Thin-Walled Structures 98 (2016) 384391

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Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Experimental and numerical investigations of a splitting-bending steel

plate energy absorber
Xiaoxue Chen, Guangjun Gao n, Haipeng Dong, Jian Li
Key Laboratory of Trafc Safety on Track of the Ministry of Education, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 6 March 2015
Received in revised form
8 September 2015
Accepted 13 October 2015

Based on the splitting and bending of a steel plate, a new type of energy absorption structure is presented in the paper. The absorber consists of a steel plate, die, and support tool. During collision, the steel
plate is split and bent by the die. Using this type of absorber, energy absorption occurs through the
splitting of the steel plate, elasticplastic bending, and friction between the steel plate and the die. Two
kinds of steel plates with different thicknesses are constructed and tested. The experimental results show
that the deformation of the steel plates is stable. The grooves on the end of the steel plate effectively
eliminate the initial peak of the force. This combined method performs energy absorption effectively. The
energy absorption responses of the structure are also analysed using the nite element method. By
comparison with the experimental results, the numerical results are validated.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Energy absorption
Steel plate
Splitting
Bending

1. Introduction
Urban mass transit is developing at a rapid speed in China. At
the same time, the operating speed of vehicles is increasing. High
speed systems bring new challenges to equipment design. Operating at these high speeds could increase the severity of collision
conditions. Attention must be focused on the structural crashworthiness of vehicles to provide safety in a changing environment. The most popular occupant-protection approach is passive
protection [1]. Deceleration and forces that impact on the occupants are limited to acceptable levels of human tolerance through
a combination of structural crashworthiness measures, such as
energy-absorbing components which are installed at the end of
the vehicle structure.
Energy-absorbing components must dissipate the kinetic impact energy in a controllable manner while maintaining the integrity of the occupant compartment during a crash [2]. An ideal
energy absorber should absorb the impact energy at a constant
steady force throughout the entire plastic deformation of the
structures [3]. In addition, an ideal energy absorber also has to
ensure good controllability and repeatability. Depending upon the
crash conditions, such as the crash speed and crash location, energy absorption devices may be required to be adaptive or controllable to the amount of energy absorbed with regard to the
crash distance/time. The main mechanisms associated with energy
absorption of metal structures are plastic deformation and
n

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gjgao@csu.edu.cn (G. Gao).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2015.10.010
0263-8231/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

fracture. A wide range of deformation modes exist for axially

loaded tubes, such as plastic buckling, inversion [4,5], splitting and
curling [6,7], cutting [8], and shrinkingsplitting [9].
Due to the higher energy absorption per unit mass, the axial
plastic buckling of thin-walled structures has been studied extensively. Progressive folding deformations for square tubes and
circular tubes were dened by Abramowicz and Jones [1012]. To
improve the energy absorption of tubes, several methods have
been proposed, such as dividing the enclosed cross-sectional area
of the tube into multiple cells [13] and introducing patterns to the
wall of tubes [14]. However, one disadvantage of axial plastic
buckling is that its crushing load is not uniform, and in particular a
high initial peak of the force exists [15]. There are basically two
types of tube inversion: free inversion and inversion with a die
[16]. There are two characteristic stages of the tube inversion
process in the presence of a die: the rst stage is the curling stage,
when the tube end is forced to conform to the shape of the curved
die and begins to curl up; the second involves the formation of a
second wall after the curling process. The main advantage of this
mode of deformation is the constant steady-state load that can be
obtained for a uniform tube. However, tube inversion is limited by
the die radius [17]. The splitting mode of deformation is a special
case of tube inversion where the die radius is large enough to
cause splitting instead of inversion [17]. It can be found from past
investigations that the advantage of the splitting mode lies in
having not only a long stroke but also a steady crush force. Cheng
and Altenhof [18] investigated the energy absorption characteristics of square aluminium alloy under a cutting deformation
mode. No initial peak of the force was observed to initiate the
cutting deformation mode. Two energy dissipating mechanisms

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385

Fig. 1. (a) Absorber mounted in the front part of the wagon structure; (b) enlarged view of the absorber.

were identied, namely a cutting deformation mechanism and a

petalled sidewall outward bending mechanism. The energy absorption is highly dependent on the plastic deformation mode
under specic loading conditions.
In this paper, the splitting and bending behaviour of steel plates
is investigated and presented experimentally and numerically. The
working principle of the new type of energy absorber is the metal
machining process. During the collision, energy absorption occurs
by splitting of the steel plate, elasticplastic bending of the steel
plate, and friction between the steel plate and the die. Fig. 1 shows
a way of mounting the absorber.
This paper presents a special type of energy absorber. Two steel
plates of different thicknesses are designed and tested. In preparation for the quasi-static test, the deformation resistance and
absorption power were analysed. Numerical simulations were
performed using the ANSYS/LS-DYNA software package. Verication of the numerical model was realized using the results obtained by experimental investigations.

2. Quasi-static experiments
2.1. Quasi-static test
The purpose of the experiment was to show the shape of deformation of the steel plate under quasi-static load. In this paper,
quasi-static tests of two steel plates with different thicknesses (6
and 8 mm) were performed.
The absorber shown in Fig. 2 consists four parts: (1) the steel
plate, (2) the support tool, (3) the die, and (4) the guide bar. The
die and the guide bar were connected. The steel plates were xed
by the support tool. The cross-head of the testing machine pressed
the guide bar at a constant speed. The die moved forward and split
and bent the steel plate. The wear resistance of the guide bar was
high enough to ensure the stability of the cutting process. So in the
process of squeezing the steel plates, the guide bar only produced
elastic deformation. The axes of the die, guide bar, steel plate, and
testing machine were carefully aligned.
The die made from cemented carbide exists on both sides of the
absorber. The dimensions of the cutting tool are a width of
100 mm and rake angle of 30. A steel plate made from Q235 steel
with a length of 1000 mm and width of 280 mm was used in the
test. Similarly to the cutting tool, each side of the absorber has a
steel plate. In order to reduce the initial force, there is a 100 mm
long groove on the end of the steel plate.
The experiments were performed in a wheelset assembly machine. The set-up used a hydraulic press with a maximum pressmounting force of 500 t and longest stroke of 500 mm. The force

Fig. 2. (a) The appearance of the energy-absorption device; (b) internal view of the
structure: (1 steel plates; 2 support tool; 3 die; 4 guide bar).

between the cutting tool and the steel plate can be measured by
the following formula:

F = ps

(1)

where p is the pressure of the liquid which is injected into the

cylinder and s is the cross-sectional area of the hydraulic piston.
The hydraulic pressure can be controlled by the machine through
the inputting of oil and increases gradually from zero to a constant
value to ensure that the test is under the quasi-static condition.
The cross-sectional area of the hydraulic piston is invariant, so the

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X. Chen et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 98 (2016) 384391

Fig. 4. Deformation mode of steel plate: (a) 6 mm; (b) 8 mm.

Fig. 3. (a) (1) Wheelset assembly machine and (2) the absorber; (b) the absorber.

force increases gradually to a constant. The whole loading process

is not a uniform motion, but the velocity of the cutting tool is very
low and can thus meet the requirement of a quasi-static test. The
hydraulic pressure and the displacement of the guide bar can be
presented by the displacement metre and thus the forcedisplacement curve can be obtained.
Due to the limitation of the wheelset assembly machine's
maximum compression stroke, the cutting force loading is divided
into two strokes. In the rst one, the cutting tool is driven so that it
squeezes the steel plate by 450 mm, and in the second the force is
loaded with a 450 mm extension. In the end the total stroke after
loading twice is approximately 800 mm (the second stroke is not
fully loaded). Installation and xation of the experimental set-up
are shown in Fig. 3.
2.2. Analysis of test results
Deformations of two steel plates with different thicknesses
after the tests are shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that the shapes of
deformations of steel plates with different thicknesses are approximately the same. The front part of each steel plate was bent.
The rest of each steel plate remained at. Due to the stroke limitation of the guide bar, there was no space for further scrolling.
The separate lines of both steel plates were smooth. It can be
concluded that the cutting processes of the steel plates were
stable. There were some clips near to each cutting line because of
the exibility of steel. In addition, part of each steel plate was cut
down to allow the steel plates to be taken from the support tool
easily, as shown in Fig. 4(b).
Fig. 5 shows the forcedisplacement curves of steel plates with
different thicknesses. This diagram shows that for each steel plate
the axial force gradually increased until it reached a maximal value
after which it remained approximately constant until the end of

Fig. 5. Forcedisplacement curves of steel plates with different thicknesses.

the stroke. Due to the introduction of the initial groove, no obvious

initial peak of the force was observed.
For the thicknesses of 6 and 8 mm, the maximal values of force
were 239 and 588 kN respectively. After 156.92 and 331.86 mm of
displacement, the force reached values of 220 and 563 kN respectively, which were close to the maximal values. Comparing the
force curves of the steel plates of two different thicknesses, it is
observed that there is obvious deviation for the thickness of 8 mm.
It can be derived that the larger thickness of the steel plate gives a
higher value of the axial force. A large force leads to a large elastic
deformation of the die and thus the cutting processes of the right
and left sides are not synchronous. Actually, it can be seen that the
thicker steel plate needs a longer time to reach maximal deformation resistance. Deformation resistance increases with increasing thickness of the steel plate.

3. Numerical simulation
3.1. Finite element modelling
Finite element (FE) models were developed to simulate the
deformation of the steel plate in order to better understand the

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387

Fig. 6. (a) Simplied geometric modelling; (b) 1/4 simplied geometric modelling.

Fig. 7. Mesh sizes of different parts of cutting energy absorption device: (a) guide bar and die; (b) bafe; (c) 6 mm steel plate; (d) 8 mm steel plate).

Table 1
Material parameters of different component (under quasi-static condition).
Component

Density (kg/m3)

Elastic modulus (GPa)

Poisson ratio

Yield stress (MPa)

Failure strain

Steel plate (curved part)

Steel plate (failed part)
Steel plate (xed part)
Bafe
Cutting tool

7850
7850
7850
7850
7850

210
210
210
210
608

0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3

235
235
235
/
/

/
0.28
/
/
/

0.3
0.3
0.3
/
/

deformation process. The explicit non-linear FE code LS-DYNA is

based on Lagrangian FE formulation.
The numerical model was formed in accordance with the real
dimensions of the absorber. The support tool was simplied as the
bafe. The purpose of the bafe is to restrict the deformation
range of the steel plate. The distance between the steel plate and
bafe is consistent with the specimen. The size of the bafe is
1000  280  2 mm3. The sizes of the steel plate and die in this
model are identical to those in the previous test. The simplied
geometric modelling is shown in Fig. 6. Because the curve

observed in the experimental quasi-static cutting process was

symmetrical, one quarter of the specimen was considered in the FE
model to save computational costs and symmetric boundary
conditions were applied on the symmetry planes. Clamped
boundary conditions were applied directly at the bottom of the
steel plate and the rear end.
Eight-node solid elements were utilised in the simulation
process as shown in Fig. 7. The fully integrated is adopted to avoid
hourglass energy. The mesh density of the steel plate was ner
than those from all other regions. Higher discretization was

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X. Chen et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 98 (2016) 384391

Fig. 8. The deformation model of the steel plate with a thickness of 6 mm.

Fig. 9. The forcedisplacement curve: (a) 6 mm; (b) 8 mm.

Table 2
Time of two steel plate with different thicknesses.
Thickness
(mm)

Time of contact between steel plate

and cutter (ms)

Time of 1st
peak (ms)

Time of 2nd
peak (ms)

Time of
the leap
(ms)

6
8

1.99987
0.999936

10.4998
10.4998

20.9999
19.4998

118.0
127.5

completed to ensure an accurate approximation of the stress distribution and deformation near the contact region. The steel plate
was divided into three parts: curved part, failed part, and xed
part. The xed part is not involved in the process of deformation
and the rest of the steel plate is cut by the cutting tool. The steel
plate was sliced into ve layers across the whole thickness.
Therefore 1.2 mm  1.2 mm and 1.6 mm  1.6 mm were chosen as
the mesh sizes for the two different thicknesses. For the xed part,
510 mm can be chosen as the mesh size, and in this paper
7.5 mm  1.1 mm and 7.5 mm  1.6 mm were chosen as the mesh
sizes of the two steel plates respectively. It was assumed that the
material of the punch had elastic behaviour, and therefore

6 mm  6 mm was chosen as the mesh size and the rest of the

cutting tool did not contact the steel plate, so 20 mm  20 mm was
chosen as the mesh size. The bafe did not participate in the
process of cutting, so there were no high requirements regarding
the mesh size of the bafe, and 20 mm  2 mm was chosen due to
the consideration of calculation efciency.
Automatic single-surface contact was used to account for the
contact between cutting tool and steel plate and between steel
plate and bafe. The static and dynamic friction coefcients were
taken as 0.15 and 0.1. To simulate quasi-static tests, the die speed
was 2 m/s.
In this paper, an isotropic plastic material model was chosen to
represent the material behaviour associated with the mild steel.
The yield stress can be presented by factors which are related to
the strain rate. Under the static load, the mechanical properties of
the steel plate can be determined by the following relation:

y = 0 + EPpeff

(2)

where 0 is the initial stress and EP is the plastic hardening

modulus,

EP =

EtanE
Etan + E

(3)

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389

Fig. 10. Deformation of the steel plates at different times: (a) 6.0 mm; (b) 8.0 mm.
Table 3
Parameters of the steel plate with the thickness of 6 mm and 8 mm.
Specimens

Peak force (kN)

Steady-state force (kN)

Energy absorption (kJ)

6-T
6-S
8-T
8-S

239
239
588
567

220
225
563
567

151.27
153.40
359.97
358.99

fracture criterion in the present simulation. Fracture is assumed to

occur in a material element when the equivalent plastic strain
reaches a critical value f

= f

(4)

For an incompressible plastic material, is dened by

where E is the elastic modulus, Etan is the shear modulus, and is

the strain hardening parameter. For kinematic hardening, = 0,
and for isotropic hardening, = 1. The hardening parameter is
taken as = 0.3 in the present study. eff is the effective plastic
strain.
Fracture was observed on the steel plates during the experimental test. Therefore fracture criteria should be considered. The
fracture of the steel plate may be shear failure due to the smooth
surface of the separate line. Ref. [19] proves that the stress concentration and plastic deformation are different due to different
stress conditions. The strainstress curve uctuates like a W
rather than being monotonic when the horizontal axis is stress
triaxiality. This demonstrates that there are two extreme values in
the shear stress and plane stress states. Stress triaxiality and
fracture strain values can be tested from a notched specimen in
tensile tests to nd the failure criterion of the material. Stress
triaxiality is a critical criterion in the material fracture but its value
changes during tests. The failure of materials means that damage
to one point in the material reaches a critical level but fracture of
the specimen does not occur. As a result, the true failure strain of
the specimen was difcult to obtain from the experiment as the
fracture process was complex in the tests.
The constant equivalent strain criterion was chosen as the

2 2
(1 + 22 + 32)
3

(5)

where 1, 2, and 3 are the principal strains. Several simulations

were carried out to determine the failure strain. According to the
experimental results and simulation calculation, in this paper, the
failure strain was determined as 0.28.
The cutting tool was simulated by the rigid material and an
elastic material denition was applied to the bafe. The material
parameters of different parts of the device in quasi-static condition
are shown in Table 1.
3.2. Results of simulation and analysis
3.2.1. Deformation mode
The deformations of the steel plate with thickness of 6 mm
which are obtained from the simulation are shown in Fig. 8. In
order to study the deformation of the plate more intuitively, the
die and guide bar were hidden. It can be seen that the deformation
of the steel plate is in accordance with the designed shape of
deformation. It can be seen from Fig. 8 that the deformation
modes of the simulation and test are basically the same.
The main difference between test and simulation is that due to
the curved deformation, the head of the steel plate makes contact
with the relief angle of the cutting tool after a certain displacement during the simulation. It is also subject to the friction of the

Table 4
Composition of the total energy absorption.
Thickness (mm)

Friction (kJ)

Bending (kJ)

Fracture (kJ)

Total energy absorption (kJ)

Error-test/ simulation (%)

6
8

27.07
66.04

115.29
282.96

3.89
5.99

146.25
354.99

3.43/4.89
1.40/1.13

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X. Chen et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 98 (2016) 384391

relief angle besides the pressure and friction from the sidewall of
the support tool and the front side of the cutting tool which
contacts the steel plate. The deformation mode of the steel plate
and the analysis of those deformations in FE simulation is almost
the same as that of the steel plate in the test excepting that. This
shows that the results obtained by the numerical simulations are
in a good correlation with the results obtained from experimental
investigations. Compared to the test, the cutting line of the steel
plate in the FE simulation is much clearer, mainly because in the
FE simulation, the failure elements are deleted. Furthermore, under ideal conditions, deformation would not occur on the die: the
direction of the die is able to remain axial in the whole process of
cutting. However in the experiments, deformation occurred on the
die and it was difcult for the direction to remain axial in the
process of cutting. The deformation mode of the 8 mm steel plate
was similar to that of the 6 mm one.
3.2.2. Forcedisplacement curve
The forcedisplacement curve of the steel plate obtained from
the simulation is shown in Fig. 9. This diagram shows that curves
obtained by the numerical simulations and the experimental investigations are approximately the same. Compared to the test,
obvious peaks appear at the beginning of the cutting process in the
simulation. At the instant of contact between the cutting tool and
the steel plate, the cutting tool only maintains line contact with
the edge of the steel plate. The force increases slightly before the
rst peak. Then, with increasing displacement, the die begins to
make contact with the upper surface of the steel plate. When it
contacts the upper surface, the force increases suddenly and thus
the rst peak arises. Next the head of the steel plate starts to curve
under the force of the die and the support tool. The contact force
increases suddenly and thus there is a second peak. After the
second peak, the force gradually increases and there is no peak
with the increase of displacement. Due to the contact between the
head of the steel plate which curves upwards and the bottom of
the guide bar, there is a leap in each curve.
The analysis mentioned above can be proven by Table 2 and
Fig. 10. The time of contact between the steel plate and the cutter,
two peaks, and the jump of the two steel plates with different
thicknesses are all shown in Table 2. The deformation of the two
steel plates at these particular times is shown in Fig. 9. It can be
seen that the deformation of both steel plates presented in the
curves coincides with the analysis.
In the test, the force increases gradually and the curve is much
clearer when the force increases, because the force is in proportion
to the liquid-inputting, which is controlled by the machine and
can only increase gradually from zero; in the second half of the
curve when the contact force remains constant, it can be seen that
the curve is clearer than that of the test. This is because, rstly, the
cutting tool has a rigid body and its DOF is restricted in the simulation and, secondly, the condition of the simulation is much
better than that of the test. Therefore the result is not affected by
factors such as deformation of the segment and the deviation of
the cutting tool's axial movement.
The trend of the variation in the contact force in the test is
similar to that in the simulation. For the steel plate with a thickness of 6 mm, the steady-state forces of the test and simulation are
220 and 225 kN respectively, with an error of 2.27%. For the steel
plate with a thickness of 8 mm, the steady-state forces of the test
and simulation are 563 and 567 kN respectively, with an error of
0.71%. This shows that the FE model can simulate the cutting energy absorption device.
The absorbed energy can be calculated as a work force on a
dened stroke. The parameters calculated from the test and the
simulation of the steel plate with a thickness of 6 mm are shown
in Table 3.

From the parameters shown in Table 3 it can be seen that for

both steel plates with thicknesses of 6 and 8 mm, under the same
displacement, all the parameters (including the mean force, peak
force, steady-state force, and energy absorption) obtained from
simulations are very close to those obtained from the tests, and the
errors are all less than 3.5%. This evidences that the geometric
model and FE model presented in this paper can both simulate the
cutting energy absorbing device and the models can be applied to
investigate the inuence of other factors on the energy absorption
of the device.
For both steel plates, the means of energy dissipation with the
displacement from 100 to 790 mm could be described as having
three parts: friction, bending, and fracture. The occupation of
those three parts is shown in Table 4. The errors of total energy
absorption compared with the test and simulation are also shown
in Table 4.

4. Conclusions
This paper analyzes the force versus stroke characteristics obtained by the experimental investigations of a splitting-bending
absorber using steel plates of different thicknesses. Tests show that
the deformation is stable and the cutting line is smooth for each
steel plate; the force increases gradually from zero to the steadystate force with increasing displacement.
The cutting behaviour of steel plates under quasi-static axial
impact loading is presented through numerical simulation. The
results of the simulation are close to the experimental results of
both steel plates: the deformations in the simulation and test are
similar, and the force/displacement curves also coincide; the errors of parameters such as the peak force and steady-state force
between the test and simulation are below 5%. This proves the
validity of both the geometric model and the FE model. Good
agreement is achieved between the experimental and FE results.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant nos. U1334208,
51275532, and 51405516).

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