Jesus in the Thought of Ibn Al-Arabi and His Contemporaries:

A Sufi Christology

J. Luis Dizon
#998869513
NMC 481 H1S
Submitted to: Todd Lawson
03 April 2014

Jesus is a religious figure whose significance lies in the fact that most of the worlds
religions acknowledge his impact on world spirituality in some way or another. Beyond this,
however, there is wide divergence in belief over who he is. This can be seen in the way
Christianity and Islam approach the figure of Jesus, for example. Both religions claim him as a
religious figure of great importance, yet have different conceptions regarding his person.
The goal of this essay is to explore the thought of the 13 th century Sufi thinker Ibn
Al-Arabi as it relates to the person of Jesus. First, standard Christian and Muslim views of who
Jesus is are expounded, and then comparisons will be made with the statements and assertions
made by Ibn Al-Arabi, in order to see where he stood in continuity with pre-existing thought,
and where he diverged from them and broke new ground. Other Sufi writers statements on Jesus
will be placed in juxtaposition with Ibn Al-Arabis as well, in order to show how his disciples
and contemporaries have interpreted and expanded upon his thought over the centuries into the
present day. It will be shown herein that Ibn Al-Arabi (and various Sufi writers who follow him)
have taken a different path in interpreting Jesus than the one which their predecessorsbe they
Christian or Muslimhave taken, utilizing distinctly Sufi concepts such as the Oneness of
Being and the Perfect Man to understand the personality and role of Jesus in a new light.
Finally, the significance of this will be highlighted to show that this alternate Christology that Ibn
al-Arabi expounds upon has enduring relevance in the inter-religious discussions that continue
to take place regarding Jesus.

Traditional Christian and Muslim Perspectives

First of all, we need to look briefly at what the two main religions in question have taught
regarding Jesus. Christianity teaches that Jesus is the Son of God. This title is usually given in
1

the Hebrew Bible in terms of the anointed Davidic king, of whom the Psalmist says, I will tell
of the decree of the Lord: He said to me, You are my son; today I have begotten you. 1 This title
is then picked up in the New Testament, where it is connected with other strands of messianic
thought (such as that of the Messiah as great high priest) to form one coherent picture.2
The other important strand of thought about Jesus is the belief that he is the eternally preexistent second person of the Trinity. An important New Testament passage that speaks to this is
the introduction to the Gospel of John, in which Jesus is presented as the Word of God existed
from eternity past, and as being the agent behind the creation of the universe.3 Even the Hebrew
prophets are said to have seen him in his pre-incarnate divine glory, according to New Testament
interpretations of the Hebrew Bible.4 Furthermore, the miracles that Jesus perform are seen as
evidence of his deity. In a study done on the miracle stories found in the Gospels, biblical
scholars Bowman and Komoszewski demonstrate that Jesus is therein depicted not just as a
petitioner or mediator of miraculous powers (as is the case with the prophets and other holy), but
is actually a bearer of such powers, putting him at a level above them.5

1 Psalm 2:7. All Biblical quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version (Nashville, TN: Thomas
Nelson, 1990).
2 D.A. Carson, Jesus the Son of God: A Christological Title Often Overlooked, Sometimes
Misunderstood, and Currently Disputed (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012), 62-64.
3 John 1:1-3.
4 Cf. Mark 12:35-37, John 8:56-58 and Hebrews 11:26.
5 Robert M. Bowman and J. Ed Komoszewski. Putting Jesus in His Place: The Case for the Deity of
Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 2007) 198-201.

Mainstream Sunni Islam, as derived from common interpretations of the Quran, takes a
radically different view of Jesus. On the one hand, it affirms such basics as the virgin birth and
the prophethood of Jesus,6 seeing Jesus as part of a long line of prophets culminating in
Muhammad.7 The Quran attributes many miracles to him, including some that are also found in
the Gospels, as well as some that are not found in it, such as the breathing to life of birds from
clay, and speaking from the cradle.8 There is also the shared belief between Christians and
Muslims that Jesus will come again at the end of time.
On the other hand, most Muslims reject the concept of Jesus as the Son of God or as
being divine, seeing such statements as blasphemous. The Quran says regarding someone who
makes such statements that God shall prohibit him entrance to Paradise. 9 While Muslims
accept the miracles that are attributed to Jesus, they reject the Christian idea that the miracles
prove his divinity, instead arguing that Jesus was only able to perform his miracles by the
permission of God, a distinction which Sufi thinkers such as Ibn al-Arabi will later take and
explore in their writings (as will be discussed below).
In addition, most Muslims also deny that Jesus died on the cross on the basis of the
statement in Surat al-Nisa: [Y]et they [ie. The Jews] did not slay him, neither crucified him,

6 Surah 4:171. All Quranic quotations are from The Koran Interpreted (London: Oxford University
Press, 1964).
7 Andrew Rippin (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to The Quran (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006),
7.
8 Surah 3:46-49.
9 Surahs 5:7:72-75, 5:116, 9:30, 19:88-93.

only a likeness of that was shown to them. 10 The rationale behind this denial is that the
crucifixion represents substitutionary atonement; a doctrine which is vehemently rejected in
Islam. Most Muslims interpreting the relevant Quranic verse as teaching that he never went on
the cross at all, but that a look-alike was substituted for him. 11 However, as the passage by itself
is ambiguous, there is no unanimous consent on this interpretation, and a more nuanced
understanding of the passage exists which shows that the Quran does not actually say enough to
either confirm or deny the event, merely that it denies that the Jews succeeded in their claimed
attempt to kill Jesus.12 All of this shows that there are some central differences between itself and
Christianity.

Sufi Perspectives
Contrasted with the standard Christian and Muslim views, however, the Sufi mystical
tradition provides a third way of understanding who Jesus is and what his significance is for
humanity. Whereas much of mainstream Islamic thought was formulated in opposition to
Christian belief, Sufism presented a more syncretic approach in finding similarities with
Christian beliefs. This was done primarily as a form of dawah, in order to demonstrate that
Islam (ie. Sufism), possessed the true interpretation of Jesus. 13As Milad Milani points out, the

10 Surah 4:157
11 Cyril Glasse, The New Encyclopedia of Islam (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2002), 239 and
Todd Lawson, The Crucifixion and the Quran: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought (Oxford:
Oneworld Publications, 2009), 12-13.
12 Lawson, The Crucifixion and the Quran, 17-18.

medieval sufi was more likely interested in conversion than mutual discourse. 14 Nonetheless,
such attempts at producing a synthesis has proven to be helpful in providing grounds for
discussing the similarities and differences in how the two faiths approach Jesus.
To begin with, in any discussion of Sufi doctrines, it should be remembered that Sufism
is firmly grounded within Islam. Seyyed Hossain Nasr makes this point in his introduction to
Sufi Essays, where he emphasizes that Sufi thought can neither be practiced nor understood apart
from the context of Quranic revelation. 15 Nevertheless, Sufi thought goes above and beyond the
literal interpretation (zahir) of the text, and delves into esoteric meanings (batin) that are hidden
deep within it. This can be seen, for example, in how they interpret the Quranic description of
Jesus as the Spirit of God.16 According to Sufi exegesis, this means that Jesus breath has the
power to bring life to those it comes into contact with, as shown in several sayings regarding
Jesus in the Sufi tradition. In that context, his breath takes on a metaphorical meaning as a lifegiving source.17
Another example of this can be seen in how Sufi thinkers al-Qushayri (d. 1072) and alQashani (d.1329) handle the passages in the Quran and ahadith that speak about Jesus. In their
tafasir on the aforementioned passages, they take the literal truth of the stories for granted.

13 Milad Milani, Representations of Jesus in Islamic Mysticism: Defining the Sufi Jesus. Literature
& Aesthetics 21.2 (2012): 48.
14 Ibid., 63.
15 Seyyed Hossain Nasr, Sufi Essays (Chicago, IL: Kazi Publications, 1999), 15-17.
16 Surah 4:171.
17 Nurbaksh, Jesus, 49-52, 164, 169.

However, they go further than that, creating esoteric interpretations of such stories as Jesus
virginal conception, the miracle stories, the crucifixion and his return at the end of time (alQashani more so than al-Qushayri, who is content in some places merely to give the Quranic
story as is).18 This is relevant in studying the impact of Ibn al-Arabis thought, as al-Qashani
relies heavily upon the formers theosophical system in formulating his commentaries upon
Jesus, especially with the idea that it was necessary for Marys desire to be aroused in order for
her to conceive him.19
In addition to this emphasis on the esoteric, early Sufisms emphasis on asceticism made
Jesus a popular figure among them. Sufisms otherworldly emphasis caused its adherents to take
a very ascetic approach to life, not unlike the Gnostics of old. Jesus is seen in this light as the
ultimate example of someone who has completely denied the world and lived their life in total
abandonment to God, drawing from such statements by Jesus as the one in the Gospels where he
says, Foxes have holes, and birds of the air have nests; but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay
his head.20 Similar quotes appear in Sufi writings regarding Jesus. For example, in Khwaja
Abdullah Ansaris Tafsir, he quotes Jesus as saying, You created us poor and without any
provisions, so we couldnt carry out what was due to you.21 There are many stories that are told
about Jesus in relation to this. For example, Jesus is often said to have worn a patchwork wool

18 Neal Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity (Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press),180-188.
19 Ibid., 188-189.
20 Matthew 8:20 and Luke 9:58.
21 Javad Nurbakhsh, Jesus: In the Eyes of the Sufis (KhaniqahiNimatullahi Publications, 2012). 92.

cloak, similar to the ones worn by various Sufi saints.22 Another example can be found in one tale
that is recounted in various forms by al-Ghazali, Farid al-Din Attar and Abu Al-Majd Majdud
Sana'i, Jesus once took a loose rock and lay his head on it as a pillow. When Satan passes by, he
says to Jesus, I see that you still desire something in the world, to which Jesus responds by
throwing away the rock, saying, Take this along with the rest of the world! 23Even the story of
Jesus crucifixion is taken as an example of self-denial to be emulated. The most noteworthy
historical example of this is the passion of al-Hallaj, whose death is modeled closely after Jesus
own, in accordance with the alternate understanding of the crucifixion discussed above.24
All of these Sufi particularities provide the background by which the particular
interpretation of Ibn al-Arabi develops in his writings. The syncretic approach taken by these
Sufi thinkers towards areas of contention between Christians and Muslims allows him
accommodate notions of divine sonship via the concept of Oneness of Being. 25 He is also able
to come up with his own harmonization of Jesus divinity with the Quranic passages that seem
to deny it (as will be discussed below). Also, his predecessors raising up of Jesus as an example
to be emulated provides the impetus for the development of his own view of Jesus as a Perfect
Man, and Seal of the Saints. These will be discussed in further detail below.

22 Ibid., 68.
23 Ibid., 76-78.
24 Milani, Representations of Jesus in Islamic Mysticism, 60, 64.
25 Mahmud Mustafa Ayoub, Jesus the Son of God: A Study of the Terms Ibn and Walad in the Quran
and Tafsir Tradition, in ChristianMuslim Encounters (Wadi Z. Haddad and Yvonne Y. Haddad, eds.)
(Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida 1995), 76.

Ibn al-Arabis Perspective

Of the Sufi thinkers discussed, Ibn al-Arabi is perhaps the most noteworthy in presenting
a portrait of Jesus that differs from traditional perspectives. This difference manifests itself in
many different ways, in keeping with the larger tradition of Sufism. This can be seen most
clearly in the chapter The Wisdom of Prophecy in the Word of Jesus in the Fusus al-Hikam,
where he provides some interesting statements regarding the nature and role of Jesus. Here, Ibn
Al-Arabi brings together many different strands of thought, on the study of Christology. He
affirms classical Quranic/Islamic ideas about Jesus, such as the miracles that are attributed to
him. He even begins his chapter on Jesus by referencing stories about him raising the dead, as
well as the story of the birds made from clay in Surah 3:49. 26 Ibn al-Arabi interpets these
miracles as examples of how Jesus acts as the Spirit of God, whose breath has the power to bring
about life. In describing the miracle stories found in both the Gospels and the Quran, Ibn
al-Arabi distinguishes the act of blowing that is performed by Jesus with the divine essence that
brings about life.27 He speaks about how God grants Jesus the ability to perform divine acts,
making the act both Jesus in respect to the material cause, and Gods in respect to the efficient
cause. According to him, this led to the confusion that exists amongst Christians regarding the
divinity of Jesus, a confusion that he later on refutes.28

26 Muhyiddin Ibn AlArabi, The Bezels of Wisdom (trans. R.W.J. Austin), (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press,
1980), 174.
27 Reem A. Meshal and M. Reza Pirbhai, Islamic Perspectives on Jesus, in The Blackwell Companion
to Jesus (Burkett, Delbert, ed.) (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 242.
28 Ibn AlArabi, The Bezels of Wisdom, 176-177.

In addition to these, some Christian-influenced ideas can be discerned in his thought,

which he brings together with the classical Islamic ideas in a unique synthesis. This is in line
with his belief in the transcendent unity of religions, which allows him to see truths in specific
teachings of other religions, such as Christianity.29 Perhaps most significantly, this chapter is an
elaboration on the concept of the Insan al-Kamil (Perfect Man), which parallels the
aforementioned Sufi concepts of Jesus as the ideal God-fearing ascetic, and will be discussed in
more detail below.
First, it is noteworthy to look at how Ibn al-Arabi begins with classical Muslim
understandings of Jesus, but then modifies them in a way that is in keeping with his larger
monistic conceptual framework. An example of this is found in his comments on Surah 5:116,
where Ibn Al-Arabi states that it is not incorrect to say that Jesus is divine, given that all
creatures are manifestations of God. What is incorrect to say, however, is that God manifests
himself in a unique way in Jesus that he does not in every other human being. 30 This is consistent
with the metaphysical belief that is found in Ibn Al-Arabis works which has often gone by the
title of Wahdat al-Wujud (Oneness of Being), which holds that the multiplicity of things that
exist in the cosmos all derive their existence from the oneness of Gods being. 31 This perspective
emphasizes the fundamental unity between the Absolute Reality and the various creatures that
are shadows of that Reality. On the basis of this concept, Jesus must be looked upon as part of

29 Nasr, Sufi Essays, 38.

30Muhyiddin Ibn AlArabi, The Ringstones of Wisdom (trans. Caner K. Dagli) (Chicago, IL: Kazi
Publications, 2004), 162 n.29. See also Meshal and Pirbhai, Islamic Perspectives on Jesus, 242-243.
31 William Chittick, Ibn Arabi: Heir to the Prophets (Oneworld Publications, 2005), 71.

that one reality, though this does not mean that he is part of that Reality any more than the rest of
humanity.
Where Jesus does differ from the mass of humanity is the degree in which he manifests
that Reality in his life. This is in keeping with how Jesus is presented by Ibn al-Arabi as one of
the prime examples of the Insan al-Kamil, alluded to previously. Although this concept existed
long before Ibn al-Arabi, and is present as early as is frequently spoken of by Ibn al-Arabi in
various chapters of the Fusus. For example, in the chapter on Moses, he calls the Perfect Man the
noble epitome in which God created all the divine Names and realities. 32 He also states in the
chapter on Adam that it is for the sake of the Perfect Man that God preserves and sustains the
cosmos, and that as soon as he ceases to be in this world, it will cease to endure as a separate
existence.33 The concept is also briefly alluded to in the chapters on Enoch, 34 Shuaib35 and
Muhammad,36 although not much elaboration is made in those sections.
David Singh speaks at length about this idea of Jesus as a Perfect Man ties in with
various strands of Christian thought, especially those that developed in Alexandria during the
first millennium C.E., which, according to him, appears especially similar to the idea of the PM
used in relation to Jesus and Muhammad of Islamic Mysticism. 37 Furthermore, according to
R.W.J. Austin, this makes Jesus an archetype of humanitya model like which every human
32 Ibn AlArabi, The Bezels of Wisdom, 253.
33 Ibid., 51-52.
34 Ibid., 84, 88.
35 Ibid., 149.
36 Ibid., 281.

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being should aspire to become. In his introduction to the chapter, he comments that Jesus is in a
special way, what every man is potentially.38 According to this line of thought, for anyone to be
an insan kamil is to be just like Jesus, following the example laid out by him.
In rendering Jesus as an archetype, Ibn al-Arabi makes him analogous to the universals
that he speaks of elsewhere as being central to his cosmology, albeit herein embodied in a
specific person. This is in keeping with certain other ideas about Jesus found in Ibn al-Arabi that
are unique to him. One example of this is how Ibn Al-Arabi interprets him through his world of
ideas and forms. To him, Jesus is the Universal Seal of the saints. This concept is not original
to him, as it was enunciated as early as the 9th century by al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi. However, the
concept came to be identified during the 10 th, 11th and 12th centuries with heretical notions, such
as that the saints were in some way superior to the prophets. It was only in the 13 th century that
the concept came to be revived and transformed by Ibn al-Arabi.39
In his writings, he develops to parallel the equivalent title given to the prophet
Muhammad in classical Islamic thought, which is the Seal of the Prophets. 40 He also states that
at the end of time, Jesus will inherit the Seal of Muhammadan Friendship, which would grant
him the totality of all the prophetic works, states and knowledge manifested by Muhammad (and

37 David Emmanuel Singh, Rethinking Jesus and the Cross in Islam, Mission Studies 23.2 (2006):
252-253.
38 Ibn AlArabi, The Bezels of Wisdom, 174.
39 Richard McGregor, The Development of the Islamic Understanding of Sanctity, Religious Studies
and Theology 20.1 (2001): 53-57.
40Gerald Elmore, Ibn al-'Arab's Book of the Fabulous Gryphon ('Anq' Mughrib), The Muhyiddin Ibn
'Arabi Society, Accessed on 2 March 2014, http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/articles/anqamughrib.html.

11

Ibn al-Arabi, who considered himself to be the inheritor of that seal in his day). 41 This is not to
say that Ibn al-Arabi privileges Jesus over or at the same level as Muhammad. On the contrary,
as a good Muslim, he is constrained by mainstream Islamic thought to enhance the position of
Muhammad above that of Jesus.42 Despite this, however, it is clear from what he has written that
Ibn al-Arabi does raise Jesus to a much higher position than most other Islamic thinkers, Sufi or
otherwise.

Significance
In his Sufi Essays, Nasr speaks about the Sufi mystical traditions emphasis on inner meanings
behind outward forms as basis for understanding the relationship between different religious
traditions. He goes so far as to state that it is the only aspect of Islam that can do full justice to
the more profound questions of comparative religion. 43 While such a claim may be somewhat
hyperbolic, it does nonetheless touch upon the fact that Sufism provides resources for
interpreting different religious traditions in a new light, such that a fundamental unity can be
discerned amongst the diversity of traditions.
Nasr holds up Ibn Al-Arabi is held up as one of the greatest examples of a Sufi thinker
expounds upon concepts such as revelation and the Logos in such a way as to bring to the

41 Chittick, Ibn Arabi, 16, and McGregor, The Development of the Islamic Understanding of Sanctity,
58.
42 Singh, Rethinking Jesus and the Cross in Islam, 245-246.
43 Nasr, Sufi Essays, 123.

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surface such unity.44 In addition, Singh points to the alternate interpretation of Jesus vis--vis the
concept of the Perfect Man as a way of getting past the polemical nature of standard ChristianMuslim Christological discussions, and developing a greater consensus on his significance as a
person.45
It is hoped that exploring these different aspect of Ibn Al-Arabis thought would shed
light upon a topic which has been a source of many divergent understandings upon different
religious traditions, providing an enlightening synthesis of ideas on who Jesus is and what his
significance is to humanity.

44 Ibid., 147-148.
45 Singh, Rethinking Jesus and the Cross in Islam, 255-256.

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