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11-13-2009

Linguistic Feature Development in Elementary

Writing: Analysis of Microstructure and
Macrostructure in a Narrative and an Expository
Genre
Shannon S. Hall-Mills
Florida State University

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Recommended Citation
Hall-Mills, Shannon S., "Linguistic Feature Development in Elementary Writing: Analysis of Microstructure and Macrostructure in a
Narrative and an Expository Genre" (2009). Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 4317.

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION

LINGUISTIC FEATURE DEVELOPMENT IN ELEMENTARY WRITING:

ANALYSIS OF MICROSTRUCTURE AND MACROSTRUCTURE
FEATURES IN A NARRATIVE AND AN EXPOSITORY GENRE

By
SHANNON S. HALL-MILLS

A Dissertation submitted to the

School of Communication Science and Disorders
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded:
Spring Semester, 2010

Copyright 2010
Shannon S. Hall-Mills
All Rights Reserve

The members of the committee approve the dissertation of Shannon S. Hall-Mills

defended on November 13, 2009.

__________________________________
Kenn Apel
Professor Directing Dissertation
__________________________________
Barbara Foorman
University Representative
__________________________________
Lisa Scott
Committee Member
__________________________________
Shurita Thomas-Tate
Committee Member

Approved:
____________________________________________________
Juliann Woods, Director, School of Communication Science and Disorders
____________________________________________________
Lawrence C. Dennis, Dean, College of Communication and Information

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee
members.
ii

Dedicated to:
My family
for their love and support throughout this process
and
for teaching me to value education.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation is dedicated to my family, especially my parents, husband, and sister
for their limitless love and steadfast support. Many thanks go to my major professor, Dr. Kenn
Apel, for sharing his expertise, demonstrating his passion for research, teaching, and service,
and guiding me through this process with patience and enthusiastic encouragement. I am
forever grateful to my entire committee, including Dr. Apel, Dr. Foorman, Dr. Scott, and Dr.
Thomas-Tate for their interest and expertise devoted to enhancing this project. I appreciate the
mentorship of Drs. Howard Goldstein, Juliann Woods, Amy Wetherby, and Barbara Palmer
throughout my doctoral education. I am grateful to Drs. Michelle Bourgeois and Julie Stierwalt
for their mentorship throughout my teaching endeavors. Additionally, I owe thanks to several
individuals from Volusia County Schools and Florida Department of Education for their role in
my education (you know who you are!).
I am thankful to the students and teachers that participated in this project and give our
work meaning and value. I could not have done this study without the support of doctoral
students Elizabeth and Danielle, and am thankful for their assistance with data collection and
numerous logistics. The education field will continue to benefit over the long haul from your
enthusiasm and commitment to children. I am indebted to graduate research assistants
Sherilyn, Jennifer, and Tiffany for their dedication and long hours coding SALT files, and for our
well-timed chats. I appreciate your interest in written language development, and hope this
experience was something you can build on. Also, thanks to their classmate Sara, who
consistently offered support in juggling the course I was teaching while analyzing the data. The
future is bright for all four of you! And not far behind are four wonderful undergraduate
volunteers, Liz, Amanda, Mary, and Katie, whose voluntary involvement in the post hoc analysis
is greatly appreciated. Your enthusiasm for the field is encouraging!
Numerous people supported my doctoral endeavors financially. My sincerest gratitude
goes to Drs. Goldstein and Woods for assistantship funding through their language and literacy
leadership training grant. Furthermore, the Kappa Kappa Gamma Foundation graciously
provided financial support through scholarships, and I am grateful to the local chapter and
alumni as well for their moral support. Many thanks go to the FSU Congress of Graduate
Students for presentation grants for multiple conferences, and to the Graduate School, for the
FSU Dissertation Research Grant that afforded the researcher version of SALT and the GRADE
measure.
To my fellow doc students: you made the journey an absolute pleasure! I can hardly wait
to see what you do next! Your passion for what you do, and your faith and perseverance are
truly inspirational. Im especially grateful for Alisha, who strengthens my faith and has been a
constant supporter, Elizabeth, who helps me see the forest through the trees and knows
precisely when happy hour is order, Rachel, for her never ending smile and contagious laughter,
Naomi for her work ethic, and David, for his fresh perspective. Thanks also to Danielle, Lori and
Janine specifically for their helpful feedback on the presentation. From early on in the program,
Jessika, Kimberly, Leila, and Kerry have been fantastic cheerleaders. I also appreciate friends
outside of the program who didn't give up on me, especially Jennifer and Christa.
Last, but certainly not least, thank you to each teacher in my past who took the time to
support my learning and cheer me on. The world is a better place because of you!

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables .................................................................................

List of Figures ................................................................................
Abstract
....................................................................................

vii
viii
ix

1. Introduction ..............................................................................

Written Product .........................................................................

Microstructure ...................................................................
Macrostructure..................................................................
Microstructure and Macrostructure in a Single Genre.......
Microstructure and Macrostructure in Multiple Genres .....
Research Questions and Hypotheses.......................................

2
3
7
11
15
16

2. Method ....................................................................................

18

Participants ...............................................................................
Measures ..................................................................................
Procedure ................................................................................
Data Analysis ............................................................................
Dependent Measures .......................................................
Research Assistant Training .....................................................
Inter-Rater Reliability ...............................................................
Research Design ......................................................................
Power Analysis .........................................................................

18
19
22
22
22
25
26
27
27

3. Results ...........................................................................

29

Preliminary Analyses
Multiple Analyses of Covariance (MANCOVA)
Relations among Measures of Microstructure and Macrostructure
Findings Related to Ethnicity, Gender and SES ......................
Post Hoc Analysis ....................................................................
4. Discussion
Effect of Grade Level on Microstructure
Effect of Genre on Microstructure ..
Effect of Grade Level on Macrostructure ..
Effect of Genre on Macrostructure .
Relations among Measures of Microstructure and Macrostructure
Effects of Ethnicity, Gender, and SES ...
v

29
33
39
40
41
52
52
55
55
58
59
60

Limitations and Future Research .

Educational Implications
Conclusion ..
APPENDICES ................................................................................
A
B
C
D

62
64
65
66

Consent Form and IRB Approval ......................................

Writing Instructions and Prompts ......................................
SALT Protocol for Microstructure Variables .
Protocol for Macrostructure Variables ..

66
67
68
73

REFERENCES ..............................................................................

77

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.............................................................

83

vi

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants by Grade Level ......

19

Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations for Independent Measures .......

21

Table 3: Dependent Writing Variables .......................................................

25

Table 4: Cohens Kappa Coefficients and Percent Agreement ..................

27

Table 5: Four Factor Solution of Microstructure .........................................

42

Table 6: Factor Loadings ...........................................................................

43

Table 7: One Factor Solution of Macrostructure ........................................

43

Table 8: Factor Loadings ...........................................................................

44

Table 9: Factors and Respective Dependent Variables ............................

44

Table 10: Descriptive Statistics for Dependent Measures, Narrative........

45

Table 11: Descriptive Statistics for Dependent Measures, Expository.......

46

Table 12: Adjusted Means and Standard Deviations; Narrative ................

47

Table 13: Adjusted Means and Standard Deviations; Expository .............

47

Table 14: Overall and Grade Level Correlations .......................................

48

Table 15: Correlation Matrices; Narrative and Expository..........................

48

Table 16: Grade Level Correlations Matrices; Narrative and Expository ...

49

Table 17: Descriptive Statistics for 5 Writing Factors by Ethnicity, Gender,

and SES .................................................................................................... 51

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Productivity; Narrative and Expository ........................................

37

Figure 2: Grammatical Complexity; Narrative and Expository....................

38

Figure 3: Grammatical Accuracy; Narrative and Expository.......................

38

Figure 4: Lexical Diversity; Narrative and Expository.................................

39

Figure 5: Macrostructure; Narrative and Expository...................................

39

viii

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine multiple dimensions of written language
produced by eighty-nine children in grades 2, 3, and 4 in narrative and expository writing
samples. Two written composition samples were collected from students exhibiting typical
development in second, third, and fourth grades using one narrative and one expository writing
prompt via a scripted, generated elicitation method. Additionally, participants completed groupadministered, norm-referenced measures of receptive vocabulary, word level reading, and
reading comprehension. The writing samples were transcribed into Systematic Analysis of
Language Transcripts (SALT; Miller & Chapman, 2005), coded, and analyzed for developmental
progression of linguistic elements represented by the five factors of productivity, grammatical
complexity, grammatical accuracy, lexical diversity, and macrostructure. Reading
comprehension scores were used as covariates in the multivariate analyses of variance.
Results indicated that levels of productivity and macrostructure increased steadily with
age. Across the narrative and expository samples examined, levels of productivity were highly
correlated and nearly equivalent within each grade, whereas a trend was noted for levels of
macrostructure in the expository genre to increase more sharply from second to third grade than
in the narrative genre. There was a grade effect for grammatical complexity in the expository
genre, whereas there were no significant differences between grade levels for narrative
grammatical complexity. Interestingly, the second graders scored higher than the third and
fourth graders on measures of grammatical complexity (especially MLTu) in their expository
samples. Comparison of grammatical complexity levels across genres revealed a small,
negative correlation across all three grade levels. No grade level differences were detected for
grammatical accuracy and lexical diversity in either genre; although, there was a trend for fourth
graders to produce a higher number of grammatical errors than second and third graders.
Students in each grade performed similarly regardless of genre type on measures of
grammatical accuracy and lexical diversity. Relations among measures of microstructure and
macrostructure were revealed between productivity and macrostructure in both genres and
between macrostructure and grammatical accuracy in the expository genre. Inter-correlations of
measures within grade level are discussed. There were no significant effects of ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, or gender on writing outcomes. Interestingly, trade-offs in performance
on certain linguistic features appeared to occur for second and fourth graders.
Results of this study suggest that variables of written microstructure and macrostructure
were sensitive to grade and genre level differences, that productivity (a measure of
microstructure), and macrostructure were related in both genres for all three grade levels, and
ix

that one cannot assume the older students will outperform younger students on all measures.
This latter finding was thought to be due to a trade-off between linguistic and cognitive demands
for second and fourth graders. Consequently, future research needs to establish these trade-off
trends occur in larger samples and examine the effects of different academic contexts (e.g.,
variable elicitation techniques, discourse structures, content specific assignments) on this
phenomenon. The findings of this investigation are discussed in light of grade level standards
for writing and the identification of students with writing difficulties. Multiple suggestions are
presented for educational implications of the results, and specific directions provided for future
research.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The arrival of the information age illuminates the importance of literacy in a constantly
changing world. Throughout the first decade of the 21st century, we have seen a tremendous increase
in the intensity of literacy demands needed to function within the world, needs that largely were
anticipated a decade prior (Kennedy, 1993). Literacy encompasses both reading and writing
proficiency. To address gaps in students reading proficiency, programs such as Reading First (US
Department of Education, 2008) and reports such as Reading Next (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006) have
highlighted the reading difficulties of elementary and adolescent students, summarized relevant
research, and expressed recommendations for the provision of quality reading instruction.
Like reading, writing is central to the quality of education from early childhood to postsecondary
schooling; it is an essential skill for literacy success in school and beyond (Troia, 2009). In the United
States, in an age of standards-based educational reform, writing is used to monitor adequate yearly
progress (AYP) as required by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001), and to determine grade
promotion and high school graduation. Writing proficiency is a significant predictor of reading
performance (Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000; Jenkins, Johnson, & Hileman, 2004) and is required for
college entrance and graduation. Furthermore, writing proficiency enables an adult individual to fully
participate in civic life and the economy (Graham & Perin, 2007). Writing is integrated in all aspects of
society for purposes of communication (e.g., medium for conveying knowledge and ideas, exploring self
expression, preserving history, achieving order based on written law, facilitating communication across
distances and time; MacArthur, Graham, & Fitzgerald, 2006). Now more than ever before, writing
proficiency is crucial for obtaining and maintaining employment (Smith, 2000).
More than 30 years ago, Lerner (1976) conjectured that "poor facility in expressing thoughts
through written language is probably the most prevalent disability of the communication skills" (p. 266).
Unfortunately, poor writing performance continues to plague the majority of students in our nations
schools. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) indicates that the majority of students,
70% of 4th graders (NCES, 2003) and 68% of 8th graders and 76% of 12th graders (NCES, 2007)
performed at or below the basic achievement level in writing based on results of the 2002 and 2006
National Assessment of Educational Progress writing assessment (NCES, 2003, 2007). This
prevalence of writing difficulties has fueled a surge of interest in recent years to further investigate

various aspects of writing development and writing proficiency to improve the writing outcomes of
students.
In the past, investigators have employed a variety of measures to study two general aspects of
writing: the writing process, and the writing product. When examining the writing process, researchers
have evaluated childrens ability to plan, generate, and revise text (Graham & Harris, 2003; Nelson &
Van Meter, 2002; Singer & Bashir, 2004). Those who have studied the writing product have examined
compositions for specific linguistic components such as productivity, grammatical complexity, lexical
diversity, text structure, organization, and coherence (Nelson & Van Meter, 2007; Puranik, Lombardino,
& Altmann, 2008; Scott & Windsor, 2000). The purpose of the present paper is to look more specifically
at the current knowledge regarding development of the written product in the elementary years.
Written Product
When examining the written product, investigators have analyzed childrens writing generated
under certain variations of the rhetorical task (Singer & Bashir, 2004). For example, children have been
instructed to generate text using a writing prompt that is expected to elicit a particular text structure for
a given discourse genre (Scott, 2009). Discourse genres represent different forms and styles of writing
and reflect a range of purposes and contexts for writing (Graham & Harris, 2003; Graham & Perin,
2007). In the school environment, narrative and expository genres are the most commonly encountered
discourse genres (Donovan & Smolkin, 2006), and therefore, the most commonly used writing prompts
in the elementary grades are intended to elicit either narrative or expository texts. Narrative discourse
involves telling a story, often about personal events or other life experiences (e.g., novels, personal
letters, and short stories). In contrast, expository discourse involves conveying facts or describing
procedures, sharing basic information, relating cause-effect relationships, or arguing a point of view
(e.g., essays, editorials). The ability to write proficiently in both narrative and expository genres is linked
to academic success (Nelson, Bahr, & Van Meter, 2004; Singer, 2007).
Knowledge of discourse genres is acquired in a developmental progression and is related to
reading comprehension and writing achievement (Englert & Thomas, 1987). Awareness and use of
narrative discourse in written language typically develops first, often through storytelling experiences
(Nelson, et al. 2004). Compared to narrative discourse, the structure of expository discourse is typically
mastered later in the school years and, as a consequence, is more difficult to produce and comprehend
for many students (Berman & Verhoeven, 2002). Much of the recent research regarding discourse
genres in written language has centered on text comprehension; in contrast, fewer studies have
focused on text production (i.e., writing). Furthermore, when researchers have examined linguistic
features at the discourse level in written language, their investigations often have been limited to
narrative discourse. There is a need, then, to examine students writing skills across additional
2

discourse genres, such as expository genre, especially considering that by the 4th grade, 60% of writing
assignments are expository in nature (Graham & Perin, 2007; Persky et al., 2003).
When examining the written product in different discourse genres, investigators have conducted
analyses of elements of microstructure and macrostructure. Analysis of linguistic elements at the
microstructural and macrostructural levels of a text have great potential for capturing the development
of linguistic features, and describing the challenges faced by students who struggle with the generation
of written language.
Microstructure
Analysis of elements of microstructure in a written product can occur on multiple levels,
including examination of linguistic elements at the word, sentence, and/or discourse levels.
Microstructure analysis generally examines a writers conveyance of meaning at these levels and
typically includes measures of productivity (e.g., number of words, T-units, or ideas), grammatical
complexity (e.g., mean length of T-unit, clause density), and lexical diversity (e.g., type-token ratio,
number of different words) (Nelson et al., 2004; Puranik, Lombardino, & Altmann, 2007, 2008). T-units,
or minimal terminable syntactic units (Hunt 1966), are defined as one main clause and any
subordinate clauses and are the most common unit of segmentation for written language transcripts.
Narrative Microstructure
There is a paucity of investigations focusing solely on the development of elements of
microstructure in products written in a narrative genre. Houck and Billingsley (1989) analyzed the
development of microstructure in narrative samples of 16 students with typical development in grades
4, 8, and 11. Participants were allowed 20 minutes to write a story about a trip. Their written narratives
were analyzed for various measures of productivity, grammatical complexity, and lexical density (e.g.,
number of words, sentences, words per sentence, and sentence fragments, words with more than 7
letters, and T-units, mean morphemes per T-unit), percentage of correct capitalization, and percentage
of correct spelling. Results indicated that the 4th graders in the sample produced an average of 152.75
words, 10.63 sentences, 16.02 words per sentence, 13.44 T-units, 12.54 mean morphemes per T-unit,
1.13 sentence fragments, 10.06 words with 7 or more letters, 91.5% correct capitalization, and 94.9%
correct spelling. Significant grade effects were found for 3 of the 9 variables: number of T-units,
spelling, and lexical density, indicating that increases in productivity, lexical diversity, and spelling
proficiency could be detected among groups at the elementary, middle, and high school levels.
Expository Microstructure
In contrast with the narrative genre, a greater number of previous studies exist that have
examined elements of microstructure in products written in an expository genre. Morris and Crump
(1982) compared the expository writing development of 72 students with typical development ranging in
3

ages from 9 to 15 years on measures of syntactic and vocabulary development. Participants were
instructed to watch a video and subsequently composed an essay. The written products were analyzed
for mean length of T-unit (MLTu), Syntactic Density Score (SDS), type/token ratio (TTR), and
Vocabulary Intensity Index (VII). The SDS was calculated based on a formula that considered the T-unit
length as well as clause length, number of subordinate clauses, embeddings, and verb expansions and
had previously been shown to detect increases in syntactic density between adjacent elementary
grades (Blair & Crump, 1984). The Vocabulary Intensity score was calculated using the Vocabulary
Intensity computer program (Kidder, 1974). The results indicated that MLTu, TTR, and SDS increased
consistently across the age levels. Eighteen students with typical development at age level 9.0-10.5
years (similar to students in grades 4 and 5 of other investigations), produced an average MLTu of
7.45, mean SDS of 2.02, and mean TTR of 3.27. The mean scores on the Vocabulary Intensity Index
were not reported and no differences were found between age levels on this measure). These findings
indicated that commonly employed measures such as MLTu and TTR were sensitive to differences in
expository grammatical complexity and lexical diversity between successive age levels, beginning with
age 9 years and up, and that SDS provided additional qualitative information about the quality of syntax
reflected in the written expository products of students in the varying age level groups.
In a later study conducted by Puranik, Lombardino, and Altmann (2008), the development of the
expository writing of 120 children exhibiting typical development in grades 3 (mean age = 8.7 yrs.), 4
(mean age = 9.7 yrs.), 5 (mean age = 10.8 yrs.), and 6 (mean age = 11.7 yrs.) was examined. One
writing sample per participant was collected using an expository text-retelling paradigm (to reduce
working memory load). Participants were instructed to listen to an expository passage and then write
what they remembered about the passage. No time restrictions were enforced, but the majority of
participants completed their writing in 10 minutes. The T-unit was used as the unit of segmentation. In
perhaps the most in-depth analysis of expository microstructure development to date, Puranik
examined 13 variables of microstructure at the word, T-unit, sentences, and discourse levels, including
number of words, ideas, T-units, clauses, sentences, and different words, MLTu, clause density, errors
per T-unit, percentage of grammatically correct sentences, sentence complexity, percentage of spelling
errors, and writing conventions.
Puranik et al's results indicated that measures of productivity and grammatical complexity
increased with age. A significant multivariate effect of grade and significant main effect for total number
of words were indicated, and pairwise comparisons indicated significant differences in total number of
words between participants in grades 3 and 4, (d=1.09, p<.001). Significant differences were evident
between the 3rd and 4th grade groups for the variables of total words, total ideas, number of T-units,
number of clauses, number of sentences, sentence complexity, and number of different words. The
4

group mean performance of participants in grade 3 was as follows for the 13 microstructure variables:
total words (61.0), total ideas (6.8), number of T-units (6.5), MLTu (9.6), clause density (1.78), number
of clauses (11.2), errors per T-unit (0.30), number of sentences (5.9), % grammatical sentences (73%),
sentence complexity rating (8.8), number of different words (33.8), percentage of spelling errors (7.2%),
writing conventions (88.6). The following descriptive statistics provide the group mean scores for the
participants in the 4th grade group: total words (89.2), total ideas (9.4), number of T-units (8.5), MLTu
(10.5), clause density (1.77), number of clauses (15.0), errors per T-unit (0.21), number of sentences
(7.9), % grammatical sentences (81%), sentence complexity rating (14.7), number of different words
(41.7), percentage of spelling errors (5.5%), writing conventions (90.1). Additionally, results of a factor
analysis confirmed that the 13 microstructure variables examined clustered into 4 dimensions of written
language microstructure: productivity, complexity, accuracy, and mechanics.
Cross Genre Microstructure
Occasionally, investigators have been interested in microstructure performance across more
than one discourse genre. Scott and Windsor (2000) studied the spoken and written language samples
of 60 students, including a group of 20 students with typical development (mean age = 11:5) across two
discourse genres (narrative, expository). Participants were instructed to write a story in response to a
19-minute narrative video, and to write a summary of a 15-minute expository video. The participants
were shown a model paper of expected length and allowed 20 minutes to write. The written samples
were transcribed and coded in SALT with the T-unit as the unit of segmentation, and analyzed for
elements of productivity/fluency (e.g., total number of T-units, words, and time, T-units per minute, and
words per minute), lexical diversity (e.g., number of different words based on first 100 words in the
sample for narrative, first 50 words for expository), grammatical complexity (e.g., words per T-unit,
clauses per T-unit), and grammatical error (e.g., errors per T-unit).
Across the written narrative products, students (mean age = 11:5) exhibiting typical
development (TD) wrote for an average of 23.6 minutes and produced an average of 32.3 T-units, 341
words, 1.4 T-units per minute, 14.2 words per minute, 60.6 different words, 10.4 words per T-unit, 1.94
clauses per T-unit, and .12 errors per T-unit. For the expository writing products, the TD participants
wrote for an average of 21 minutes and produced an average of 18.5 T-units, 216 words, 0.9 T-units
per minute, 10.3 words per minute, 61.6 different words, 12.1 words per T-unit, 1.74 clauses per T-unit,
and .15 errors per T-unit. Significant differences were found between genre means; all 5
productivity/fluency measures showed higher values in written narrative than in written expository
products. Regarding grammatical complexity, the direction of the effect of genre differed; there were
more clauses per T-unit produced in narrative products but more words per T-unit produced in the
expository products. There were no statistically significant genre effects for grammatical error. For all
5

microstructure variables except words per T-unit, the main effects for genre indicated higher levels of
performance in the narrative genre. The authors concluded that more fine-grained analyses of the
influence of genre on clause types are warranted. Differences were not examined across grade levels
or for age effects.
In a cross-linguistic study of 7 languages, including English, comparing four age levels (grades
4, 7, 11, and adult), 2 genres (narrative and expository) and 2 modalities (spoken and written), Berman
and Verhoeven (2002) examined multiple aspects of development of narrative and expository
microstructure. The age range of the 20 English participants in grade 4 was 9-10 years. Participants
were shown a 3-minute video that included scenes of conflict between people. To elicit narrative
writing, the participants were then instructed to write a story about a conflict or a problem they
experienced with someone. To elicit an expository composition, participants were asked to write on the
topic of problems between people and to express their thoughts on the subject, not to write a story.
Participants completed the spoken and written samples over two sessions, with genre order
counterbalanced across groups of participants. The writing samples were produced via a traditional
paper and pencil task, and were subsequently transcribed into a computer data base following standard
Codes for the Human Analysis of Transcripts (CHAT) conventions (MacWhinney, 1995), with the
clause as the segmentation unit. Measures included lexical diversity (vocabulary density, VOCD,
measured by a ratio of word types per token), total number of words, and mean clause length.
Specific means and standard deviations for the 20 English-speaking fourth graders in the study
were not reported. However, visual analysis of graphic illustrations indicates that the mean score for
total words in the narrative and expository genres was approximately 90, and 60 respectively. These
group means for narrative and expository productivity were markedly lower than for the participants in
the Scott and Windsor (2000) investigation. However, the mean age of the participants in Scott and
Windsor was higher (11.5 yrs) than those in the Berman and Verhoeven sample (age range 9-10
years), suggesting age level differences may exist between ages 9-10 and 11 years for both narrative
and expository productivity. Compared to the 4th graders in Puraniks (2006) study, the mean number of
words in the expository products was lower for the 4th grade English sample in Berman and
Verhoevens study (mean = 89.2 and approx. 60, respectively), despite similar elicitation methods.
Regarding mean clause length, the 4th graders in Berman and Verhoevens sample produced an
approximate mean of 5.7 clauses in the narrative genre products and 5.25 clauses in the expository
genre products. Main effects across the entire sample for genre and age were indicated for total words,
number of clauses, and vocabulary density, all qualified by significant interactions between genre and
age. These results indicate developmental trends as exhibited in increasing levels of productivity,
grammatical complexity, and lexical diversity across genres (generally favoring the narrative genre) and
6

age levels (greatest levels of performance for oldest participants). However, visual analysis of the
results for the 4th grade English groups VOCD scores indicate little difference between narrative and
expository lexical density at the 4th grade level (approximately mean VOCD of 50 and 52.5,
respectively). This result can be further explained by the significant interaction effect, for the entire
sample, between genre and age for lexical density. In other words, age differences may play a more
substantial role in one genre than in another for these particular variables.
Like Morris and Crump (1982), and Houck and Billingsley (1989), Berman and Verhoeven
(2002) found that measures of microstructure were sensitive to developmental change across
elementary, middle, and high school age levels. Furthermore, when considering the potential influence
of genre in development of microstructure, the Berman and Verhoeven results indicated little to no
effect of genre on 4th grade narrative and expository lexical diversity, and thus provide further support to
the similar findings of Scott and Windsor (2000), who reported the total number of different words as a
measure of lexical diversity.
In summary, previous investigations have examined the development of microstructure features
in one or more discourse genres. The findings have indicated that measures of productivity,
grammatical complexity, and lexical diversity can be sensitive to age and grade level. Furthermore,
Puranik (2006) detailed how various measures of microstructure cluster into 3-4 dimensions of written
language. This information is collectively important for explaining what children do linguistically with
their written products. However, multiple gaps remain regarding writing development of typically
developing students in grades 2-4. For example, more needs to be known about children's
development of certain microstructure elements (e.g., productivity, grammatical complexity, lexical
diversity) of the written product across multiple genres (e.g., narrative, expository) and between
subsequent grade levels within the elementary years (e.g., comparisons between performance in
grades 2, 3, 4).
Furthermore, there are additional levels of text that can be examined beyond the microstructure.
For example, there is also the knowledge of text structure and organization and coherence of the text
that can provide a different view or perspective on typical writing development in young children in the
2nd through 4th grades.
Macrostructure
In contrast to microstructure analysis, which usually involves comparison of features at the
word, T-unit, sentence and/or discourse levels, macrostructure analysis occurs mainly at the discourse
level (Scott, 2009). With the microstructure as a text base, macrostructure is the abstract
representation of the global meaning structure which represents the gist of the text (Sanders &
Schilperood, 2006, p.387). Macrostructure analysis examines a writers conveyance of meaning at the
7

discourse level and may include measures of organization, cohesion, and genre-specific text structure.
Elements of macrostructure are often included in qualitative writing analyses, such as in holistic or
analytic scoring systems, or can be depicted quantitatively by counting cohesive ties or genre-specific
text structure elements present in a written product (e.g., counting story grammar elements in a
narrative text, or marking whether an introduction, body, and conclusion are present in an expository
text).
Narrative Macrostructure
Researchers have examined development of elements of macrostructure in products written in a
narrative genre. Laughton and Morris (1989) compared stories generated by 96 students with typical
development in grades 3 through 6 (n=24 per grade; age range 9-12 years) for inclusion of story
grammar elements. Students viewed a filmstrip within their classrooms and were asked to write a story
about the film. No time limits were imposed and the writing was generated using paper and pencil. The
narrative writing samples were scored for presence or absence of the major story components:
exposition (introduction of main character and supporting characters, relationship between characters,
and scene set), complication (defined a problem or conflict), causal and temporal relationships
statements, and resolution (statements focused on solving the problem or achieving the goal).
Results revealed that 54% of students in 3rd and 4th grades produced complete stories. Results
were reported for 9 story grammar components. Percentages for these components for grades 3 and 4,
respectively were: main and other characters = 100% of students in both grades, character relationship
46% (3rd) and 38% (4th), location 50% (3rd), 63% (4th), and time 63% (3rd), 63% (4th). For the
components of complication, the following percentages were obtained: defining the problem 75% (3rd),
63% (4th), causal statements 46% (3rd), 63% (4th), and temporal statements 50% (3rd) and 67% (4th).
Fifty-four percent of both third and fourth graders included the component of resolution. While these
percentages were not compared statistically, the results are visibly suggestive of developmental effects
on the inclusion of story grammar components between these two grade levels. (A general
developmental trend was noted to occur from third to sixth grade for causal and temporal relationships).
It is plausible that a more fine-grained analysis of story grammar structure features, such as through an
analytic scoring technique with multiple levels of performance possible for each variable, would reveal
additional information about the intra-grade development of these features in the written product.
Montague, Maddux, and Dereshiwsky (1990) measured the development of narrative
macrostructure in 36 students with typical development in grades 4/5, 7/8, and 10 (12 participants per
grade level). The researchers compared stories generated under 2 conditions: oral story retell (a story
conforming to canonical story grammar framework) and writing in response to a story starter (a paper
and pencil task). Both tasks were generated individually in a single session in a counterbalanced
8

fashion to control for order effects. No time limits were imposed, and the participants completed both
tasks in a total of 45 minutes. The oral retell samples were scored for presence or absence of 25
propositions from the story. The propositions were categorized into major setting (introducing the
protagonist), initiating event (change in state of affairs requiring protagonist response), attempt (goalrelated actions of protagonist), internal response (affective, emotional responses), direct consequence
(indicating whether goal is attained and any resulting changes), and reaction (characters feelings,
thoughts related to outcome). The raters also identified the intercategory errors (temporal reversal of
two statements from different categories), intracategory (reversal of two statements within the same
category), and single statement reversal errors. Furthermore the oral retell samples were scored for
substitutions, additions, and deletions of material. The written products produced with a story starter
were scored using two procedures; the first for parsing and categorizing propositions, and the second
for a holistic rating of the cohesion, organization, and episodic structure of the story on a 5 point Likert
scale. Results indicated that no developmental differences existed between or within tasks. However,
the small sample size per grade level (n=12) may have masked potential developmental differences.
Expository Macrostructure
As with the narrative genre, investigators have been interested in the development of expository
macrostructure in children's written products. Englert, Raphael, Anderson, Gregg and Anthony (1989)
measured metacognitive processes and use of expository text structure features in 138 students in
grades 4 and 5 (age range 9-11 years) who were grouped according to their reading achievement
levels (high achievement, low achievement, learning disabilities; 46 students per ability group).
Participants completed 2 expository compositions using 2 different expository sub-genre text structures
(e.g., comparison/contrast, explanation), read and recalled expository texts with the same text structure
as the writing products, and wrote summaries of the expository text they read. No time limits were
imposed for completion of the tasks. Written products were given a primary trait score (degree to which
the product incorporated the required organizational pattern for a specific text structure and appropriate
key words and phrases) and a holistic quality score (degree to which the product was interesting and
effectively communicated a particular text structure form). Products reflecting the explanation
expository text structure were scored for the following traits: introduction, comprehensive sequence of
steps, key words, and adherence to explanation organization (introduction, sensible sequence,
closure). Compare/contrast structure products were scored for the following traits: identification of 2
items for compare/contrast, description of similarities, explanation of differences, use of key words, and
adherence to compare/contrast organization (introduction, similarities/differences, conclusion). The trait
and holistic scores were combined to reflect the product's overall organizational score. Productivity was
rated based on the number of ideas in the product. Multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed
9

significant effects for group and text structure; performance on organizing compare/contrast expository
compositions was significantly greater than that for explanation products. In contrast, the total number
of ideas was higher for the explanation products. Mean scores were not examined across grade levels
4-5.
Cross Genre Macrostructure
Fewer investigators have been interested in the development of macrostructure features across
more than one discourse genre. In an investigation of the relation between reading performance and
use of cohesion in writing, Cox, Shanahan, and Sulzby (1990) examined cohesion in the narrative and
expository writing products of 48 students in grades 3 and 5. The participants were grouped based on
reading performance (e.g., low achieving readers and high achieving readers). Each student completed
2 narrative and 2 expository writing tasks. Narrative writing was elicited following a discussion of 2 sets
of 3 pictures; expository writing was elicited following discussion of 2 researcher-made expository
articles. The narrative discussion focused on story grammar categories (e.g., setting, event, reaction).
The expository discussion included activation of prior knowledge and focused on the organizational
structure of the articles. The participants completed the writing tasks in groups, counterbalanced for
genre and task. The written products were segmented into T-units and analyzed for appropriate or
inappropriate use of simple coreferential and coclassificatory cohesive ties (e.g., pronoun reference,
use of "the" as a specific determiner, comparatives, demonstratives, ellipsis). The raw score count of
these cohesive ties were divided by total number of T-units for 2 proportional scores: appropriate and
inappropriate cohesive ties. The products also were analyzed for cohesive harmony (another
proportional score) and overall quality using a holistic rating scale.
Results of repeated measures ANOVAs for each genre with grade and reading comprehension
levels as independent variables indicated varying and significant effects of genre, grade, and reading
levels. For example, in both genres, there were significant main effects for grade and reading levels for
appropriate cohesive ties, indicating that fifth grade students used appropriate cohesive ties more
frequently than third graders, and good readers used appropriate cohesive ties more frequently than
poorer readers. (There were no significant interactions between grade and reading levels.) However,
the results differed for harmonic cohesion. In the narrative genre, main effects for grade and reading
levels indicated that 5th graders and stronger readers used cohesive harmony more frequently (no
significant interactions). However, in the expository genre, there was not a significant effect for grade
level, only for reading level, indicating that good readers used cohesive harmony more often than lower
achieving readers, but 5th graders did not do so any more frequently than third graders. Furthermore,
results indicated that in the narrative genre, third graders and poor readers used significantly more
inappropriate cohesive ties (no interaction effects). However, in the expository genre, the only main
10

effect was for reading level, indicating that the poor readers used significantly more inappropriate
cohesive ties, but no difference existed based on grade level alone. Interestingly, a significant
interaction between grade and reading level existed. Post hoc analyses revealed the poor readers in 5th
grade more frequently used inappropriate cohesive ties. These findings collectively demonstrated a link
between reading development and knowledge of cohesion.
Most recently, Crawford, Helwig, and Tindal (2004) examined the written products of 169 and
134 students with typical development in 5th grade and 8th grade respectively produced in narrative,
imaginative, persuasive, and expository genres using a trait scoring system for ideas, organization,
sentence fluency, and conventions. Participants completed two assessment tasks, one lasting 30
minutes, the other occurring over a 3-day period. The trait scores from each assessment task were
compared. The results of an analysis of variance indicated there was no significant effect of discourse
genre on the writing trait performance scores of the participants in 5th grade. Paired t-tests revealed a
significant difference in the individual trait performance of the fifth graders for the traits of sentence
fluency and conventions, favoring the 3-day assessment task. Explicit comparisons of the students'
performance between grade levels were not reported. However, visual analysis of the data suggest a
possible age effect for mean composite trait scores favoring the 8th grade sample, at least for the 3-day
assessment (mean composite trait score for 30-minute assessment = 31.84, 35.83; for 3-day
assessment = 34.76, 35.38; fifth grade and eighth grades respectively).
Crawford et al. (2004) was unique in the number and type of discourse genres within which
student compositions were elicited and analyzed for macrostructure elements. A comprehensive
literature search did not reveal any previous investigations involving this type of cross-genre analysis
with the written products of younger students, such as those in grades 2-4, the primary focus of the
present investigation.
Microstructure and Macrostructure in a Single Genre
In many instances, investigators have sought to document developmental trends across both
microstructure and macrostructure variables within a single genre. Nodine, Barenbaum, and Newcomer
(1985) measured the extent to which 31 children with typical development in grades 5 and 6 (mean age
= 11:6) used story schema in their narrative writing products. Their performance was compared to one
group of 30 students with learning disabilities (LD; mean age = 11:7) and another comparison group of
31 students with reading disabilities (RD; mean age = 11:6). The researchers assessed the children's
macrostructure elements of story schema, cohesion, and microstructure elements of productivity using
the creative writing component of the Diagnostic Achievement Battery (DAB; Newcomer & Curtis,
1984), a standardized test designed to evaluate multiple aspects of writing. Participants were shown a
series of pictures and instructed to write a story about them using paper and pencil. The students were
11

encouraged to plan their writing during the first five minutes and then were allowed 20 minutes to write.
The writing samples were scored in three areas: writing categories (the extent to which a story was
produced; story, story-like, descriptive, expressive), measures of productivity/fluency (total words, mean
length of T-unit), and a measure of cohesion (authors noted whether stories were incoherent,
confusing, or included unclear referent).
Nodine et als results indicated that the majority of the participants in the group of students
exhibiting typical development (TD; n = 22) generated compositions that were determined to represent
stories, while fewer students produced story-like (6) and descriptive (3) compositions (0 expressive),
and produced an average of 104.4 words and mean T-unit length of 8.6. Four students generated
writing that was rated as confusing and four students included at least one unclear referent. The
findings suggest that 11-year-old children exhibiting typical development have mastered story schema
well enough to write a short story successfully, meeting the basic requirements. The researchers
discussed the possibility that productivity (microstructure) and use of story schema (macrostructure)
were related; however, direct inferential methods of analysis to this effect (i.e., correlation analyses)
were not reported.
Barenbaum, Newcomer, and Nodine (1987) analyzed the narrative written products of students
in grades 3, 5, and 7 for elements of both microstructure (productivity: total words) and macrostructure
(story categories, composition consistency). Similar to Cox et al. (1990), participants were grouped
based on reading achievement levels (low achieving, typically achieving, and learning disabled). The
typically achieving participant group included 19 third graders (age range = 8-10 years), 19 fifth graders
(age range = 10-12 years), and 17 seventh graders (age range = 12-15 years). Two stories were
elicited per participant using a picture prompt in individual sessions. In both sessions, participants were
encouraged to plan, and for the second story, participants were instructed to draw a picture prior to
writing their story. Stories were classified in the following categories as either a story, primitive story,
action sequence, descriptive, or expressive. Significant differences were noted in the composition
category between tasks, grade levels, and ability group. The written products of the third graders as an
age group, regardless of ability level, included fewer "stories" proportionally than the 5th and 7th grade
groups. Interestingly, the 5th graders produced more "stories" than both the 3rd and 7th grade groups.
Possible explanations for this included the increased knowledge of story schema in the 5th grade
beyond what is typically experienced at the third grade level, or other internal factors such as motivation
to write about topics that may not have been grade-appropriate for the older students. The researchers
concluded that text structure and productivity related to the story category.
In a follow-up investigation to Barenbaum et al. (1987) and using the same participants,
Newcomer, Barenbaum, and Nodine (1988) compared the productivity (total words) and coherence in
12

the oral and written narratives produced by the students. As in Barenbaum et al., stories were classified
as either a story, primitive story, action sequence, descriptive, or expressive. To measure coherence,
written products also were measured for whether they included unclear referents, or were confusing or
incoherent. Results revealed that the typically achieving group across grade levels produced more
stories in the oral modality than in the written, but that there was no difference in story production
between modalities for the other achievement groups. Coherence was better in the oral modality for all
groups. As a general trend, the number of coherence errors increased as the complexity of the story
increased. Regarding productivity, the third graders demonstrated the lowest levels, consistent with
developmental expectations.
Also comparing oral and written narratives, Gillam and Johnston (1992) examined elements of
both microstructure (number and mean length of T-unit, percentage of complex T-units, percentage of
grammatically unacceptable T-units, number of predicate types per T-unit) and macrostructure (number
of connectives per T-unit, cohesion, number of constituents) in the stories produced by 40 students in 4
groups: language/learning impaired, chronological age-matched comparison group, spoken language
age-matched group, and reading-matched group (n=10 per group; age range 9-12 years). Sets of
picture prompts were used to elicit 2 oral and 2 written stories per participant. Participants selected a
picture from a set of three and were instructed to create a story based on the picture they selected. For
each participant, the longest oral and longest written narratives were then transcribed into SALT (length
determined by story constituents). The unit of segmentation was the T-unit. Narratives were examined
for complexity of linguistic form (morphemes per T-unit, number of T-units, percent complex T-units,
number of connectives per T-unit including causal, conditional and temporal connectors), and
underlying content (propositions per T-unit, constituents per story, predicate types per T-unit, and
percent of dyadic constituents). Results indicated that for all groups, written narratives were more
difficult to produce than were oral narratives, as demonstrated by fewer morphemes and prepositions
and increased error rate in the written products. However, for the typically developing participants, their
written products exhibited greater grammatical complexity than their oral narratives. Differences were
not examined across grade levels or for age effects.
Continuing the line of investigations comparing the production of oral and written narratives,
Mackie and Dockrell (2004) examined one written and one spoken narrative produced by 33 children in
three groups: children with specific language impairment (mean age = 11 years), chronological agematched peers (CA), and language age-matched peers (LA; mean age = 7.3 years; n=11 per group).
The written products were elicited using a picture prompt in a 30-minute writing session. The writing
samples were analyzed for elements of microstructure (number of words, number of words per minute,
proportion of syntax errors, spelling errors), and macrostructure as measured by the Picture Story
13

Language Test (PLST) scales for Content, Abstract-Concrete (5 levels are used to rate the level of
abstract thought or ideation; quality rating of ideation in the sample). Results revealed that the typicallydeveloping CA group and the younger group of LA-matched peers produced an average of 91 and 53.2
total words, 8 and 4 words per minute, .02 and .04 proportion of syntax errors, .03 and .16 proportion of
spelling errors, and had a mean Content score (PLST) of 15 and 12.4, respectively. These findings
indicate a developmental effect on performance of the older CA group for greater overall productivity,
fluency, syntactical accuracy, and reduced spelling errors in their narrative written products.
Furthermore, correlations among writing, reading, and oral language measures were examined as well.
For the two groups of typically-developing students (CA and LA groups), no statistically significant
correlations existed between reading, oral language, or writing measures; although, trends were noted
indicating a possible relationship between the content measure and total words produced. These trends
suggest a relationship between measures of macrostructure and microstructure. However, the small
sample size and measures chosen (i.e., sensitivity) may have limited the findings and prohibit further
interpretation for the data derived from the Mackie and Dockrell sample.
In a large-scale longitudinal investigation, Fey, Catts, Proctor-Williams, Tomblin, and Zhang
(2004) analyzed the spoken and written narratives of 538 students produced in grades 2 and 4,
including 238 students exhibiting typical development, for elements of microstructure (lexical diversity:
number of different words; grammatical complexity and accuracy: mean length of C-unit, number of Cunits, clause density, percent grammatical C-units), and macrostructure (content, organization, literate
language sophistication as measured by a quality rating scale). The written products were elicited in
both grades using 2 sets of picture prompts. For all participants, greater gains were noted for the
written narratives than for oral narratives between grades 2 and 4. Some differences were detected in
the writing products between the 2nd and 4th grades. For the typically developing group, their written
products demonstrated a significant and positive increase of 15.82 different words (SD=13.68), but a
negligible growth in MLC-u (mean=1.0, SD=1.83), C-units (mean=2.76, SD=4.06), clause density
(mean = 0.19, SD=0.37), a slight negative decrease (-0.02) in percent grammatical C-units (SD=0.08),
and a negligible change in the narrative quality score (mean=1.62; SD=1.95). Follow up Analyses of
Variance (ANOVAs) confirmed that only one measure revealed a statistically significant difference
between grades (number of different words); and none of the post hoc pairwise comparisons were
statistically significant.
More recently, Nelson and Van Meter (2007) examined microstructure elements (productivity:
number of words, number of T-units, number of sentences; lexical diversity: number of different words;
grammatical complexity and accuracy: sentence correctness and complexity, number of grammatical
errors; spelling: percentage words spelled correctly) and macrostructure (story score for narrative
14

maturity, number and type of conjunctions) in the written narratives of 224 students with typical
development in first through fifth grades (participants per grade level: 1st = 8, 2nd = 54, 3rd = 89, 4th = 42,
5th = 42). Participants were instructed to write a story, and were allowed 50-60 minutes to do so. Written
products were transcribed and coded in the SALT program with the T-unit as the unit of segmentation.
Results indicated grade level effects for total words, total T-units, MLTu, number of different words,
proportion of words spelled correctly, story grammar scores, and number and type of conjunctions. Post
hoc analyses revealed that first and second graders, and fourth and fifth graders clustered together with
similar performance on measures of total words, T-units, number of different words, percentage of
correctly spelled words, and story grammar score, whereas third graders retained their own level of
performance, greater than that of the 1st and 2nd graders, but significantly lower than that of the 4th and
5th graders. Regarding number of T-units, the first through third grade groups were similar to each other
but different from the fourth and fifth graders. By the middle of the second grade, typically developing
students produced stories qualifying halfway between a temporal and a causal sequence. No grade
level differences were found for grammatical error rates. Except for proportion of incomplete complex
sentences, grade effects were noted for grammatical complexity and accuracy, as measured by
proportion of simple incorrect, simple correct, and complex correct sentences. In summary,
developmental changes between grade levels and grade level groups (1/2, 4/5) were noted on multiple
microstructure and macrostructure variables.
Microstructure and Macrostructure in Multiple Genres
A thorough literature search did not reveal any investigations focusing on development of
linguistic features using a combination of microstructure and macrostructure measures across two or
more discourse genres. This is surprising considering the importance of both types of linguistic feature
analysis and the prevalence of various discourse genre in school-age curriculum standards.
Proficient writing is essential for ones academic, vocational, and civic outcomes. This paper
has reviewed current knowledge about the development of the written product in the elementary years.
More specifically, the development of particular linguistic features can be measured at the
microstructure and macrostructure levels. Many researchers have analyzed childrens written products
for elements of microstructure at the word, sentence, and/or discourse levels, and/or elements of
macrostructure, typically in a narrative and/or expository genre.
The investigations reviewed herein have shown that there is a dearth of studies focusing solely
on the development of narrative microstructure. More commonly, researchers have focused on either
the development of expository microstructure, narrative macrostructure, or some combination thereof.
The effect of age and/or grade level on the development of the written product has been documented
between grade-levels (elementary, middle, high), grade level groups (grades 5/6, 4/5, 2/3) and through
15

some subsequent grade comparisons (grades 5 to 6, 4 to 5, 3 to 4). The development of various

linguistic features at the microstructure (productivity, grammatical complexity, lexical diversity) and/or
macrostructure (organization, coherence, text structure features) levels has been documented, but in a
somewhat incongruous manner. In other words, the majority of the investigations reviewed presently
were limited by a variety of factors, including examination of a small set of variables, inclusion of small
sample sizes, analysis on only one level of the written product (microstructure vs. macrostructure),
analysis of written product development in one discourse genre, altogether lacking a truly
comprehensive examination of these linguistic features and cross-genre comparisons for students in
the mid-elementary grades (grades 2 through 4). Additionally, the literature hints at the notion of a
relation between the development of microstructure to that of macrostructure, and this idea makes
sense in light of what is known about linguistic development in general. However, as few people have
explored this relation systematically across multiple genres, such a question warrants further
exploration.
In summary, examining the linguistic elements of microstructure and macrostructure of the
written product is important to gain a better understanding of the development of linguistic features
among typically developing students. Such developmental information can be used to further refine
assessment measures and instructional procedures, and to better define the factors that place students
at risk for writing difficulties.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The current literature documents developmental changes that occur in the microstructure
element of productivity and macrostructure elements of text structure maturity and coherence among
individual grade levels, grade level groups, and education levels (elementary, middle, high, adulthood).
However, results are less clear regarding developmental changes between elementary grade levels for
additional microstructure elements (grammatical complexity, lexical diversity) and macrostructure
elements across discourse genres.
For the student to become a proficient writer, elements of microstructure and macrostructure
must be incorporated in written text, an accomplishment that requires multiple processes be
coordinated in concert. Because writing performance relies on each of these sets of linguistic
knowledge, both levels of analyses should be included in a comprehensive examination of written
language. Additionally, analysis of the written product generated in different discourse genres will yield
additional information about writing development in different discourse genres. Despite this, there is a
dearth of investigations about writing development in the elementary years, specifically 2nd through 4th
grade, that measure both microstructure and macrostructure across two or more discourse genres
within the same population.
16

The present investigation aims to address some of these gaps in the literature in an attempt to
build the knowledge base about development of microstructure and macrostructure in two genres
during the elementary grade years. Such information will have clinical and educational implications for
writing assessment and instruction for students experiencing writing difficulties.
Specifically, this investigation seeks to document the progression of linguistic elements of
microstructure and macrostructure that students with typical development in 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades use
in their written narrative and expository compositions. The following research questions guided the
present study:
1.

Are there differences among grades and between genres in linguistic microstructure
elements?

It was hypothesized that statistically significant differences would be detected between grade levels
on microstructure measures of productivity and grammatical complexity in both narrative and expository
genres. It was anticipated that performance on microstructure measures would be greater in the
narrative genre, particularly for students in the second, and possibly the third, grades who generally
possess less knowledge of and experience with the expository genre.
2.

Are there differences among grades and between genres in macrostructure elements?

Differences were expected between grade levels on variables of organization, coherence, and text
structure for both genres, with the oldest students (4th graders) demonstrating the highest levels of
performance in this regard. The potential genre effects were more difficult to anticipate given the range
of findings in previous investigations. However, it was anticipated that performance on macrostructure
measures would be similar in both genres for the oldest students (4th grade), if the assumption held
true that experience and knowledge of various text structures and text cohesion increases with age.
3.

To what degree is development of microstructure elements related to development of

macrostructure elements?

Few researchers have examined this potential relation directly. It was expected that development of
these elements would be related at least in the sense that increased productivity (more words per
written product) allows more opportunities for a writer to incorporate the necessary text structure
elements and genre-specific organizational structure. However, cohesion is accomplished in the written
products of more experienced writers despite overall text length.

17

CHAPTER TWO
METHOD
Participants
Participants were selected from a public elementary school located in a mid-sized city in north
Florida, whose student body is purported to be representative of the state of Florida. The school-wide
student demographics were: gender, 50.4% female, 49.6% male; ethnicity, 56.86% White, 24.54%
African-American, 10.81% Hispanic, 2.46% Asian, 0.56% Native American Indian, 4.74% Multicultural.
The free and reduced lunch rate for the elementary school was 24.1%. The following demographic
information was collected for each participant: gender, age, ethnicity, status in exceptional student
education (if applicable) and whether the student was a recipient of free/reduced lunch (as a measure
of socioeconomic status).
Participants were recruited in conjunction with a larger investigation examining an experimental
spelling intervention. Approval was obtained from the Florida State University Institutional Review
Board (IRB) for the procedures and consent forms for this study (see Appendix A). Additionally,
permission to conduct research was obtained from the school. Consent forms were sent home to all
second, third, and fourth grade students. Participants had to be monolingual English-speaking, enrolled
in general education, with no history of sensory impairments as determined by school records.
Consultation between the PI and research director at the school confirmed whether participants with
parental consent met the inclusionary criteria. Writing samples were obtained from and group
administered measures were conducted with all participants who returned a signed parental consent
form. Attempts were made to recruit equal numbers of male and female students, and for the sample to
be ethnically- and socioeconomically-diverse.
A total of 93 participants were recruited for the spelling intervention study and writing samples
were collected from 89 participants. Four of the consented participants did not complete the writing
samples for the present study and were therefore excluded. The final sample for the present
investigation (n = 89) included 37 males (41.6%), and 52 females (58.4%). The participants ranged in
age from 7 years, 0 months to 10 years, 11 months (M = 8 years, 6 months; SD = 10.9 months). The
participants represented a range of ethnic backgrounds, including 55% Caucasian, 20.2% African
American, 11.2% Hispanic, 3.4% Asian American, 7.9% multiethnic, and 2.2% unreported ethnic
backgrounds. School records indicated that 13 students in the sample were receiving support services
in special education. However, no specific information was provided regarding the students' primary
exceptionalities or details regarding services received. All of the students were enrolled in general
education. Examination of the descriptive statistics on these students' performance on the independent
18

measures indicated mean scores within the average range (Group Reading Assessment and
Diagnostic Evaluation, Reading Comprehension Composite M = 90.5, SD = 8.51; PPVT-IV M = 101.10,
SD = 14.14). Demographic characteristics are depicted per grade level in Table 1.

Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Participants by Grade Level.
Characteristic
Age (M, SD)

Grade Level
2
3
7:9 (7.35)
8:5 (3.52)

4
9:8 (5.77)

Total n
--

Gender
Male
Female

17 (61%)
11 (39%)

14 (42%)
19 (58%)

12 (43%)
16 (57%)

43
46

Ethnicity
Caucasian
African American
Asian American
Hispanic
Other

16 (57%)
4 (14%)
2 (7%)
3 (11%)
3 (11%)

20 (61%)
5 (15%)
1 (3%)
5 (15%)
2 (6%)

13 (46%)
9 (32%)
0 (%)
2 (7%)
4 (14%)

49
18
3
10
9

Free/Reduced Lunch
Receiving
Not Receiving

5 (18%)
23 (82%)

8 (24%)
25 (76%)

10 (36%)
18 (64%)

23
66

Number of participants per grade level

28
33
28
Note. Standard deviation for age given in parentheses, measured in months. Total sample size = 89.
Measures
Reading
The Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (GRADE; Williams, 2001) was
administered to obtain participants' reading levels. The GRADE is a norm-referenced, research-based
reading assessment which may be administered in groups. In general, the GRADE measures individual
reading skills in the areas of comprehension, vocabulary, and oral language. Levels 2, 3, and 4, which
correspond to grade levels 2, 3, and 4, were administered to participants within large groups (e.g.,
classrooms). The grade-level appropriate versions of the subtests of Word Reading, Sentence
Comprehension, and Passage Comprehension were administered and standard scores obtained. For
Levels 2 and 3, Word Reading was administered as well. The GRADE measures were scored
according to standardized test protocol. The test was used to corroborate report of participants general
19

reading skills within typical limits. The GRADE measure was selected as it allowed direct comparison of
student performance from one grade to another (Moore-Brown, Montgomery, Bielinski, & Shubin,
2005).
The GRADE was standardized using a sample of 33,432 students from 46 states in preschool
through postsecondary grades. According to the test manual, internal consistency of the GRADE was
determined for each subtest, composite, and test level using coefficient alpha and split-half methods
based on classical test theory, and ranged from .95 to .99; thus indicating high levels of internal
reliability for each form, level, and grade-enrollment group. Test-retest reliability coefficients for levels 2
through 4 ranged from .89 to .98. Concurrent validity was established at .71 with the Iowa Test of Basic
Skills (ITBS), .82 to .87 with the California Achievement Test (CAT), and .86 to .90 with the GatesMacGinitie Reading Tests (Gates).
Vocabulary
In addition to the GRADE measure, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Fourth Edition
(PPVT-IV; Dunn & Dunn, 2007) was administered as part of a battery of assessments to ascertain
participants receptive vocabulary levels, and to corroborate teacher report of receptive language skills
within typical limits. The PPVT-IV is a measure commonly utilized in language and literacy research.
Internal consistency of the PPVT-IV by age and grade is .94 to .95. Test-retest reliability by age is .93.
The PPVT-IV has average correlations of .72 with the CELF-4 Core Language scale, .71 with the
CELF-4 Receptive Language scale, and .70 with the CELF-4 Expressive Language Scale. Additionally
the PPVT-IV has an average correlation of .60 with the GRADE Total Test Score for levels 2-4.
GRADE and PPVT-IV scores for the participants by grade level are reported in Table 2. Oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the mean group standard scores for the PPVT-IV did
not significantly differ between grade levels, F(2,86) = 2.413, p>.05, partial 2 = .07. ANOVA results for
comparison of grade level means for the GRADE Comprehension Composite scores indicated a
significant main effect for grade level, F(2,86) = 5.86, p=.004, partial 2 = .12. Follow-up tests to
evaluate pairwise differences among the means indicated that there were no significant differences
between second and fourth grades, but there was a significant difference between third and fourth
grades, favoring the third grade group, (mean difference = 9.65, p = .003). The 95% confidence
intervals for the pairwise differences were -9.95 to .364 for the second grade-third grade comparison, .57 to 13.57 for the second grade-fourth grade comparison, and 2.85 to 16.45 for the third grade-fourth
grade comparison. Concerns regarding the difference on GRADE Comprehension Composite scores
between the third and fourth grade groups were allayed upon the consideration that the fourth grade
scores, while slightly lower than third grade, still fell well within the average range (M = 95.90).
Examination of the fourth grade scores indicated a small group of scores clustered at the lower portion
20

of the average range, thereby influencing the group mean and standard deviation. Therefore, it was
concluded that the GRADE scores fulfilled their main purpose in the present investigation, to verify
reading scores within normal limits across all three grade levels, and could also serve a second
purpose as a covariate in the main analyses. Previous literature supports the choice of reading ability
as a covariate in studies examining written microstructure and macrostructure (Cox et al, 1990;
Montague et al, 1990).

Table 2. Means and standard deviations for independent measures.

Grades
Vocabulary

PPVT-IV Raw score

136.86 (11.61)

144.70 (17.43)

150.12 (14.82)

PPVT-IV SS

110.68 (9.17)

109.03 (14.31)

102.61 (12.42)

Word Reading raw score

26.18 (2.51)

28.82 (1.36)

N/A

Sentence Comprehension raw

14.11 (3.94)

17.55 (1.70)

12.46 (3.82)

Passage Comprehension raw

16.04 (6.08)

18.0 (5.16)

13.14 (6.27)

Comprehension Composite raw

32.29 (11.97)

35.52 (6.17)

25.61 (9.01)

Comprehension Composite SS

102.40 (12.15)

105.55 (9.75)

95.90 (11.50)

Reading (GRADE measure)

Note. PPVT-IV reported in standard scores; *raw scores reported; Level 4 of GRADE does not include
the Word Recognition subtest. Standard deviations are reported in parentheses.

Writing
Two writing samples were collected per participant upon presentation of one expository and one
narrative writing prompt (see Appendix B) during a single writing session. Two pieces of paper were
provided for each writing sample to be completed. Participants used paper and pencil and were allowed
15 minutes per composition. In addition to reading the prompts, the evaluator wrote the prompts on the
board for the students to view. The elicitation procedure was similar to that of the Florida Writing
Assessment Program, Florida Writes, and progress monitoring program, Writes upon Request Program
(FLDOE, 2009), so that a standard elicitation method was employed similar to other writing
assessments that take place within the context of normal education practices for students in grades one
through four. The writing scale designed for this study, consisting of nine items for microstructure and
three for macrostructure, had good internal consistency, with a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .80.

21

Procedure
Following the attainment of informed consent, students were assessed during the school day on
a group or classroom-wide basis, at a time deemed appropriate by the teachers, to minimize
interruptions to instruction. All participants completed the appropriate level of the GRADE assessment
and one narrative and one expository writing sample. The GRADE required that the listening
comprehension subtest be administered first. The GRADE assessment lasted 45-60 minutes; writing
samples lasted 15 minutes each. Testing was conducted by the primary investigator and trained
research assistants. Data collection took place during the 2008-2009 school year.
Data Analysis
Dependent Measures
Multiple dependent measures were analyzed from the writing samples to describe the elements
of microstructure and macrostructure elements present in the samples. The primary investigator
transcribed the writing samples into a computer database according to Systematic Analysis of
Language Transcript conventions (SALT, Version 8; Miller & Chapman, 2005). The unit of
segmentation was the T-unit, as suggested by Nelson et al. (2004) and consistent with previous
investigations (Nelson & Van Meter, 2007; Puranik et al., 2007, 2008; Scott & Windsor, 2000). Items
that were not part of the sample text, such as The end, Sincerely,, Thats all were not counted
within the dependent measures. After practicing and establishing coding guidelines, the dependent
measures related to microstructure variables were scored following the SALT coding protocol in
Appendix C. Two trained graduate student assistants assisted with the reliability coding. One rater was
primarily responsible for coding of the microstructure variables and a second rater for scoring for
macrostructure variables using the rubric.
Microstructure: Productivity
The microstructure productivity measures values for total number of words (TNW), and T-units
(TNT) were calculated automatically in SALT. TNW is a very frequently used measure of productivity,
and consists of the number of words produced in a given writing sample (Berman & Verhoeven, 2002;
Mackie & Dockrell, 2004; Nelson & Van Meter, 2007; Puranik, 2006; Scott & Windsor, 2000). As with
TNW, TNT is also widely used, and is calculated by SALT as the number of utterances in the transcript
(because the transcript is broken down at the level of the T-unit).
Microstructure: Grammatical Complexity
Numerous measures exist for examining the grammatical complexity of the written product.
Mean length of T-unit (MLTu) is a commonly employed measure that is automatically calculated in
SALT (Berman &Verhoeven, 2002; Nelson & Van Meter, 2007; Puranik, Lombardino, & Altmann, 2007,
22

2008; Scott &Windsor, 2000) by dividing the total number of words by the total number of T-units in a
sample. Additionally, multiple writing variables have been examined in writing research using the unit of
the clause. A clause consists of a group of related words including a subject and a verb (Puranik,
2006). In this study, the total number of clauses (TNC) was calculated in order to compute clause
density (CLD). Both measures have been used in previous examinations of the written product
(Puranik, Lombardino, & Altmann, 2007, 2008; Scott & Windsor, 2000). Clause density (CLD) (Scott &
Stokes, 1995; Scott & Windsor, 2000; Puranik, et al 2007, 2008) was calculated by dividing the total
number of clauses (main and subordinate) in the sample by the total number of T-units across the
sample. In addition, the number of clauses per sentence (CPS) was measured to capture grammatical
complexity at the sentence level. Two sets of sample files were created in SALT to calculate clauses
per T-unit separately from clauses per sentence.
Transcripts within the SALT program were coded for sentence type (complex vs. simple, correct
vs. incorrect), and presence of grammatical errors. A simple sentence consisted of one main clause
and only one verb, while a complex sentence included one main clause plus one or more
embedded/subordinate clauses, two main clauses, or one main clause and verb phrase joined by a
coordinating conjunction. Grammatical errors were defined as errors occurring in verb or pronoun
tense, agreement or case, omitted or incorrect inflection, omitted or substituted grammatical elements,
and violated word order. A sentence without any grammatical errors was considered correct, while a
sentence with one or more errors was deemed incorrect.

Occasionally, a grammatical error occurred

across sentences, where the individual sentence was grammatically accurate, but the error was a verb
tense change across the other sentences, or across the body of the paper. Therefore, such errors that
occurred across sentences were not counted as sentence level errors and were indicated in the SALT
transcript as GEX. Consistent with previous investigations, the total number of grammatical errors
(TNGE), and percentage of grammatically correct sentences (% GS) were calculated (Mackie &
Dockrell, 2004; Nelson & Van Meter, 2007; Puranik, 2006; Puranik, Lombardino, & Altmann, 2007).
GEX were counted within the TNGE but did not affect % GS as only within-sentence GEs were involved
in that calculation. Considerations were made regarding the potential influence of participant dialect on
calculation of grammatical errors, the results of which are discussed later.
Microstructure: Lexical Diversity
Lexical diversity, which is thought to indicate vocabulary size and control, is most commonly
measured directly through either the number of different words (NDW) in the written text, or the typetoken ratio (TTR; ratio of different word types to overall words); although, indirect measures of lexical
diversity are often evident in holistic rubrics used for writing assessment (e.g., word choice) (Scott,
2009). In recent years, NDW has become the preferred measure of lexical diversity among those
23

researching writing development as it can be automatically calculated in SALT, is sensitive to

developmental changes, (Nelson, Bahr, and Van Meter, 2004; Puranik, 2006), and is considered to be
relatively free of culture and socioeconomic bias (e.g., Zevenbergen, Whitehurst, & Zevenberger,
2003). Previous researchers have suggested that NDW or TTR are most accurately interpreted when
sample size is controlled for (Scott, 2009; Scott & Windsor, 2000). For this reason, an additional related
measure of lexical properties was incorporated in the present investigation that is not confounded by
writing sample size. Lexical density (LXD) was the proportion of content words (e.g., nouns, verbs,
adjectives) to total words (Scott, 2009). By taking a proportion of content words to total words, each
sample was then measured for lexical density on the same scale regardless of overall sample length,
thereby reducing the impact of sample size.
Macrostructure
The dependent measures related to macrostructure variables (organization, genre-specific text
structure, cohesion) were scored according to an analytic scoring system (see Appendix D for
operational definitions and protocol). The operational definitions for examining levels of organization,
text structure, and cohesion were formed based on key features of informal writing inventories used in
previous investigations (Crawford et al, 2004; Moats, Foorman, & Taylor, 2006; Nelson et al, 2004;
Singer & Bashir, 2002). Organization was examined within the introduction, body, and conclusion of the
product. Products also were examined for use of an appropriate text structure (genre-specific), and
overall cohesion. Each item received a score ranging 1-4. The individual trait scores were combined for
an overall macrostructure composite score. In summary, there were 13 writing variables (9 for
microstructure, 4 for macrostructure) examined, as depicted in Table 3 below:

24

Table 3: Dependent Writing Variables

Level

Dependent Measure

Microstructure
Productivity

Total number of words (TNW)

Total number of T-units (TNT)

Grammatical Complexity

Mean Length T-unit (MLTu)

Total clauses (per sentence) (CPS)
Clause density (# clauses per T-unit) (CLD)
Percentage of grammatical sentences (%GE)
Total grammatical errors (TGE)

Lexical Diversity

Number of different words (NDW)

Lexical density (LXD)

Macrostructure
Organization

Trait score (1-4)

Text Structure

Trait score (1-4)

Cohesion

Trait score (1-4)

Macrostructure Composite

Combination of the above 3 trait scores

Research Assistant Training

Three graduate students enrolled in the Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders
were recruited as research assistants. Research assistants met specific requirements to participate in
research activities, including 1) use of English as primary language, 2) prior experience working with
school-age populations, 3) completion of 5 hours training before participating in data analysis, and 4)
availability to assist with data analysis during the spring and summer semesters.
Three training sessions were conducted. The first training session served 3 purposes: 1) the PI
provided an overview of the stated problem being examined and the purpose of the investigation; 2) the
PI and research assistant discussed their respective roles and responsibilities, and; 3) the PI and
research assistant discussed scheduling and the assistants availability for the semester. The second
training session consisted of an introduction to the SALT program. Each assistant received a data
coding training manual. The PI provided an overview of the manual and the SALT program, and
explained the procedure for assistants to follow. The training manual included an overview of the
problem being addressed & the research questions, overview of how the samples were transcribed into

25

SALT by the PI, scoring protocol for SALT coding of microstructure & macrostructure elements, anchor
samples for coding practice, procedure for establishing reliability with the PI for coding, and proposed
schedule for completion of data transcription and coding. The third session involved guided practice
coding writing samples into the SALT program. For the purpose of training, practice samples that were
independently coded by the PI and reliability coder were expected to reach an agreement criterion of
90% agreement prior to moving on to coding the reliability set. Additional training sessions were
conducted as needed.
Inter-Rater Reliability
Reliability of the dependent measures was established using a randomly-selected sub-sample of

writing samples equaling 25% of the total number of samples collected specifically. Samples selected
for reliability coding consisted of approximately 25% of the samples produced within each genre and
within each grade level. Percent agreement and Cohen's Kappa coefficients were calculated for the
following variable characteristics that required coding in SALT to produce the scores for each of the
dependent variables: T-unit segmentation, clauses per T-unit, clauses per sentence, sentence codes to
indicate grammatical complexity (simple vs. complex) and accuracy (correct vs. incorrect) of the
sentence structure, identification of content words, and identification of grammatical errors. The actual
values for the following variables were automatically calculated in SALT, and therefore did not require
reliability estimates: total words, total T-units, MLTU, total clauses per sentence, clause density,
percentage of grammatical sentences, total grammatical errors, and number of different words.
Percent agreement was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the number of
disagreements plus agreements and multiplying this score by 100 for each measure. Percent
agreement ranged from 83% to 98% for the microstructure variables, and from 84% to 93% for
macrostructure variables. Percent agreement is a commonly reported measure of inter-observer
agreement; however, a specific disadvantage is that it does not account for the possibility of chance
agreements. Therefore, Cohen's Kappa coefficients also were calculated, by considering the
proportions of observed and chance agreement. Kappa coefficients of >.6 were required to establish
adequate reliability. Kappa values may be interpreted as follows: 0.41-0.60 fair, 0.61-0.80 good, and
over 0.80 very good reliability among raters (Warner, 2008). Kappas ranged from 0.80 to 0.98 for
microstructure variables and from .72 to .90 for macrostructure variables. Therefore, suitable reliability
was established for all coded dependent measures, and therefore judged to be adequate for all
subsequent analyses. The kappa coefficients and percent agreement levels are illustrated in Table 4.

26

Table 4
Cohen's Kappa coefficients and percent agreement.
Coded Variable
Microstructure
1. T-unit segmentation
2. Clause density
3. Clauses per sentence
4. Total Content words
5. Total grammatical errors
6. Sentence codes

Kappa statistic*
.95
.80
.98
.95
.91
.78

Percent agreement
96%
83%
98%
96%
94%
87%

Macrostructure
1. Organization
.81
84%
2. Text Structure
.90
93%
3. Cohesion
.72
84%
Note. Kappa statistic* = All reported Kappa coefficients were significant at p <.001.

Research Design
This investigation employed multivariate descriptive quantitative research methods to answer
the proposed research questions. In general, the overarching goals of quantitative methods are to test
theories and hypotheses, identify correlational and/or causal relations, and determine group differences
or patterns (Kazdin, 2003). More specifically, descriptive quantitative methods serve to identify
characteristics of observed phenomena, and explore possible correlations among phenomena without
changing them (Leedy & Ormond, 2005). This investigation employed a cross-sectional quantitative
design in that it considered development across grade levels. With multiple dependent variables and
grade level serving as a between-subjects factor, and the z scores of the GRADE Comprehension
Composite as a covariate, two separate Multiple Analyses of Covariances (MANCOVA) were
conducted; one MANCOVA was conducted per genre. To compare microstructure and macrostructure
performance across genres, repeated measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) methods were
utilized. Collectively these analyses were designed to answer the first and second research questions.
To answer the third research question, multiple correlations were conducted. Additionally, preliminary
analyses involving exploratory factor analysis techniques for data reduction were employed.
Power Analysis
Data were analyzed using the Predictive Analytics Software for Windows (PASW), version 17.0
(SPSS, 2009; formerly known as the Statistical Package for Social Science, SPSS). To answer the first

27

and second research questions, data for the dependent writing measures were analyzed using
multivariate techniques (MANOVA) with grade level as a between-subjects factor, and genre as a
within-subjects factor. Adjustments were made for multiple pairwise comparisons to compare
performance of participants in the 3 grades. Correction for Type I error occurred via Bonferroni
correction. Measures of effect size were reported using partial eta squared (using an alpha level of .05,
and ability to detect a large effect size with power equal to or exceeding .70). The maximum number of
variables included in a single MANOVA was five. As such, in order to detect a large effect for a
MANOVA with 5 variables, 3 grade-level groups, = .05, power = .70, 25 participants per group was
recommended (Stevens, 1997). Consequently, a total of 75-100 participants were required to achieve
sufficient power to conduct the MANOVAs.

28

CHAPTER THREE
RESULTS
The analyses of data and results are presented in five sections. The first section details the
preliminary analyses that were performed to survey the data, check assumptions for the planned
analyses, and utilize data reduction techniques (e.g., exploratory factor analysis). The second section
presents the data on the participants performance on the dependent writing measures. Results of two
MANCOVAs conducted to address the first and second research aims to determine the progression of
microstructure and macrostructure elements in the narrative and expository writing of children in
second, third, and fourth grades are reported. The third section includes the results of the correlational
analyses to determine the relations among measures of microstructure and macrostructure, addressing
the third research aim. Findings related to certain demographic characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, SES,
gender) of the sample are explored in the fourth results section. Finally, a post hoc analysis is
presented.
Preliminary Analyses
Data were surveyed for normality and outliers by grade. To detect outliers in the data, all values
were converted to z scores. Outliers were identified using a criterion of the mean plus or minus two
standard deviations. This method revealed a total of 41 univariate outliers across both genres sampled:
total words (3 outliers; 2 narrative, 1 expository), lexical density (2 outliers; 1 narrative, 1 expository),
total T-units (3 narrative outliers), clause density (4 outliers; 2 narrative, 2 expository), clauses per
sentence (4 outliers; 2 narrative, 2 expository), MLTu (5 outliers; 4 narrative, 1 expository), percent
grammatical sentences (7 outliers; 4 narrative, 3 expository), total grammatical errors (3 outliers; 3
narrative), number of different words (1 narrative outlier), organization (2 expository outliers), text
structure (4 outliers; 1 narrative, 3 expository), and cohesion (3 outliers; 1 narrative, 2 expository). Of
the univariate outlier values identified, 41% were in second grade (17), 32% in third grade (13), and
27% in fourth grade (11). Two percent of the cases (41 of 2040 cases) were identified as outliers, an
acceptable proportion within the guideline of >5% outliers identified by the criterion of 2 standard
deviations plus or minus the mean (Field, 2005). The proportion of outliers identified at each grade level
was deemed acceptable as well (approximately 2% per grade level). For outlier scores obtained on
microstructure variables, the scores were substituted with a value equal to the mean plus or minus two
standard deviations, depending on whether the outlier was a low or high outlying value. Outlier scores
from macrostructure variables were not adjusted due to the fact that there was a floor effect for at least
one grade level per macrostructure variable (particularly for grade 2). No multivariate outliers were
detected.
29

Skewness and kurtosis values were reviewed for each variable by grade. Because the variables
were originally measured in different units, skewness and kurtosis values were transformed to z-scores
by dividing the skewness or kurtosis value by its standard error. These z score values for skewness
and kurtosis were compared against values expected by chance alone for a normal distribution. For a
value to be considered of significant concern, a criterion of an absolute value greater than 2.58 was
applied per Fields (2005) recommendation for small samples.
In second grade, positive skewness was indicated for the following variables: total number of
narrative words (2.96), expository clauses per sentence (4.02), MLTu narrative (3.04) and expository
(2.76), expository organization (3.0), narrative and expository text structure (3.0 and 3.3 respectively),
and expository cohesion (6.4). Narrative percent grammatical sentences exhibited a negative skewness
(-3.39). Second grade variables exhibiting positive kurtosis included: total narrative T units (2.82),
expository clauses per sentence (3.59), expository organization (3.0), and expository cohesion (11.64).
Examination of the data indicated that second graders as a group had scores on a few variables that
clustered more on the low end of the scale, suggesting a possible floor effect, one negatively skewed
variable with scores clustered along the higher end of the scale, suggesting a possible ceiling effect,
and a platykurtic shape for four variables, suggesting a wider range of low values were obtained with
those measures.
In third grade, negative skewness was indicated for narrative and expository percent
grammatical sentences (-3.50 and -3.48 respectively). Positive kurtosis was indicated for narrative
percent grammatical sentences (3.44).
In fourth grade, narrative percent grammatical sentences exhibited a negative skewness
(-3.36) and a positive kurtosis (4.25). Examination of the data indicated that fourth graders scores on
this variable clustered near the higher end of the scale and reflected a limited range of scores obtained,
suggesting a possible ceiling effect with less variability for this measure.
Variables with positive skewness were subjected to square root transformation, whereas
variables with negative skewness were first reflected and then subjected to natural log transformations.
Reflection occurred by subtracting the score from the highest achieved score plus one. Variables with
both positive skewness and kurtosis underwent natural log transformations. Transformations improved
the distributions but did not alter the pattern of correlations among variables, nor the pattern of results
reported later. Therefore, analyses were performed with untransformed variables.
Missing data occurred occasionally when a few participants in the sample completed only one of
the two writing samples. Although multiple methods exist for replacing missing values, it was deemed
inappropriate for this investigation as the missing values represented entire writing samples that were
not produced. By grade level, 4 second graders, 1 third grader, and 2 fourth graders completed only
30

one of the two writing samples elicited for this study. There was a concern that those who did not
complete both writing samples may have represented a biased group with lower achievement levels.
This concern was alleviated, however, when comparison of grade level means for the GRADE
measures indicated no significant differences between participants who did or did not complete both
writing samples.
Prior to conducting the main analyses to answer the proposed research questions, additional
analyses were completed to further address assumptions and utilize data reduction techniques before
performing the MANCOVAs.
Assumptions for MANCOVA
Conformity with four assumptions was considered for multiple analysis of covariance
(MANCOVA) due to the potential effects on Type I error rate and power: independent observations,
multivariate normal distribution in each group, equal covariance matrices for all dependent variables,
and homogeneity of regression slopes (Fields, 2005; Stevens 1997). A preliminary ANCOVA supported
the homogeneity of regression slopes assumption for ANCOVA. The observations gathered in this
study were believed to be independent (uncorrelated) because scores of participants in each grade
level were considered independent of scores obtained from participants in the other grade levels.
Multivariate normality could not be checked in PASW, so the assumption of univariate normality was
checked for each dependent variable using the Shapiro-Wilk test (Stevens, 1997). To determine
whether the assumption of homogeneity of covariance matrices was met, the univariate tests of equality
of variances between groups was checked using Levenes test for each of the dependent variables
(Fields, 2005). Due to unequal group sizes, the homogeneity of the variance-covariance matrices was
checked using Boxs test.
Exploratory Factor Analyses for Microstructure Variables
Two exploratory factor analyses (EFA) were conducted for the purposes of data reduction for
the microstructure and macrostructure variables. Results are first reported for an EFA conducted with
the nine microstructure variables. Second, the results of an EFA for the three macrostructure variables
are reported. The resulting factor scores were saved in the dataset for later use in the MANCOVAs to
address the first and second research questions.
Exploratory Factor Analysis for Microstructure Variables
The nine dependent variables of microstructure, as seen in Tables 3 and 9, were selected
initially based on review of previous research to examine written microstructure. Hence, two exploratory
factor analyses were conducted (one EFA each for narrative and expository genres) to determine what
underlying factors, or components, were represented by the microstructure variables. This was done in
part to confirm the a priori association of variables with certain factors (e.g., such as total number of
31

words and total number of T units being associated with the factor of productivity), and also as a data
reduction technique prior to conducting MANCOVAs. The analyses were conducted in PASW using a
principal component analysis factor extraction method. Three criteria were used to determine the
number of factors to rotate: the a priori hypothesis that the measure of microstructure consisted of at
least 3 dimensions, the scree test, and the interpretability of the factor solution.
Based on the scree plots and presence of eigenvalues over 1.0, four factors were rotated using
direct oblimin (Delta = 0), an oblique rotation technique. An oblique rotation technique was selected,
opposed to an orthogonal rotation technique, due to the theoretically-based expectation that some of
the nine microstructure variables could be correlated. Examination of a bivariate correlation matrix
confirmed that each of the nine grammatical complexity variables were indeed correlated with 1 or more
other variables, but not to the extent that multicollinearity would be of concern.
The rotated solution yielded a four-factor solution. The results are reported in Tables 7 and 8. In
the narrative genre, the first factor (productivity) accounted for 34.31% of the variance, the second
factor (grammatical complexity) 25.39%, the third factor (grammatical accuracy) 15.3%, and the fourth
factor (lexical diversity) 11.60%, totaling 86.6% of the variance. Similarly in the expository genre, the
first factor (productivity) accounted for 37.56% of the variance, the second factor (grammatical
complexity) 25.27%, the third factor (grammatical accuracy) 13.79%, the fourth factor (lexical diversity)
9.99%, totaling 86.61% of the variance. For both genres, three variables loaded on the first factor of
productivity (total words, total T-units, NDW), three variables loaded onto the second factor of
grammatical complexity (clause density, clauses per sentence, MLTu), two variables loaded onto the
third factor of grammatical accuracy (percent grammatical sentences, total grammatical errors), and
one variable loaded onto the fourth factor of lexical diversity (lexical density).
These findings identified two grammatical factors (factor 2, grammatical complexity; factor 3,
grammatical accuracy). For both genres, 3 variables loaded on the first factor (clause density, clauses
per sentence, and MLTU), whereas 2 others (% grammatical sentences, # grammatical errors) loaded
on the second factor. The factor loadings illustrated in Table 6 below did not completely align with
predictions because it was anticipated that the proposed grammatical complexity measure was
representative of a single level of microstructure measured by five variables. However, based on the
results of the EFAs, it appears that this measure reflected two different, but related, grammatical
dimensions of microstructure. In comparison to previous research, the second factor in the present
analysis resembles the accuracy factor (including variables of syntactic errors per T-unit and %
grammatically correct sentences) identified by the factor analysis reported by Puranik et al (2008). As
such, it was determined that the two grammatical variables loading onto the second factor in the

32

present study could actually serve as a fourth factor measured within the microstructure measure.
Therefore, this fourth factor level was named grammatical accuracy.
The results also indicated that NDW loaded onto the first factor with total words and total T-units
as measures of productivity. NDW was initially proposed as a measure of lexical diversity. Based on
these results, the microstructure measure consisted of four factors overall: productivity, grammatical
complexity, grammatical accuracy, and lexical diversity.
Exploratory Factor Analysis for Macrostructure Variables
The dependent variables for the macrostructure measure (organization, text structure, and
cohesion) were selected initially based on review of previous research to examine the macrostructure
of written language. EFA was again utilized as a data reduction technique and to determine the
dimensionality of these three variables. Two exploratory factor analyses were conducted (one EFA
each for narrative and expository macrostructure variables). Analysis was conducted in PASW using a
principal component analysis factor extraction method. Three criteria were used to determine the
number of factors to rotate: the a priori hypothesis that the measure of macrostructure (utilizing three
variables) was unidimensional, the scree test, and the interpretability of the factor solution. Based on
the scree plots and presence of eigenvalues over 1.0, only one factor was extracted. Therefore, factor
rotation could not be conducted. Examination of a bivariate correlation matrix confirmed that each of
the three macrostructure variables were strongly inter-correlated. Moreover, examination of an R-matrix
computed as part of the EFA revealed R values ranging from .70 to .77 in the narrative genre, and from
.62 to .68 in the expository genre. However, with none greater than 0.90, multicollinearity was of little
concern.
Tables 7 and 8 illustrate the eigenvalues and standardized loadings for the macrostructure
variables and the single extracted factor for each genre. For both genres, the analysis yielded one
interpretable factor for macrostructure. The macrostructure factor accounted for 81.64% and 77.22% of
the overall variance in the narrative and expository genres, respectively. For both genres, all three
macrostructure variables loaded on the identified macrostructure factor (organization, text structure,
and cohesion). The factor loadings illustrated in Table 8 below aligned with predictions that the
macrostructure measure was in fact unidimensional and yielded one factor measuring macrostructure
with three variables.
Multiple Analysis of Covariance
Because the grade level groups were not all equivalent on their reading scores (as measured by
the GRADE Comprehension Composite scores), there was a possibility of preexisting differences on
reading ability. Considering the potential impact of reading ability on writing performance, this was an
important factor to explore (Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000). To assess this, the GRADE Comprehension
33

Composite scores, after being converted to z scores, were used as a covariate for the MANOVAs. A
preliminary analysis to evaluate the homogeneity of slopes assumption indicated that the relationship
between the covariate (z score for GRADE Comprehension Composite), and the dependent variables
did not differ significantly as a function of the independent variable (grade level) in either the narrative
(F (2, 80) = .55 to 1.79, p = .17 to .58, 2 = .01 to .04), or expository genre (F (2, 77) = .13 to 2.704, p =
.07 to .88, 2 = .003 to .06).
Following a review of the preliminary analyses, two MANCOVAs were conducted to measure
the effects of grade level within each genre on the various microstructure and macrostructure variables,
controlling for reading comprehension scores. The regression-based factor scores for the factors
identified by exploratory factor analyses were saved as variables and utilized in the MANCOVAs. Table
9 shows the final factors of analysis with the respective dependent variables that were analyzed within
each factor. The factor scores of the following five factors were examined in each genre for differences
between grade levels: Productivity, Grammatical Complexity, Grammatical Accuracy, Lexical Diversity,
and Macrostructure. Within the factor of productivity, there were three variables (total words, total Tunits, number of different words), factor of grammatical complexity had 3 variables (clause density,
clauses per sentence, and MLTU), grammatical accuracy had 2 variables (percent grammatical
sentences, total grammatical errors), lexical diversity was represented by one variable (lexical density),
and macrostructure factor represented by three variables (organization, text structure, and cohesion).
Tables 10 and 11 contain the grade level means and standard deviation for the dependent
measures specifically. Tables 12 and 13 contain the adjusted means (accounting for the effects of the
covariate) and standard deviations for the dependent factors across grades and genres. The
performance of the three grades was compared through pairwise comparisons, adjusted for multiple
comparisons and corrected for Type I error rate via a Bonferroni correction. The effect size index
reported is partial eta squared (2) to indicate the magnitude of the association between the effect and
the dependent variable. Partial eta squared (2) effect sizes may have values ranging from 0 to 1.0, and
can be interpreted as <.10 = small, .10-.25 = medium, >.25 = large (Warner, 2008).
Two separate, one-way multiple analyses of covariances (MANCOVA) were conducted to
determine the effect of grade in both genres (narrative, expository) on the identified factor scores for the
5 factors of productivity, grammatical complexity, grammatical accuracy, lexical diversity, and
macrostructure. The Box M test (using =.01 as the criterion for significance) did not indicate a
significant violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variance/covariance matrices across groups.
Inter-correlations between measures ranged from .01 to .52 for the narrative genre and -.08 to .40 for
the expository genre. None of the correlations among outcome variables was sufficiently large to raise
concerns about multicollinearity. Pillais trace was selected as the multivariate test statistic due to
34

unequal group sizes (Field, 2005). Pairwise comparisons were conducted to compare performance
across grades, utilizing an adjustment for multiple comparisons and corrected for Type I error rate using
a Bonferroni correction. Therefore, the significance level was established as p <.003 (p < .05 / 3 levels
of grade multiplied by 5 dependent variables).
When the GRADE Comprehension Composite scores were not statistically controlled, grade
level effects were evident for some of the dependent variables in each genre. The main effect for grade
level in the final MANCOVA using the GRADE Comprehension Composite z-scores as a covariate was
also statistically significant and yielded nearly parallel results in terms of grade level effects on the
dependent writing variables. A significant advantage to adding a covariate to the analysis was that it
reduced the unexplained variance in the dependent variables, reducing the error term in the model.
The MANCOVAs (one for each genre) to examine the effects of grade level, controlling for
reading comprehension, revealed a significant multivariate effect of grade for both the narrative (Pillais
trace = .62, F(10,158) = 6.572, p < .001, partial 2 = .29), and expository (Pillais trace = .50, F(10,152)
= 5.328, p < .001, partial 2 = .26), genres, with large effect sizes. By analyzing the component
measures, a significant main effect was observed for the narrative productivity factor, F(2, 82) = 29.971,
p < .001, partial 2 =.42, with a large effect size. This main effect was indicated by an overall increase
in productivity at every grade level, as reflected by total words, total T-units, and number of different
words. Pairwise comparisons revealed that children in second grade scored significantly lower on
productivity (M=-.86) relative to the third (M=.00) and fourth (M=.83) grade groups. The third and fourth
grade groups differed significantly from each other in productivity as well, with increased productivity
levels indicated for fourth grade. A significant main effect also was observed for narrative
macrostructure F(2, 82) = 12.335, p <.001, partial 2 = .31, with a large effect size. Second grade
scored significantly lower (M=-.81) than both third (M=.31) and fourth (M=.41) grades; however, third
grade did not differ significantly from fourth. In the narrative genre, there were no significant differences
among the 3 grade level groups in scores on grammatical complexity, grammatical accuracy, and
lexical diversity.
Similar results were obtained in the expository genre with a significant main effect for
productivity, F(2, 79) = 28.162, p < .001, partial 2 =.42, with a large effect size. Pairwise comparisons
indicated that as with the results for narrative productivity, second grade scored significantly lower on
expository productivity (M=-.85) than third (M=.04) and fourth grades (M=.81) The third and fourth
grade groups differed significantly from each other in expository productivity as well, with greater
productivity in the fourth grade. Additionally, there was a significant main effect for expository
macrostructure, F(2, 79) = 4.621, p <.01, partial 2 = .12, with a medium effect size. Second grade (M=.43) scored significantly lower than both third (M=.05) and fourth grade (M=.38). Even though there was
35

a trend for fourth graders to score higher on macrostructure, there was not a significant difference
between third and fourth grades. Furthermore, a significant main effect was detected for grammatical
complexity, F(2, 79) = 4.487, p <.01, partial 2 = .10, with a medium effect size. Surprisingly, second
grade (M= .48) scored significantly higher than third (M=-.20) and fourth grade (M=-.24). Third and
fourth grades were not significantly different from each other. There were no significant differences
among the 3 grade level groups in scores on grammatical accuracy and lexical diversity in expository
samples.
Differences between Genres
To determine whether differences on microstructure and macrostructure performance existed
between genres, a series of 5 repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted (one per factor DV). The
factor scores for each dependent variable in the narrative and the expository genre were first compared
across all 3 grade levels. Correlations between narrative and expository measures across and within
grade levels are shown in Table 16. Additionally, five profile plots illustrate these comparisons for each
variable in Figures 1 through 5. For overall productivity performance, there was no significant difference
across genres; the narrative and expository productivity scores were very strongly correlated (r = .73,
p<.001). Within grade level, narrative and expository productivity values were highly correlated within
second (r =.66, p<.001) and fourth grades (r =.66, p<.001). Third grade demonstrated a moderately
sized but statistically insignificant correlation (r =.34, p =.06). In Figure 1, the profile plot illustrates how
in both genres, productivity gradually increased with each subsequent grade level at similar rates.
Regarding grammatical complexity, there was no overall significant difference across genres;
narrative and expository grammatical complexity scores were negatively correlated (r = -.31, p<.01).
Within grade level, narrative and expository values appeared to differ for second grade (narrative M = .05; expository M = .45), but did not reach statistical significance. Values in second grade were highly
negatively correlated (r =-.53, p<.01). Also in examining the results for fourth grade, a trend toward
greater values in the narrative genre is visible (narrative M = .05; expository M = -.33). However, this
difference was not statistically significant. The profile plot in Figure 2 illustrates that grammatical
complexity remained nearly stable across subsequent grade levels in the narrative genre, but
demonstrates a sharp decrease in the expository genre between second and third grades, with similar
scores between third and fourth grades.
No significant differences in grammatical accuracy between genres were detected across
grades; these scores were negatively correlated overall, r =-.31, p=.005. Within grade levels, a
significant correlation was detected within second grade (r =.44, p<.05). The profile plot below in Figure
3 shows that for both genres, grammatical accuracy levels were similar between second and third
grade, but decreased sharply between third and fourth.
36

No significant differences in lexical diversity were noted between genres among grade levels.
These scores were insignificantly correlated, (r =-.08, p=.48). It is evident from the profile plot in Figure
4 that lexical diversity levels in the third grade were almost equivalent across genres. No significant
correlations were detected within grade levels. There is a visible trend for increased lexical diversity
between third and fourth grades in the narrative genre. But in the expository genre, visual analysis
suggests second grade performed slightly better than third and fourth grades, but third and fourth
grades were very similar to each other.
For macrostructure performance, no differences were noted between genres; scores from each
genre were not significantly correlated (r =.18, p =.12). In the profile plot below (Figure 5), a sharp
increase is seen in the narrative genre from second to third grade; however, values are similar for third
and fourth grades. In the expository genre, a more gradual upward trend is visible between subsequent
grade levels.

Productivity by Grade Level

Productivity Mean Factor Score

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

Narrative

Expository

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
2

Grade Level

Figure 1: Productivity; Narrative and Expository

37

Grammatical Complexity by Grade Level

Grammatical Complexity Mean

Factor Scores

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

Narrative

0.1

Expository

0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
2

Grade Level

Figure 2: Grammatical Complexity: Narrative and Expository

Grammatical Accuracy Mean Factor

Scores

Grammatical Accuracy by Grade Level

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3

Narrative
Expository

Grade Level

Figure 3. Grammatical Accuracy; Narrative and Expository

38

Lexical Diversity Mean Factor Scores

Lexical Diversity by Grade Level

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

Narrative
Expository

0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
2

Grade Level

Figure 4. Lexical Diversity; Narrative and Expository

Macrostructure Mean Factor Scores

Macrostructure by Grade Level

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Narrative

-0.2

Expository

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
2

Grade Level

Figure 5. Macrostructure; Narrative and Expository

Inter-Correlations among Measures of Microstructure and Macrostructure
The third research aim was addressed via correlational analyses to determine the relations
among the participants performance on the microstructure and macrostructure variables. Pearson
correlations are reported in the correlation matrices in Table 15 for both the narrative and expository
genres for the entire sample of participants. Grade level correlations among measures are discussed
39

subsequently and reported in Table 16. In the narrative genre, the correlations between the writing
factors indicated that the factors were not highly interrelated, with the exception of productivity and
macrostructure factors. Based on data obtained in the narrative genre, this was the only statistically
significant correlation detected (r = .61, p <.001). A similar correlation between productivity and
macrostructure was detected in the expository genre (r = .50, p <.001). In slight contrast to narrative
results, the data collected in the expository genre also detected small negative correlations between
expository macrostructure and grammatical accuracy (r = -.25, p <.05), and grammatical complexity (r =
-.23, p <.05).
Grade level correlations among dependent variables (factors) confirm in part as well as extend
the correlational analysis from the overall comparisons. In the narrative genre, correlations among
variables in the third and fourth grade groups mirrored the overall results, with only one significant
correlation between productivity and macrostructure (r = .55, p <.001; r = .41, p <.05; 3rd and 4th grades
respectively). Correlations among variables in the second grade group also paralleled the overall
comparison with a significant correlation between productivity and macrostructure (r = .73, p <.001).
However, a second significant correlation was detected within second grade between grammatical
complexity and macrostructure (r = .41, p <.05).
In the expository genre, the correlation between productivity and macrostructure were found
within both second (r = .56, p <.001), and third grade groups (r = .54, p <.001). However, within second
grade, a negative correlation was detected between grammatical accuracy and lexical diversity (r = .44, p <.05). The only correlation detected within the fourth grade group was between productivity and
grammatical complexity (r = .40, p <.05).
Findings Related to Ethnicity, Gender, and SES Differences
Although the primary goal of this investigation was to ascertain whether differences could be
detected on multiple dependent variables for writing based on grade level and genre, it also was
important to consider whether the measures used were sensitive to additional factors such as
differences in gender, ethnicity and/or socioeconomic status. Previous research has suggested that
gender may affect levels of written productivity. For example, in a post hoc analysis, Nelson and Van
Meter (2007) reported the relative volubility of female participants, in grades one through five, on
measures of productivity similar to those utilized in the present investigation (e.g., total words, total Tunits, NDW). Concerns also have been noted in interpretations of writing analyses in previous
investigations for children who speak a dialect other than Standard American English (SAE) (Ball, 2006,
Moats, Foorman, & Taylor, 2006; Terry, 2006). Specifically, the main concern was whether dialectal
differences could inflate the grammatical error rate for such students. Moreover, SES has been

40

indicated as an influential factor, in that children from low SES families face an increased risk for
deficient language and literacy development and academic difficulty (Wasik & Hendrickson, 2004).
In both the narrative and expository genres, MANCOVAs showed the previously revealed main
effect for grade, but no main effect for ethnicity, gender, or SES. Descriptive statistics, viewed in Table
17, were reviewed, and no noticeable trends within the data were detected. These results are further
examined in the discussion.
Post Hoc Analysis
Inspection of the samples suggested that children may not have written a sample consistent
with the prompt's intent. To help address the issue of whether the writing samples truly reflected a
narrative versus an expository genre text structure, four additional coders were recruited to review a
subset of writing samples and identify which genre (narrative vs. expository) the writing sample most
closely resembled based on given definitions of each. (Narrative was defined as telling a story, often
about personal events or other life experiences, it may be fictional or non-fictional, and can include
novels, personal stories or letters, and short stories. Expository was defined as conveying facts,
describing procedures, explaining something, sharing basic information, relating cause-effect, comparecontrast relationships, and/or arguing a point of view, and may include term papers, procedural
documents, manuals, essays, editorials, letters to the editor. The category of "not sure" was defined as
a genre structure that could not be determined from the given definitions for narrative and expository).
The coders were blind to the conditions of the study and had no prior exposure to or knowledge of the
writing prompts utilized or the writing samples collected.
A randomly selected set of writing samples was utilized for this task, approximately 25% of the
entire sample, with balanced representation from each grade and genre level. The results indicated that
in 71% of cases at least 3 of the 4 raters coded the same genre. They most reliably coded the
expository genre (k = 0.48), followed closely by the narrative genre (k = 0.40). Coders also noted a few
instances in which they could not determine whether a particular sample reflected either narrative or
expository genre, and reported noticing features of each in such samples (suggesting a hybrid genre,
as noted in Scott, 2009). This happened approximately 4 times per rater, or for approximately 10% of
the rated sample they rated.

41

Table 5
Four-factor solution of written microstructure.
Factor

Initial Eigenvalue

% of Variance

Rotations Sums of
Squared Loadings

Narrative
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

3.088
2.285
1.377
1.044
0.489
0.382
0.235
0.056
0.043

34.309
25.392
15.299
11.602
5.436
4.245
2.616
0.619
0.481

3.062
2.241
1.400
1.264
------

Expository
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

3.380
2.274
1.241
0.899
0.627
0.310
0.211
0.037
0.019

37.560
25.272
13.794
9.987
6.965
3.448
2.347
0.411
0.216

3.074
2.379
1.719
1.340
------

42

Table 6
Factor loadings.
Factor
Microstructure Variables
Narrative
1. Total words
2. Total T-units
3. Lexical density
4. Number of different words
5. Clause density
6. Clauses per sentence
7. Mean length of T-unit
8. Percent grammatical sentences
9. Total grammatical errors

2
-.02
-.31
-.33
-.01
.86
.77
.83
-.25
.05

.96
.92
.15
.97
.21
.16
.11
.21
.47

.08
-.02
.01
.04
.05
.33
-.05
.84
-.74

-.05
-.14
.90
.01
.23
-.25
.32
.07
-.03

Expository
1. Total words
.90
.36
.15
.10
2. Total T-units
.75
.63
.05
-.07
3. Lexical density
-.39
.24
-.03
.84
4. Number of different words
.91
.33
.13
.08
5. Clause density
.50
-.74
.23
.13
6. Clauses per sentence
.55
-.61
.14
-.10
7. Mean length of T-unit
.33
-.65
.28
.34
8. Percent grammatical sentences
-.27
.49
.74
.05
9. Total grammatical errors
.54
.07
-.71
.20
Note. Factor 1= Productivity; Factor 2 = Grammatical Complexity; Factor 3 = Grammatical Accuracy;
Factor 4 = Lexical density; MLTU = mean length of T-unit.

Table 7
One-factor solution of macrostructure.
Factor

Initial Eigenvalue

% of Variance

Rotations Sums of
Squared Loadings

Narrative
1
2
3

2.449
0.324
0.227

81.644
10.795
7.560

----

Expository
1
2
3

2.317
0.379
0.304

77.217
12.641
10.141

----

43

Table 8
Factor loadings.
Factor
Macrostructure

Macrostructure Variables
Narrative
1. Organization
2. Text Structure
3. Cohesion

.92
.91
.88

Expository
1. Organization
2. Text Structure
3. Cohesion

.87
.87
.89

Table 9
Factors and Respective Dependent Variables Analyzed via MANCOVA
Factor

Dependent Measure

Productivity

Total words
Total T-units
Number of Different Words

Grammatical Complexity

Mean Length T-unit

Clauses per sentence
Clause density (# clauses per T-unit)

Grammatical Accuracy

Percentage of grammatical sentences

Total grammatical errors

Lexical Diversity

Lexical density

Macrostructure

Organization Trait Score

Text Structure Trait Score
Cohesion Trait Score

44

Table 10. Descriptive statistics for dependent measures; narrative genre.

Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Measure
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Productivity
Total Words
24.27 12.22
53.24 25.57
77.59 34.56
Total T-units
3.46 1.75
6.45 3.28
9.59 4.42
Number of Different Words
18.31 7.05
36.88 14.58
47.33 17.06
Grammatical complexity
Mean Length T-unit
Clauses (per sentence)
Clause density (# clauses per T-unit)

7.51
1.83
1.40

2.87
0.77
0.40

8.49
1.96
1.43

2.39
0.55
0.34

7.98
1.74
1.46

2.02
0.50
0.29

Grammatical accuracy
Percentage of grammatical sentences
Total grammatical errors

0.81
0.65

0.29
0.79

0.84
1.06

0.19
1.03

0.82
1.92

0.19
1.66

Lexical diversity
Lexical density

0.52

0.08

0.53

0.05

0.55

0.05

Macrostructure
Organization
Text Structure
Cohesion

4.92
1.54
1.31

1.29
0.86
0.47

6.79
2.76
2.00

1.59
0.83
0.88

6.78
2.52
1.93

1.39
0.85
0.68

45

Table 11. Descriptive statistics for dependent measures; expository genre.

Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Measure
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Productivity
Total Words
27.77 12.00
53.97 22.11
73.46 29.55
Total T-units
3.73 1.22
6.62 2.96
8.84 4.20
Number of Different Words
20.85 7.59
37.56 12.71
47.85 16.92
Grammatical complexity
Mean Length T-unit
Clauses (per sentence)
Clause density (# clauses per T-unit)

7.58
1.49
1.25

3.05
0.59
0.32

8.58
1.83
1.58

2.23
0.44
0.30

8.33
2.05
1.61

1.87
0.58
0.43

Grammatical accuracy
Percentage of grammatical sentences
Total grammatical errors

0.78
0.92

0.27
0.79

0.85
1.75

0.21
1.50

0.76
2.04

0.25
1.78

Lexical diversity
Lexical density

0.62

0.09

0.60

0.07

0.61

0.06

Macrostructure
Organization
Text Structure
Cohesion

4.04
1.31
1.15

1.25
0.55
0.46

4.66
1.81
1.34

1.49
0.78
0.48

4.85
1.92
1.46

1.40
0.79
0.58

46

Table 12. Adjusted means and standard deviations for dependent measures; narrative genre.
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Factor
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
F Ratio
Effect
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Productivitya
-.85
.15
.00
.14
.83
.16
29.97**
.42
Grammatical complexity
-.15
.20
.10
.18
.03
.20
0.47
.01
Grammatical accuracy
.14
.20
.08
.18
-.23
.20
1.07
.03
Lexical diversity
-.21
.20
-.09
.18
.33
.20
2.04
.05
b
Macrostructure
-.81
.16
.31
.15
.41
.17
18.07**
.31
Note. *p < .01; **p <.001; Values are reported in factor scores; a = all 3 pairwise comparisons among grade levels were significant; b
= 2 of 3 pairwise comparisons were significant.
Table 13. Adjusted means and standard deviations for dependent measures; expository genre.
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Factor
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
F Ratio
Effect
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Productivitya
-.85
.16
.04
.14
.81
.16
28.16**
.42
Grammatical complexityb
.48
.19
-.20
.18
-.24
.20
4.62*
.11
Grammatical accuracy
.18
.91
-.05
.17
-.10
.20
0.66
.02
Lexical diversity
.14
.20
-.15
.18
.02
.21
0.57
.01
-.43
.19
.05
.18
.38
.20
4.49*
.10
Macrostructureb
Note. *p < .01; **p <.001; Values are reported in factor scores; a = all 3 pairwise comparisons among grade levels were significant; b
= 2 of 3 pairwise comparisons were significant.

47

Table 14. Overall and grade level correlations among narrative and expository values for DVs
Grade Level
Variable
2-4
2
3
4
__________________________________________________________________________________
Productivity
.73*
.66*
.34
.66*
Grammatical complexity

-.31^

-.53^

-.22

-.17

Grammatical accuracy

.31^

.44+

.17

.25

Lexical diversity

-.08

-.25

.01

.31

Macrostructure

.18

.23

.16

-.27

2.
.05

3.
-.02

4.
.08

5.
.61*

--

-.04

-.16

.12

--

-.04

.10

--

.07

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

Table 15
Correlation Matrix Narrative (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity
3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity
5. Macrostructure

--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

Correlation Matrix Expository (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity

2.
-.05
--

3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity

5. Macrostructure

3.
-.16

4.
-.10

5.
.50*

.19

.22

.23+

--

.14

-.25+

--

-.06
--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

48

Table 16
Second Grade Correlation Matrix Narrative (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity

2.
.16

3.
.33

4.
-.14

5.
.73*

--

.23

-.17

.41+

--

-.06

.19

--

-.09

3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity
5. Macrostructure

--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

Third Grade Correlation Matrix Narrative (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity

2.
.02

3.
.15

4.
-.02

5.
.55*

--

-.25

-.07

-.08

--

.18

.10

--

.14

3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity
5. Macrostructure

--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

Fourth Grade Correlation Matrix Narrative (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity

2.
-.05

3.
.02

4.
-.09

5.
.41+

--

-.16

-.31

-.04

--

-.06

.26

--

-.09

3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity
5. Macrostructure

--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

49

Table 16 - Continued
Second Grade Correlation Matrix Expository (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity

2.
-.31

3.
.15

4.
.25

5.
.56*

--

.27

.18

-.34

--

-.44+

-.24

--

-.15

3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity
5. Macrostructure

--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

Third Grade Correlation Matrix Expository (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity

2.
.18

3.
-.25

4.
-.12

5.
.54*

--

-.02

.13

-.11

--

-.06

-.23

--

.01

3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity
5. Macrostructure

--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

Fourth Grade Correlation Matrix Expository (factor scores)

1. Productivity

1.
--

2. Grammatical complexity

2.
.40+

3.
-.01

4.
-.21

5.
.34

--

.22

.32

-.04

--

.01

-.19

--

.07

3. Grammatical accuracy
4. Lexical diversity
5. Macrostructure

--

Note: * p<.001; ^p<.01; +p<.05

50

Table 17. Descriptive statistics for five writing factors by ethnicity, gender, and SES.
Writing Factor
Characteristic

Gender
Male
Female

-.26
.07

-.35
.15

.02
-.17

-.16
-.10

-.09
.04

-.12
-.08

.31
-.18

.11
-.31

-.15
.15

-.03
-.07

Ethnicity
Caucasian
African American
Asian American
Hispanic
Other

.01
.06
-.29
-.45
-.19

.01
-.04
-.35
-.23
-.12

-.09
.15
.07
-.50
-.12

-.12
-.22
-.36
.84
-.27

-.43
-.22
-.05
.24
.74

-.24
-.42
.05
.09
.29

-.22
.10
.06
.28
.42

.08
-.08
.30
-.06
-.13

.00
.22
-.16
.05
-.73

.03
-.38
.08
.28
-.21

Free/Reduced Lunch
Receiving
-.13
-.34 -.19
-.28 -.46
-.52 -.22
-.40 -.03
-.19
Not Receiving
-.08
.03
.00
-.04 .23
.17
.25
.11
.05
.05
Note. N = Narrative; E = Expository mean factor scores. Free/reduced lunch rate = measure of
socioeconomic status (SES). Factor 1 = Productivity; Factor 2 = Grammatical Complexity; Factor 3 =
Grammatical Accuracy; Factor 4 = Lexical Diversity; Factor 5 = Macrostructure.

51

CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to examine multiple dimensions of written language produced by
children in grades 2, 3, and 4 in a narrative and an expository writing sample. A primary goal of this
investigation was to determine the developmental progression of linguistic elements of written
microstructure and macrostructure demonstrated by typically developing students in three elementary
grades. Four aspects of microstructure were examined: productivity, grammatical complexity,
grammatical accuracy, and lexical diversity. Macrostructure was measured by trait scores for
organization, text structure, and cohesion. A secondary aim of this study was to compare performance
on the multiple dependent variables for writing across two different discourse genres (e.g., narrative,
expository) commonly utilized in the educational setting. Third, the inter-correlations among dependent
variables across and within grade levels were explored. The discussion is presented in three sections,
first addressing the results of the present study, then focusing on limitations and offering suggestions
for future research, and concluding with educational implications.
Effect of Grade Level on Microstructure
The first goal of this investigation was to determine whether there were differences among
grades and between genres in linguistic microstructure elements. It was hypothesized that statistically
significant differences would be detected among grade levels on microstructure measures of
productivity and grammatical complexity in both narrative and expository genres. As hypothesized,
differences were indeed found between grade levels (second-third, second-fourth, and third-fourth) for
productivity in both genres based on MANCOVA results. Participants in third and fourth grades used
more words, produced more T-units, and had greater numbers of different words than students in
second grade, and fourth graders greater than third. These findings are consistent with results from
previous investigations demonstrating that measures of productivity are sensitive to changes in grade
and age levels in more than one genre (Berman & Verhoeven, 2002; Houck & Billingsley, 1989; Nelson
& Van Meter, 2007; Puranik et al, 2008).
Partially confirming the hypothesis for grammatical complexity, differences were found between
two subsequent grade levels (second and third), as well as between second and fourth grades in the
expository genre. However, similar to the findings of Puranik et al. (2008), no significant differences in
grammatical complexity were indicated between third and fourth grade levels. This suggests that levels
of expository grammatical complexity, as measured by MLTU, clauses per sentence, and clause
density may plateau at third grade, at least on writing assignments similar to those used in this study
and Puranik et al.
52

Interestingly, fourth graders obtained lower levels of expository grammatical complexity than
both second and third graders. This finding supports Nelson and Van Meters (2007) suggestion that
grammatical complexity may actually decrease with later grades as a natural part of the developmental
progression of writing ability. Nelson and Van Meter noted that the older (fifth grade) students in their
sample produced more simple, correct sentences than did younger students in lower grades. Multiple
possible reasons exist for the finding that the expository writing of fourth grade students was less
grammatically complex than for the younger students. One possibility is that there was a sampling
effect for fourth grade. In other words, the fourth grade sample may have consisted of students who
were obtaining lower levels of achievement than other grade level groups. However, inspection of
fourth grade mean scores on independent measures failed to support this notion. Another possible
explanation is the concept of a "fourth grade slump, evident when literacy difficulties manifest in later
elementary school (i.e., fourth grade), despite adequate achievement in earlier grades (Borman,
Dowling, & Schenk, 2008; Davis & Compton, 2008; Sanacore and Palumbo, 2009). However, using this
explanation, it is unclear why the fourth grade group would outperform second and third graders on
some writing measures (productivity, macrostructure), suggesting there was not a downward trend
across all writing measures. The trend for fourth graders to outperform second and third graders on
some variables, and not others, suggests a third, and perhaps most plausible explanation, that a
linguistic trade-off was occurring to meet task and genre demands. It may be that fourth graders'
linguistic resources were devoted implicitly to producing increased productivity and macrostructure
levels, at the cost of grammatical complexity. Other authors have noted a linguistic trade-off effect in
relation to writing for students with language-learning disabilities (Singer and Bashir, 2004), and
students with English as a second language (Li, 2000). They posit that the more explicit linguistic
features, such as grammatical accuracy, appear to trade-off in accuracy as a function of task demands
and increased cognitive load. Thus, even though the independent measures indicated the fourth
graders in this study were exhibiting typical development, for tasks involving higher cognitive load, they
may have been focusing on the more explicit features of their text production, such as productivity (total
words), and macrostructure (organization & text structure) at the expense of grammatical accuracy
(grammatical errors) or grammatical complexity (complex sentence structures). The topic of trade-off
between linguistic features is revisited later to help explain additional findings of the present
investigation.
In contrast to expectations, no grade differences were found for grammatical complexity in the
narrative genre. This result is dissimilar from the results of Nelson and Van Meter (2007), who found a
significant difference on MLTu between second and third grades in a narrative genre. The grade level
means and standard deviations for MLTu in the present investigation were very similar to the sample
53

examined by Nelson and Van Meter, so it is initially puzzling why significant grade level differences
were not found. However, examination of grade level means in Table 12 for clause density and clauses
per sentence clearly indicate nearly the same scores across the three grade levels in the present
investigation. Therefore, it may be that clauses per sentence and clause density were not sensitive
enough to detect differences between subsequent grade levels in grammatical complexity in a narrative
genre. These values for clauses per sentence and clause density may have masked the effects of
MLTu when these variables were combined into one factor score that was subsequently used in the
MANOVA to detect grade differences. However, previous research with older students suggests that
development of clause density in younger students consists of multiple periods of slower, sometimes
plateaued growth prior to the eighth grade, and may be a useful measure for detecting grade effects in
later years (Nippold, Ward-Lonergan, & Fanning, 2005). Further studies may wish to compare
measures of grammatical complexity to determine their utility for detecting significant differences
between elementary grade level groups.
No grade level differences were indicated for either grammatical accuracy, or lexical diversity.
The lack of grade differences for grammatical accuracy is similar to Puranik et al., although they utilized
different measures for this dimension of microstructure (percentage of grammatically correct T-units,
proportion of spelling errors, conventions). This finding also is similar to Nelson and Van Meters (2007)
finding of no main effects for grammatical error rates among grades one through five. In the present
investigation, grammatical accuracy was measured by the percentage of grammatically correct
sentences and the total number of grammatical errors. Puranik et al. posited that older children may
attempt to produce more complex sentence structures, and as a result could generate more errors than
expected, making their grammatical accuracy scores more parallel with those of younger participants.
When examining the grade level means for grammatical accuracy for the present sample, even though
the difference did not reach statistical significance, fourth grade showed lower factor score values in
both genres (narrative M = -.23; expository M = -.10) than second (narrative M = .14; expository M =
.18) and third grades (narrative M = .08; expository M = -.05), possibly supporting Puranik et als
suggestion. Tables 10 and 11 provide further evidence of depressed grammatical accuracy levels in
fourth grade, particularly with respect to the total grammatical errors produced. Additionally, even
though there was no significant correlation detected across all three grade levels for either narrative (r =
-.04) or expository (r = .19) samples, correlations among grammatical complexity and grammatical
accuracy within each grade level (Table 16) suggest this relationship warrants further exploration.
Therefore, future studies may want to increase the number of items, or variables, measured for both
grammatical complexity and accuracy factors and compare the relations among them under varying
contexts and task demands.
54

Effect of Genre on Microstructure

It was anticipated that performance on microstructure measures would be better in the narrative
genre, particularly for students in the second, and possibly the third grades, who were assumed to
possess less knowledge of and experience with expository discourse structures. Results of a series of
repeated measures ANOVAs rejected this hypothesis, indicating that mean performance on all four
microstructure measures was rather stable within grades and across genres. This finding initially
appeared to deviate from previous studies that indicated greater productivity and grammatical
complexity in a narrative versus an expository genre among elementary school children (Berman &
Verhoeven; Scott & Windsor, 2000); although, a direct comparison to second graders in the present
study cannot be made as Berman and Verhoeven and Scott and Windsors samples did not include
second graders (their participants were fourth and fifth grades). Visual analysis of the grammatical
complexity results (Table 17) for second grade in the present sample suggested a higher mean value in
the expository genre than in the narrative genre (narrative M = -.15; expository M = .45), which is in
contrast to the hypothesis calling for greater values in the narrative genre (Scott & Windsor, 2000).
Furthermore, visual analysis of fourth grade results actually supported the hypothesis, suggesting a
higher mean value for narrative grammatical complexity (narrative M = .03; expository M = -.24).
However, neither of these differences was statistically significant. The finding of no genre effect for
either lexical diversity or grammatical accuracy is similar to previous findings for elementary students
(Berman & Verhoeven, 2002; Scott & Windsor 2000). As with previous samples examined, the
developmental progression of lexical diversity and grammatical accuracy may be slower overall,
regardless of genre, and therefore, more challenging to detect differences between subsequent
elementary grades.
Effect of Grade Level on Macrostructure
The second aim of this study was to determine whether there were differences among grades
and between genres in macrostructure elements. It was expected that differences would be detected
between grade levels based on measures of organization, coherence, and text structure, with the oldest
students (fourth graders) demonstrating the highest levels of performance in this regard. As
hypothesized, MANCOVA detected grade level differences in both genres for macrostructure between
second and third grades, and between second and fourth grades. Second graders scored lower on
narrative and expository organization, text structure, and cohesion than third and fourth graders (see
Tables 12 and 13). However, in contrast to expectations, third and fourth grade did not differ
significantly from each other in either genre. In examining the grade level means in the narrative genre
for the three variables constituting the macrostructure measure, it was noted that the third grade mean
was higher than fourth in text structure (third grade M = 2.76; fourth grade M = 2.52) and cohesion
55

(third grade M = 2.0; fourth grade M = 1.93), although these differences were not substantial enough to
reach statistical significance. In the expository genre, grade level means indicated a slight (but
insignificant) difference between third and fourth grades on organization (third grade M =4.66; fourth
grade M = 4.85), text structure (third grade M = 1.81; fourth grade M = 1.92), and cohesion (third grade
M = 1.34; fourth grade M = 1.46).
The grade level trends observed in the expository genre between second and third, and second
and fourth appear to be due to text structure scores more so than organization or cohesion scores. It
may be that an expository writing sample could be somewhat organized and cohesive, yet not reflect
the targeted genre structure. This is understandable, especially for second graders, whose knowledge
of genre-specific text structure is thought to be less established, especially for expository genre, than
for older students (Berman & Verhoeven, 2002; Nelson, et al, 2004). A single second grade participant
scored at a level 3 for expository text structure on the macrostructure rubric, whereas the remaining
second graders scored at level 1 (n=19) or level 2 (n=6). This was in contrast to the number of third
graders (n=5) and fourth graders (n=5) scoring at a level 3 or higher, and also was dissimilar from the
number of third and fourth graders scoring at a level 2 (3rd n = 15; 4th n = 13). Thus, the grade level
trends appeared to be impacted by floor effects for the second graders on measures of macrostructure.
In the future, researchers may want to develop more sensitive measures to examine children's
knowledge of genre-specific text structures across grade levels, particularly their knowledge of text
structure requirements for the genres most commonly assessed in the classroom, to help further define
this developmental progression.
In the narrative genre, third and fourth grade means for organization and cohesion were nearly
equivalent (mean difference for expository organization = .01; for expository cohesion = .04). A trend in
favor of higher scores for third graders on text structure was noted (mean difference from fourth = .24);
however, this difference was not substantial enough to reach statistical significance (see Figure 5). Cox
et al. (1990) detected significant differences between the third and fifth grades (favoring the fifth grade
participants) for cohesive harmony in a narrative, but not expository genre. Their findings, combined
with the current data, may suggest that the developmental progression of cohesion occurs along a
more gradual continuum, so that the changes due to increases in grade level are more easily detected
between non-subsequent grade levels.
To further explore the levels measured within the organization score, a MANOVA was
conducted post hoc with grade level as the between subjects factor and the 3 sub-scores
corresponding to the organization of the introduction, body, and conclusion as the dependent variables.
Again, a significant multivariate effect was noted for grade level. Although all 3 grade levels were
similar to each other in regard to their scores for narrative introductions, grade differences were noted
56

between second and third, and between second and fourth, for narrative body and conclusion scores. A
potential floor effect for second grade on body and conclusion scores was noted upon examination of
boxplots for these variables. Second graders seemed to incorporate stronger introductions than the
other portions of their text (i.e., body, conclusion), by incorporating more aspects of narrative
organizational structure in the beginning rather than in the remainder of their text. In light of previous
investigations that examined levels of story grammar reflected in childrens writing, none of the second
graders produced what would be considered a complete episode; at best, they incorporated one causal
sequence (i.e., a series of actions casually linked but without planning, and characterize most of the
story; Glenn & Stein, 1980, Nelson, Bahr, & Van Meter, 2004). Nelson et al. (2004) reported that
second graders would reasonably be expected to produce at least temporal sequences (i.e., a series of
actions that are temporally linked in a "what next" strategy, with ideas often linked by "and", "so", and
"then"). Thus, this suggests that the second graders in this study produced story grammar structure
consistent with developmental expectations. It is plausible that the macrostructure rubric, even though it
incorporated different criteria for narrative versus expository text, was not as sensitive to detect specific
instances of story grammar use as would a more in-depth scale of story grammar use (see Nelson et
al, 2004).
Third and fourth graders were similar in scores for narrative body and conclusion. In contrast to
second grade, causal sequences and a few abbreviated episodes (i.e., statement of the problem as
well as characters' aims or intentions are implied or stated in word choices such as "decided" and
"wanted to") occurred more frequently in the text produced by third and fourth graders. Complete
episodes were rarely evident. Laughton & Morris (1989) concluded that only about half of the third and
fourth graders in their sample produced complete stories based on story grammar markers. Within their
sample, Montague, Maddux, and Dereshiwsky (1990) did not find any significant differences between
fourth and fifth graders use of story propositions. Thus, the current findings mirror past results.
Additional analyses may be warranted in future investigations to code for specific story grammar
elements in the narrative writing produced by students across multiple grade levels to compare the
developmental progression of their use of narrative elements to development of macrostructural
elements of other emerging genre forms. Longitudinal investigations of this nature would advance the
literature base in this area.
No significant multivariate effect was detected for grade level in the expository genre. Reviewing
grade level means indicated a possible trend between second and fourth grades for the expository
body scores, with fourth graders receiving higher scores than second graders. It may be that the lack of
significant grade level differences reflects students' limited familiarity with, and use of, expository
organization and text structure, thereby offering further support to the assumption that young students,
57

including those in second through fourth grade, have less experience and knowledge of various text
structures and genre specific organization. These findings suggest they do not yet exhibit consistent
expository genre knowledge.
For each grade level, participants tended to score higher on the introduction than the body or
conclusion in both genres. Paired t-tests showed that for the entire sample, there were significant
differences between narrative and expository introduction (t = 6.66, p <.001), body (t = 3.58, p <.001),
and conclusion scores (t = 4.26, p <.001), favoring the narrative genre. A closer examination at each
grade level provided additional insight to differences between genres and grade levels. For example,
there was a significant difference for second grade between narrative and expository introduction
scores (t= 3.19 , p= .004; higher scores obtained in narrative genre). The finding of a significant genre
effect for second graders on the introductions of their texts provides additional support for the notion
that young children have more knowledge of narrative text structure and organization than expository
text structure. In contrast, no significant differences were noted for narrative and expository body or
conclusion scores for the second grade. Second graders appeared to produce less organized body and
conclusion sections in their text, regardless of genre. Significant differences were observed for third
grade for all 3 organization subscores, (introductions, t = 5.23, p <.001; body, t = 3.97, p <.001; and
conclusion t = 5.00, p<.001), favoring the narrative genre. For grade 4, significant differences were
observed between narrative and expository introductions (t = 2.98, p =.007), body (t = 2.49, p=.025),
and conclusion (t= 2.45, p=.022). These findings indicate that the third and fourth graders in the sample
produced more organized body and conclusion sections in their narrative text, again providing support
for the tenet favoring narrative knowledge over expository knowledge in younger children.
Effect of Genre on Macrostructure
In contrast to expectations, repeated measures ANOVA did not reveal any cross-genre
differences for performance on the macrostructure measure. In fact, for fourth grade, the mean
macrostructure values were very similar across genres. Visual analysis of the results for the narrative
genre indicated a sharp spike in macrostructure scores from second to third grades (see Figure 5),
although this difference was not statistically significant. The potential genre effects on macrostructure
were difficult to anticipate given the range of findings in previous investigations. However, it was
anticipated that performance on macrostructure measures would be similar in both genres for the oldest
students (fourth grade) based on the assumption that experience and knowledge of various text
structures and text cohesion increases with age.
The lack of significant differences in macrostructure scores between the narrative and
expository genres may be due to the type of writing prompts utilized to elicit the samples. It is possible
that the prompts selected may not have fully represented one genre versus another. However, a post
58

hoc analysis of writing samples via a genre identification task revealed that most of the samples
checked were coded reliably for genre type by naive raters. Thus, it appears the majority of writing
samples reflected a specific genre structure (narrative or expository). Nevertheless, some children may
have produced text in a structure other than the elicited genre. It may be these children utilized
inconsistent or limited genre structures in their writing that make it difficult to identify the genre structure
produced in the writing sample. The lack of significant differences in macrostructure also may be due to
the use of "hybrid" genres that incorporate a variety of text structure features from one or more genres.
In situations such as this, the scoring rubric designed for this investigation would need to be altered to
capture occurrences of mixed or hybrid genres. Further exploration is warranted to establish how
adequately writing prompts elicit the intended genre.
Relations among Elements of Microstructure and Macrostructure
The third research question aimed to determine the relations among microstructure and
macrostructure elements in both genres. It was difficult to speculate the potential differences with a lack
of previous research specific to this area; although, researchers have suspected that a relationship did
indeed exist within the narrative genre (Mackie & Dockrell, 2004; Newcomer et al, 1987; Nodine et al,
1985). When examining oral and written narrative competence, researchers have demonstrated that
microstructural and macrostructural variables represent two distinct, underlying components, and that
narrative production involves a complex system of demands at the microstructural and macrostructural
levels (e.g., Justice, 2004). However, there is a paucity of studies delineating the relations among these
elements for genres other than narratives.
Correlational analyses revealed significant associations in both genres between productivity, a
microstructure measure, and performance on the macrostructure measure. Furthermore, significant,
small negative correlations were detected in the expository genre between macrostructure and
grammatical complexity and grammatical accuracy (i.e., as macrostructure value increased,
grammatical complexity and accuracy decreased). Results varied by grade. For example, within second
grade, a significant positive correlation was detected between narrative grammatical complexity and
macrostructure, and a significant negative correlation between expository grammatical accuracy and
lexical diversity (i.e., proportion of content words to total words). As such, this negative correlation
between these two factors of microstructure indicates that for second graders, as their proportion of
content words increased in the expository genre, the level of grammatical accuracy decreased. When
producing text, an individual writer must juggle the demands of grammatical and vocabulary constraints
(Justice, 2004). As discussed with the grammatical complexity factor, it may be that grammatical
accuracy represented a trade-off between the lexical and cognitive demands of the genre. However,
further exploration of this relationship in narratives and other genres is warranted to confirm the nature
59

of this relationship. Within third grade, a significant correlation was detected between productivity and
macrostructure in narrative and expository samples. Thus, regardless of genre, as third graders'
productivity levels increased, so did their macrostructure performance. Within fourth grade, a
significant correlation was found between expository productivity and grammatical complexity.
Therefore, for the fourth graders, students who were more productive in the expository genre tended
also to produce more complex grammatical structures.
In summary, for the expository genre, there was a significant, moderate negative correlation
between grammatical complexity and grammatical accuracy for second graders, and a significant
moderate positive correlation between productivity and grammatical complexity for fourth graders. No
significant correlations were noted between microstructure features for third graders. The patterns
observed within each grade level for correlations among different features of microstructure in
expository samples provide further evidence of linguistic trade-offs occurring for second and fourth
graders, and provide preliminary evidence of a genre effect on the trade-off phenomenon.
Effects of Ethnicity, Gender, and SES
Although not the primary focus of this investigation, the potential influences of other factors on
writing performance warranted some attention. There was no effect of ethnicity, gender, or SES for
dependent variables in either the narrative or expository genre. The finding of no effect of gender is in
contrast to the results of Nelson and Van Meter (2007), who detected a significant effect of gender in
favor of female participants on measures of productivity. However, it may be that the greater
homogeneity of the Nelson and Van Meter participants in varying ability groups influenced their result
for gender analyses because they did not hold constant any other factors such as typical versus
atypical development, nor did they control for reading levels. The results of the present study
corroborated Berman and Verhoevens findings of no significant gender effects for total words, lexical
diversity, or clause density in either narrative or expository genres. Even so, subsequent investigations
should continue to examine the role of gender in writing outcomes (Peterson, 2006). For example, for
older students, gender has been known to impact self-efficacy of writing, with girls demonstrating higher
levels of self-efficacy (Andrade, Wang, Du, & Akawi, 2009), and formation of writing goals, with boys
and girls approaching the writing task differently (task-related goals for girls, performance-related goals
for boys; Pajares, Britner, & Valiante, 2000).
Even though significant differences were not detected for SES, there are multiple reasons these
findings should be interpreted with caution. Regarding SES, a participants classification of lower SES
based on receiving F/RL is dependent on his or her parent or guardian submitting a voluntary
application through the school system. As such, there was no way to ascertain whether the higher SES
group (i.e., those not receiving F/RL) may have included students who would have qualified for F/RL,
60

but whose parents or guardians had simply not applied. Furthermore, this measure of SES only
consisted of two levels. Researchers may elect to incorporate more sensitive measures of SES (e.g.,
mother's education) in future investigations with additional levels of analysis (e.g., low, middle, high
SES; low-middle, middle, and upper-middle SES), and with consideration of specific home
environmental factors that may confound SES as a predictor of achievement (Purcell-Gates, 2000).
In addition to increasing the sensitivity of SES measures, consideration of other parental
characteristics that may affect language and literacy development of children is warranted (e.g.,
culture/ethnicity, parental beliefs). Wasik and Hendrickson (2004) proposed that in addition to parental
characteristics, a comprehensive model for the variables that affect childrens language and literacy
development include child characteristics, the home environment, and parent-child interactions. The
present investigation considered some child characteristics, and one parent characteristic (SES), but
did not consider these additional factors in the model. Researchers may desire to incorporate analyses
of these factors in their research designs in the future. Further investigation into the effects of SES on
dependent writing measures is warranted, particularly with larger samples to increase power to detect
medium and small effects, and allow additional possibilities with regard to inferential analysis and
interpretation. Although no single measure of SES has yet been highlighted as the premier choice,
measures of SES that go beyond family income should be employed in future studies that examine
achievement gaps (Craig, Zhang, Hensel, & Quinn, 2009).
The influence of cultural-linguistic factors on writing performance, such as ethnicity and dialect,
is important to consider. First, one must acknowledge that ethnicity and dialect are not equivalent, and
each factor warrants separate consideration. Further, in the present study, no measure of dialect was
administered. No effect of ethnicity was detected in the present sample. However, regardless of
reported ethnicity, it is possible that dialectal influences may exist for individual children, and could
affect the outcome measures of grammatical accuracy. The dialect shifting-reading achievement
hypothesis suggests that students who successfully shift from dialectal forms reflective of nonmainstream English dialects (e.g., AAE) to Standard American English (SAE) forms in different literacy
tasks (including writing) demonstrate better reading outcomes than students who do not make the shift
as adequately (Craig et al., 2009). Investigations employing larger samples of participants with
ethnically diverse backgrounds, and incorporating distinct a priori measures of dialect (e.g., dialect
density measures), may have better chances of detecting possible differences. If differences are indeed
detected in this manner, investigators can recode the SALT files to capture features of a specific dialect
that has been observed in the sample (e.g., AAE). It would be worthwhile to compare results for written
grammatical and lexical microstructure variables, as well as text structure influences, of dialectal
speakers to capture the weight of influence that dialectal differences may exert on dependent writing
61

measures for both microstructure and macrostructure (Terry, 2006; Thompson, Craig, & Washington,
2004).
Limitations and Future Research
A variety of potential limitations to the present investigation have been presented throughout
this discussion. However, some additional considerations for future research are necessary to note.
One consideration is the method used to elicit writing samples employed in the current study. A single
elicitation technique was incorporated (i.e., response to writing prompt). It is important to consider that
grade and genre effects may vary as a result of differences in prompting procedures and targeted
genre structure (Scott, 1994). Moreover, time constraints may limit productivity, and possibly any
variables strongly correlated with productivity. The timeframe allowed for students to produce their
writing samples was consistent with regular classroom practices guided by statewide assessments.
Whether dissimilar results would be obtained with writing samples produced via different sampling
techniques is unknown. More work is needed in this area to compare the value of various elicitation
techniques to capture the possible relations between elicitation method and writing outcomes.
Furthermore, the degree of the relations among elements of microstructure and macrostructure may be
shaped by the actual genre structure produced, especially considering the results of the post hoc genre
identification task. Thus, investigators planning future studies in this are may elect to first establish the
reliability of selected prompts to elicit the intended genre, and plan in advance a post-hoc analysis to
verify the reliability of selected prompts within their sample.
Sensitivity of dependent measures to detect grade and genre differences is another crucial
element of this investigation to note in light of the findings. For example, potential floor and ceiling
effects were indicated for individual grades on a few dependent measures. As discussed at the
beginning of the results section, several variables, for second grade in particular, exhibited skewness
and/or kurtosis reflective of floor and ceiling effects. This may have limited the measures sensitivity to
detect differences between grade levels or to negatively impact the power of parametric analyses
utilized. However, MANOVA is reportedly robust against mild to moderate violations of normality
(Fields, 2005). Furthermore, these data points were considered to be accurate depictions of the range
of performance and true reflections of the variability inherent in young childrens performance on writing
measures. Larger samples may help allay this concern.
Regarding the sensitivity of the macrostructure measure, the fact that this measure resulted in a
unidimensional measure of macrostructure (according to the EFA results) would seem to be
contradictory to some authors recommendations against the use of holistic score ratings of writing
performance to inform instruction and monitor growth (Nelson & Van Meter, 2004). However, as noted
in the present investigation, a holistic rating scale for macrostructure was a useful method to compare
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a particular students or grade levels performance in comparison to peers or comparison groups. In

contrast, EFA results indicated that the microstructure measure consisted of four distinct factors. As
such, microstructure, in contrast to macrostructure, would be best examined with an analytic scoring
method, utilizing more than one factor or score. Either way, the purpose for the writing assessment, as
well as the reliability of a particular scale to fulfill that purpose, should be the focus at the outset. In
some states, including Florida, the statewide progress monitoring tool for writing in the elementary
grades (i.e., Writes Upon Request) is administered multiple times per school year and yields only a
holistic score. The raters consider four factors in their ratings of student text: focus, organization,
support, and conventions (FLDOE, 2009). Educators are first cautioned against using this single score
as the sole determinant of a student's writing proficiency, and encouraged to interpret this score in light
of the student's performance in other writing tasks and contexts (FLDOE).
Additional considerations for research design are warranted. The data examined in this
investigation represented the pre-test writing performance of students from three grade levels within
one school, who also were recruited to participate in a spelling intervention study. Even though the
design of the school sampled is intended to be representative of statewide student demographics,
analyses based on samples of convenience still may not be wholly representative of the general
population. Caution is therefore called for when applying these interpretations to samples other than
that included in this study. However, this investigation has demonstrated the utility of these measures
for detecting grade and genre differences, and can be utilized when developing local norms.
There are two notable concerns about the use of a covariate in the main analyses. Grade level
differences on the GRADE Comprehension Composite scores indicated the need to include the scores
as a covariate in the main analyses. However, even though there was a significant group difference
between third and fourth grades on this measure, the magnitude of this difference, as indicated by the
effect size, was small (.12). The clinical significance of this small difference is unclear, especially
considering that the mean scores for the fourth grade group remained well within the average range.
Furthermore, as some authors warn against employing ANCOVA with nonrandom groups, researchers
should consider possible alternatives to address the limitations involved and improve their designs
(Miller, 2001).
Data derived from educational research often have a nested structure (e.g., students are nested
in classes, classes are nested within schools, and schools are nested within school districts). With
consideration of the potential impact of quality of writing instruction on writing outcomes (Mehta,
Foorman, Branum-Martin, & Taylor, 2005; Moats, et al 2006), future researchers are encouraged to
utilize ANOVA designs with nested factors to detect within-class effects. The current design did not
allow for this level of analysis. An increased sample size, with a larger number of classrooms examined
63

at each grade level, and additional schools, would support nested designs to look at class/teacher
effects more specifically.
Results of the present investigation extend findings from previous studies, and add to the
existing literature regarding development of and relations among written microstructure and
macrostructure features within and across grade levels and genre types. The dependent measures
utilized in the present study have been suggested as not only useful tools for differentiating groups of
students on some factor of achievement (e.g., reading level, learning disability, language impairment;
see Nelson & Van Meter, 2007; Puranik et al., 2007), but also as useful progress monitoring tools for all
students. To date, there have been few longitudinal studies designed to examine the utility of these
measures to monitor student progress across multiple genres and grade levels.
Educational Implications
Educators are encouraged to consider the lack of differences between grade levels for some of
the dependent measures in light of established grade level expectations that are reflected in state
standards for writing. For example, Florida standards (FLDOE, 2009) require second graders to write in
a variety of informative and expository forms, and produce narratives based on real or imagined events
(including a main idea, characters, sequence of events, and descriptive details). Beginning in third
grade, students are expected to write short persuasive texts, write in additional varieties of informative
and expository forms, and produce more complex narratives (including additional items over and above
those listed for second grade: setting, plot, sensory details, and logical sequence of events).
Additionally, third graders are expected to produce a minimal expository structure containing at least
three paragraphs, and including a topic sentence, supporting details, and relevant information. By
fourth grade, the expectations are higher for persuasive (including use of persuasive techniques,
supporting arguments and detailed evidence), informative and expository (essays including
introductory, body, and concluding paragraphs), and narrative writing (all of the previously mentioned
components plus a context to enable the reader to imagine the world of the event or experience).
Based on review of the present data, it is clear that not all of the writing samples collected reflected
mastery of the previous grade levels standards for writing. This begs the question, if the established
grade level expectations are considered reasonable, how well are current instructional practices
designed to support student achievement of these standards? Future research needs to determine the
extent to which writing instruction, assessment, and progress monitoring adhere to grade level
standards for writing performance. In the meantime, state writing standards that are being developed or
revised need to be research-based, and educators, researchers, and policy-makers need to work
collaboratively to design instruction that is reflective of research-based standards for writing.

64

In general, the importance of timely detection of students at risk for writing problems, and the
provision of early intervention for defined problems, is garnering increased attention in the educational
system in recent years (Singer & Bashir, 2004). Federal and state educational policy reflects this
movement to improve the writing proficiency of all students (Troia, 2009). However, writing research is
an extremely complex undertaking, and as such, requires careful planning and attention to
methodological implications and limitations of previous research. Much more is to be learned regarding
the development of linguistic features in childrens writing, the effects of multiple factors at the child,
family, classroom, and school levels, and development of reliable and valid writing assessment and
progress monitoring tools. Once writing problems are detected, and instruction or intervention is
planned and provided, reliable progress monitoring tools are necessary to document the students
response to the interventions implemented. When considering development of appropriate progress
monitoring tools for writing, one should consider that some measures are more sensitive for capturing
developmental progression within and between grade levels than others.
Conclusion
This study examined multiple dimensions of written language produced by children in grades 2,
3, and 4 in narrative and expository writing samples. The samples were analyzed for developmental
progression of linguistic elements of microstructure and macrostructure represented by the five factors
of productivity, grammatical complexity, grammatical accuracy, lexical diversity, and macrostructure.
Results of this study suggest that variables of written microstructure and macrostructure were sensitive
to grade and genre level differences, that productivity and macrostructure were related in both genres
for all three grade levels, and that one cannot assume the older students will outperform younger
students on all measures. This latter finding was thought to be due to a trade-off between linguistic and
cognitive demands. Consequently, future research needs to establish these trade-off trends in larger
samples and examine the effects of different academic contexts (e.g., variable elicitation techniques,
discourse structures, content specific assignments) on this phenomenon.
Acknowledging that writing is truly an essential component of literacy (broadly defined), and
therefore plays a hefty role in the national literacy crisis, then poor facility in expressing thoughts
through written language may persist as the most prevalent disability of communication skills (Lerner,
1976; p. 266). Given the importance of writing, researchers and practitioners have a responsibility to
persevere and continue meeting the demands of this challenge directly, through continual exploration of
various aspects of writing development and writing proficiency, with the ultimate goal to improve the
writing outcomes of all students.

65

APPENDIX A
CONSENT FORM & IRB APPROVAL

66

Office of the Vice President For Research

Human Subjects Committee
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742
(850) 644-8673 FAX (850) 644-4392
APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Date: 9/18/2008
To: Kenn Apel [kenn.apel@comm.fsu.edu]
Address: 1200
Dept.: COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair
Re: Use of Human Subjects in Research
The Effect of a Multiple-Linguistic Factor Spelling Approach on Spelling, Reading, and
Writing Abilities
The application that you submitted to this office in regard to the use of human subjects in
the research proposal referenced above has been reviewed by the Human Subjects
Committee at its meeting on 09/10/2008. Your project was approved by the Committee.
The Human Subjects Committee has not evaluated your proposal for scientific merit,
except to weigh the risk to the human participants and the aspects of the proposal related
to potential risk and benefit. This approval does not replace any departmental or other
approvals, which may be required.
If you submitted a proposed consent form with your application, the approved stamped
consent form is attached to this approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent
form may be used in recruiting research subjects.
If the project has not been completed by 9/9/2009 you must request a renewal of approval
for continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to
your expiration date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to
timely request renewal of your approval from the Committee.
You are advised that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and
approved by the Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the
protocol. A protocol change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by
the Committee. In addition, federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator
promptly report, in writing any unanticipated problems or adverse events involving risks
to research subjects or others.
By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor
is reminded that he/she is responsible for being informed concerning research projects
involving human subjects in the department, and should review protocols as often as
needed to insure that the project is being conducted in compliance with our institution
and with DHHS regulations.
This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection.
The Assurance Number is IRB00000446.
Cc: Juliann Woods, Chair [jwoods@fsu.edu]
HSC No. 2008.1364

67

APPENDIX B
WRITING INSTRUCTIONS AND PROMPTS
Today you are going to do two pieces of writing on topics I give you. I want you to do everything you
know how to do as a writer to complete this assignment. You may use any strategies you know that
help you. Let me read the first prompt to you. (Read prompt aloud.) When you are finished, you may
re-read your paper and make any changes you want.

Narrative: "Tell me about a time that someone surprised you and what happened."

Expository: "Pretend you are a super hero and you are being interviewed on the news. Tell
everyone what special powers you would have. Also, explain what you would do with them to
help the world."

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APPENDIX C
SALT PROTOCOL FOR MICROSTRUCTURE VARIABLES
Entering utterances (sentences from a writing sample) as T-units in SALT

A t-unit is one main clause plus any subordinate (dependent) clause or nonclausal structure (such as a prepositional
or verbal phrase) that is embedded in the main clause.
A T-unit is an independent clause (a subject and a predicate) along with ay phrases or clauses embedded in it.
All coordinated clauses are separated out into T-units, unless they contain a co-referential subject deletion in the
second clause.

Examples:
1. If people live in the city they dont have to drive.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line:

If people live in the city they dont have to drive.

2. There are people that live in the city and people that live in the country.
(2 T-units)
Enter in SALT as two lines:
There are people that live in the city.
and people that live in the country.

Examples of main clauses with embedded clauses:

3.

Reading books is my favorite thing to do.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line:

Reading books is my favorite thing to do.
4.

I like to read books.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line:

I like to read books.
5.

The book, which I forgot to bring, was my favorite.

(2 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line:

The book, which I forgot to bring, was my favorite.
Example of a main clause with a phrase or clause subordinated to it:
6. She thanked me when I gave her the book.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line:

She thanked me when I gave her the book.
Example of 2 utterances that convey the same information but in different numbers of T-units:

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7.I forgot the book but I can bring it tomorrow and I will give it back so I hope that is okay.
(4 T-units)
Enter is SALT as four lines:
I forgot the book.
but I can bring it tomorrow.
and I will give it back.
so I hope that is okay.
8. I forgot the book that I need to give back, although I am coming tomorrow and can bring it then.
(1 T-unit)
Enter is SALT as one line/utterance:
I forgot the book that I need to give back, although I am coming tomorrow and can bring it then.
Example of a relative clause:
9. It was the boy who probably did it.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line/utterance:

It was the boy who probably did it.
Example of an expanded noun phrase:
10. The large, green hairy monster ate the food.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line/utterance:

The large, green hairy monster ate the food.
Example of a nonfinite clause:
11. Keeping the room clean was her responsibility.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line/utterance:

Keeping the room clean was her responsibility.
Example of adverbial fronting:
12. There sat the big king elephant.

(1 T-unit)

Enter is SALT as one line/utterance:

There sat the big king elephant.
Other examples:
She hid and forgot about it.
- compound verb phrase
After she hid it, she forgot where.
-subordinated clause
She decided to look for it.
-verb as secondary verb, or nonfinite verb as an infinitive
Looking for it proved difficult.
-verb used as a noun phrase: gerund

(1 T-unit)
(1 T-unit)
(1 T-unit)
(1 T-unit)

Art is fun because we paint but when we come back to our classroom we do our work.
(2 T-units)

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Enter in SALT as two lines:

Art is fun because we paint.
but when we come back to our classroom we do our work.
I am 8 years old and I am in the third grade.
Enter in SALT as two lines:
I am 8 years old.
and I am in the third grade.

(2 T-units)

The boy who is my friend started working after I was done.

Enter in SALT as one line:
The boy who is my friend started working after I was done.

(1 T-unit)

He saw her and then he decided to turn around.

Enter in SALT as two lines:
He saw her.
and then he decided to turn around.

(2 T-units)

She putted the dogs collar on but he shook it off.

Enter in SALT as two lines:
She putted the dogs collar on.
but he shook it off.

(2 T-units)

Notes:
Young children tend to string together independent clauses with the coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, so. Use
of these conjunctions often signifies a new T-unit.
Each independent clause in a run-on sentence is counted as a separate T-unit.
SALT RULES:
Must have a period at the end of each T-unit.
Always save the file you have segmented into T-units as a new file, different from the original SALT file, with the
word Tunit in the file name, save in the folder with your name.
Coding for Clauses in SALT
Focus A: Coding for number of clauses per T-unit (clause density)
Definition of Clause = group of related words with a subject and verb (some clauses are dependent, can stand alone, others
are independent, cannot stand alone).
1.Using your checklist of participant files to code, open the file under your Tunits folder on the projects drive.
2. Enter the following codes at the top of every transcript:
+[1CL]: 1 clause
+[2CL]: 2 clauses
+[3CL]: 3 clauses
+[4CL]: 4 clauses
+[MCL]: > 4 clauses (multiple)
(*tip = you may want to copy and paste these codes from the first transcript to the others)
3. Count the number of clauses per T-unit and indicate at the end of the line (before the period) how many clauses you
counted.

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4. After youve entered the clause code for each T-unit in the transcript, please save the file under your file for Clauses
on the projects drive.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Focus B: Counting the number of clauses per sentence (for variables related to sentence complexity).
1. Using your checklist of participant files to code, open the file under your Clauses folder on the projects drive.
2. Count the number of clauses per sentence, and indicate at the end of the sentence (before the last period) how many clauses
you counted. Remove the Clause counts that were previously counted at the T-unit level. Your final transcript document
should only show the clause count per sentence.
Note:

There can be more than 1 T-unit in a sentence.

A sentence is generally based on the childs punctuation in the original sample. (Sometimes kids forget to put a
period or some other punctuation at the end of a sentence. However, if they begin the next sentence with a capital
letter, then it is treated in SALT as 2 sentences despite lacking punctuation in the original paper).

3. After youve entered the clause code for each sentence, please save the file under your file for Sentence clauses on
the projects drive.

Coding for Grammatical Errors (GE)

Add the following code to the list of codes at the top of every transcript/SALT file:
+[GE]: Grammatical Error
Grammatical errors = verb or pronoun tense/agreement/case, omitted or incorrect inflection / omitted or substitution of
grammatical elements, violation of word order.
Examples:
The city have a lot of people.
(problem = subject/verb agreement)
How it should be coded in SALT:
The city have(GE) a lot of people.
People living in the country are also close to their jobs, which are usually farming.
(problem = unclear referent)
How it should be coded in SALT:
People living in the country are also close to their jobs, which(GE) are usually farming.
There are a lot of farmers in suburbs.
(problem = missing article before suburbs)
How it should be coded in SALT:
There are a lot of farmers in(GE) suburbs.
There is a lot of schools.
(problem = subject/verb agreement)
How it should be coded in SALT:
There is(GE) a lot of schools.
Coding for Simple/Complex and Correct/Incorrect Sentences
Add the following codes to the list of codes at the top of every transcript/SALT file:
+[SC]: Simple Correct
+[CC]: Complex Correct

72

+[SI]: Simple Incorrect

+[CI]: Complex Incorrect

Correct Sentence = no grammatical errors (no GE codes)

Incorrect Sentence = has one or more grammatical errors (1 or more GE codes)

Simple Sentence = A sentence with only one main clause.

Examples of Simple Correct Sentences [SC]

People live in different places [1CL][SC]
Farmers raise cows, pigs, and chickens [1CL][SC]
Examples of Simple Incorrect Sentences [SI]
There is[GE] a lot of schools, offices, and factories in the cities [1CL][SI].
There are a lot of farmers in[GE] suburbs [1CL][SI].

Complex Sentence = A sentence with either:

one main clause and one or more subordinate/embedded clauses, or
two main clauses, or
one main clause and verb phrase joined by a coordinating conjunction (clause = must have a verb).

*Recall that a clause is a group of related words containing a subject with a verb.
Examples of Complex Correct Sentences [CC]
The suburbs are more crowded than the country but less crowded than the city [2CL][CC].
If people dont want to drive a long way to their jobs, they live in the city [2CL][CC].
Examples of Complex Incorrect Sentences [CI]
The farmers grows[GE] crops and give them to their animals [2CL][CI].
If people dont want to drive a long way to their jobs, they lives[GE] in the city [2CL][CC].
SAVE YOUR CODING FILES WITHIN THE SENTENCE TYPE FOLDER

73

APPENDIX D
PROTOCOL FOR MACROSTRUCTURE VARIABLES

74

75

76

77

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Shannon Hall-Mills is a Doctoral Candidate in the School of Communication Science and Disorders at
Florida State University. Shannon was born and raised in Volusia County, Florida. She received her
Bachelors and Masters degrees in Communication Disorders from Florida State University in 1999 and
2001. She obtained the Certificate of Clinical Competence in Speech-Language Pathology (CCC-SLP)
from the American Speech Language and Hearing Association. She maintains licensure to practice
Speech-Language Pathology with the Florida Department of Health, and certification from the Florida
Department of Education to work with students (K-12) who are speech/language impaired. Before
entering the doctoral program, Shannon worked with students in grades PK-5 as a school-based
speech-language pathologist and language diagnostician. While working on her doctorate, Shannon
was sponsored through a language and literacy leadership doctoral assistantship and graduate
scholarships from the Kappa Kappa Gamma Foundation, including a scholarship sponsored through
the Gates Foundation. Additionally, she served as an independent contracting therapist and Medicaid
provider for an early intervention program in the Tallahassee area. Shannons professional interests are
language and literacy development and disorders, school-based speech-language pathology services,
educational policy, and evidence-based practices. She is active in the American Speech Language
Hearing Association and the Florida Association of Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists.
Shannon currently resides in Tallahassee with her husband, serves as the state education consultant
for school-based SLPs in Florida through the Florida Department of Education, and continues to teach
at FSU in the School of Communication Science and Disorders and collaborate on language and
literacy research projects.

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