIEDCHARGE COMPRESSION IGNITION COMBUSTION
Shanghai Jiaotong University
An investigation of the n-heptane stratified-charge compression ignition (SCCI) combustion on a singlecylinder engine using port fuel injection combined with in-cylinder direct injection is reported. The effects
of mixture homogeneity, overall equivalence ratio, and fuel delivery advance angle of directly injected fuel
on the SCCI combustion characteristics and emissions were evaluated. The experimental results
revealed that the heat release curve of SCCI combustion exhibited a three-stage combustion mode,
which includes low-temperature reaction, high-temperature reaction, and diffusion burn. The operating
ranges can be significantly broadened by mixture stratification, owing to the smooth heat release.
For a fixed overall equivalence ratio, with an increase in the mixture homogeneity, the NOx emissions
from SCCI combustion started to decrease initially and attained the lowest level, but CO emissions
increased initially and achieved the highest level. Once the mixture homogeneity further increased, NOx
emissions began to increase but CO emission decreased.
Base engine: single-cylinder 782cc, naturally aspirated diesel.
See Doc.136851 (IMechE Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Dec 2008, pp24572467.)
A COMPARISON OF HCCI IGNITION CHARACTERISTICS OF GASOLINE FUELS USING A SINGLEZONE KINETIC MODEL WITH A FIVE COMPONENT SURROGATE FUEL
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Reaction Design
While gasoline surrogate development has progressed in the areas of more complex surrogate mixtures
and in kinetic modeling tools and mechanism development, it is generally recognized that further
development is still needed. This paper represents a small step in supporting this development by
providing comparisons between experimental engine data and surrogate-based kinetic models. In our
case, the HCCI engine data comes from a port-injected, single-cylinder research engine with intake-air
heating for combustion phasing control. Timing sweeps were run at constant fuel rate for three market
gasolines and five surrogate mixtures. Modeling was done using the CHEMKIN software with a gasoline
mechanism set containing 1440 species and 6572 reactions. Five pure compounds were selected for the
surrogate blends and include iso-octane, n-heptane, toluene, methylcyclohexane, and 1-hexene. Engine
and simulation results were completed for all fuels and comparisons are made relative to fuel chemistry
and properties. Results indicate that the surrogate blends do not accurately reproduce the ignition trends
of the market fuels when matched to the market fuels by RON alone, but that matching based on a
combination of MON and sensitivity does provide closer agreement between the market and surrogate
fuels. The single zone kinetic model accurately reproduces the ignition behavior of the surrogate fuels.
Limited multi-zone modeling runs show a reasonable match between actual and modeled emissions and
point to needs for further model tuning.
See SAE 2008-01-2399 (2008, 12pp.)
ADVANCED COMBUSTION FOR LOW EMISSIONS AND HIGH EFFICIENCY PART 2: IMPACT OF
FUEL PROPERTIES ON HCCI COMBUSTION
Shell, Fuels and Environment, Repsol YPF, CONCAWE, RWTH Aachen University and FEV
A broad range of diesel, kerosene, and gasoline-like fuels has been tested in a single-cylinder diesel
engine optimized for advanced combustion performance. These fuels were selected in order to better
understand the effects of ignition quality, volatility, and molecular composition on engine-out emissions,
performance, and noise levels. Low-level biofuel blends, both biodiesel (FAME) and ethanol, were
included in the fuel set in order to test for short-term advantages or disadvantages.
The diesel engine optimized in Part 1 of this study included cumulative engine hardware enhancements
that are likely to be used to meet Euro 6 emissions limits and beyond, in part by operating under
conditions of Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), at least over some portions of the
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speed and load map.

The fuels tested in Part 2 included a wide range of practical and experimental fuels that were designed to
investigate the impact of ignition quality, volatility, and molecular composition on engine-out emissions
and performance. Experimental fuels in the gasoline boiling range were included that are not traditionally
associated with diesel engines. Two low-level biofuel blends and a blend of production gasoline and
diesel were also tested to look for short-term advantages and disadvantages. In each case, the
combustion timing was adjusted to the same optimum position, simulating the behaviour of a future
engine operating with in-cylinder pressure sensors and closed-loop control.
Engines were tested at part and full load conditions.
Test fuels included 10% biodiesel blends with diesel fuel and 10% ethanol blends with gasoline, as well
as dieseline and kerosene.
See SAE 2008-01-2404 (2008, 19pp.)
ADVANCED COMBUSTION FOR LOW EMISSIONS AND HIGH EFFICIENCY PART 1: IMPACT OF
ENGINE HARDWARE ON HCCI COMBUSTION
RWTH Aachen University, FEV, Shell, Fuels and Environment, Repsol YPF and CONCAWE
Two single-cylinder diesel engines were optimised for advanced combustion performance by means of
practical and cumulative hardware enhancements that are likely to be used to meet Euro 5 and 6
emissions limits and beyond. These enhancements included high fuel injection pressures, high EGR
levels and charge cooling, increased swirl, and a fixed combustion phasing, providing low engine-out
emissions of NOx and PM with engine efficiencies equivalent to todays diesel engines. These
combustion conditions approach those of Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), especially
at the lower part-load operating points.
4 fuels exhibiting a range of ignition quality, volatility, and aromatics contents were used to evaluate the
performance of these hardware enhancements on engine-out emissions, performance, and noise levels.
Part 1 of this collaborative programme, reported here, investigated how practical and cumulative engine
hardware developments can reduce engine-out emissions while retaining acceptable noise levels and
maintaining or improving fuel efficiency. A limited set of four fuels has been tested in Part 1, with the
engine calibrations optimised for each fuel. These four fuels were designed to show the effects of ignition
delay, volatility, and molecular composition.
Test fuels baseline diesel, low cetane diesel, low aromatics diesel, kerosene.
See SAE 2008-01-2405 (2008, 20pp.)
ETHANOL AS A DIESEL BASE FUEL POTENTIAL IN HCCI MODE
IFP
This work studies the potential of ethanol-Biodiesel- Diesel fuel blends in both conventional Diesel and
HCCI combustion modes.
First, ethanol based fuels were tested on a modern commercial multi-cylinder DI diesel engine. The aim
of this phase was to assess how such fuels affect Diesel engine performances and emissions. These
results indicate that low levels of PM and NOx emissions, with a contained fuel consumption penalty and
with an acceptable noise level, are achievable when the Diesel-ethanol blends are used in combination
with an optimized combustion control.
Moreover, experiments with ethanol based blends were performed using a single-cylinder engine,
running under both early injection HCCI and Diesel combustion modes. Compared to a conventional fuel,
these blends allow increasing the HCCI operating range and also lead to higher maximum power output
in conventional Diesel combustion.
See SAE 2008-01-2506 (2008, 13pp.)
COMBUSTION CHAMBER GEOMETRY EFFECTS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF AN ETHANOL
FUELED HCCI ENGINE
Lund University
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion is limited in maximum load due to high
peak pressures and excessive combustion rate. If the rate of combustion can be decreased the load
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range can be extended. From previous studies it has been shown that by using a deep square bowl in
piston geometry the load range can be extended due to decreased heat release rates, pressure rise rates
and longer combustion duration compared to a disc shaped combustion chamber. The explanation for the
slower combustion was found in the turbulent flow field in the early stages of the intake stroke causing
temperature stratifications throughout the charge. With larger temperature differences the combustion will
be longer compared to a perfectly mixed charge with less temperature variations. The methods used for
finding this explanation were high-speed cycle-resolved chemiluminescence imaging and fuel tracer
planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF), together with large eddy simulations (LES). In this paper the
performance of the deep square bowl in piston, a disc shaped and a classical diesel bowl combustion
chamber were compared in all-metal engine configuration. Combustion duration, pressure rise rates, rate
of heat release, emissions, efficiency etcetera were evaluated at different engine loads. Also an
investigation on the differences between the optical engine and the all-metal engine was performed. The
engine used was a single-cylinder Scania D12 Diesel engine converted to HCCI operation using port fuel
injected ethanol as fuel and preheating of the inlet air to control combustion phasing. The results showed
that the net indicated efficiency for a given pressure rise rate limit was similar at high loads between the
deep square bowl in piston compared to a Disc shaped combustion chamber. However, for lower engine
loads quenching in the squish volume results in decreased efficiency and increased emissions of
unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO).
See SAE 2008-01-1656 (2008, 20pp, 23 refs.)
HCCI COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GAS AND HYDROGEN ENRICHED NATURAL GAS:
COMBUSTION CONTROL BY EARLY DIRECT INJECTION OF DIESEL OIL AND RME
Norwegian University of Science and Technology and Lund University
Natural gas and hydrogen enriched natural gas has been tested as fuels together with diesel oil and RME
in a single-cylinder Scania research engine. The gas was introduced as port injection while the diesel
was introduced as early direct injection. Because the gas was premixed with air before combustion and
the diesel was injected early in the compression stroke, the engine ran close to HCCI mode. However, a
more precise description of the combustion would be PPC (Partially Premixed Combustion) as the diesel
oil was not expected to be totally premixed. The experiments revealed that the combustion phasing could
successfully be controlled by the amount of diesel oil injected for loads between 3.5 and 7.5 bar IMEPg at
1200 rpm. For a given combustion phasing, the hydrogen was not found to influence the required amount
of diesel noticeable. However, a large difference between the RME and diesel oil could be seen by the
necessity to inject more RME to obtain the same combustion phasing. The smoke emission was low
(FSN below 0.1), indicating a low degree of rich zones.
See SAE 2008-01-1657 (2008, 12pp.)
INTEGRATION OF FUEL AUTO-IGNITION CHARACTERISTICS AND HCCI ENGINE OPERATION
University of Cape Town
A recently improved Arrhenius fuel auto-ignition model was combined with a single zone explicit discrete
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine model in order to investigate a wide range of
combinations of fuel type with engine setup and operational configurations.
Test/validation HCCI engines: a single-cylinder, variable compression ratio research test engine (507 cc),
a small commercial utility engine (25 cc) and a model aeroplane engine (6.5 cc).
Fuels: methanol, n-heptane, isooctane.
The model was used to identify promising and problematic areas for the combination of fuel properties,
engine configurations and operational ranges. Insights regarding the interaction between trapped gas
pressure and temperature histories and auto-ignition reaction rate surfaces in the pressure and
temperature domain are presented.
Conclusions: Appropriate combustion phasing cannot be achieved for slow cranking engine speeds
without unrealistic charge heating due to excessive compression heat loss. Spark ignition, multiple single
charge compressions, high speed cranking or some other means of starting HCCI engines is therefore
required. HCCI engine compression ratio, size and fuel formulation are therefore critical parameters in
determining the most effective operational range and mode combustion control.
See SAE 2008-01-1661 (2008, 16pp, 34 refs.)
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LARGE EDDY SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTS OF THE AUTO-IGNITION PROCESS OF LEAN

ETHANOL/AIR MIXTURE IN HCCI ENGINES
Lund University
Recent experiments and numerical studies have showed that piston geometry has a significant effect on
the homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) process. There are two effects generated by the
combustor geometry: the geometry affects the flow/turbulence in the cylinder; the geometry also affects
the temperature stratification. The temperature stratification is more directly responsible for the observed
alteration of the auto-ignition process. To clarify this issue further we present in this paper a study of two
engines with the same geometry but difference ways of cooling. Measurement of the two engines a
metal engine and quartz piston engine, both with the same piston bowl geometry is carried out. Large
eddy simulation (LES) is used to simulate the flow, the temperature field and the auto-ignition process in
the two engines. The fuel is ethanol with a relative air/fuel ratio of 3.3. It is found that lower temperature
stratification is established in the metal engine under similar conditions as the optical quartz engine due
to the more effective cooling of the piston in the metal engine configuration. The combustion phasing in
the two engines is the same by controlling the intake temperature. Both measurements and LES show a
more rapid auto-ignition in the metal engine than in the optical engine with the same piston geometry.
This confirms the conclusion that large temperature stratification can decrease the pressure-rise-rate and
thereby increase the load of HCCI engines. The dependence of temperature stratification on the wall
temperature and intake temperature is systematically studied using LES.
See SAE 2008-01-1668 (2008, 12pp.)
THE EFFECT OF AXIAL CHARGE STRATIFICATION AND EXHAUST GASES ON COMBUSTION
DEVELOPMENT IN A HOMOGENEOUS CHARGE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
Imperial College London, University College London, Ministry of Commerce, Industry and
Tourism, Cyprus and Honda
A high-swirl low-compression-ratio, optically accessed engine that was able to produce a stratified charge
was used to investigate the differences in homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) combustion
and in the propagation of the autoignition front between a non-stratified and a stratified charge. Naturallight images were acquired using a fast camera to visualize HCCI combustion and to quantify the location
of autoignition, the apparent 'propagation speed' of the autoignition front, and its variations between
closed-valve injection timing (leading to a nearly homogeneous charge) and open-valve injection timing
(leading to a strongly axially stratified charge), owing to temperature inhomogeneities that were
introduced by utilizing a camshaft which allowed 40 percent internal exhaust gas recirculation (iEGR).
Experimental results show that, in the case without exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and with closedvalve injection timing, autoignition started under the primary intake valve near the cylinder wall, while, in
the case without EGR and with open-valve injection timing, autoignition started between the exhaust
valve and the secondary intake valve, closer to the centre of the piston. With 40 percent iEGR and
closed-valve injection timing, autoignition started between the exhaust valve and the primary intake valve
near the cylinder wall. These differences can be explained by the difference in the location of hot gases
due to the injection timing or due to iEGR. Finally, without EGR, a 'uniform' autoignition front of HCCI
combustion from the original sites of autoignition was observed compared with a more 'random
development' of the autoignition front with 40 percent iEGR. Strong local inhomogeneities (possibly a
very rich mixture at a low temperature) could be present with 40 percent iEGR.
See Doc.136788 (IMechE Proceedings, Part D, Journal of Automobile Engineering, Nov 2008, pp21712183, 21 refs.)
Ricardo plc
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OPTICAL RESEARCH ENGINES ............................................................................................................... 4

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OPTICAL RESEARCH ENGINES

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

DIESEL RESEARCH ENGINES

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

INVESTIGATION OF A NEW INJECTION STRATEGY FOR SIMULTANEOUS SOOT AND NOX

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

A NEW INJECTION STRATEGY FOR IN-CYLINDER REDUCTION OF POLLUTANT

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACCELERATED ASH LOADING PROTOCOL FOR DIESEL PARTICULATE

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Measurement objectives: cylinder pressure, emissions, molecular fuel properties

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

ACTIVITY OF PROTOTYPE CATALYSTS ON EXHAUST EMISSIONS FROM BIODIESEL FUELLED

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

GASOLINE RESEARCH ENGINES

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

GAS RESEARCH ENGINES

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

DUAL FUEL RESEARCH ENGINES

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

HYDROGEN RESEARCH ENGINES

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

speed and load map.

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

LARGE EDDY SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTS OF THE AUTO-IGNITION PROCESS OF LEAN

Ricardo Information Services Single-Cylinder News January to March 2009

Seminars & Events

Advanced technology seminars,

r Introduction to Onboard diagnostics

Delivering Value through Innovation & Technology

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