FIVE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES

There are many kinds of educational philosophies, but for the sake of simplicity it is possible to
extract five distinct ones. These five philosophies are (1) perennialism, (2) idealism, (3) realism,
(4) experimentalism, and (5) existentialism. Collectively, these philosophies represent a broad
spectrum of thought about what schools should be and do. Educators holding these philosophies
would create very different schools for students to attend and learn. In the following sections,
each of these standard philosophies is discussed in terms of its posture on axiological,
epistemological, and ontological questions.

Idealism is a philosophy that espouses the refined wisdom of men and women. Reality is seen as a world
Perennialism
within a person's mind. Truth is to be found in the consistency of ideas. Goodness is an ideal state,
something to be strived for. Idealism would favor schools teaching subjects of the mind, such as is found
in most public school classrooms. Teachers, for the idealist, would be models of ideal behavior. For
idealists, the schools' function is to sharpen intellectual processes, to present the wisdom of the ages, and
to presentThe
models
behavior
thattraditional,
are exemplary.
Students
such
have
aon
somewhat
five of
most
standard
conservative,
philosophies
are compared
or inflexible
in Table
ofinthe
2.1
fiveschools
inphilosophies
termswould
of attitudes
is perennialism,
significant
a philosophy
questions.
passive role,
receiving
and
memorizing
the
reporting
of
the
teacher.
Change
in
the
school
program
drawing heavily from classical definitions of education. Perennialists believe that education, like human
would generally
an intrusion
on the orderly characteristic
process of educating.
nature, be
is aconsidered
constant. Because
the distinguishing
of humans is the ability to reason,
education should focus on developing rationality. Education, for the perennialist, is a preparation for life,
Realism and students should be taught the world's permanencies through structured study.
For the realist,
world is as reality
it is, and
job of
be to are
teach
students
the world.
For thethe
perennialist,
is athe
world
of schools
reason. would
Such truths
revealed
to about
us through
study and
Goodness,
for the realist,
would
be found
in the laws
andinthe
order of itself.
the physical
world. would favor a
sometimes
through
divine
acts. Goodness
is of
to nature
be found
rationality
Perennialists
Truth would
be the simple
correspondences
observation.
realist
would favor
school
dominated
curriculum
of subjects
and doctrine,oftaught
throughThe
highly
disciplined
drill aand
behavior
control.
by subjects
of
the
here-and-now
world,
such
as
math
and
science.
Students
would
be
taught
factual
Schools for the perennialist exist primarily to reveal reason by teaching eternal truths. The teacher
information
for mastery.
TheThe
teacher
would
this reality
or change
display in
such
interprets
and tells.
student
is aimpart
passiveknowledge
recipient. of
Because
truthto
is students
eternal, all
the
reality forimmediate
observation
and
study.
Classrooms
would
be
highly
ordered
and
disciplined,
like
nature,
and
school environment is largely superficial.
the students would be passive participants in the study of things. Changes in school would be perceived
as a natural
evolution toward a perfection of order.
Idealism
Experimentalism
For the experimentalist, the world is an ever-changing place. Reality is what is actually experienced.
Truth is what presently functions. Goodness is what is accepted by public test. Unlike the perennialist,
idealist, and realist, The experimentalist openly accepts change and continually seeks to discover new
ways to expand and improve society. The experimentalist would favor a school with heavy emphasis on
social subjects and experiences. Learning would occur through a problem-solving or inquiry format.
Teachers would aid learners or consult with learners who would be actively involved in discovering and
experiencing the world in which they live. Such an education program's focus on value development
would factor in group consequences.

Existentialism
The existentialist sees the world as one personal subjectivity, where goodness, truth, and reality
are individually defined. Reality is a world of existing, truth subjectively chosen, and goodness a
matter of freedom.

Educational essentialism is an educational philosophy whose adherents believe that children

should learn the traditional basic subjects thoroughly and rigorously. In this philosophical school
of thought, the aim is to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, enacting a
back-to-basics approach. Essentialism ensures that the accumulated wisdom of our civilization as
taught in the traditional academic disciplines is passed on from teacher to student. Such
disciplines might include Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History,
Mathematics, Science, Art, and Music. Moreover, this traditional approach is meant to train the
mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a common culture.

Principles of Essentialism
Essentialism is a relatively conservative stance to education that strives to teach students the
knowledge of our society and civilization through a core curriculum. This core curriculum
involves such areas that include the study of the surrounding environment, basic natural laws,
and the disciplines that promote a happier, more educated living.[1] Other non-traditional areas
are also integrated as well in moderation to balance the education. Essentialists' goals are to
instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, patriotism, and character
development through traditional (or back-to-basic) approaches. This is to promote reasoning,
train the mind, and ensure a common culture for all Americans.[2]
Essentialism is the most typically enacted philosophy in American classrooms today. Traces of
this can be found in the organized learning centered on teacher and textbooks, in addition to the
regular assignments and evaluations typical in essentialist education.

Essentialism as a Teacher-Centered Philosophy

The role of the teacher as the leader of the classroom is a very important tenet of Educational
essentialism. The teacher is the center of the classroom, so they should be rigid and disciplinary.
Establishing order in the classroom is crucial for student learning; effective teaching cannot take
place in a loud and disorganized environment. It is the teacher's responsibility to keep order in
the classroom.[3] The teacher must interpret essentials of the learning process, take the leadership
position and set the tone of the classroom. These needs require an educator who is academically
well-qualified with an appreciation for learning and development. The teacher must control the
students with distributions of rewards and penalties.[4]

History of Essentialism
The Essentialist movement first began in the United States in the year 1938. In Atlantic City,
New Jersey, a group met for the first time called "The Essentialist's Committee for the
Advancement of Education."[5] Their emphasis was to reform the educational system to a
rational-based system.

The term essentialist first appeared in the book An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education
which was written by Michael John Demiashkevich.[6] In his book, Demiashkevich labels some
specific educators (including William C. Bagley) as essentialists." Demiashkevich compared the
essentialists to the different viewpoints of the Progressive Education Association. He described
how the Progressives preached a hedonistic doctrine of change whereas the essentialists
stressed the moral responsibility of man for his actions and looked toward permanent principles
of behavior (Demiashkevich likened the arguments to those between the Socratics and the
Sophists in Greek philosophy).[7] In 1938 Bagley and other educators met together where Bagley
gave a speech detailing the main points of the essentialism movement and attacking the public
education in the United States. One point that Bagley noted was that students in the U.S. were
not getting an education on the same levels as students in Europe who were the same age.[8]
A recent branch has emerged within the essentialist school of thought called "neoessentialism."
Emerging in the eighties as a response to the essentialist ideals of the thirties as well as to the
criticism of the fifties and the advocates for education in the seventies, neoessentialism was
created to try to appease the problems facing the United States at the time.[9] The most notable
change within this school of thought is that it called for the creation of a new discipline,
computer science.

Renowned Essentialists
William Bagley (18741946) was an important historical essentialist. William C. Bagley
completed his undergraduate degree at Michigan Agricultural College in 1895. It wasnt until
after finishing his undergrad studies that he truly wanted to be a teacher.[10] Bagley did his
Graduate studies at the University of Chicago and at Cornell University. He acquired his Ph.D. in
1900 after which he took his first school job a Principal in a St. Louis, Missouri Elementary
School.[11] Bagleys devotion increased during his work at Montana State Normal School in
Dillon, Montana. It was here where he decided to dedicate his time to the education of teachers
and where he published The Educative Process, launching his name across the nation.
Throughout his career Bagley argued against the conservative position that teachers were not in
need of special training for their work.[12] He believed that liberal arts material was important in
teacher education. Bagley also believed the dominant theories of education of the time were
weak and lacking.[13]
In April 1938, he published the Essentialist's Platform, in which he outlined three major points
of essentialism. He described the right of students to a well-educated and culturally
knowledgeable teacher. Secondly, he discussed the importance of teaching the ideals of
community to each group of students. Lastly, Bagley wrote of the importance of accuracy,
thoroughness and effort on part of the student in the classroom.[14]
Another important essentialist is E.D. Hirsch (1928-). Hirsch was Founder and Chairman of the
Core of Knowledge Foundation and author to several books concerning fact-based approaches to
education. Now retired, he spent many years teaching at the University of Virginia while also
being an advocate for the "back to basics" movement. In his most popular book, Cultural
Literacy What Every American Needs To Know, he offers lists, quotations, and information
regarding what he believes is essential knowledge.[15]

See also Arthur Bestor.

Schools Enacting an Essentialist Curriculum

The Core Knowledge Schools were founded on the philosophy of essentialist E.D. Hirsch.
Although it is difficult to maintain a pure and strict essentialist-only curriculum, these schools
have the central aim of establishing a common knowledge base for all citizens. To do so, they
follow a nation-wide, content-specific, and teacher-centered curriculum. The Core Knowledge
curriculum also allows for local variance above and beyond the core curriculum. Central
curricular aims are academic excellence and the learning of knowledge, and teachers who are
masters of their knowledge areas serve this aim.[16]

Criticism of Essentialism
One of the positive critiques of essentialism is the stability of the education. Because
essentialism is relatively conservative and focuses on disciplines which are relatively stable, it is
a rather consistent form of education. The same disciplines are taught consistently and in a
progressive manner. It is not persuaded by the fads of the time, but instead focuses on the basics
that students need to know to be productive members of society.
However, because Essentialism is largely teacher-centered, the role of the student is often called
into question. Presumably, in an essentialist classroom, the teacher is the one designing the
curriculum for the students based upon the core disciplines. Moreover, he or she is enacting the
curriculum and setting the standards to which the students must meet. The teacher's evaluation
role undermines students' interest in study.[17] As a result, the students begin to take on more of a
passive role in their education as they are forced to meet and learn such standards and
information.[18]
Furthermore, there is also speculation that an essentialist education helps in promoting the
cultural lag.[19] This philosophy of education is very traditional in the mindset of passing on the
knowledge of the culture via the academic disciplines. Thus, students are forced to think in the
mindset of the larger culture, and individual creativity is often squelched.
Teacher-centered philosophies of education require that children are educated using certain
methods put into action by their teacher, as opposed to student-centered philosophies, in which
teaching methods are formed according to the needs and learning styles of individual students. In
short, teacher-centered philosophies force the student to adjust to the teacher; with studentcentered philosophies, the teacher adjusts to the student. Essentialism and perennialism are the
two teacher-centered philosophies that are prominent in the United States.
Essentialism

Essentialism is a teacher-centered philosophy that stresses rigorous practice with the traditional
subjects: reading, writing, math, and science. An essentialist curriculum is structured to develop

discipline and a common culture of knowledge. Essentialists value deep knowledge on a few
core subjects, as opposed to more general knowledge on a wider array of subjects.
In 1938, education reformist William C. Bagley pioneered essentialism in America. As outlined
in his publication Essentialist's Platform, he pushed for a strong, common core curriculum to
help Americas school systems compete with higher-ranking countries. He believed that the
influx of immigrants was threatening American culture by weakening the schools, and responded
with his attempt to raise academic standards.
The Essentialist's Platform detailed three main components of essentialism in the classroom.
First, students were to be taught by an essentialist teacher who is well-educated and
knowledgeable in the core curriculum. In Bagleys book Craftsmanship in Teaching, he framed
the teacher as the center of the essentialist classroom. The teachers role in essentialism was to
teach a strict curriculum with knowledge and authority, but the method was at the teachers
discretion.
The second component was to weave community into the curriculum. The essentialist reform
was set to promote the customs of American culture to each student regardless of the school, to
ensure that all schools of varying demographics had a common foundation. This element of
essentialism is in direct contrast to student-centered philosophies of education, which focus on
the growth of the student as an individual.
Third in the Essentialist's Platform, Bagley pushed for a higher standard for all students in the
essentials. He took a pass or fail approach to promoting students to the next educational level;
the only way a student could progress was to prove knowledge of the required subjects through
grades and testing. If education abandons rigorous standards and consequently provides no
effective stimulus, many persons will pass through twelve years of schooling to find themselves
in a world in which ignorance and lack of fundamental training are heavy handicaps, Bagley
said.
Today, essentialist advocate E. D. Hirsch Jr. is the chairman and founder of the Core Knowledge
Foundation. Hirschs ideas of education reform begin with common cultural literacy. As stated
on the foundations website, Our society cannot afford a two-tiered system in which the affluent
have access to superior education, while everyone else is subjected to a dull and incoherent
classroom experience. Academic excellence, educational equity, and fairness demand a strong
foundation of knowledge for all learners.
Perennialism

Perennialism is a teacher-centered educational philosophy that focuses on everlasting ideas and

universal truths learned from art, history, and literature. The curriculum of perennialism stems
from the Great Books, a collection of literature deemed in Western culture to be foundational,

significant, and relevant, regardless of the time period. These books include the works of
Socrates, Aristotle, Homer, Plato, Geoffrey Chaucer, and William Shakespeare.
The Great Books were the most promising avenue to liberal education if only because they are
teacher-proof, said prominent perennialist Robert Hutchins in 1973. If there were a Socrates
behind every teachers desk, you would not need to worry about the curriculum.
Perennialism is similar to essentialism in that teachers guide the educational process. It is also
closely associated with the Socratic method of teaching, which promotes an open dialogue
between teacher and student. Perennialism in the classroom involves students gaining cultural
literacy through the Great Books and proving their understanding through tests, writing, and
behavior. A perennialism teacher has a duty to help students to become cultural citizens and to
understand the principles of human knowledge.
Hutchins believed that students should be taught basic universal truths and an understanding of
eternal ideals. Following the principles of perennialism, he implemented education reform at the
University of Chicago, encouraging modern critical thinking of old ideals. He did away with
traditional grades and requirements, instead focusing on a more broad curriculum and
comprehension through exams. He sought to open up the dialogue between teachers and
students, and to foster an environment of debate that could help students relate to these ancient
values. The purpose of the university is nothing less than to procure a moral, intellectual, and
spiritual revolution throughout the world, he said.
Teacher-Centered Philosophies in American Education

In his 2003 book Exemplars of Curriculum Theory, education professor Arthur K. Ellis writes
that perennialism dominated the American education system from colonial times to the 19th
century, but today the back to basics essentialist curriculum is prominent in American public
education. The ancient and religious values of perennialism have been removed from the public
school system in an effort to promote a separation of church and state. Perennialism is still
popular in many non-secular schools and universities.
Critics claim that both educational theories are one-sided, only preparing students for one aspect
of their futureessentialism is too pragmatic while perennialism is undemocratic. Both have the
same goal of training up a student in a certain image, but those images are different.
Perennialism aims to raise an enlightened citizen; essentialism aims to raise a knowledgeable
student.
Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to
know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general
or world philosophies just discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently
used in classrooms the world over. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and

Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we should teach, the
curriculum aspect.
Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the
great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any
era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant,
not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change.
Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds
need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile
education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students'
growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized the
great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational
philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and
Mortimer Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western
civilization.
Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to
students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential
knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in
some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It
should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read,
write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence
policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are
to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness.
This approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s.
William Bagley, took progressivist approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other
proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul
Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).
Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content
or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active
experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing
the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes
meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective
teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived
from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so

that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on
process-how one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in
America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent.
One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through
experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers
with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.
Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a
quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a
curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)
was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He
recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or
the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George
Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating
this new social order.
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to
overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian
whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle
for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims,
nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of
awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which
the educator deposits information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a
process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and
taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation,
and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and
literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning
and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.
Related to both the metaphysical worldview philosophies and the educational philosophies are
theories of learning that focus on how learning occurs, the psychological orientations. They
provide structures for the instructional aspects of teaching, suggesting methods that are related to
their perspective on learning. These theoretical beliefs about learning are also at the epistemic
level of philosophy, as they are concerned with the nature of learning. Each psychological
orientation is most directly related to a particular educational philosophy, but may have other
influences as well. The first two theoretical approaches can be thought of as transmissive, in that
information is given to learners. The second two approaches are constructivist, in that the learner
has to make meaning from experiences in the world.

Information Processing
Information Processing theorists focus on the mind and how it works to explain how learning
occurs. The focus is on the processing of a relatively fixed body of knowledge and how it is
attended to, received in the mind, processed, stored, and retrieved from memory. This model is
derived from analogies between how the brain works and computer processing. Information
processing theorists focus on the individual rather than the social aspects of thinking and
learning. The mind is a symbolic processor that stores information in schemas or hierarchically
arranged structures.
Knowledge may be general, applicable to many situations; for example, knowing how to type or
spell. Other knowledge is domain specific, applicable to a specific subject or task, such as vowel
sounds in Spanish. Knowledge is also declarative (content, or knowing that; for example,
schools have students, teachers, and administrators), procedural (knowing how to do thingsthe
steps or strategies; for example, to multiply mixed number, change both sides to improper
fractions, then multiply numerators and denominators), or conditional (knowing when and why to
apply the other two types of knowledge; for example, when taking a standardized multiple
choice test, keep track of time, be strategic, and don't get bogged down on hard problems).
The intake and representation of information is called encoding. It is sent to the short term or
working memory, acted upon, and those pieces determined as important are sent to long term
memory storage, where they must be retrieved and sent back to the working or short-term
memory for use. Short term memory has very limited capacity, so it must be kept active to be
retained. Long term memory is organized in structures, called schemas, scripts, or propositional
or hierarchical networks. Something learned can be retrieved by relating it to other aspects,
procedures, or episodes. There are many strategies that can help in both getting information into
long term memory and retrieving it from memory. The teacher's job is to help students to develop
strategies for thinking and remembering.
Behaviorism
Behaviorist theorists believe that behavior is shaped deliberately by forces in the environment
and that the type of person and actions desired can be the product of design. In other words,
behavior is determined by others, rather than by our own free will. By carefully shaping
desirable behavior, morality and information is learned. Learners will acquire and remember
responses that lead to satisfying aftereffects. Repetition of a meaningful connection results in
learning. If the student is ready for the connection, learning is enhanced; if not, learning is
inhibited. Motivation to learn is the satisfying aftereffect, or reinforcement.
Behaviorism is linked with empiricism, which stresses scientific information and observation,
rather than subjective or metaphysical realities. Behaviorists search for laws that govern human
behavior, like scientists who look for pattern sin empirical events. Change in behavior must be
observable; internal thought processes are not considered.

Ivan Pavlov's research on using the reinforcement of a bell sound when food was presented to a
dog and finding the sound alone would make a dog salivate after several presentations of the
conditioned stimulus, was the beginning of behaviorist approaches. Learning occurs as a result of
responses to stimuli in the environment that are reinforced by adults and others, as well as from
feedback from actions on objects. The teacher can help students learn by conditioning them
through identifying the desired behaviors in measurable, observable terms, recording these
behaviors and their frequencies, identifying appropriate reinforcers for each desired behavior,
and providing the reinforcer as soon as the student displays the behavior. For example, if
children are supposed to raise hands to get called on, we might reinforce a child who raises his
hand by using praise, "Thank you for raising your hand." Other influential behaviorists include
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) and James B. Watson (1878-1958).
Cognitivism/Constructivism
Cognitivists or Constructivists believe that the learner actively constructs his or her own
understandings of reality through interaction with objects, events, and people in the environment,
and reflecting on these interactions. Early perceptual psychologists (Gestalt psychology) focused
on the making of wholes from bits and pieces of objects and events in the world, believing that
meaning was the construction in the brain of patterns from these pieces.
For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must conflict with what the learner already
knows. Therefore, the learner's previous experiences determine what can be learned. Motivation
to learn is experiencing conflict with what one knows, which causes an imbalance, which
triggers a quest to restore the equilibrium. Piaget described intelligent behavior as adaptation.
The learner organizes his or her understanding in organized structures. At the simplest level,
these are called schemes. When something new is presented, the learner must modify these
structures in order to deal with the new information. This process, called equilibration, is the
balancing between what is assimilated (the new) and accommodation, the change in structure.
The child goes through four distinct stages or levels in his or her understandings of the world.
Some constructivists (particularly Vygotsky) emphasize the shared, social construction of
knowledge, believing that the particular social and cultural context and the interactions of
novices with more expert thinkers (usually adult) facilitate or scaffold the learning process. The
teacher mediates between the new material to be learned and the learner's level of readiness,
supporting the child's growth through his or her "zone of proximal development."
Humanism
The roots of humanism are found in the thinking of Erasmus (1466-1536), who attacked the
religious teaching and thought prevalent in his time to focus on free inquiry and rediscovery of
the classical roots from Greece and Rome. Erasmus believed in the essential goodness of
children, that humans have free will, moral conscience, the ability to reason, aesthetic sensibility,
and religious instinct. He advocated that the young should be treated kindly and that learning

should not be forced or rushed, as it proceeds in stages. Humanism was developed as an

educational philosophy by Rousseau (1712-1778) and Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature and the
basic goodness of humans, understanding through the senses, and education as a gradual and
unhurried process in which the development of human character follows the unfolding of nature.
Humanists believe that the learner should be in control of his or her own destiny. Since the
learner should become a fully autonomous person, personal freedom, choice, and responsibility
are the focus. The learner is self-motivated to achieve towards the highest level possible.
Motivation to learn is intrinsic in humanism.
Recent applications of humanist philosophy focus on the social and emotional well-being of the
child, as well as the cognitive. Development of a healthy self-concept, awareness of the
psychological needs, helping students to strive to be all that they can are important concepts,
espoused in theories of Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Alfred Adler that are found in
classrooms today. Teachers emphasize freedom from threat, emotional well-being, learning
processes, and self-fulfillment.

Existentialism
Understanding existentialism is often difficult, often because its ideas conflict with other major
trends in the thought of western and eastern philosophies alike. Many people consider
existentialism to be a dark and pessimistic philosophy, void of hope. However, the opinions of
existentialist thinkers were often optimistic about the future of human beings.
Existentialism can also be difficult to understand because it does not consist of a specific dogma,
or a set of metaphysical claims. Existentialism is not a definitive claim about the world or the
people in it. It is marked, instead, by a set of themes about the human condition and the struggles
and freedoms that humans must endure, or perhaps embrace.
Despite the various and often conflicting views held by many existentialist philosophers, there
are several main concepts of existentialism that are present in virtually all their works:
1. Sentient beings, especially humans, have free will.
2. Humans are responsible for the consequences of their decisions.
3. Extremely few, if any, decisions are void of negative consequence.
4. Even when part of a group, each person acts and decides as an individual,
and is accountable as such.
5. The world is indifferent towards humanity.

The definition of existentialism is often hard to pin down, as there are conflicting views within
existentialist thought, variations upon the ideas, and a number of so-called existentialists who
rejected the title.
Perhaps the central feature of existentialism that can be seen in these points is the focus on the
individual. Existentialists reject the idea that there is a fundamentally true human nature.
Instead, they point out that those who seek to understand human nature undervalue the
individual. The individual is free, as Sartre says, radically free. The individual can shape its
own life and defy its so-called nature. The individual makes decisions and bears the
responsibility for its actions alone.
Existentialism is a philosophy of the individual and its struggle through life a focus on the
subjective life that we all actually live, rather than a search for objective truths external to us.

Existentialist Philosophers
The Minds of Existentialism
Sren Kierkegaard

Often considered to be the first of the existentialists, Kierkegaard was a religious philosopher
who stressed the need for individual choice.
Jean-Paul Sartre

Sartre potrayed humans as lonely creatures, and viewed the freedom of choice that many
existentialists valued as a burdern, due largely to the responsibility that follows any choice.
Sartre is one of the most prominent minds in existentialism, and can be credited for bringing this
philosophy to the attention of a much larger audience.
Albert Camus

Moving beyond Sartre's existentialism, Camus explored the meaninglessness and absurd nature
of the human condition.
Many Others

Other existential philosophers include Simone de Beauvoir, Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers,
Gabriel Marcel and Franz Kafka. Existentialist philosophy was also influenced by many other
works, including those of Friedrich Nietzsche, G. W. F. Hegel, Fyodor Dostoevsky and Edmund
Husserl.

Behaviorism (philosophy of education)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
It has been suggested that this article be merged into Behaviorism.
(Discuss) Proposed since July 2013.

Behaviorism, as a perspective in education, is based on a change in knowledge through

controlled stimulus/response conditioning. This type of learner is dependent upon an instructor
for acquisition of knowledge. The instructor must demonstrate factual knowledge, then observe,
measure, and modify behavioral changes in specified direction. This type of learning is a
conditioned response or rote memorization of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. The
correct response is achieved through stimulation of senses. The focus of intelligence
development is visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, and bodily/ kinesthetic intelligence. The
purpose in education is to help a learner build initial schema by adopting knowledge from an
instructor through use of the learners senses. This learning goal is the lowest order learning:
factual knowledge, skill development, and training.[1]
Behaviorists

Etienne Bonnot de Condillac, 1754/1982, 1756 Condillacs works include Essays on the origin of
human knowledge (1746), Treatise on the system (1749), Treatise on the senses (1754), and an
extensive course of study in 13 volumes [Cours d'tudes] (17671773) that emphasize the
importance of using the senses to increase learning. Condillacs work is significant to the field of
education because he is among the first to emphasize the importance of manipulating matter as
well as ideas to construct behavioral learning. Condillac advocates a sense luscious environment
that provides a stimulus response-learning environment consistent with Behaviorism.[2]
Jean Marc Gaspard Itard 1801/1862; Itard, sometimes called the father of special education,
believed that anyone could be educated [as evidenced in his work with The Wild Boy of Aveyron
published in 1801, 1806/1962]. Itard did not accomplish the goals he set for himself to train the
wild boy; however, he did bring about an inclusive philosophy of education that emphasized the
use of objects as training tools to develop sensual skills leading to cognitive development.
Through his attempts to train the wild boy, Itard learned that positive reinforcement [rather than
punishment] was an effective means of obtaining necessary behavioral responses. This stimulus
response method is consistent with Behaviorism.[3]
B. F. Skinner, 1954 Skinners key point is the need of immediate reinforcement to strengthen
behavior. The use of mechanical devices to strengthen behavior in 1954 foreshadows the use of
computers in todays classrooms. According to Skinner, organisms learn by making changes in
their environments. Skinner noted, A significant change in behavior is often obvious as the
result of a single reinforcement. [4] Maintaining behavior strength requires gradual contingency

changes and skillful use of schedules in conjunction with positive reinforcement. Competition
has adverse consequences for all but one participant, where as cooperation provides positive
reinforcement for many. Cooperation is, therefore, preferable to competition. In addition,
cooperation can be set up more easily than competition. The progressive education reform
movement sought to use immediate positive consequences to modify or strengthen desired
behavior, rather than relying on adverse events such as the teachers displeasure, ridicule of
classmates, low grades, poor showing in competition, talks from the principal, or the birch rod
from caregivers.[5] When instructors use adverse events rather than positive reinforcement, the
results are anxieties, boredom, and aggression rather than reinforced learning. A revision of
classroom practices is needed. A single teacher cannot devote all of his or her time to providing
positive reinforcement to only one child [6] A rough estimate of the contingencies required for
successful behavior in mathematics during the first four years of school is approximately 25,000
contingencies. The responses to be set up far exceed the essential minimum provided by the
homework or in class drills used in current classroom practice. Reinforcement devices have been
designed that can provide immediate feedback to a pupil at work for an appropriate time each
day. Using these devices allows a child to progress at his own rate. Skinners prophetic defense
of mechanical devices states, A country which annually produces millions of refrigerators, dishwashers, automatic washing-machines, automatic clothes-driers, and automatic garbage
disposers can certainly afford the equipment necessary to educate its citizens to high standards of
competence in the most effective way.[7] After 50 years, Skinners argument may still be drawn
on to support the use of laptops as educational tools in todays classrooms. Laptops provide the
immediate positive reinforcement that Skinner refers to, in addition to linking a learner to the
information highway of the new millennium. Typical of the Behaviorist, Skinner uses a sense
luscious environment to stimulate learning.[8]

Instructional theory

Behaviorism (or behaviourism), is an approach to psychology that combines elements of

philosophy, methodology, and theory.[1] It emerged in the early twentieth century as a reaction to
"mentalistic" psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested
using rigorous experimental methods. The primary tenet of behaviorism, as expressed in the
writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others, is that psychology should concern itself
with the observable behavior of people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place
in their minds.[2] The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be
described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical
constructs such as thoughts and beliefs.[3]
From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently
and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the
20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical
ways.[4] Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning although
he did not necessarily agree with behaviorism or behaviorists, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B.

Watson who rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental
methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning.[5]
In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the
cognitive revolution.[6][7] While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may
not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications,
such as in cognitivebehavioral therapy that has demonstrable utility in treating certain
pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and addiction. In addition, behaviorism sought to
create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior from the birth of a human to their death
(see Behavior analysis of child development).

Versions
There is no universally agreed-upon classification, but some titles given to the various branches
of behaviorism include:

Methodological: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental

life, no internal states; thought is covert speech.

Radical: Skinner's behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands behavioral

principles to processes within the organism; in contrast to methodological behaviorism;
not mechanistic or reductionistic; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states are not
considered causes of behavior, phenomena must be observable at least to the individual
experiencing them. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas
in his study of knowing and language.

Teleological: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics. Focuses on objective

observation as opposed to cognitive processes.

Theoretical: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once
meant "unobservable," but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic,
but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony.

Biological: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior,

theory of behavior systems.

Psychological behaviorism (PB) Arthur W. Staats: First general behaviorism that centers
on human behavior. Created time-out, token-reinforcement and other methods, analyses,
findings and the theory of that helped form behavioral child development, education,
abnormal, and clinical areasalso terming this behavioral analysis in 1963. PB laid the
basis for cognitive behavior therapy, provides basic theory and research that unifies
emotional and behavioral conditioning, and introduces new avenues for basic and applied
behavior analysis.[8][9]

Two subtypes are:

Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological;

Purposive: Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology

Definition
Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis of his
school of research (named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB differs
from other approaches to behavioral research on numerous methodological and theoretical
points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in accepting
fornication, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. This is done
by characterizing them as something non-dualistic, and here Skinner takes a divide-and-conquer
approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior, and others
getting a more extended "analysis" in terms of behavior. However, radical behaviorism stops
short of identifying feelings as causes of sexual behavior.[2] Among other points of difference
were a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science of behavior
complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism has considerable overlap
with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism.[10] Another way of
looking at behaviorism is through the lens of egoism, which is defined to be a causal analysis of
the elements that define human behavior with a strong social component involved.[11]

Experimental and conceptual innovations

This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early
experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of
Organisms[12] and Schedules of Reinforcement.[13] Of particular importance was his concept of the
operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the
idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but
functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw
or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a
common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the
individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and
reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and SR
theory.
Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers
such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulationsThorndike's notion of a
stimulusresponse "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological onesthe
use of the "free operant," so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own
rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method,
Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates
of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved
remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers
of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This
lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his
work much more rigorous than his peers', a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work

Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical

weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the
experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.[14]

Relation to language
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of
a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal Behavior[15] and other
language-related publications;[16] Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional
analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.[17][18]
Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,[19] and
the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.[20][21]
Dinnate theory is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set of habits that
can be acquired by means of conditioning. According to some, this process that the behaviorists
define is a very slow and gentle process to explain a phenomenon as complicated as language
learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not language
acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay
republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement,[22] Skinner took the view that
humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in
the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over
behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects
on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist
analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between
instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes
that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior.
Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of Relational
Frame Theory.

Behaviourism and education

Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour
achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and
the discouragement of bad habits. In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of
repetitive actions, praise for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes. In the field
of language learning this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by
the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction.
Within the Project-based learning (PBL) environment, students may be encouraged to engage
with the learning process and their peers within the group by positive reinforcement from a
skilled facilitator to increase positive actions of engagement, contributions and questioning.
Negative behaviours e.g. lack of engagement, negative contributions, could be minimized by the
facilitator using negative reinforcement. Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher"
is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes
from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity
for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply told what is right or

wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered "superficial"
as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in the internal processes of
learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process.

Operant conditioning
Main article: Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was developed by B.F Skinner in 1937 and deals with the modification of
"voluntary behaviour" or operant behaviour. Operant behavior operates on the environment and
is maintained by its consequences. Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant
conditioning, are either positive (delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn
following a response). Skinner created the Skinner Box or operant conditioning chamber to test
the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats.

Classical conditioning
Main article: Classical conditioning
Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms,
classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is also an
important behavior-analytic process that need not refer to mental or other internal processes.
Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning
procedure. In simple conditioning, the dog was presented with a stimulus such as a light or a
sound, and then food was placed in the dog's mouth. After a few repetitions of this sequence, the
light or sound by itself caused the dog to salivate.[23] Although Pavlov proposed some tentative
physiological processes that might be involved in classical conditioning, these have not been
confirmed.[citation needed]

Molar versus molecular behaviorism

Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is,
behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with
Skinner's complete description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981
article "Selection by Consequences."[24] Skinner proposed that a complete account of behavior
requires understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or
phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral
repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group
to which the animal belongs). This whole organism then interacts with its environment.
Molecular behaviorists use notions from melioration theory, negative power function discounting
or additive versions of negative power function discounting.[25]
Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin, Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum, argue that
behavior cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that
behavior is best understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular

behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar
behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associative strength," are better
replaced by molar variables such as rate of reinforcement.[26] Thus, a molar behaviorist would
describe "loving someone" as a pattern of loving behavior over time; there is no isolated,
proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior
might be an example) that can be summarized as "love."

Behaviorism in philosophy
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of mind. The
basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science,
such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as
causes for their behavior. Less radical varieties are unconcerned with philosophical positions on
internal, mental and subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior.
According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of
phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful
application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central problems in
judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral approach..[27]
Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic
philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein, defended a behaviorist position
(e.g., the beetle in a box argument), but while there are important relations between his thought
and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician Alan
Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make this
identification. In logical and empirical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl
Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which
consist of performed overt behavior. W.V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced
by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain
of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim
was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes," and hence that they
were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise
acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist,[28] though he offers extensive criticism of
radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the
possibility of free will.[29]
This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned." Dennett argues that there is a crucial
difference between explaining and explaining away If our explanation of apparently rational
behavior turns out to be extremely simple, we may want to say that the behavior was not really
rational after all. But if the explanation is very complex and intricate, we may want to say not
that the behavior is not rational, but that we now have a better understanding of what rationality
consists in. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solves problems in linear algebra,
we don't say it's not really solving them, we just say we know how it does it. On the other hand,
in cases like Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, the explanation of how the computer carries on a
conversation is so simple that the right thing to say seems to be that the machine isn't really
carrying on a conversation, it's just a trick.)

 Curtis Brown, Philosophy of Mind, "Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett"[30]

21st-century behavior analysis

As of 2007, modern-day behaviorism, known as "behavior analysis," is a thriving field. The
Association for Behavior Analysis: International (ABAI) currently has 32 state and regional
chapters within the United States. Approximately 30 additional chapters have also developed
throughout Europe, Asia, South America, and the South Pacific. In addition to 34 annual
conferences held by ABAI in the United States and Canada, ABAI held the 5th annual
International conference in Norway in 2009. The independent development of behaviour analysis
outside the US also continues to develop, for example in 2013 the UK society for Behaviour
Analysis [31] was founded in order to further the advancement of the science and practice of
behaviour analysis across the UK.
The interests among behavior analysts today are wide ranging, as a review of the 30 Special
Interest Groups (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such interests include everything from
developmental disabilities and autism, to cultural psychology, clinical psychology, verbal
behavior, Organizational Behavior Management (OBM; behavior analytic IO psychology).
OBM has developed a particularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evidenced by
the formation of the OBM Network and the influential Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management (JOBM; recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI
JOBM rating).
Applications of behavioral technology, also known as Applied Behavior Analysis or ABA, have
been particularly well established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s.
Treatment of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders has grown especially rapidly
since the mid-1990s. This demand for services encouraged the formation of a professional
credentialing program administered by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, Inc. (BACB)
and accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. As of early 2012, there are
over 300 BACB approved course sequences offered by about 200 colleges and universities world
wide preparing students for this credential and approximately 11,000 BACB certificants, most
working in the United States. The Association of Professional Behavior Analysts was formed in
2008 to meet the needs of these ABA professionals.
Modern behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and applications
related to language and cognition, with the development of Relational Frame Theory (RFT;
described as a "Post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition").[32] RFT also forms the
empirical basis for the highly successful and data-driven Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
(ACT). In fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have become sufficiently prominent
that they have formed their own specialized organization that is highly behaviorally oriented,
known as the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS). It has rapidly grown in its
few years of existence to reach about 5,000 members worldwide.
Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) JEAB
website, the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM), Behavior and Social

Issues (BSI), as well as the Psychological Record. Currently, the U.S. has 14 ABAI accredited
MA and PhD programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.

Behavior analysis and culture

Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from the early
days (as seen in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom & Dignity,
and About Behaviorism.)
During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive interchange
with cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "Cultural
Materialism") regarding interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a
set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward this end.[33] Behaviorism is also
frequently used in game development, although this application is controversial.[34]