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org/

GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 68, NO. 4 (JULY-AUGUST 2003); P. 12941302, 9 FIGS., 1 TABLE.

10.1190/1.1598122

Volume texture extraction for 3D seismic visualization and interpretation

Dengliang Gao
cause of the subtlety of amplitude variations and limitation in
data visibility in 3D space, it is difcult for them to extract
quantitative information for automatic feature discrimination,
visualization, and detection. In previous studies, various seismic attributes have been extracted from the amplitude in an
attempt to facilitate seismic feature identication and interpretation. These efforts (e.g., Taner and Sheriff, 1977) have
signicantly enhanced interpreters ability to discriminate and
visualize geological features efciently and objectively. However, very few attributes (e.g., Taner et al., 1994; Bahorich
and Farmer, 1995; M. T. Taner, 1998, personal communication;
Marfurt et al., 1999) have been published to recognize certain
seismic features, for example, those dened by both intratrace
and intertrace relationships of amplitude from a 3D perspective. To overcome these limitations and difculties, I introduce
a new approach to the problem by extracting volume seismic
textures using a point-relational statistical method.
An image texture is a general term that refers to a characteristic pattern dened by the magnitude and variation of neighboring data samples at a given location in a physical space.
Although studies of image texture have been published since
the 1970s, the early concept was primarily applied to twodimensional (2D) image analysis (e.g., Haralick et al., 1973;
Weszka et al., 1976; Reed and Hussong, 1989; Gao et al., 1998).
Little has been published on its application to reection seismic
data visualization and interpretation (e.g., Zhang and Simaan,
1989; Vinther et al., 1996; Gao, 1999a, b, 2001a, b, 2002). In this
paper, I describe a methodology to characterize 3D seismic
textures and investigate its potential geological implications.
Such a methodology represents a new, effective approach to
discriminating and visualizing seismic features that may not be
easily recognizable using visual inspection and conventional
attribute extraction algorithms.

ABSTRACT

Visual inspection of poststack seismic image patterns

is effective in recognizing large-scale seismic features;
however, it is not effective in extracting quantitative information to visualize, detect, and map seismic features
in an automatic and objective manner. Although conventional seismic attributes have signicantly enhanced
interpreters ability to quantify seismic visualization and
interpretation, very few attributes are published to characterize both intratrace and intertrace relationships of
amplitudes from a three-dimensional (3D) perspective.
These relationships are fundamental to the characterization and identication of certain geological features.
Here, I present a volume texture extraction method to
overcome these limitations. In a two-dimensional (2D)
image domain where data samples are visualized by
pixels (picture elements), a texture has been typically
characterized based on a planar texel (textural element)
using a gray level co-occurrence matrix. I extend the
concepts to a 3D seismic domain, where reection amplitudes are visualized by voxels (volume picture elements). By evaluating a voxel co-occurrence matrix
(VCM) based on a cubic texel at each of the voxel
locations, the algorithm extracts a plurality of volume
textural attributes that are difcult to obtain using conventional seismic attribute extraction algorithms. Case
studies indicate that the VCM texture extraction method
helps visualize and detect major structural and stratigraphic features that are fundamental to robust seismic
interpretation and successful hydrocarbon exploration.

INTRODUCTION

CONCEPTS AND METHODOLOGY

Since the early 1980s, three-dimensional (3D) seismic imaging technology has signicantly contributed to subsurface geologic mapping and hydrocarbon exploration in the petroleum
industry. From high-quality 3D seismic data, exploration geologists are able to recognize large-scale seismic features by
visual inspection of seismic reection patterns. However, be-

A seismic texture, as opposed to other image textures, is dened as a reection amplitude pattern that is characterized by
the magnitude and variation of neighboring acoustic samples
at a given location in a seismic volume (Gao, 1999a, b, 2001a, b,
2002). At each of the sample locations, a seismic texture
is evaluated by analyzing an array of neighboring reection

Manuscript received by the Editor December 26, 2001; revised manuscript received February 3, 2003.

Marathon Oil Corporation, Computer-Aided Interpretation, P.O. Box 3128, Houston, Texas 77253-3128. E-mail: dgao@marathonoil.com.

c 2003 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
1294

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Volume Seismic Texture Analysis

amplitudes. Such an array of reection amplitudes is here referred to as a seismic texture element (texel) (Figure 1) (e.g.,
Haralick et al., 1973; Reed and Hussong, 1989; Gao et al., 1998;
Gao, 1999a, b, 2001a, b, 2002), which is geometrically equivalent to the analysis window commonly used in various seismic processing and attribute extraction algorithms. In previous
2D image texture analysis, a texel is typically a rectangular or
square that is formed by a nite number of neighboring pixels (picture elements). In the 3D seismic domain, a texel is a
minicube that consists of N x N y Nz voxels (volume picture
elements) in the inline, crossline, and vertical directions, respectively (Figures 1 and 2a). The texel size and aspect ratio
are exible and dependent upon the exploration objectives.
Typically, N x and N y range from 3 to 9, and Nz ranges from
7 to 21 to extract meaningful textural information. In certain
cases, however, the texel size and aspect ratio can be quite different to achieve special objectives. For example, a horizontal
window (N x = N y  Nz ), which is equivalent to that commonly
used in horizontal image analysis, can be used to emphasize the
lateral but not vertical variations in amplitude. A vertical window (N y = Nz  N x or N x = Nz  N y ), which is equivalent to
that used in line-based seismic interpretation, captures lateral
variations in the inline or crossline direction, but not both. A
trace segment (N x = N y  Nz ), which is equivalent to that commonly used in trace-based attribute analysis, is typically used
to characterize waveform but not the trace-to-trace variations.
Fundamentally different from other digital images, a 3D reection seismic image consists of vertical traces with alternating positive and negative amplitudes (Figure 1). These amplitudes of opposite polarities are aligned laterally in both inline

1295

and crossline directions to form a coherent stratal pattern of

reection amplitudes. To characterize such a unique pattern,
I choose to evaluate the point-relational statistics on a 3D
texel basis using a voxel co-occurrence matrix (VCM) (Gao,
1999b) that is equivalent to the gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) previously used in 2D image texture analysis (e.g.,
Haralick et al., 1973; Reed and Hussong, 1989; Gao et al., 1998).
The VCM is a statistical representation of the amplitude pattern of a texel in a tabular format. More specically, if a seismic
data set has N g gray levels (N g = 256 for 8-bit data), the VCM
for a texel at each of the sample locations is a square symmetrical matrix consisting of N g N g elements. By denition, the
element E(i, j, , ) at ith row and jth column of the matrix denotes the number of times (frequency) in the texel that a voxel
with amplitude i (<N g ) is neighbored by a voxel with amplitude
j(<N g ) in the direction of and (Figures 2a and 2b). Here,
and denote the azimuth and dip of a vector, respectively
(Figure 2b), along which the voxel co-occurrence is evaluated.
Due to the stratal pattern of the seismic images, the VCM is
normally different in different directions. For three orthogonal directions (Figure 2b) along the x-axis ( = 0 , = 0 ),
y-axis ( = 90 , = 0 ), and z-axis ( = 90 ), for example, the
elements E (i, j, , ) of the respective VCM can be mathematically expressed as follows (Reed and Hussong, 1989):

E(i, j, 0, 0) =

{((m, n, o), ( p, q, r ) (x, y, z)),

(|m p| = 1, n q = 0, o r = 0,
g(m, n, o) = i, g( p, q, r ) = j)},

(1)

FIG. 1. Four cubic texel (3D texture element) examples at four different locations in a seismic amplitude volume. A cubic texel,
which consists of a 3D array of spatially associated voxels (volume picture element) at each of the sample locations, is fundamental
for 3D image feature discrimination and visualization. At the shallow structural level, for example, there are differences in internal
textures between the high-amplitude laterally coherent interval (A) and the low-amplitude discontinuous interval (B). At the deep
structural level, the inclined reection pattern (C) on the hanging wall is distinct from the reection pattern on the footwall (D)
of the listric fault. Such different reection patterns can be identied, visualized, and mapped quantitatively using the texture
extraction method (see Figures 5 and 8).

1296

E(i, j, 90, 0) =

Gao

{((m, n, o), ( p, q, r ) (x, y, z)),

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(m p = 0, |n q| = 1, o r = 0,
g(m, n, o) = i, g( p, q, r ) = j)},
(2)

E(i, j, , 90) =
{((m, n, o), ( p, q, r ) (x, y, z)),
(m p = 0, n q = 0, |o r | = 1,
g(m, n, o) = i, g( p, q, r ) = j)},

(3)


where
denotes the total number of times that the voxel cooccurrence relationship dened in the braces exists in the texel,
(x, y, z) represents the volume extent of the 3D seismic image,

and g(m, n, o) and g( p, q, r ) stand for the values of the two

voxels at (m, n, o) and ( p, q, r ) in a texel, respectively.
From the VCM, a plurality of textural attributes are derived,
each of which describes a specic textural feature of the texel.
Based on the comparison, I found that texture homogeneity,
contrast, and randomness are among the most effective ones
in characterizing seismic data. Texture homogeneity highlights
the overall smoothness of amplitude and texture contrast emphasizes the magnitude of differences in amplitude of neighboring voxels, whereas texture randomness measures the amplitude predictability from one voxel to the next. Although
there is a certain degree of correlation among these three textural attributes, the correlation is nonlinear, and each attribute
should contribute to minimizing the nonuniqueness in texture
discrimination. These three textural attributes are computed
using the following equations (Haralick et al., 1973; Reed and

START
Retrieve seismic amplitude data
Select texel size and geometry
Select texture orientation
Select first/next voxel location
Build and requantize texel
Build voxel cooccurrence
matrix (VCM)
Calculate texture attributes
Rescale and store attributes
to attribute volumes
Y

Next voxel location ?

FIG. 2. (a) A schematic representation of a typical seismic
cubic texel (3D). The texel can also be planar (2D) and
linear (1D). The digits in the texel denote the 4-bit amplitude (16 intensity levels) requantized from the original 8-bit
(256 intensity levels) input data. The requantization is performed to enhance the computational efciency (see discussion in the text). (b) A schematic notation dening the direction in which the point-relational (voxel co-occurrence)
statistics are evaluated. Typically, the point-relational statistics are evaluated along the inline-horizontal ( = 0 , = 0 ),
crossline-horizontal ( = 90 , = 0 ), and vertical ( = 90 )
directions, respectively.

Visualize and interpret

attribute volumes
FIG. 3. A workow chart for VCM seismic texture analysis. The
input is a single amplitude volume (e.g., Figure 1). After texture extraction by evaluating textural attributes at each voxel
location along different directions (Figure 2), the algorithm
outputs a plurality of texture attribute volumes for subsequent
interpretation (e.g., Figures 49).

Volume Seismic Texture Analysis

Hussong, 1989):

Homogeneity =

n


[E(i, j, , )/R]2 ,

where E(i, j) represents the element at the ith row and the
jth column of the VCM, and n is the dimension of the
VCM. R is a normalization constant representing the maximum possible times of the co-occurrence. Along the x (inline),
y (crossline), and z (time or depth) directions, for example,
R is dened by Rx = 2(N x 1)N y Nz , R y = 2N x (N y 1)Nz , and
Rz = 2N x N y (Nz 1), respectively.
To demonstrate the procedure, examine a texel (Figure 2a)
consisting of 9 5 9 voxels that are requantized to 16 gray
levels (4-bit precision) from the original 256 gray levels (8-bit
precision). The following matrices (VCMx , VCMy , and VCMz )
are three VCMs that are derived from the texel along the x, y,
and z directions, respectively.

(4)

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i=1

Contrast =

n1


m2

m=0

Randomness =

n


n
n


i=1

E(i, j, a, )/R,

(5)

j=1
|i j|=m

E(i, j, a, )/R log[E(i, j, a, )/R],

i=1

(6)

0 20

20 0

5 10

5
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0 0
VCMx =
0 0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

1297

5 5
10 0
0 0
0 0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

80
15
10

15
10
35

10
35
10

5
0
25

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

5
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

25
0
0
0
0
0

10 15 10
15 0 30
10 30 0
0
0
5
0
0
5
0
0
0

0
0
5
10
10
10

0
0 0 0
0
0 0 0
5
0 0 0
10 10 5 0
0 20 5 10
20 0 5 0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

5
0
0

5
10
0

5
0
0

0 5
5 0
5 10

5
10
40

24 0
0 0 0

0 24 0 0 0

0
0 16 0 0

0
0
0 8 0

0 0
0
0 96

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0
0 0 0
VCMy =
0 0
0 0 0

0
0
0 0 0

0
0
0 0 0

0
0
0 0 0

0
0
0 0 0

0
0
0 0 0

0
0
0 0 0

0
0
0 0 0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0
0
48
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
80
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
56 0
0
0 48 0
0
0 40
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
32
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
48

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

32 0
0
0 24 0
0
0 24
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
,
0

48

(7)

(8)

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1298

Gao

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

15 10 10

0
0
0

0
0
0

0 0 0
VCMz =
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0 15 0
0 10 5
0 10 0
0 5
0
5 40 5
0 5
0
0 15 10
0 0 15
0 15 0
0 5
5
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15 0 15 5
0
0
10 15 0
5
0
0
0 20 15 10 5
0
20 0
0
5 10 15
15 0
0
0
0
5
10 5
0
0
5 10
5 10 0
5
0
0
0 15 5 10 0
0
0
5 15 0
0
0
0
0
5
5
5
5
0
0
5
5
0 10
0
0
0
0 15 15

In matrix (7) (VCMx ), for example, 20 in row 1 and column 2 indicates that there are 20 voxel couples of amplitude
1 neighbored by amplitude 2 along the x direction ( = 0,
= 0) within the texel cube. These three VCMs are then normalized by dividing each entry with Rx = 2 8 5 9 = 720,
R y = 2 9 4 9 = 648, and Rz = 2 9 5 8 = 720, respectively (see Figure 2). Finally, the algorithm reduces the normalized VCM to textural attributes using equations (4), (5),
and (6). Table 1 shows the texture expressions of the example
texel and indicates that VCM textures are quite sensitive to the
direction in which the VCM is evaluated.
Therefore, by calculating the VCM texture attributes at a
voxel location, local features are extracted; spatial feature variations, on the other hand, are evaluated by sequentially and
repeatedly executing the same process from voxel to voxel
throughout the volume. As a result of such a running-texel
processing (Figure 3), the original amplitude volume is transformed into a plurality of texture attribute volumes. These
texture volumes are then visualized and interpreted individually, or they are selected and combined to produce a feature
class volume using a multivariate classication algorithm (e.g.,
Richards, 1993; M. Taner, 1998, personal communication; Gao
et al., 1998; Gao, 1999b, 2001a). To facilitate volume texture
analysis in an interactive manner, I developed the VCM texture
algorithms and interfaced them with a 3D seismic visualization
system. Example results produced from these algorithms are
shown and discussed in Figures 49.
Table 1. Textural expressions of homogeneity, contrast, and
randomness for the texel shown in Figure 2. Each textural attribute is evaluated along the x (intertrace in inline) direction,
y (intertrace in crossline) direction, and z (intratrace in time or
depth) direction. All the textural attributes are normalized to
range from 0 to 1.
Orientation
Texture
Homogeneity
Contrast
Randomness

0.0353
0.0078
0.1597

0.0815
0.0000
0.1141

0.0188
0.0443
0.1791

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
20

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
5
5
5
0
5 10
0
0
0
0
0 10
10 0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
15
20
10
0
0

(9)

FIG. 4. A salt canopy detected from a seed in a texture homogeneity cube. Since texture homogeneity of salt is signicantly
higher than that in the surrounding areas, the whole salt body
can be detected, isolated, and mapped effectively by propagating the seed from within the salt. However, it is generally
difcult and time-consuming to dene the 3D geometry of the
salt body directly from the amplitude volume. Because amplitude samples within the salt body are similar to and connected
with those in the surrounding areas, a seed-based propagation may cause bleeding across the salt boundary and thus is
not effective for automatic salt detection. Similar problem exists with mapping and isolating many other geological features
using amplitude data alone. Mapping and isolating these geological features are fundamental for constructing an accurate
subsurface geological model and for exploring hydrocarbons
in the subsurface.

Volume Seismic Texture Analysis

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GEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

In contrast to eld geologists who map surface geology based

on direct observations of outcrop structural and stratigraphic
patterns, petroleum exploration geologists map subsurface geology primarily based on reection seismic patterns, which is
particularly the case in frontier sedimentary basins where little
direct observational data are available. Therefore, successful
exploration of subsurface geology requires effective seismic
pattern recognition and visualization technologies. VCM texture analysis represents one such technology that allows exploration geologists to visualize, detect, and map major geological
features from a new perspective. Case examples (Figures 49)
indicate that the VCM methodology signicantly enhances interpreters ability to visualize and detect major structural and
stratigraphic features that may otherwise not be easily recognizable and detectable.
The VCM seismic textures are indicative of several major seismic facies that are formed in diverse depositional settings. For example, in an offshore depositional setting, a domeshaped, low-amplitude seismic feature with an amplitude high
at the top is typically indicative of a salt body. Such a feature
has an abnormally high homogeneity (Figure 4). In a deepwater, low-energy depositional setting, a high-amplitude, laterally extensive, and coherent pattern is generally associated
with sheetlike deposits of high impedance contrast. It has a relatively low homogeneity (Figure 5a), a high contrast (Figure 5b),
and a high randomness (Figure 5c). A low-amplitude and laterally extensive interval typically represents a thick sequence of
shale with low impedance contrast in the interval. It has a high
homogeneity (Figure 5a), a low contrast (Figure 5b), and a low
randomness (Figure 5c). In a turbidite system, a linear or sin-

1299

uous feature on a map view with a concave or lenticular shape

on a sectional view (Figures 6a and 6b) is generally associated
with a channel. It has variable textural features, depending on
the morphology, thickness, and lithology of channels, and the

FIG. 6. (a) An original amplitude section. (b) A texture homogeneity section. (c) A homogeneity cube with opacity lter
applied. From homogeneity data, interpreters can effectively
isolate the high-homogeneity feature (red) along a channel system by rendering transparent the low-homogeneity features
(blue). It is very difcult to visualize and isolate the same features from the original amplitude volume due to the limitation
of the amplitude in discriminating channels from other geological features.

FIG. 5. Three different texture attributes overlaid with the amplitude on the same section demonstrating how these attributes help
distinguish and isolate intervals of different amplitude patterns. Notice, for example, that low homogeneity (blue), high contrast
(red), and low randomness (blue) correspond to the laterally extensive, high-amplitude pattern A; whereas high homogeneity
(red), low contrast (blue), and high randomness (red) are associated with the acoustically different pattern B (see Figure 1 for
location). (a) Homogeneity (color) evaluated in the trace direction and co-rendered with original amplitude (gray). (b) Contrast
(color) evaluated in the trace direction and co-rendered with original amplitude (gray). (c) Randomness (color) evaluated in the
trace direction and co-rendered with original amplitude (gray).

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1300

lateral/vertical partitioning patterns of the channel deposits.

With massive deposits, for example, it may have a high homogeneity and a low contrast (Figures 6 and 7); with heterogeneous lithology and complex depositional geometry, it may
have a low homogeneity and a high contrast (Figure 9c). A laterally more extensive and coherent feature that systematically
distributes on both sides of channels or in the distal portion
of a channel-fan system generally suggests levee/overbank deposits or lobes, which have different textural features than the
channel-ll deposits (Figures 6 and 7).
Because they are sensitive to dip and azimuth of seismic
reections (e.g., Table 1; Figures 8 and 9), VCM textures are
able to differentiate between seismic features having different
geometry and orientations (Figures 8 and 9). Such sensitivity helps highlight and detect deformational features such as
rollover anticlines or monoclines on the hanging walls of listric
normal faults (Figure 8) or slumps in mass transport complexes.
Similarly, such sensitivity also helps identify and map unconformities, onlaps, downlaps, and other oblique, progradational
depositional features that have characteristic reection geometry in the offshore depositional setting from the shelf margin
down to the basin oor. By evaluating VCM textures in a specic direction, the algorithm helps enhance faults or fractures
with a preferred orientation (Figures 9a and 9b). In addition,

FIG. 7. A comparison between average absolute amplitude

(a) and homogeneity (b) in a horizon slice at the same stratigraphic level. To avoid a biased comparison, the same processing parameters (texel size and dimension) and a normalized
color mapping function are used. Notice that the channel/levee
deposits can be recognized, mapped, and detected more effectively from the homogeneity volume than from the amplitude
volume.

Gao

the direction sensitivity helps enhance the visibility of both

high-angle normal or wrench faults and low-angle detachment
or listric faults. This enhancement is achieved not only by the
texture attribute anomalies along the faults (Figure 9), but also
by textural differences across the faults (Figure 8). Such textural differences are particularly obvious across listric faults
where the hanging walls have different dip and azimuth from
the foot walls due to the rotational deformation that occurs in
the vicinity of listric faults (Figure 8).
Unlike the coherence algorithm that highlights external geometry and boundaries of geological features such as faults
and channels, VCM texture analysis emphasizes their internal textures that provide hints on the facies variations within
fault blocks or channel systems (Figure 9c). These internal facies variations may not be visible to the coherence algorithm.
In addition, anomalous textural features (e.g., high contrast)
along a fault zone (Figure 9b) enable interpreters to map and
detect faults and their spatial connectivity more efciently than
visual inspection and manual picking. Thus, VCM textures help
dene fault zone geometry, kinematics, and relationships to the
depositional facies (Figure 9), which are all important to the
understanding of depositional and deformational history of a
sedimentary basin.
DISCUSSION

Three-dimensional texel-based VCM texture extraction has

many advantages over conventional 2D texel-based GLCM
texture extraction. First, a 3D texel includes textural information from both inline and crossline directions, and allows evaluating textural features along different directions in 3D space.
Thus, the 3D texel-based processing signicantly reduces interpretational biases and overcomes limitations of 2D texture
processing and visual inspection. Second, a reliable extraction
of the VCM seismic textures requires a sufcient number of
samples that, in the 2D image space, can only be accommodated by increasing the size of the texel, thereby decreasing
the resolution of the results. Whereas in the 3D image space,
the accommodation problem is solved by an additional, third
dimension of the texel cube, thereby signicantly enhancing
the spatial resolution of the results.
The structural and stratigraphic implications of VCM textures are attributable to the fact that different deformational
and depositional features have characteristic internal amplitude patterns in response to the differences in acoustic
impedance conguration and distribution patterns. Such internal amplitude patterns can be better dened on a volume
texture basis from a 3D perspective. However, due to the complexity and nonuniqueness of seismic response to the subsurface geology, there is no simple, universal correlation between
seismic textures and geological features that can be applied
to any data sets in any geological settings. For example, lithology, thickness, and facies architecture of channel-levee systems
in submarine turbidite systems may be distinctive in different sedimentary basins or at different times as a sedimentary
basin evolves. In addition to geological complexities, variable
acquisition and processing parameters, data quality, and frequency attenuation with depth may also affect textural signatures of geological features. Since prediction and classication
of the subsurface geology rely on the input textural attributes,
selecting textural attributes is a critical step from seismically
extracted textures to a geologically meaningful prediction and

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Volume Seismic Texture Analysis

classication. Thus, a good understanding of geological implications of each textural attribute is fundamental to a robust interpretation and meaningful classication of the subsurface geology from seismic textures in a specic geological
setting.
Like any other seismic-attribute extraction algorithms that
involve multiple wiggle traces in the analysis window, VCM textures are sensitive to the dip and azimuth of reection events
(Table 1). Based on the comparison, I found that texture contrast is more sensitive to the direction than homogeneity and
randomness. Although this sensitivity is favorable in certain
aspects of structural and stratigraphic interpretation, it may
also be unfavorable in interpreting depositional facies if the
dip and azimuth variations are the result of postdepositional
tectonic deformation. The effect can be minimized by reducing the texel size along the inline and/or crossline directions, or
more effectively by searching the instantaneous dip of reection events similar to evaluating the coherence in the presence
of structural dip (Marfurt et al., 1999).
The VCM texture extraction methodology has a major limitation in computational efciency for high-resolution 3D seismic data. For example, for an 8-bit (N g = 256) amplitude volume, the algorithm has to manipulate a 256 256 matrix at each
sample location throughout the volume, and thus the process
is computationally intensive for a large data volume that contains billions of voxels. In an attempt to solve this problem, the
algorithm typically requantizes all the texels to 4-bit (N g = 16),
thereby signicantly improving the computational efciency
(Haralick et al., 1973; Reed and Hussong, 1989; Gao et al.,

1301

1998). Unfortunately, the enhancement in computational efciency is achieved at the expense of sacricing the bit resolution
of the original data set. A practical solution to that problem is
to run the algorithm within the interval and area of interest or
on an interpreted horizon.
CONCLUSIONS

VCM seismic texture analysis, a new methodology extended

from classical 2D image analysis to 3D seismic interpretation,
helps visualize and detect seismic features from a different
perspective than conventional seismic-attribute analysis. Such
a perspective sheds new lights on certain geological features
that may not be easily recognizable and detectable from
the amplitude and other conventional seismic attributes.
Case examples indicate that the VCM textural attributes
have important implications for visualizing and mapping
structural and stratigraphic features. For example, a salt
body can be efciently isolated due to its high homogeneity
and low contrast; a sand-lled channel can be discriminated
from levee/overbank deposits based on their distinctive
homogeneity and contrast. In addition, VCM textures help
identify and map rollover structures or slumps produced
by rotational deformation in the vicinity of listric or detachment faults. They also help identify and highlight faults
with a preferred orientation and a complex geometry from
a 3D perspective. Thus, VCM texture analysis signicantly
enhances exploration geologists ability to visualize, isolate, and map critical seismic features that are fundamental

FIG. 8. Three different texture attributes overlaid with the amplitude on the same section demonstrating how these attributes
help enhance the listric normal fault and rollover structures. Notice the differences in textures between the hanging wall (C)
and the footwall (D) (see Figure 1 for location), and the distinctive textures of the rollover monocline. In this specic example,
mapping and delineating both the listric fault and the rollover monocline are important for understanding migration pathways,
reservoir continuity, and trapping geometry of the hydrocarbon system. (a) Homogeneity (color) evaluated in the crossline direction
and co-rendered with original amplitude (gray). (b) Contrast (color) evaluated in the crossline direction and co-rendered with
original amplitude (gray). (c) Randomness (color) evaluated in the crossline direction and co-rendered with original amplitude
(gray).

1302

Gao

to robust geological interpretation and successful hydrocarbon

exploration.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I started this study at Exxon Production Research Company

(in 1997) and developed it at Marathon Oil Corporation (in
1998). I am grateful to Marathon management for permission
to publish this work. Thanks are due to Sharon Crawford, Tom
Evans, and Steve Peterson for their support and suggestions
in this study. I used the application program interface (API)
functions from Magic Earth Inc. and Paradigm Geophysical
Inc. in the development of the VCM texture extraction and
visualization algorithms. The 3D seismic data sets used in this
publication are provided courtesy of the Bureau of Economic
Geology, Austin, Texas, and Seitel, Houston, Texas. Journal
reviews by the associate editor Kurt J. Marfurt and two anonymous reviewers helped improve the quality of the paper.
REFERENCES

FIG. 9. (a) Texture contrast along the x direction (east-west).

(b) Texture contrast along the y direction (north-south).
(c) Texture contrast along the z direction (vertical). (d) Interpretation. Notice that contrast evaluated along the x direction (a) helps highlight the north-south trending fractures f1,
whereas contrast evaluated along the y direction (b) highlights
the primary east-west trending fault and fractures f2, and contrast evaluated along the z direction (c) helps identify depositional features such as channels. The geometric relationship
between the major fault (F) and the two conjugate fractures
(f1 and f2) suggests left-lateral displacement along the fault.
Such an interpretation is consistent with the offset of the prefault depositional facies across the fault. Also note that there
are at least two stages of channel development (c). The channels to the east was developed prior to the fault displacement
and were subsequently truncated and offset left laterally by
the fault. The channels to the west were developed after the
major fault displacement and ran across the fault. These interpretations are shown in (d) based on the observations from the
texture data shown in (a), (b), (c), and the regional geology of
the study area.

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