Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Project Report
May 2006
Team Members:
Michael Braisher
Sanampreet Gill
William Treharne
Michael Wallace
James Winterburn
Supervised by:
Prof Cui
Dr. Das
Dr. Snowdon
Keble
Balliol
Balliol
Keble
Pembroke
Design Proposal :
Bio-ethanol production plant
Honour School of Engineering Science Part I
3rd Year Project Report
May 2006
Contributors:
Michael Braisher
Sanampreet Gill
William Treharne
Michael Wallace
James Winterburn
ii
Acknowledgements
Thank you to the project supervisors; Professor Zhanfeng Cui, Dr Colin Snowdon
and Dr Diganta Bhusan Das for their invaluable guidance and advice.
Thank you to Dr Rene Baares-Alcntara for his teaching on the ASPEN software and
for assistance with using this software.
Thank you to all of the group members for working well together and helping one
another throughout the project.
Thank you to M Wallace for compiling this document.
iii
Executive Summary
Complete combustion of one litre of petrol results in 2.276kg of carbon dioxide. In
comparison, the complete combustion of one litre of ethanol results in only
1.511kg of carbon dioxide1. The UK currently consumes 32.5billion litres per year,
so blending ethanol with petrol will aid national efforts to meet current emissions
targets. Currently these targets are to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 20% by
2010.
Global warming is a multi-national concern so there is a great drive to search for
alternatives to oil especially as oil is in finite supply. Since the 1970s??? Brazil has
produced Bio-ethanol on a large scale and now runs many of its cars on pure bioethanol, thus proving the viability of ethanol as a fuel. It also provides proof that
the technology can work on an industrial scale. This report details a proposal for a
bio-ethanol production plant, to be located in the UK.
Bio-ethanol is produced from an energy crop such as sugar cane or wheat from
which sugar is extracted and then fermented to produce the fuel. It can then be
used to fuel cars either by mixing with petrol or neat. By sourcing the crops from
the UK this plant would stimulate the agricultural economy and provide rural
employment. With North Sea oil passing peak production the issue of security of
supply has taken on a greater importance, producing fuel from a home sourced
feedstock reduces a reliance on imports.
Due to the abundant supply and its ability to be grown on set-aside land, wheat is
an appropriate feedstock for production in the UK. The production stages are as
follows; wheat grain is cleaned and milled prior to the starch being washed out,
the starch is then hydrolysed and fermented to produce weak ethanol. Distillation
and dehydration processes are then used to concentrate the alcohol to fuel grade
(99.8% by mass).
A suitable location for a production plant would be Killinghome, Lincolnshire due to
its proximity to two large oil refineries. This is beneficial as it minimises the
environmental impact of transporting ethanol to the refineries for blending with
petrol. There are also social and economic benefits from locating in Lincolnshire as
it has a high unemployment rate and personnel training will boost the skill diversity
of the local area.
A full stakeholder analysis would highlight all those affected by the project.
Starting consultation at an early stage would allow concerns to be aired as well as
gaining the support of key allies (such as the fuel retailers) and more importantly
the local residents.
Production and sale of a bio-ethanol / petrol mix would have great environmental
benefits as its use will result in an estimated 70% reduction in carbon dioxide
emissions over the petrol it will replace. Other benefits include the reduction of
1
The calorific value of petrol is 1.5 times greater than that of ethanol and so 1.5 times the amount of
CO2 will be liberated to produce the same amount of energy.
iv
Contents
Acknowledgements ........................................................................... iii
Executive Summary ........................................................................... iv
Contents......................................................................................... vi
Tables & Figures ............................................................................... ix
Chapter 1 : Introduction (Whole Group)...................................................1
1.1 - Bio-ethanol as a fuel ........................................................................... 1
1.2 - The production of Bio-ethanol................................................................ 1
1.3 - Possible Feedstock and their yields.......................................................... 1
1.4 - Scale of Production ............................................................................. 2
1.5 - Production route ................................................................................ 2
1.6 - Location of Plant................................................................................ 2
1.7 - Flowsheet ........................................................................................ 2
vi
vii
viii
p1
p2
p4
p5
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p6
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ix
p50
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P87
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p153
xi
P89
p90
p91
p92
p154
p154
p155
p156
p156
p158
p159
A4.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger with two tube side passes
p169
A4.2 Square pitch tube arrangement
p171
A4.3 Segmental baffle with 25% window cut
p173
A4.4 The effect of cooling stream outlet temperature on exchanger design p175
A4.5 The effect of tube diameter on exchanger design
p175
A4.6 The effect of tube pitch on exchanger design
p176
A4.7 The effect of shell diameter on exchanger design
p176
A4.8 The effect of baffle spacing on exchanger design
p177
xii
Crop
Wheat
Sugar Beet
Yield of
Crop
Yield of
Bio-ethanol
t/ha
l/ha
7.74
53.2
2600
5746
Conversion
Efficiency
GJ Bioethanol/GJ
Feedstock
0.55
0.136
Feedstock
Cost
Feedstock
Cost
/GJ
Feedstock
/GJ Bioethanol
5.88
5.88
10.69
43.24
Feedstock
Cost
/tonne of
Bioethanol
429
1735
Feedstock
Cost
p/litre of
Bioethanol
33.8
136.9
Flowsheet
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
110
/ tonne
100
2005 (Feed)
90
2004 (Feed)
2005 (Milling)
80
2004 (Milling)
70
60
50
1
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
Week
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
fig2.5 Aspirator
As the grain falls down over perforated plates, air is blown up through it and out
through a filter which extracts any fine material.
DE-STONING : To prevent any damage to machinery, any stones are carefully
removed at this stage.
fig2.6 De-stoner
SCOURING : Air driven beaters are used to scour off any impurities (e.g. hull
casings) and to polish the grain.
fig2.7 Scourer
On completion of these five stages the wheat is clean and can be prepared for
milling. During the milling process large rollers will crush the grain to break off the
bran, which is then removed by sieving the crushed mixture. To ensure that the
bran breaks off cleanly is necessary to toughen the outer casing of the wheat,
preventing it from powdering during milling. This can be achieved by tempering
(or conditioning), and is the second important process which is required prior to
milling.
The conditioning process involves spraying cold water (up to 46 C) onto the wheat
while it is turned in a mixing worm. This wheat is then left to stand in bins for
several hours, up to 36 hours for some varieties of hard wheat or as little as 4 hours
for soft varieties.4
Food Science, B Srilakshmi, New Age International Publishers, 2003, ISBN 81-224-1481-8
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Unfortunately, the protein when recovered will have been denatured by the alkali
so is unsuitable for addition to baked goods, but it could be sold for use as a
protein supplement.
It is impossible to completely separate all of the protein from the starch so there
will be trace amounts (0.3 0.6%) present in the starch produced.
THE MARTIN PROCESS
This process has been in use since the 1920s and is still in use today. It is based on
the principle of forming a dough (made by mixing flour with ~85% of its weight in
water) and then washing the starch out of the dough. This is better than the alkali
process as it prevents the protein from being damaged, allowing it to be recovered
and sold as a by-product. Another advantage is that it is a much cheaper process to
run, since it uses water instead of an alkali.
Washing creates a milk which is processed in centrifuges to extract the starch,
further washing purifies the product and produces a starch cake recoverable at
the output. In general 60% of the weight of flour will be recovered as high-grade
starch and a further 15% can be recovered as second-grade starch (by hydrocylone
concentration). High grade starch is defined by higher percentage of large granule
starch, lower liquid content, lower protein content and a lower content of
impurities, compared to the lower grade starch.
The protein (gluten) can be dried and sold for use as an additive to foodstuffs.
Throughout the process it is necessary to make pH adjustments at important
stages. There is no advantage in addition of acid or base during doughing but
once the gluten has been removed it is useful to add alkali to the starch milk to
solubilise the associated proteins which are present. To produce average-quality
starch the pH should be raised to ~9. During processing the pH will naturally drop
due to bacterial action so little adjustment will be needed to neutralise the end
product.
In relation to bacterial action small amounts of formalin (40% formaldehyde
solution) should be added to the starch milk at the earliest possible stage to
prevent bacterial contamination. (e.g. 1mL per litre of milk)
The starch is separated into class A and B at an early stage. These are then
concentrated using centrifuges before being dewatered.
THE BATTER PROCESS
Developed in the 1940s specifically for production of starch for conversion into
syrups and alcohol from wheat, this process uses a batter instead of a dough. A
batter is made by mixing flour mixed with 1.25 times its weight of water (at 30C)
and has a lower consistency than dough.
10
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
The process is very similar to the Martin process, water is added and the gluten
removed as curds, then the starch milk can then be processed in a centrifuge. A
simplified process diagram can be seen in Fig2.14.
Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering; McGraw Hill; McCabe, Smith, Harriott; ISBN 0071181733
11
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
http://www.westfalia-separator.com/en/index.htm
13
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
14
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
15
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Tempering Bins
Capacity : 100tonnes
Number Required : 13
Product out : 100 tonnes/h
Waste out : n / a
Services required : n / a
16
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
17
Chapter 02 M. Wallace
Water
Plant Air
Rotary Cleaner
12.4 kW
Eureka Scourer
22,500 m/h
Tempering Mixer
22.2 kW
7,200 l/h
Short-Milling System
2.7 MW
3-Phase Separator
760 kW
100,000 l/h
3.5 MW
107,200 l/h
22,500 m/h
Capital cost
2,000
72,000
180,000
108,000
240,000
486,000
500,000
1,588,000
18
10
11
Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology Karen Kulp Marcel Dekker, 2000 p388
http://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/ch112/carbohydrates/starchglyco.gif
19
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
Starch is converted to simple sugars by breaking the glycosidic bonds that hold the
glucose links of starch chains together. There are two different types of bond as
shown in figure 3.1 (1,4-- and 1,6--D-glycosidic links).
3.1.2 - Possible Hydrolysis Methods
Acid Hydrolysis
Acidic hydrolysis uses strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid, which hydrolyse
amylose and amylopectin in starch gels into dextrins and finally mixtures of
oligosaccharides and other simple sugars. Acid hydrolysis requires the use of
corrosion resistant materials in the effected parts of the plant which will raise the
plant construction and maintenance costs. The use of acids may also result in
unwanted by-products which will have to be removed at a later stage12. This will
result in a lower glucose yield than is potentially possible and the solution
produced will have to be neutralised so as not to affect the fermentation process.
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
An alternative to chemical methods is to use enzymes to hydrolyse the glycosidic
links in the starch chains. These processes generally operate nearer to neutral pH
levels than acid hydrolysis and at lower temperatures so they require less heating.
The plant costs are also lower as there is a smaller requirement for corrosion
resistant materials. The use of enzymes will be considered in the remainder of this
chapter, as very high glucose yields are possible which will improve the overall
starch to ethanol conversion. There are also many commercially available enzyme
preparations produced specifically for use in the production of fuel ethanol from
starch.
Dextrose Equivalent
The effectiveness of a hydrolysis process in producing sugars can be quantified by
the products dextrose equivalent which is defined as:
DE =
(eq3.1)13
http://www.novozymes.com/cgi-bin/bvisapi.dll/biotimes/one_article.jsp?id=34551&lang=en
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
20
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
The maximum dextrose equivalent that can be obtained from bacterial -amylases
is around 4015. These enzymes are therefore not suitable for the complete
saccharification of starch but will be used in initial processing which is needed to
reduce the viscosity of the gelatinised starch in order to ease subsequent
processing. Hydrolysing the starch to a DE of 8-12 will reduce its viscosity
sufficiently.
Glucoamylase is an enzyme which can hydrolyse both 1,4-- and 1,6--D-glycosidic
bonds however the breakdown of 1,6-- bonds is much slower (approximately 50
times slower16). Glucoamylase produced from Aspergillus niger has an optimum pH
of 4.0-4.5 and optimum temperature of 60C17. It is a suitable enzyme for the main
starch saccharification process but the overall process could be sped up by using
this enzyme with a suitable de-branching enzyme, which will also improve the
overall glucose yield.
De-branching Enzymes
The glucose yield from hydrolysis can be improved by using a de-branching enzyme
which can break down the starch 1,6--D-glycosidic branch points. Without such an
enzyme there would be significant amounts of branched oligosaccharides remaining
at the end of the process. Pullulanase from Bacillus acidopullulyticus is a debranching enzyme which can be used under the same conditions as glucoamylase
from Aspergillus niger (60C and pH 4.0-4.5) making it particularly well suited for
use in a saccharification process. An advantage of using pullulanase is that less
glucoamylase is needed in the process and higher substrate concentrations may be
treated18.
Enzyme Activity Unit
The activity of enzymes is quantified using the activity unit (U). This is defined as
the amount of enzyme that will catalyse the transformation of one micromole of
substrate per minute under standard conditions. Standard conditions are the
optimum reaction temperature, pH, and concentrations for a given enzyme.
However, these conditions vary from one supplier to the next.
15
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
17
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/glucose.html
18
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
16
21
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
Gelatinisation
Liquefaction
Starch Slurry
-amylase, 1500 U kg-1
Jet Cooking
105C
5 Minutes
Gelatinised Starch (<1 DE)
95C
2 Hours
Liquefied Starch (11 DE)
0.3% D-glucose
2.0% Maltose (G2)
97.7% Oligosaccharides (G3-5)
pH 4.5
Glucoamylase, 150 U kg-1
Saccharification
Pullulanase, 100 U kg-1
60C
72 Hours
Glucose Syrup (99 DE)
97.0% D-glucose
1.5% Maltose
0.5% Isomaltose
1.0% Other Oligosaccharides
Fig3.2. Complete enzymatic hydrolysis pathway with optimum operating
conditions19
Gelatinisation
The starch must first be made into a solution of suitable concentration for the
enzymes to act upon. The starch is slurried with cold water at 35% (w/w) and pH
6.5. Calcium is added at 40ppm Ca2+ which is used to stabilise the enzyme and
increase its activity. The bacterial -amylase is added via a metering pump at high
activities (1500U/kg) giving a required enzyme dose of 0.5kg per tonne of starch20.
The mixture is pumped through a jet cooker heating it to 105C where
gelatinisation begins to take place. Hydrolysis also begins as a result of the
significant shear forces and high enzymatic activity21. After the short jet cooking
19
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
21
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
20
22
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
period, the partially gelatinised starch is heated for a further 5 minutes at 100105C until the gelatinisation has completed.
Liquefaction
The gelatinised starch is highly viscous and so it is necessary to hydrolyse it
sufficiently to ease subsequent processing. It is transferred to holding tanks where
it is kept at 90-100C for 1 to 2 hours until it reaches a dextrose equivalent of 8-12.
The temperature and pH of the substrate must then be adjusted to the optimum
conditions for the enzymes used in the saccharification process.
Saccharification
After the starch has been liquefied, it is transferred to a vessel where the final
hydrolysis takes place. Glucoamylase and pullulanase are added to the liquefied
mixture and it is maintained at 60C for 72 hours.
100
90
80
70
60
50 U/kg
150 U/kg
300 U/kg
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
24
48
72
96
120
22
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/glucose.html
23
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
and glucoamylase enzymes. The whole dose of both enzymes will be added to
vessel at the commencement of filling to give the most economical enzyme use23.
The resulting glucose syrup has a DE of 99 and contains approximately 97% glucose
with small amounts of other simple sugars. Once the required DE has been reached,
the saccharification process must be stopped by heating the vessel contents to
85C for 5 minutes otherwise the yield of glucose will begin to decrease24. This is
due to the formation of isomaltose on further incubation as the accumulated
glucose re-polymerises (see figure 3.4).
200 U kg-1 Aspergillus niger
glucoamylase
-- 400 U kg-1 A. niger glucoamylase
200 U kg-1 A. niger glucoamylase plus
200 U kg-1 Bacillus acidopullulyticus
pullulanase.
Fig3.4 The % glucose formed from 30% (w/w) 12 DE maltodextrin, at 60C and pH
4.3, using various enzyme solutions25
3.2 - Gelatinisation of Starch
3.2.1 - Starch Requirement
Before the plant required for the hydrolysis processes can be designed, the
required mass flow rate of starch must be found. The complete hydrolysis of starch
to glucose is given by:
(C6H10O5)n
Starch
nH2O
Water
nC6H12O6
Glucose
(eq3.2)
Using the enzymatic hydrolysis process described in figure 3.2 it will be assumed
that 97% of the glucose units that make up the starch are converted to glucose.
The relative molecular mass of C6H12O6 is 180 and for C6H10O5 is 162. Therefore, the
amount of glucose produced per tonne of starch is:
0.97 180 / 162 = 1.078 kg glucose / kg starch
23
24
25
(eq3.3)
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/glucose.html
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/glucose.html
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/glucose.html
24
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
For the plant to produce the required ethanol output, the fermentation process
requires approximately 53000 kg/hr of glucose. The starch requirement of the
hydrolysis process is therefore 49165 kg/hr.
3.2.2 - Jet Cooking
The starch is mixed with cold water at a flow rate of 76800 kg/hr to produce a
starch slurry. This is then pumped into a jet cooker where the slurry is heated by
direct contact with saturated steam at a pressure of 1.20 bar. A steam flow rate of
4.03 kg/s is needed to heat the slurry to 105C and the addition of the steam
results in a final mixture concentration of 35% (w/w) starch with a flow rate of 109
m/hr.
Linear Actuator
Steam Supply
Cold Slurry Supply
Valve Stem
Needle Pin
Valve Head
http://www.process-heating.com/CDA/Archives/be226053d9268010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0____
25
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
0.50m
Heating Tube
Slurry Inlet
3.00m
Slurry Outlet
Condensate Outlet
5.00m
Fig3.6 Starch slurry gelatinisation heater
3.3 - Liquefaction of Starch Slurry
3.3.1 - Vessel Size
The liquefaction process takes 2 hours to complete at 95C and so a continuous
flow arrangement is not suitable and a batch reaction vessel will be used instead.
Two vessels will be used so that one can fill from the gelatinisation stage while the
other is undergoing reaction. This is necessary, as the size of vessel needed would
take far too long to fill at the rate of output from the gelatinisation stage. It would
also have to be stopped when the single vessel had been completely filled.
Each vessel must have a capacity of 283.9 m. This calculated volume allows for
the time it will take to pump out the contents of the tank at the end of the process
at a rate of 1000 m/hr. The overall time from the completion of filling the tank to
the beginning of the next filling is 2.3 hours.
For a cylindrical vessel with its height equal to its diameter, the required volume
gives a diameter of 7.15 m.
3.3.2 - Heat Transfer in Agitated Vessels
In order to determine the heating requirement of the vessel the heat transfer
coefficients for heat transfer from the heating coils to the liquid and from the
liquid to the vessel walls must be known. The coefficients will depend on the type
of impeller used to stir the vessel contents.
26
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
Comparing different impeller types (see appendix 3), a propeller gives the greatest
heat transfer coefficients but is only suitable for small vessels due to its weight. Of
the other types, the flat blade turbine will give the greatest heat transfer from
heating coils and so this design will be used. The impeller will be driven by a small
electric motor of a few kW power, mounted on the top of the vessel.
Starch has a density of 1530 kg/m and a specific heat capacity of approximately
1.25 kJ/kg27. It will be assumed that the properties of the starch slurry throughout
the various processes are weighted averages of the initial mixture component
properties. This gives a slurry density of 1138 kg/m and a specific heat capacity of
3.037 kJ/kg. The dynamic viscosity of the glucose solution produced at the end of
the hydrolysis process is known to be 4.404 Pa s and so this value will be assumed
throughout the process28. The thermal conductivity of the solution is unknown and
so will be assumed the same as for water which makes up the majority of the
slurry.
For an impeller rotational speed of 0.1 revs/s using a flat blade turbine with six
blades, the heat transfer coefficients are 497.9 W/m/K for the substrate to the
vessel wall and 21.0 W/m/K for the heating coils to the substrate.
3.3.3 - Heat Loss through Vessel Walls
The reaction temperature of the vessel is above ambient temperature and so there
will be heat lost through the walls of the vessel. This will have to be balanced by a
heating system. To reduce the heating requirement, the vessels will be lagged with
an insulating material.
Material
Air
Polyurethane foam
Cork board
Expanded polystyrene foam
Fibre-glass wool
27
27
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
For a vessel made of stainless steel with a wall thickness of 20 mm, a surrounding
temperature of 0C and a cross wind speed of 3 m/s, the vessel heat loss is over
170kW with no lagging.
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Fig3.7 Vessel heat loss for increasing polyurethane foam lagging thickness
Figure 3.7 shows that the rate of heat loss through the walls of the vessel
decreases considerably with even small amounts of lagging. The greater the
thickness, the lower the heat loss but the higher the vessel construction costs.
Beyond a lagging thickness of 50 mm, the rate of heat loss does not decrease as
significantly as it did initially with increasing thickness, and by this point the heat
loss has fallen to 10.6 kW so a thickness of 50 mm will be used.
3.3.4 - Vessel Heating Coil
In order to keep the vessel at constant temperature for the duration of the
reaction, heat lost through the walls of the vessel needs to be balanced by heat
supplied by a heating coil. This coil will make use of the steam produced by the
plant for other processes. It is saturated at 4 bar, has a temperature of 143.63C
and a specific enthalpy of vaporisation of 2132.9 kJ/kg.
Assuming the steam enters the heating coil as saturated vapour and leaves as
saturated liquid at a saturation pressure of 4 bar, a heat input of 10.6 kW requires
a steam mass flow rate of only 4.97 g/s.
The pipe inner surface heat transfer resistance will be neglected as the heat
transfer coefficient for condensing steam is large and therefore will have little
28
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
effect on the overall heat transfer (Typical values are 6000-17000 W/m/K)31. The
temperature difference across the pipe wall is assumed constant along its length. A
fouling factor of 0.5 will be used to account for the reduction in heat transfer from
deposits on the pipe surfaces. The pipe diameter must be chosen to give a suitable
length for the required area so the pipe can be coiled around the impeller to
distribute heat evenly.
For a vessel reaction temperature of 95C with a heating requirement of 10.6 kW,
the required pipe inner surface area for an inner diameter of 150 mm is 21.0 m.
This gives a required pipe length of 44.6 m. The impeller diameter is 2.40 m and so
a heating coil diameter of 3 m will allow sufficient clearance with 4 complete coil
turns around the impeller.
By varying the flow rate of steam, the vessel can be maintained at the required
temperature, compensating for heat given out or consumed by the reaction. The
coil could also be used for cooling if cold water were passed through it instead of
steam.
31
Chemical Engineering Volume 1 - J.M. Coulson, J.F. Richardson Butterworth Heinemann, 1996
p444
29
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
3.00m
2.40m
60
150m
20mm
Impeller
Heating Coil
50mm
Lagging
1.00m
50mm
Impeller
7.15m
Heating Coil
Lagging
150mm
480mm
2.40m
2.40m
3.00m
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
32
33
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/glucose.html
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p267
31
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
32
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
95
60
316.10
33.6
20
40
401.86
44.50
1.100
0.030
0.032
0.040
0.008
300
0.220
Fouling Factor
Average Tube Length Required (m)
Number of Baffles
Number of Holes To Be Drilled
1.1
10.170
23
11102
33
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
34
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
3.5 - Saccharification
The design of the saccharification vessels is very similar to that for the liquefaction
vessels which is discussed in section 3.3. The same design equations have been
used for both cases.
3.5.1 - Vessel Size
The saccharification process takes 72 hours to complete at 60C and so a
continuous flow arrangement is not suitable and a batch reaction vessel will be
used instead.
Allowing 2 hours for the filling and emptying of the vessels between batches, a
total saccharification vessel capacity of 9135 m is required to give the desired
final ethanol output rate. This volume is too large for a single vessel and would
require equally large intermediate storage tanks to store the final product to feed
the continuous fermentation process and to store the liquefied starch to supply the
saccharification process. The number of vessels to be used must be chosen so as to
minimise the size of these storage tanks without requiring an uneconomical number
of saccharification vessels.
10 vessels will be used, each with a volume of 913.5 m. For a cylindrical vessel
with its height equal to its diameter, the required volume gives a diameter of 10.55
m. To fill the vessel in one hour, the liquefied starch must be pumped into the tank
at a minimum rate of 923 m/hr. The interval between vessels emptying into the
intermediate storage tank will be 7.4 hours.
3.5.2 - Heat Transfer in Agitated Vessels
Using the same process as in section 3.3.2, for a flat blade turbine with a rotational
speed of 0.1 revs/s, the heat transfer coefficients are 567 W/m/K for the vessel
wall and 24.8 W/m/K for the heating coils.
3.5.3 - Heat Loss through Vessel Walls
For a vessel made of stainless steel with a wall thickness of 20 mm, a surrounding
temperature of 0C and a cross wind speed of 3 m/s, the vessel heat loss is over
219 kW with no lagging. As with the liquefaction vessel, 50 mm of polyurethane
foam insulation will be used which reduces the heat loss to 14.8 kW.
3.5.4 - Vessel Heating
Heating Coil
Assuming the steam enters the heating coil as saturated vapour and leaves as
saturated liquid at a saturation pressure of 4 bar, a heat input of 14.8 kW requires
a steam mass flow rate of only 6.92 g/s.
35
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
For a vessel reaction temperature of 60C with a heating requirement of 14.8 kW,
the required pipe inner surface area for an inner diameter of 100 mm is 14.8 m.
This gives a required pipe length of 47.1 m. The impeller diameter is 3.5 m and so
a heating coil diameter of 4 m will allow sufficient clearance with 3 complete coil
turns around the impeller.
Process Termination
At the end of the saccharification process, the enzymes need to be denatured to
stop the glucoamylase repolymerising the glucose into isomaltose. This will be
achieved by adding saturated steam in direct contact with the substrate as it is
pumped out of the vessel. To heat the glucose solution to 85C from 60C while
removing it from the vessel at a rate of 923m/hr, using saturated steam at 4 bar
will require a steam mass flow rate of 12.52 kg/s.
36
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
4.00m
3.50m
60
100mm
20mm
Impelle
Heating Coil
50mm
Lagging
1.50m
50mm
Impeller
10.55m
Heating Coil
Lagging
175m
700mm
3.50m
3.50m
4.00m
Chapter 03 W. Treharne
Unit Cost
Quantity
108992.00
21525.17
Subtotal
1
1
108,992.00
21,525.17
74085.31
7801.45
5808.38
2
2
2
148,170.63
15,602.90
11,616.76
Saccharification Vessel
Impeller
Tank Heater
158420.71
7801.45
5011.15
10
10
10
1,584,207.12
78,014.51
50,111.51
183647.30
367,294.61
Heat Exchanger
108992.54
108,992.54
2,494,527.75
Liquefaction Vessel
Impeller
Tank Heater
Total
The cost estimates are based on
http://www.matche.com/EquipCost/.
item
sizes
and
information
from
38
36
34
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation
Handbook on Bio-ethanol: Production and Utilization (Applied Energy Technology S.) 1996
36
P338 Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors and Process Control v. 3 1994
37
P338 Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors and Process Control v. 3 1994
35
39
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
38
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S_cerevisiae
40
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
however the most commonly used kinetics are those derived by Monod, a French
biologist. These kinetics shall therefore be the basis of analysis in the subsequent
text.
The two main reactor types as mentioned above shall now be discussed along with
the relevant analysis based on the aforementioned Monod growth kinetics.
4.3 - Batch reactor
A batch reactor is a closed system. The tank is initially filled with substrate,
innoculated with microbes and then left until after a certain time the required
concentration of product has been obtained. It is important to understand yeast
growth within a batch reactor and there are four distinct phases of growth as
shown in figure 4.2 below.
The lag region. As the cells in the container use up their food (the sugars),
they stop multiplying and their enzyme activity decreases and the cells
change character. When introduced to a new environment, a lag time is
observed as the cells remanufacture chemicals needed for growth and
reproduction.
Growth and stationary phases. In a uniform environment cells grow
exponentially, but in a batch system the composition of the substrate
changes so the growth rate changes. The eventual drop in cell growth is
governed either by depletion of food (substrate limiting) or the build up of
toxic materials (product poisoning).
It is possible to model the growth and stationary phases using the aforementioned
Monod kinetics.
39
41
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
Yield coefficients
Before beginning the analysis of growth kinetics, it is important to introduce the
concept of yield coefficients. A yield coefficient simply states the amount of mass
of one substance given the mass of another substance. It is therefore a ratio of
masses. For example, say to make 500 grams of bread requires 300 grams of flour;
the yield coefficient of bread to flour is 500/300 = 1.67. It is given the symbol
Ybread/flour and the subscript denotes the substances bread and flour.
Analysis and nomenclature
Although it is customary to place nomenclature at the end, it provides a neat way
of explaining all of the following terms so is of more benefit to the reader before
the following analysis. The table below summarises all the terms:
Term
X
S
So
Y
m
Ks
P
F
V
D
Explanation
Concentration of yeast cells
Substrate (sugar) concentration
Initial substrate (sugar) concentration
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
Monod constant
Product (ethanol) concentration
Feed flow rate
Volume
Dilution rate
Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors and Process Control v. 3 1994
See appendix 5 for detailed analysis
42
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
The relevant kinetic parameters for the strain of yeast S. Cerevisiae are found to
be42:
m = 0.357 h-1
Ks = 0.0714gl-1
Using Microsofts Excel to solve for this, it is possible to obtain:
Ethanol
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
time (hours)
42
Bioautomation, 2004, vol. 1, pp. 1-15: Functional state modelling of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae cultivations;
www.clbme.bas.bg/bioautomation/1_1.1.pdf
43
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
12
microbe concentration
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
time (hours)
Recovery of Ethanol from fermentation broth by pervaporation: Economical evaluation. Hand out by Dr. Das 07/02/2006
44
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
time (hours)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
time (hours)
45
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
Analysis
A mass balance for cells yields:
Fx0 Fx + Vx = Vdx/dt
Where x0 is inlet cell concentration and F is feed flow rate. In this equation, the
loss of cells through death is being ignored because growth rate death rate.
So for a sterile feed, x0 = 0 and at steady state, dx/dt = 0 so the above equation
reduces to:
= F/V = D where D is known as dilution rate and is the reciprocal of residence
time. Residence time is an average time that the substrate spends residing in the
tank.
Monod kinetics can again be introduced to give
= D = mS/(Ks + S)
Giving:
S = KsD/(m D)
The steady state cell concentration to be written as:
x = Yx/s(S0 S) = Yx/s{S0 - KsD/(m D)}
There is however an upper limit for the feed flow rate for operation. The dilution
rate at which cells can no longer grow is known as the wash-out dilution rate Dwo.
The cell productivity of a CSTR is given by the product xD. The plot below shows x,
S, xD as a function of D.
44
46
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
There is clearly an optimum D giving the highest productivity which can be found to
be:
Doptimum = m{1 - [Ks/(S0 + Ks)]}
However, as discussed under the section on batch reactors, product poisoning can
be modelled using the linear profile:
= m(1- C/C0)
In the design above, instead of using m, given by the above relationship is used.
This is best highlighted using an example. So if say, an ethanol concentration of 5%
by volume is required (40g/litre) then m = 0.1739 h-1. This new figure can now be
used in the above analysis for a CSTR (the CSTR operates at steady state so this
figure of new m remains constant). It is possible to introduce a spreadsheet,
created from the above analysis, to calculate the initial substrate and reactor
volume requirements for differing ethanol concentrations. The following curves
can be obtained from the spreadsheet where ethanol concentration is in g/l.
tank size
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
ethanol concentration
47
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
ethanol concentration
48
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
5
4.5
4
% substrate remaining
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
ethanol concentration
45
46
www.lsbu.ac.uk/enztech/glucose.html
www.mhra.gov.uk
49
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
http://dbb.urmc.rochester.edu/labs/Sherman_f/yeast/4.html
Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors and Process Control v. 3 1994
49
Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors and Process Control v. 3 1994
50
Perfect differential (at constant T) of the relationship given in HLT p72
50
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
Having found the cooling requirement, the design needs to be finalised. The
analysis is largely similar to that for the design of the heat exchanger. The heat
transfer coefficient for the flow within the cooling tubes is evaluated in exactly the
same way; however another correlation for the heat transfer between the outer
tube wall and the fluid within the fermenter must be used. The correlation for
vertical baffle type coils is given by51:
hd/k = 0.09Re0.65Pr0.33
The overall heat transfer coefficient can now be calculated as in appendix 6.
Creating another spreadsheet, it is possible to alter the parameters until a design is
met which satisfies the criteria.
No. of tubes
600
Diameter of tubes (inches)
1
Length of tubes (m)
160
Cooling requirement (MW)
13.54
Cost
Included in fermenter cost (section 4.12)
Fig4.13 fermenter cooling coil specification
4.9 - Growth nutrients
In order to grow, the yeast needs nutrients, the two most important being a carbon
and a nitrogen source. The carbon source exists in the form of the glucose whilst
from observing the stoichiometric equation as above, it can be seen that one
suitable nitrogen source is ammonia. It is possible to use the stoichiometric
equation to deduce the rate at which ammonia must be supplied to the fermenter:
Yammonia/ethanol = 0.188(14+3)/1.3(24+6+16) = 0.0534
This is the yield coefficient for ammonia based on each kilogram of ethanol
produced. For an ethanol flow rate of 22000 litres per hour (17358 Kg per hour),
the flow rate of ammonia can be calculated as follows:
Ammonia flow rate = 17358x0.0534 = 927Kg/hour
The ammonia is best stored as a liquid before being bubbled up through the
fermenter.
51
51
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
Fig4.14 centrifuges52
A tubular bowl centrifuge (a), a continuous scroll centrifuge (b) and a Continuous
multi-chamber disc-stack centrifuge (c) are pictured above. For more detail on
centrifuges, regard Chapter 2
An absorption column can recover any ethanol vapour leaving the fermenter with
the CO2.
4.11 - Glucose concentration
As mentioned previously, the required glucose concentration to produce 40g/l
ethanol is 125g/l. This is somewhat lower than the 580g/l glucose concentration
leaving the hydrolysis stage, so water will be needed to reduce the concentration
down to desirable levels. At a concentration of 125g/l, the required substrate flow
52
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/centrifugation.html
52
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
rate is 116 litres per second to produce ethanol at a rate of 22,000 litres per hour.
As the flow rate from hydrolysis is 25 litres per second and steam is added during
sterilisation at 9.5 litres per second, then pure water must be added at a rate of
81.5 litres per second upstream of sterilisation.
4.12 - Fermenter Design
A CSTR is preferable to a batch reactor for several reasons53:
Large throughput
Easier online analysis
Simplicity and cost
Batch reactor would require inoculation with new microbes following each
batch
However, the analysis for a batch reactor has not been omitted, as a CSTR has to
be run as a batch reactor during start up.
From figure 4.9, it can be seen that the tank size of a CSTR is a minimum when the
ethanol concentration is 40g/l corresponding to a fermenter size of 2600 m3.
Although the required volume is 2600 m3, some allowance is needed in order to
take account of the volume displaced by cooling tubes. It is also wise to apply a
safety factor in design so the final volume will stand at 2700 m3. Modelling the
fermenter as a cylinder and a hemisphere, a further spreadsheet can be created to
allow various parameters to be altered and the relevant overall dimensions can be
found. From these dimensions, it is then feasible to calculate the surface area of
the fermenter. The heat loss can be found by following the general principles
outlined in appendix 6. The heat transfer coefficient between the vessel fluid and
the wall can be found from the relation54:
Nu = 0.023Re0.8Pr0.4
Where Reynolds number (Re) is given by55:
D2N/
Here D is the impeller diameter whilst N is the motor speed in revs per second.
For the heat transfer coefficient between the vessel wall and the air, the relevant
correlation can be found to be56:
Nu = 0.13(GrPr)1/3
53
53
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
110000
108000
106000
104000
102000
100000
98000
96000
94000
92000
90000
0
10
radius (m)
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
these dimensions also correspond to minimum surface area. As the material cost of
building the fermenter will be proportional to the surface area, then this design
should also correspond to minimal cost. As it will be important to protect the
vessel during down time, which may occur in winter, the fermenter shall be lagged
so again, this minimum in surface area corresponds to a minimum in lagging costs.
Motor Power
As the tank is a CSTR, a stirrer is required to keep the fermenter contents mixed.
There are many types of impeller, all of which fall into two broad categoriespropellers and turbines. To find the required motor power to drive the impeller,
plots of dimensionless power number versus Reynolds number are used. Knowing
the diameter, fluid density and rotational speed, the motor power can be
evaluated. Two such curves are shown below, one for propeller power correlation,
the other for turbine power correlation.
57
55
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
58
59
CO2 will vent from the top of the fermenter via a pump. This gas stream will
then pass through a water trap so as no oxygen can enter into the
56
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
fermenter. The carbon dioxide will then enter the atmosphere through a
stack.
The cooling tubes will be fed from an overhead water main and will be
drained into another.
Ammonia will be bubbled up through the base of the fermenter.
All tubes will be connected to the vessel via expansion joints.
Specification
Overall height (m)
Overall Diameter (m)
Material
Wall Thickness (mm)
Surface area (m2)
Maximum stress in shell (Mpa)
Number of cooling tubes
Length of cooling tubes (m)
Diameter of cooling tubes (inches)
Motor type
Volume (m3)
Fermenter cost (inc. agitator) ()
Impeller type and speed
Lagging type
Lagging cost ()
26
12
Mild steel (coated)
12.4
1093
120
600
160
1
Electric motor with power rating 32kW
2700
500,00060
Propeller of diameter 11m @ 7rpm
Rockwool blanket insulation 50mm
thick
24,253.67 @ 22.19 per square metre
Fig4.19 fermenter design specification
60
57
Chapter 04 M. Braisher
The strain of yeast Saccharomyces Cerevisiae has been selected due to its
relatively high ethanol tolerance.
Fermentation will occur in a continuous process using a CSTR of volume
2700m3.
The ethanol concentration leaving the fermenter will be 5% by volume.
The feed requires heating to 85oC using steam before being cooled in a shell
and tube heat exchanger to 30oC for the fermenter.
The fermenter requires cooling to remove heat produced during
fermentation.
58
Percentage of
Ethanol by Mass
113.1
15
Distillate
18.85
90
Bottoms
94.25
~0
Fig 5.1 Column Design Specifications
59
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
mass balance for the column at a sensible operating point. The initial exploratory
calculations are critical to the design of the column as they give bounds in which
the final column design must lie and can be used as a reality check during
subsequent stages of the design process. Finally all of this information can be used
create a computational model of the distillation using the flowsheeting programme
Aspen and as a source of sensible values to specify within the model.
5.3 - Preliminary Calculations
Choosing the correct amount of reflux for a column requires a balance between
two primary factors, the purity of the tops product and the operating costs of
running with a high reflux ratio. To obtain the desired purity in the tops product
adequate reflux is required to allow rectification to take place in the rectifying
section of the column (top portion above feed plate). Decreasing reflux increases
the number of plates required to achieve the same separation. The minimum reflux
ratio is obtained from the case of a column with an infinite number of plates.
The balance between reflux ratio and number of plates becomes an economic
concern, where a trade off has to be reached between the higher capital cost of
the manufacture and installation of a larger column (more plates, lower reflux
ratio), versus higher operating costs due to increased reboiler and condenser heat
loads, and therefore increased steam and cooling water requirements, for a smaller
column (fewer plates, increased reflux ratio). Figure 5.2 shows the variation of
capital investment (fixed costs) and operating costs (steam and cooling water
costs) with reflux ratio.
60
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
optimum region over which capital costs remain approximately constant whilst
operating costs rise linearly with reflux ratio. A sensible design will lie within this
optimum zone.
Finding the minimum reflux ratio required for the separation allows for an actual
reflux value to be chosen on an economic basis and the extra costs incurred
compared to the datum set by minimum reflux. For an ethanol-water system the
minimum reflux is calculated from a graphical construction. The gradient of the
line that is tangential to the equilibrium curve between the mole fraction of
ethanol in the feed xf = 0.065 and the mole fraction of ethanol in the distillate
xd = 0.779 is proportional to the minimum reflux ratio Rmin, figure 5.3.
Rmin
= gradient
Rmin + 1
Fig 5.4
From the construction Rmin = 1.924
The minimum number of ideal plates (theoretical equilibrium stages) is found from
the case of a column operating with total reflux (infinite reflux ratio). A graphical
McCabe-Thiele construction is used to find the minimum number of plates Nmin, this
sets the limit of the shortest column that could theoretically be used for this
distillation (Theoretical as under total reflux no tops product is acquired). As with
Rmin, Nmin is a useful parameter for comparison later in the design process. Figure
5.5 shows the graphical construction used to find Nmin.
61
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
Fig 5.5
xf
Mass fraction of
ethanol in feed
113.10
0.15
0.9
88
3.85
310
D (te/h)
B (te/h)
L (te/h)
V (te/h)
CpF
CpD
CpB
Distillate flow
rate
xd
xb
Bottoms flow
Reflux flow rate Vapour flow rate
rate
18.85
94.25
72.57
91.42
QC (kW)
QB (kW)
dTcooling (C)
Fs (te/h)
Condenser
heat load
Reboiler heat
load
25189
34272
Tf (C)
Temperature
of feed
Fw (te/h)
Condenser
Reflux Ratio cooling water
flow rate
2.632
4.18
Condenser
Reboiler steam
cooling water
requirement
temp rise
saturated p=4 bar
70
58
62
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
This heat and mass balance illustrates several key design points. Due to the
relatively low ethanol concentration in the feed stream the vapour and bottoms
flow rate are both very large and, consequently, there is a large steam demand
from the reboiler. There is also room for recovery of a significant quantity of
medium grade heat; the condenser requires 310 te/hr of water in order to remove
25189kW of heat to condense the tops product, if it is assumed that the condenser
is supplied with cold water at 20C then 310 te/hr of water will be available at
90C. This water will not be contaminated during the condensing process thus a
sensible use for this water would be as boiler feed, if the water was treated before
entering the condenser it could then be fed straight to the boiler. The use of
treated water in the condenser (shell side) will also help prolong periods between
planned maintenance operations due to reduced fouling (scale formation).
The heat available in the bottoms can be used to preheat the feed to saturation
temperature (assumption made in heat balance). It is better practise to use the
bottoms to preheat the feed than cooling water leaving the condenser as in
practise a temperature difference between the condenser cooling water entering
the heat exchanger and the feed leaving of 90-88=2C will not be a large enough
driving force for efficient heat exchange.
As the column design is refined heat loads and requirements will vary, being most
sensitive to reflux ratio, however these general points will still be applicable.
63
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
Fig 5.7- Variation of component mass fraction (vapour phase) with equilibrium
stage, feed introduced at stage 8.
Figure 5.7 shows that although the desired mass fraction of ethanol in the distillate
is being achieved no stripping is taking place in the lower part of the column from
stage 11-20. This suggests that 9 fewer equilibrium stages are needed. Designing a
column with stages over which no change in composition occurs serves no purpose
other than to increase the capital cost of the unit.
Fig 5.8 - Variation of component mass fraction (vapour phase) with equilibrium
stage, feed introduced at stage 15.
64
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
Figure 5.8 shows a similar situation to figure 5.7 except that the location of the
feed means that the section of redundant stages is split in two, 8 stages can be
removed from this column. From these results it is expected that a column with 11
equilibrium stages could achieve the separation with judicious choice of feed
location.
Using Aspens sensitivity model analysis tool, with the mass fraction of ethanol in
the distillate stream as the dependent variable to be maximised, different
permutations of column design were explored. This process of refinement took
several iterations due to the interdependence of the variables. Figure 5.9 shows
the final result for the optimum feed plate location (saturated liquid feed) found to
be stage 6 and figure 5.10 the final reflux ratio optimisation from which the
required reflux ratio was found to be 6. The heat and mass balance can be
calculated for this reflux ratio and is presented in section 5.8.
65
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
Fig 5.11- Variation of component mass fraction (vapour phase) with equilibrium
stage, at design conditions.
66
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
x = 0.06459 y
I.e. a vertical line passing through xF on the x-axis. This is expected for saturated
liquid feed (q=1).
Stripping Line: This operating line is found graphically as it passes through xB and
the intersection of the feed and rectifying lines. The next 3 figures detail the
McCabe-Thiele construction, Figures 5.13 and 5.14 are enlargements of the region
around x = 0 where the separation space is small.
67
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
Fig 5.13- McCabe-Thiele Construction showing magnified view of the rectifyingstripping line intersection
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
separation space (gap between VLE curve and operating line) is greatest, thus
allowing for the change.
U max = K v
( )
l v 0.2
20
v
63
69
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
FlV is evaluated for flow conditions at the top of the column as this is where the
vapour velocity is a maximum and hence if the flooding point is just reached at this
stage the rest of the plates in the column should be operating just below flooding
limits.
Using the correlation for Umax and the Kv values read from figure 5.15 the maximum
vapour velocities can be found. The surface tension of a 90% ethanol 10% water
mixture is found using the method of Tamura, Kurata and Odani to be 17.63 mN/m
(appendix 12). Figure 5.16 shows the values of Umax obtained.
Plate
Spacing (m)
0.15
0.23
0.30
0.46
0.61
0.91
Kv
0.13
0.16
0.21
0.29
0.36
0.46
Umax (ft/s)
2.75
3.38
4.48
6.12
7.64
9.71
Umax (m/s)
0.84
1.03
1.36
1.87
2.33
2.96
V
D( R + 1) 22.64ms 1
Area =
=
=
U max
U max
U max
The actual column area is related to the bubbling area by the active area, the
amount of plate area that liquid-vapour contact occurs over i.e. the section of
plate that isnt occupied by downcomer, active area is taken as 0.85. The required
column diameter is easily computed from the column area. Figure 5.17 shows the
column diameters required for the range of vapour velocities shown in figure 5.16.
Also shown is another flow parameter Fg which is used to find the murphree vapour
efficiency.
Plate Spacing (m)
0.15
0.23
0.30
0.46
0.61
0.91
26.84
21.81
16.46
12.03
9.64
7.59
Column Area
(m2)
31.58
25.66
19.37
14.16
11.34
8.92
Column Diameter
(m)
6.34
5.72
4.97
4.25
3.80
3.37
Fg
0.88
1.08
1.43
1.95
2.44
3.10
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
64
71
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
Using this information the column internals can now be specified and the height of
the column calculated.
Plate Type
Plate Spacing
(m)
Sieve
0.3
Murphree
Vapour
Efficiency (%)
77
Number of
Plates
13
Umax (ms-1)
1.29
Column
Height (m)
3.9
Column
Diameter (m)
5.1
A safety factor of 5% was used to reduce the maximum allowable vapour velocity to
ensure reliable operation of the column at design conditions, this also allows for
the column to be run at rates higher than 18.85 te/hr of distillate, important in
meeting production quotas in the event of unplanned plant downtime. The column
diameter found is large in comparison with column height, in practise it may be
preferable to run the distillation with two separate columns operating in parallel,
halving the maximum vapour velocity in each column. Economically this is
undesirable due to the greater capital cost of two columns as opposed to
fabrication and installation of one column. Operating costs would also be
increased, not least due to effects such as increased steam requirements due to
the heat loss from the large surface area of the two columns combined.
72
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
xf
Mass fraction of
ethanol in feed
113.10
0.15
0.9
88
445
D (te/h)
B (te/h)
L (te/h)
V (te/h)
CpF
CpD
CpB
Distillate flow
rate
xd
xb
Bottoms flow
Reflux flow rate Vapour flow rate
rate
18.85
94.25
113.10
131.95
QC (kW)
QB (kW)
dTcooling (C)
Fs (te/h)
Condenser
heat load
Reboiler heat
load
36356
45438
Tf (C)
Temperature
of feed
Fw (te/h)
Condenser
Reflux Ratio cooling water
flow rate
2.632
4.18
Condenser
Reboiler steam
cooling water
requirement
temp rise
saturated p=4 bar
70
77
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
this small difference in terms of the column mass balance is significant in terms of
energy consumption.
As stated in section 5.4 the bottoms stream can be used to preheat the feed stream
to its saturation temperature of 88C. This achieved with a counter-flow shell and
tube heat exchanger with the feed stream tube side and bottoms stream shell side.
The feed stream enters the exchanger at 20C and exits at 88C. Bottoms is cooled
from 100C to 23.5C (Appendix 14). The investment in this heat exchanger is
offset by the large amount of heat recovery achieved and the overall efficiency
improvement of the column as a whole.
Another questionable assumption made in the heat balance (both the hand
calculation and Aspen) is that there is no heat loss from the column i.e. it is
perfectly insulated. In reality there would be heat loss from the column, although
this can be minimised through proper insulation. The column itself and the reboiler
should be well insulated, the condenser should also be insulated as although this
increases the heat removal requirement the result is a net increase in heat
recovery from the process with associated improvements in efficiency.
The distillation column is a critical rate-limiting step in the overall ethanol process,
as the distillate flowrate directly determines the plant output. The biggest threat
to column operation is presented by failure of the feed or reflux pumps, without
either of these pumps the column cannot function. Due to the reliance of the
whole process on these pumps two of each type will be installed (one primary and
one backup), with control set to automatically bring the backup online in the event
of a pump failure. Having backup pumps also allows routine maintenance (pump
overhauls) to be carried out whilst production is running, minimising plant
downtime. Hence the increased capital investment for the extra pumps is offset
through gains in plant reliability.
Safe column operating procedures, especially for start up and shut down, must
exist to ensure personnel are at minimum risk and to provide reliable continuous
production. In the event of an emergency shut down the column may be left with a
water-ethanol vapour mixture inside. As the column cools and the vapour mixture
condenses a vacuum could form in the column, this is potentially dangerous as the
column is not a pressure vessel and hence the stresses developed in the column
walls by a vacuum could cause buckling and collapse. To prevent the occurrence of
this failure a vacuum release valve will be fitted to the column, this valve lifts
when a preset difference in pressure between atmospheric and internal column
pressure is detected. Another point to note is that in breaking the vacuum the
column should be filled with an inert, such as nitrogen, not air to reduce the
possibility of ignition of the flammable ethanol-water mixture present.
5.9 - Economics
In order for a complete economic analysis of the whole bio-ethanol plant to be
executed it is necessary to estimate the capital expenditure required to
manufacture and install the major plant items on site and also estimate the energy
74
Chapter 05 J. Winterburn
consumption to establish operating costs. For the distillation part of the separation
process the capital-intensive items are the column (including reboiler and
condenser) and column internals, feed and reflux pumps and the heat exchanger
for feed preheating.
The capital required for these plant items is estimated below, 5% of the cost of
manufacture has been added for the cost of installation on site.
Column 1 off
250,000
Pumps 4 off @ 6500 = 35,000
Heat Exchanger
25,000
Installation
310,000
Total
325,500
The significant energy usage of the distillation process is the large quantity of
steam needed to heat liquid in the reboiler. Feed and reflux pumps will consume
electricity and the column control valves will require plant compressed air for
automatic actuators. Utility requirements are estimated below.
Steam
64 te/hr @ 4 bar and saturation temperature (from heat balance)
Electricity 200kW
75
65
76
Therefore, when a mixture of 95% ethanol and benzene is distilled, the above
tenary azeotrope distils first, followed by the binary azeotrope, and the final
fraction (boiling point 78.3C) is absolute alcohol.
Distillation here will occur via a distillation column.
Distillation has the
69
definition , it is a chemical separations process involving vaporization and
condensation that is used to separate components of varying vapour pressures
(volatilities) in a liquid or gas stream.
Simple distillation involves a single stage operation in which heat is applied to a
liquid mixture in a still, causing a portion of the liquid to vaporize. These vapours
are subsequently cooled and condensed producing a liquid product called distillate
or overhead product. The distillate is enriched with the higher volatility
components. Conversely, the mixture remaining in the still is enriched with the less
volatile components. This mixture is called the bottoms product. Multiple staging is
utilized in most commercial distillation operations to obtain better separation of
organic components than is possible in a single evaporation and condensation
stage.
6.1.2 - Dehydration using Glycerine70
To adopt this method involves using the Mariller-Granger Processes. The summary
of the procedure is that alcoholic vapours pass through pure glycerine yield 99.2%
alcohol directly, and by adding potassium carbonate to the glycerine is sufficient to
obtain 99.8%. The glycerine and that salt that it holds in solution are regenerated
and returned to the circuit.
There are three possible methods by which dehydration by glycerine can occur, and
the method finally chosen depends on which is more appropriate to design brief
requirements.
6.1.2.1- Continuous Rectifier Case
70
http://www.frtr.gov/matrix2/section4/4_54.html
E. Boullanger: Distillerie Agricole et Industrielle (Paris: Ballire, 1924)
77
By reading the literature, it can be determined exactly how the liquid travels
through the above apparatus. However some key points to note about this
dehydration method is that, with this method 96.5% alcohol is received. To obtain
alcohol at 99.8-100% with glycerine with dehydrating salts added, it is vital to
complete the total dehydration of the product, and operation, which can only be
accomplished under vacuum to avoid any degradation of the absorbent. This can
be interpreted as that if this method was chosen it would be difficult to get the
concentration of alcohol that is desired.
6.1.2.2: Continuous direct rectifier case
78
This process happens over a twenty-four hour period, and cannot stand on its own,
because it only completes part of the dehydration. For further information on this
process the literature should be read.
6.1.3 - Dehydration using Pervaporation Techniques
A definition of the process is provided by Yeom et al., (1996) and Chang et al.,
(1998), pervaporation is a membrane process used for the separation of liquid
mixtures by means of partial vaporization across a permselective membrane. The
permeate is then obtained as a liquid by condensation. The driving force for
permeation is established by maintaining a difference in partial pressure of the
permeate across the membrane. This is accomplished in vacuum pervaporation by
lowering the total pressure on the downstream side of the membrane.
The separation process is mainly due to the polarity difference and not on the
volatility difference of the components in the feed. There are three different
types of pervaporation processes.
6.1.3.1: Batch Pervaporation71
71
79
80
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Need to design lots of separate
components, that is there are lots of
boilers, coolers, distillation columns,
etc. Therefore this will take up more
plant space, and the more calculations
involved the more likely it is that
something will be miscalculated.
72
73
81
Disadvantages
6.2.4 - Conclusions
It can be noted from these advantages and disadvantages that the most suitable
method to use for dehydration for the purpose of this plant, is pervaporation. The
reasons for this can be summarised below.
By using the continuous pervaporation system, firstly the criteria of working with
large capacities of feed is fulfilled. Secondly, the system works best with low
impurities in the feed, since after distillation the feed will probably be only
ethanol and water since all the glucose and fructose will be removed. And thirdly,
the literature suggests that little energy is consumed with this method, which helps
the overall economics of the project.
82
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
Heat Exchanger
Condenser
83
Molecular Weight:
Solvent resistance
Tensile strength
Water resistance
Adhesive strength
Viscosity
Surface activity
Emulsifying / dispersing power
Degree of hydrolysis:
Solvent resistance
Tensile strength
Water resistance
Adhesion to hydrophilic surfaces
Viscosity
www.erkol.com/eng/characteristics.htm
84
molecular weight. However by doing commercial research, it has been found that
a number of people stock membranes called poly-vinyl alcohol (PVA), so for the
purpose of the project, this membrane just needs to be bought in the quantities
required, which is the next step of the design process.
6.3.2 - Pervaporation Unit design
Pervaporation is a process that is based on the separation principle. The
membranes are often made of polymers and they are used for this purpose for two
reasons, as suggested by G.H. Koops and C.A. Smolders.
Firstly, membranes separate a mixture because of a difference in size of the two
components. These membranes show only good selectivity for mixtures with
dissimilar steric factors. Components with large steric factors diffuse less quickly.
Secondly, membranes discriminate between components because of an interaction
between one of the separating components and the membrane taking place during
diffusion, such as seen with ion-exchange and hydrophilic membranes.
R.Y.M. Huang made the observation that the more permeable and selective the
membrane, the greater the production capacity of the device.
Pervaporation is summarised by R.Y.M. Huang as, vaporization of the permeate at
the downstream surface of the membrane causes localized cooling which induces a
temperature gradient within the thickness of the barrier.
Therefore, the
temperature of the flowing retenate also decreases as it proceeds along the
module and in the steady-state regime, a definite temperature-profile is
established between the two opposite ends of the pervaporator.
For the purposes of this project, continuous flow pervaporation will be considered.
And this can be shown by the following diagram.
P
Q0
co, To
Q + dQ
c, T
c + dc
z
dQ, dc < 0
z+
dz
Qt
ct, To - T
T > 0
Area of Membrane
Separation Factor
Permeation Rate
Operational Temperature
Operational Pressure
The first step in the design procedure was to do a mass balance of flow rates by
mass of the pervaporation module. In the dehydration section:
y = 1885.1 33.980
= 1851.102 kg/hr
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
z = 17 000 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.9982z = 16, 965.9
kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.002z = 0.002 x 17
000
= 33.998 kg/hr
The team decided that a second pervaporation module would also be included
between the fermentation part of the process and the distillation. The reason for
this is because the extra amount of removal of liquid, would greatly improve the
efficiency of the distillation process. A similar mass balance to the above was done
for this pervaporation module, so that the flow rates could be included on the
overall flow sheet of the process. However because of time constraints, it was
decided that this pervaporation module would not be designed to great lengths.
86
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
x = 4.4 x 10 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.05x = 0.05 x 4.4 x 106
= 2.2 x 105 kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.95x = 0.95 x 4.4 x 106
= 4.18 x 106 kg/hr
Qi
At
(eq 6.1)
Considering the pervaporation module after the distillation section, the liquid in
the system has the following composition, 90% of it is ethanol and 10% of it is
water. Therefore, putting this on the graph in fig 6. 12,
Fig 6.13: Calculating the flux of water when it has a 10% concentration
Therefore it can be said that the flux of water is 1.4 kg/hr m2. It would be sensible
to introduce a safety factor here, instead of calling it a safety factor, it should be
called the actual conversion factor. Koops and Smolders suggested in their article
that a suitable conversion factor would be 98%. Therefore the flux of water J =
1.372 kg/hr m2. But to use this value in equation 6. , the value needs to be
converted to moles.
Flux of Water = Mass
Molar Mass
= 1.372
2 x 1 + 18
= 0.0686 mol/ hr m2
The next variable to calculate for equation 6.1, is Qi which is the mass flow rate
into the pervaporation module, but it needs to be in moles.
Qi = 1885.1
2(1) + 18
= 94.255 mol hr-1
Substituting these values into equation 6.1, will give the area of the membrane
needed.
Q
A= i
Jit
= 94.255
0.0686
= 1373. 979592
= 1375 m2
6.3.2.2: Separation Factor
The next characteristic value about a pervaporation module is its separation factor.
The separation factor is denoted by the Greek letter alpha, .
88
Ethanol
=
=
p
c water
ethanol
0 .1
0.9 = 55.4
0 .2
99.8
Pervaporation
Module 2
95%
95%
Pervaporation
Module 3
97%
97%
99.8%
Fig 6.14: Design suggestion for the dehydration process. There are three
pervaporation modules with two heat exchangers in between.
The next step of the design process is to work out the characteristics of each of the
above pervaporation modules, by adopting a similar approach as above. The
lengths of each module will now be specified.
89
x = 18,851 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.9x = 0.9 x 18 851
= 16 965.9 kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.1x = 0.1 x 18 851
= 1885.1 kg/hr
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
z = 17858.8421 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.95z = 16965.9 kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.05z = 0.05 x
17585.8421
= 892.9421 kg/hr
228320
0.9 x3400
= 74.6143
= 74.6C
T =
3.2m
29 tubes
3.3m
30 tubes
Fig 6.17 Schematic drawing of pervaporation module 1
6.3.3.2: Pervaporation Module 2
y = 892.942- 524.718
= 368.2236 kg/hr
x = 17858.842 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.95x = 0.95 x 17858.84
= 16965.9 kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.05x = 0.05 x 17858.84
= 892.942 kg/hr
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
z = 17490.618 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.97z = 16965.9 kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.03z = 0.03 x
17490.618
= 524.7186 kg/hr
Fig 6.18 Mass balance of the second pervaporation module in the dehydration
section
Need to calculate the permeation rate from fig 6.12. The graph would now look
like since the concentration of water is now 5%.
From the graph it can be seen that the permeation rate is 0.58 kg/hr m2.
Permeation rate = J = 0.568 kg/hr m2 (assuming 98% conversion)
= 0.02842 mol/hr m2
Flow rate of water into pervaporation module = Qi/t = 892.942 kg/hr
= 44.6447 mol/hr
92
1571
1.57079
= 1000
Number of tubes =
For this pervaporation module, the total number of tubes needed is 1000. finding
the nearest square root, gives that there should be 31 tubes across and 33 tubes
height wise.
Therefore, with this piece of information we can work out the total length, width
wise and height wise.
Total width of pervaporation module = 31 x 0.11 + 32 x 0.001
= 3.442 = 3.4m
Total height of pervaporation module = 33 x 0.11 + 34 x 0.001
= 3.7m
The figure shows the overall design of the unit:
93
3.7m
33 tubes
5m
3.4m
31 tubes
Fig 6.19 Schematic drawing of pervaporation module 2
x = 17490.618 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.97x = 0.97 x 17490.61
= 16965.9 kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.03x = 0.03 x 17490.61
= 524.7186 kg/hr
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
z = 16999.899 kg/hr
Ethanol Flow rate =
0.998z = 16965.9
kg/hr
Water Flow rate =
0.002z = 0.002 x
16999.899
= 33.9998 kg/hr
Heat required to evaporate water at 90C = mole weight of water x latent heat of
water
= 0.03 x 2283.2
= 68.496 kJ kg-1
Heat dissipated by ethanol = mole weight of ethanol x specific heat capacity x T
68496
T =
0.97 x3400
= 20.7689
= 20.8C
Therefore, the temperature drop across the pervaporation module is = 90 20.8
= 69.2C
Make a design decision that the length of the pervaporation module should be 5m.
By Bernoullis equation the pressure drop across a single tube of membrane will be
0.155 bar, which any ordinary pump can handle.
Length of membrane tube = 5m
Diameter of membrane tube = 0.1m
SA of one tube = 2rh
= 2 x x 0.05 x 5
= 1.57079
= 1.6m2
1675
1.57079
= 1066.3424
= 1065 tubes
For this pervaporation module, the total number of tubes needed is 1065. finding
the nearest square root, gives that there should be 33 tubes across and 32 tubes
height wise.
Number of tubes =
Therefore, with this piece of information we can work out the total length, width
wise and height wise.
Total width of pervaporation module = 33 x 0.11 + 34 x 0.001
= 3.7m
Total height of pervaporation module = 32 x 0.11 + 33 x 0.001
= 3.6m
95
3.6m
32 tubes
5m
3.7m
33 tubes
Fig 6.21: Schematic drawing of pervaporation module 3
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
Heat Exchanger
Condenser
Q
cT
1157 x 103
(126.09 105) x 2.147
= 25.57 kg s-1
96
As a first estimate, assume that the overall heat transfer coefficient is 200W/m2
C.
With this value, the number of tubes can be determined, which is 280. As the shell
side fluid is relatively clean, use 1.25 triangular pitch.
Bundle diameter = 482 mm
Shell diameter = 540mm
Then by calculating the tube side coefficient and shell side coefficients it can be
seen that the original estimate for the overall heat transfer coefficient was
correct.
Therefore, summary of the heat exchanger characteristics are:
Flow rate into and out of shell side
18851 kg/hr
Flow rate into and out of tube side
25.57 kg/s
Heating steam inlet temperature
126.09C
Heating steam outlet temperature
105C
Inlet feed temperature
25C
Outlet feed temperature
90C
Heat Transfer Area
84.84m2
Overall heat transfer coefficient
263 W/m2 C
Number of tubes (triangular pitch)
280
Pipe outer diameter
20mm
Pipe internal diameter
16mm
Length
4.83m (allowing for tube spacing)
Shell Diameter
0.54 m
Shell and tubes made from Steel
One shell pass and two tube passes
0.54m
0.27m
4.83m
0.27m
5.4m
97
PERVAPORATION
UNIT
Heat Exchanger
Condenser
S = (40 20)
(65 20)
= 0.44
98
Make the design decision that it will be a horizontal exchanger, condensation will
occur in the shell and there are four tube passes. For two shell passes, there are
four tube passes. And the correction factor for this kind of exchanger is Ft = 0.83.
Trial Area = A =
Q
UTm
642.4488 x10 3
=
900 x10.31241
= 722m2
Make a design decision, pipes will have 20mm outer diameter, 16.8mm inner
diameter and be 4.88m long and are made of steel.
Surface area of one tube = 20 x 10-3 x x 4.88
= 0.305m2
Number of tubes = Total Area
SA of one tube
= 722.1075
0.305
=2368 tubes
This is an unrealistic number of tubes, pipe dimensions should be changed. After
changing these, and iterating through the above process till a sensible answer was
reached, meant that the final values of the tube part of the condenser came out to
be;
Have the pipe outer diameter as 50mm, and its thickness = 3.2mm
Number of tubes = 942
Using a square pitch = 1.25 x 50
= 62.5mm
Tube bundle diameter = 2330mm
Number of tubes in centre row = Bundle Diameter
Pitch distance
= 38 tubes
Now calculate the characteristic values for the Shell Side.
Shell Side Coefficient = 1500 W/m2 C
Mean temperatures:
Shell side = 65 + 25
2
99
= 45 C
Tube side = 40 + 20
2
= 30 C
Tube wall temperature, Tw
(45 Tw)1500 = (45 30)900
Tw = 36 C
By looking in HLT, we can get the physical properties of water at 36C, which will
be used to determine the vapour mean temperature. But by doing an iterative
process, it was calculated that the shell side coefficient is actually, 6017 W/m2 C,
which means that the tube wall temperature is now, 42.7C.
Tube side coefficient
Adopting a similar procedure as above, this coefficient takes the value 159 W/m2
C.
All these coefficients and making intelligent guesses for the appropriate fouling
factors, the overall heat transfer coefficient can be determined for the condenser.
These values give an overall heat transfer coefficient of 138 W/m2 C.
With this more accurate value of heat transfer coefficient, the transfer area can be
recalculated, which changes the overall number of tubes needed. The number of
tubes now needed are 813 tubes, and there are 35 tubes in the centre row.
After a different set of calculations the shells internal diameter can be calculated,
and this is 2286.8311mm.
Summary of condenser characteristic values
Flow rate into condenser
17000 kg/hr
Cooling water flow rate
7.68 kg/s
Inlet feed temperature
65C
Outlet feed temperature
25C
Cooling water inlet temperature
20C
Cooling water outlet temperature
40C
Overall heat transfer coefficient
138 W/m2 C
Number of tubes
813
Number of tubes in centre row
35
Pipe outer diameter
50mm
Pipe internal diameter
46.8mm
Pipe length
4.88m
Shell internal diameter
2286.83mm
Tubes are made from steel
Shell is made from steel
There are four tube passes and two
shell passes
100
2.3m
1.15m
4.88m
1.15m
7.18m
6.6 - Costing
From Coulson and Richardsons Chemcial Engineering, a graph is provided where
the cost of heat exchangers and condensers can be estimated. The pervaporation
modules costs were estimated by considering the Kuhni company brouchures. To
combine the extra costs for installation on the plant, an extra 5% of the capital
cost has been incorporated. Also an extra factor of two was included due to the
price appreciation from since Coulson and Richardsons book was published.
Heat Exchanger before pervaporation module = 20,000
Heat Exchanger after first pervaporation module = 17,000
Heat Exchanger after second pervaporation module = 17,000
Condenser after pervaporation unit = 18,000
Pervaporation Module = 3 x 30,000
Total Capital Costs = 300,000
101
102
Chapter 06 MW & JW
103
Chapter 06 MW & JW
7.2.2 - De-gasing
This stage in the treatment process removes CO2 from the feedwater. This is
critical as if dissolved Carbon dioxide is left in feedwater it will form highly
corrosive carbonic acid that would damage the boiler.
7.2.3 - Base-Exchange
Next another form of cation exchange is used (see fig7.3), again with the use of
resin beds. Here total Ca and Mg hardness is replaced for Na hardness, this
exchanges one form of scale forming salts with different non-scale forming salts.
I.e. Mg2+ and Ca 2+ exchanged for Na+. Consequently TDS and pH are unaltered by
this process. These resin beds are regenerated on a volume flow basis, as this
process doesnt alter the total water hardness so no change in conductivity occurs.
Regeneration is achieved by backflushing with a ~10% brine solution. Again two or
more units are operated in parallel to ensure continuous operation. After base
exchange has taken place water is referred to as semi-treated.
76
From http://www.spiraxsarco.com/learn/
104
Chapter 06 MW & JW
The table in fig7.4 below outlines the chemistry occurring and the variation in pH
throughout the processes described so far.
77
From http://www.spiraxsarco.com/learn/
105
Chapter 06 MW & JW
78
http://www.purite.com/word/WaterConditioningforBoilerFeedCoolingFinal.doc
106
Chapter 06 MW & JW
Input
Steam Pressure
13
bar
Steam Temperature
260
Turbine Efficiency
70
Turbine Power
5.5
MW
Turbine Properties
Exhaust
Temperature
129.1
Exhaust Pressure
2.4
bar
(Degree Superheat
2.9
c)
Steam Consumption
Consumed
84.85 tonnes /hr
Fig7.5 Steam Requirements
79
The Turbine Steam Consumption Calculator Version 2.1 (2002) Katmar Software
107
Chapter 06 MW & JW
are three stages which are required to raise the superheated steam;
Raise the temperature of purified ambient water to ~120c [A-B on Fig7.6]
Use a steam drum system to raise saturated steam [B-C on Fig7.6]
Superheat the saturated steam [C-D on Fig7.6]
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
419.1
2184.9
2714.5
2954.3
This can be carried out in a water tube boiler, fired by natural gas which will
have an efficiency of ~85%80. Therefore the heat required must take account of the
boiler efficiency:
H = 16.36(1.15) = 18.81GJhr 1
The net heat of combustion for natural gas is 47.65 MJ/kg81, so this boiler will
require 395kg/hr of gas.
80
http://www.pge.com/biz/rebates/express_efficiency/useful_info/boiler_guide.html#topic3
108
Chapter 06 MW & JW
H = 183.53GJhr 1
H = 183.53(1.25) = 229.4GJhr 1 required to produce condensing steam (2.4bar)
In Chapter 2 it was noted that bran was produced as a waste product, and the
theoretical heat available was calculated as 258.25 GJ /hr. It was decided that
burning the bran would be an economical and environmentally friendly method of
raising steam.
81
http://www.uniongas.com/aboutus/aboutng/composition.asp
109
Chapter 06 MW & JW
H = 20.14GJhr 1
H = 20.14(1.15) = 23.16GJhr 1
Pretreatment
107,200 l/h
124.2 tonnes/h
Hydrolysis
1,524,000 l/h
1,447,200 l/h
Fermentation
293,400 l/h
169,650 l/h
Distillation
94,250 l/h
Dehydration
1,850 l/h
1,924,600 l/h
1,712,950 l/h
124.2 tonnes/h
Therefore ~212,000 l/h of new water will be required in the plant, and the steam
cycle can be topped-upwith pure water from the distillation column.
110
Chapter 06 MW & JW
2,000
De-Gasser
72,000
180,000
De-Aerator
108,000
Hotwell
240,000
Primary Boiler
250,000
500,000
1,588,000
111
Institute of Petroleum
112
This refinery has a capacity of 10.0 million tonnes per year, and its output is
represented in figure 8.2.
Output of BP Coryton Refinery
Bitumen
3%
40%
35%
LPG
2%
Percentage of Outpu
30%
Fuel Oil
17%
25%
Petrol
36%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Series1
Petrol
Diesel
36%
27%
Fuel Oil
Bitumen
LPG
17%
4%
3%
2%
Output Type
Diesel
27%
113
O u t p u t o f B P G r a n g e m o u t h R e f in e r y
LPG/petrochemical
feedstocks
12%
30%
Fuel gas/other
6%
Petrol
22%
25%
20%
15 %
Fuel Oil
15%
10 %
5%
0%
Ser e
i s1
Pet r ol
Diesel
22%
24%
Gas Oil
FuelOil
8%
15 %
Diesel
24%
Fuelgas/ ot her
12 %
Gas Oil
8%
6%
Petrochem
4%
50%
Fuel Oil
4%
45%
Percentage of Outpu
40%
LPG
2%
Coke
6%
35%
30%
Kero/jet
8%
25%
Diesel
44%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Series1
Diesel
Petrol
Kero/jet
Coke
Fuel Oil
Petrochem
LPG
44%
32%
8%
6%
4%
4%
2%
Petrol
32%
Output Type
Petrol is this refinerys second largest output (32%), which is still a large amount
and therefore this refinerys location also will have a key impact on the bio-ethanol
plants location.
8.1.4 - Esso Refinery Fawley
115
Percentage of Output
40%
30%
Diesel
30%
20%
Fuel oil & bitumen
15%
10%
0%
Ser ies1
Diesel
Petr ol
30%
25%
15%
13%
Output Type
Petrol
25%
83
Multimap.com
116
This is located south of the Mersey estuary near Ellesmere Port, Cheshire. Its
refining capacity is 12 million tonnes per year. Its product description is given in
figure 8.11.
This Pembroke refinery is located on the Pembroke coast. It has a refining capacity
of 10.5million tonnes per year.
8.1.8 - Total Milford Haven Refinery
35%
Percentage of Output
30%
Petrol
33%
25%
20%
15%
10%
Fuel Oils
14%
5%
0%
Ser ies1
Petr ol
Diesel
Fuel Oils
33%
33%
14%
10%
10%
Output type
Diesel
33%
From the above analysis it can be seen that there are seven possible locations of
the bio-ethanol plant. An economic study can be done for each of these sites to
help decide how having a plant will affect the local community.
To decide where the plant should be located the following factors will be
considered, some economic based, with each location being given a score on a
scale of one to five, where one is the worst and five is the best. The location which
has the highest score will therefore be the appropriate choice for plant location.
The first factor being considered is plant location. The plant should be located
centrally in the United Kingdom, as the product can then be transported to all the
other refineries by road or train, since the United Kingdom is a small country. The
second factor to consider is the cost of land. The land that the plant should be
built on should not be too expensive, as the plant equipment should be where the
money goes. The third factor to consider is unemployment in the area. This is
being considered because by placing the plant in a certain location which has a
high unemployment rate, the local economics will be helped because more people
will be employed. The fourth factor to consider is the economic activity of the site
location. If the plant is built, people will want other facilities as they will have
more disposable income. Therefore it is important to consider a location that has
these features or one where it would help the area if these facilities were built.
This is in particular reference to shopping facilities, restaurants, etc. Also if the
area already has a certain substantial amount of development that means a good
infrastructure will exist in the area. And the final factor is the qualifications of the
potential workforce. This factor needs to be considered because it needs to be
determined the type of people that need to work in the plant. It will be
predominantly operators, which will need to be trained by plant engineers,
therefore it would be preferred if the residents of the location had a certain
minimal degree of qualifications. It can be assumed that the head engineers of the
plant will come from other locations or will commute.
These factors were drawn into a table and a graph was plotted of the results to
make the decision more obvious.
Fig 8.15 Decision Table for Location of plant
Site
Essex
Milford
Haven
Ellesmere
Port
Killingholme
Southampton
Cost
Economic Level of
of
Location Land Unemployment Activity
Qualifications Total
1
2
2
5
10
4
14
3
4
3
4
5
3
1
5
4
3
5
4
11
19
14
119
20
18
16
14
Score
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Essex
Milford Haven
Ellesmere Port
Killingholme
Southampton
Possible Sites
Fig 8.16 Graph showing the results of the Decision table for plant location
From Fig 8.16 it can be seen that Killingholme is the best location for the plant,
since it scored the highest mark of 19. Another good reason for locating the plant
in Killingholme is that there are actually two refineries there, which will mean the
risk of producing the ethanol is spread, since we are not only targeting one
company.
http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/sal/stakeholder.asp
120
6. Shareholders
7. Suppliers
8. The Press
9. Lenders (those financing the project)
10. Prospective customers (Global companies)
11. Greenpeace
12. Local Councils
Building the plant in a slightly run down area will open up new amounts of
potential financing. For example if the plnat was built in Cardiff Bay, a subsidy or
grant could be obtained from The Welsh Development Agency.
121
9.1 - Assumptions
For this analysis I have made some assumptions :
12 year minimum life-span of product (and therefore plant)
Inflation-free economy
Assuming construction completed in 2 years, from purchase of land
Assuming capital cost spread evenly over both years of construction
122
Chapter 09 M. Wallace
Many factor values are suggested87,88, so we will use the following combination:
Main Plant Item
Erection
Civils
Instrumentation & Electrical
Piping
Winterisation & Lagging
Ancilleries
Other Work
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1.00
0.40
0.20
0.60
0.70
0.05
0.60
0.15
TOTAL = 3.70 = T
Which provides a total factor which is similar to the Lang factor (3.63), the basic
cost of each section should now be multiplied by this factor:
Estimated
MPI
Basic Cost'
Total Cost
#1: Pre-processing
1,588,000
3.7
5,875,600
#2: Hydrolysis
2,500,000
3.7
9,250,000
#3: Fermentation
1,100,000
3.7
4,070,000
#4: Distillation
325,000
3.7
1,202,500
#5: Dehydration
254,000
3.7
939,800
1,588,000
3.7
5,875,600
MPI =
27,213,500
It is now necessary to add on an extra 33% to account for the utilities, amenities,
control room and site security, an extra 25% for design charges and fees and an
extra 25% as a contingency measure, to account for any omissions etc.
Therefore an extra 83% must be added to the MPI value;
MPI + extras = 49,800,705
9.2.3 - Capital cost Estimation
To estimate the cost of this plant two different methods have been used, similar
plant and MPI, which have given costs of 46.6million and 49.8million
respectively. Both methods have disadvantages, but there is some error introduced
in the MPI analysis due to inaccurate costing of these large items. Without access
to suppliers to obtain accurate and up to date estimates this method is difficult to
87
Chemical Engineering Design Project: A Case Study Approach; Production of Phthalic Anhydride,
M Ray et Al, ISBN 9056991361
88
Plant Design & Economics for Chemical Engineers (5th Ed); Max S Peters Et Al; ISBN 0072392665
123
Chapter 09 M. Wallace
use but the large factors used, account for these inaccuracies well. We must now
combine the estimates to obtain an approximate cost.
The similar plant estimate is likely to be lower than the actual cost since it is
simply a scaled up value obtained from a smaller plant so it is not sufficient to
meet half way between both values. Therefore we will bias towards the higher,
MPI estimate by 2/3;
Capital cost estimate = 48.7million
Finally it is necessary to include the cost of 2 weeks worth of product, which will
be produced and stored in case of a large scale breakdown, 8.6million.
Therefore total Capital Cost Estimate = 57.3million
124
Chapter 09 M. Wallace
Fuel
Water
Labour
# Staff
Tax
Tax (bio)
Petrol
( / te)
( / kWh)
( / l)
( / h)
(#)
(%)
( / l)
( / l)
104.7
0.024
0.001
15
150
30
0.2835
0.4305
Fuel
Water
Labour
# Staff
Tax
Tax (bio)
Petrol
( / te)
( / kWh)
( / l)
( / h)
(#)
(%)
( / l)
( / l)
56.8
0.0068
0.0005
70
30
0.2835
0.4305
cost:
Feedstock
Fuel
Water
Labour (3 x minimum wage)
Fuel
Water
Labour
# Staff
Tax
Tax (bio)
Petrol
( / te)
( / kWh)
( / l)
( / h)
(#)
(%)
( / l)
( / l)
65.8
0.0086
0.00075
10
105
30
0.2835
0.4305
125
Chapter 09 M. Wallace
Fuel
Water
Labour
# Staff
Tax
Tax (bio)
Petrol
( / te)
( / kWh)
( / l)
( / h)
(#)
(%)
( / l)
( / l)
65.8
0.024
0.00075
10
105
30
0.2835
0.452
Fuel
Water
Labour
# Staff
Tax
Tax (bio)
Petrol
( / te)
( / kWh)
( / l)
( / h)
(#)
(%)
( / l)
( / l)
65.8
0.0068
0.00075
10
105
30
0.2835
0.409
Fuel
Water
Labour
# Staff
Tax
Tax (bio)
Petrol
( / te)
( / kWh)
( / l)
( / h)
(#)
(%)
( / l)
( / l)
65.8
0.0086
0.00075
10
105
30
0.4835
0.4305
Fuel
Water
Labour
# Staff
Tax
Tax (bio)
Petrol
( / te)
( / kWh)
( / l)
( / h)
(#)
(%)
( / l)
( / l)
65.8
0.0086
0.00075
10
105
30
0.4835
0.4305
126
Chapter 09 M. Wallace
Each of these scenarios was tested in the Profit & Loss spreadsheet (see Appendix
15) and the following results were obtained.
Scenario
Product Price
5% mix Pump
Price
Pre-div Profit
Dividend
Profit Reserves
(#)
( / litre)
( / litre)
()
(%)
()
0.500
0.907
4,639,424
25%
3,479,568
0.300
0.897
6,337,502
25%
4,753,127
0.430
0.904
16,173,351
25%
12,130,013
0.360
0.921
4,410,384
25%
3,307,788
0.340
0.879
6,380,062
25%
4,785,047
0.350
0.910
7,073,351
25%
5,305,013
0.450
0.898
18,448,351
25%
13,836,263
150,000,000
100,000,000
Plant startup
50,000,000
0
0
10
11
12
-50,000,000
Non-Discounted
127
Chapter 09 M. Wallace
Based upon a discounting model, for scenario three, the plant will have paid itself
off within 5 years of project initiation, and after 12 years (expected plant lifetime)
have a Net Present Worth of 51.5million.
9.5 - Conclusions
In conclusion, this proposal can be seen to be financially viable, even when
impacted by various external factors such as high oil and gas prices and high labour
costs. It would also be able to remain profitable if the government removed its
current 20p per litre subsidy from bio-ethanol.
Cash-flow analysis has shown that this plant, under average conditions, could have
a Net Present Worth of 51.5million after 12 years. This is close to the capital
required for a new plant.
128
The above diagram shows the anticipated effects of the plant on each of the
labelled issues. The points furthest from the centre are more harmful than those
near the centre.
89
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
129
Chapter 10 MB & WT
comment
Likely to oppose such a plant
Likely to be for the project if it
increases their income
Depends on how close it is to election
time
For
For
Likely to be for the plant
May well be opposed
Likely to be for the plant
For the project
For the project
Could be a crucial ally
The aim of such a stakeholder analysis is to use the results to decide what can be
changed about the design in order to overcome local residents concerns without
incurring unreasonable economic costs. A survey of local residents attitudes is one
effective method for identifying their key concerns. However it is important that
the survey isnt negative but starts with an upbeat attitude about how climate
change can be avoided and that they could be proud of having such a plant in their
area. The aim of a survey is two fold. It serves as an opportunity to gain support
whilst at the same time providing the opportunity to find out improvements to
design. One such example may be that local residents are concerned about
increased traffic through their village so re-routing the traffic around the village
may be a solution even it is not the shortest route.
A large supermarket chain would be a key ally in promoting bio-ethanol. Such a
large business would have the resources to advertise bio-ethanol production in a
very positive light whilst they would have the kudos of supplying a renewable form
130
Chapter 10 MB & WT
of energy at their pumps. If some of the bio-ethanol fuel mix supplied the
surrounding area, then this too may help gain support of local residents.
Other issues that may be raised are that the crops used are GM or that the
biodiversity of the area will be spoilt. The National Farmers Union would be a key
ally along with some NGOs (Non-Governmental Organisations) to help remedy these
fears. Perhaps the issue of housing may be raised. It is a well-known fact that
rural housing is expensive and in high demand, causing problems for locals. Maybe
some housing could be developed for workers or some kind of interest free
mortgage made available. A budget for local sustainable projects could be made
available and a visitor centre created for people to learn about bio-ethanol and its
production.
Deliveries to and from the plant can be scheduled to cause minimal disruption and
traffic congestion.
A bio-ethanol plant will require full time staff, creating jobs in a rural area at a
time when rural employment is at a low. With new jobs comes new training.
Rather than importing a skilled work force, the first option should be training
locals. Local farmers will have the opportunity to earn extra income from their
set-aside land and shops and businesses in the area will benefit from the extra
prosperity a concentrated workforce brings. The local council will benefit from an
increase in revenue, which in turn will benefit the community.
Generally, public attitude towards green forms of energy is favourable. Even
better if a sense of pride can be instilled into local people about being a part of a
promising alternative to fossil fuels.
It should be mentioned that a full life cycle analysis would provide a formal and
perhaps more thorough analysis on sustainability.
131
Chapter 10 MB & WT
may become more economically viable avoiding the planned cuts in these services
by the government91.
The inevitable tax breaks will dent government revenues but this is necessary to
stimulate growth of new technologies. However as more and more research is
carried out and more bio-ethanol plants come online, the cost will decrease and
the need for tax relief will decrease. Perhaps some form of capping should be put
in place. Also as the cost of oil increases, as is the general trend, bio-ethanol
production will become more economically viable on its own.
91
132
Chapter 10 MB & WT
Chapter 10 MB & WT
For bio-ethanol to be a useful transportation fuel it must have a positive net energy
balance (the amount of energy needed to produce the fuel must be less than the
energy released when the fuel is burnt). Many studies into the net energy balance
of bio-ethanol arrive at different conclusions from drawing different system
boundaries.
The total energy requirement of the plant boilers was estimated in chapter 6 as
being 300.22GJ/hr. The boilers provide the heat needed to generate all the steam
and electricity used by the plant and so this energy requirement can be taken as
the plants total energy use. Estimating all other energy requirements (from
transportation and farm vehicles) in the production of bio-ethanol as 10% of the
plants energy requirement, the energy needed to produce one kilogram of bioethanol can be found.
1.1 (300.22 10 9 )
Ethanol production energy requirement =
= 19.00MJ/kg
22000 0.79
The calorific value of ethanol is 30MJ/kg92, and so the fuel has a net positive
energy balance.
Furthermore, for bio-ethanol to have an environmental advantage over fossil fuels,
the net amount of carbon dioxide liberated from the production and combustion of
the fuel should be significantly less than that for the petrol which it will replace.
Although the production process is not carbon neutral, resulting from the use of
fossil fuels in the plant boilers, large amounts of carbon dioxide will be absorbed
by the growing feedstock. This will result in lower net carbon dioxide emissions per
unit energy than petrol.
Contributions to carbon dioxide emissions (see appendix for calculations):
Assuming petrol to have a chemical formula of C8H18, complete combustion
of one litre results in 2.276kg of carbon dioxide. In comparison, the
complete combustion of one litre of ethanol results in only 1.511kg of
carbon dioxide although ethanol has a lower gross calorific value than petrol
(30MJ/kg and 45MJ/kg respectively93).
92
93
The plant requires 49165 kg/hr of starch and the amount of carbon dioxide
absorbed by growing wheat to produce this starch is 3.642kg per litre of
ethanol.
The plant boilers require 881kg/hr of natural gas. Assuming natural gas is
composed mainly of methane, this gives a boiler carbon dioxide emission of
2500kg/hr or approximately 0.114kg of carbon dioxide per litre of ethanol.
http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/chemistry/3_11/3_11_4.html
http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/chemistry/3_11/3_11_4.html
134
Chapter 10 MB & WT
By estimating the number of trucks needed to bring wheat to the plant, the
distance they have to travel and the fuel economy, the amount of carbon
dioxide they produce is estimated at 0.213 kg per litre of ethanol. The same
amount again will be assumed for the contribution from farming and plant
vehicles giving a total of 0.426kg of carbon dioxide per litre of ethanol.
CO2 Source
Wheat Growth
Plant Boilers
Fermentation
By-products
Production Vehicles
Combustion
Total Emissions
Air Quality
There are several advantages to the use of bio-ethanol over petrol. The oxygen
content of the fuel results in more complete combustion, significantly reducing
vehicle exhaust emissions that contribute to smog, such as carbon monoxide and
particulates94 as well as reducing sulphur dioxide emissions. Ethanol is also an
octane enhancer, eliminating the need for harmful additives such as benzene.
However, carbon monoxide tailpipe emissions are not a significant issue in the UK
as all new cars have catalytic converters which deal with this95. Studies have also
shown that bio-ethanol blends have little effect on NOx emissions96 and could
increase emissions of volatile organic compounds under some conditions. Overall,
the use of bio-ethanol should have a positive effect on air quality.
Water
Large amounts of water are needed by the production plant to provide steam and
for the hydrolysis and fermentation processes. To minimise the environmental
impact of this water requirement, as much of the water used as possible should be
recycled within the plant. Once the plant has been established, it may be possible
to reduce the amount of water used in particular processes. Any water discharged
must first be treated to meet legislation and minimise any environmental impact.
94
95
96
http://www.greenfuels.org/ethanol/envbenefits.htm
http://www.defra.gov.uk/ENVIRONMENT/consult/greenfuel/response/03.htm
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/forum/meetings/100904/pdf/aqf14-04.pdf
135
Chapter 10 MB & WT
Feed Stock
The wheat used by the bio-ethanol plant would otherwise be used for food.
However, the wheat used will be grown on set-aside land in addition to existing
wheat crops and so will not affect existing consumers of the product. Not all of the
crop will be used to produce starch and some of the waste material will be used as
a fuel for the plant boilers. However, some of the waste should be ploughed back
into the land to reduce soil erosion and the need for fertilisers. The farming needs
to be carefully managed to minimise potential environmental damage such as
eutrophication from fertilisers and effects of agriculture on wildlife.
136
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) should exist for every chemical used on
site and operators should be aware of the information. For example Boiler
house energy controllers should be aware of the dangers presented by the
various water treatment chemicals used, ranging from brine to sulphuric
acid.
Correct PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) should be worn at all times,
initiatives should be in place to inform workers of requirements, this can be
as simple as signposting mandatory high-visibility areas.
All chemical storage tanks should be properly bunded to prevent loss of
containment from occurring and putting employees and the environment at
risk.
Ethanol Storage tanks should be positioned away from main plant items and
sufficiently spaced to minimise the risk fire spreading.
11.3 - HAZOP
A HAZOP or hazard and operability study provides a framework for assessing a
whole production plant one major plant item at a time. This allows for potential
hazards arising from operation that has deviated from design point to be found and
a plant profile created. The study can improve not only safety but also operational
productivity, carrying out HAZOP at the design stage allows potential hazards to be
rectified before construction has begun, reducing capital investment.
97
Item 2(1) from the Health and Safety at work act 1974.
137
Chapter 11 J Winterburn
Fig-11.1
Figure 11.1 shows a schematic of the distillation column showing flows and pumps,
a HAZOP analysis has been conducted for this plant item using the guide words
MORE, LESS and NO, two potential hazards have been identified under each
keyword. Similar analysis is appreciable to the other main processes, hydrolysis,
fermentation, pervaperation and steam generation. Figure 11.2 shows the full
HAZOP analysis.
Deviation
Cause
MORE-steam to reboiler
Valve or control system failure
Deviation
Cause
MORE-distillate flow
Control system failure, increased demand
Increased condenser heat load, not all
Hazards
Hazards
Column overheating
Deviation
LESS-steam to reboiler
Deviation
LESS-reflux
Cause
Cause
Hazards
Hazards
Deviation
NO-feed to Column
Deviation
NO-bottoms flow
Cause
Pump failure
Reboiler overheating
Cause
Pump failure
139
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Wheat: Chemistry & Utilisation, Technomic Publishing Company, H.j. Cornell &
A.W. Hoveling, ISBN 1566763487
Wheat: Production, Properties and Quality, Chapman & Hall 1994, ISBN
0751401811
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Centrifugation Basics http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/centrifugation.html
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Hopper Design notes, George G Chase, University of Akron
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Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering; McGraw Hill; McCabe, Smith, Harriott;
ISBN 0071181733
http://www.shieldscompany.com/products/bullet.asp - Accessed 17-02-06
PRA4 Spec. sheet available at
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Eureka Brochure available at http://www.showes.com/product_pdfs/S.
Howes Eureka Scourer Brochure.pdf
Hydrator brochure available at http://www.satake.co.uk/pdf/Hydrator.pdf
http://www.ums.dk/Index.html Accessed 17-02-06
Simplify Production with the patented UMS Discmill System [pdf] Available at
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Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology Karen Kulp Marcel Dekker, 2000
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http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/starch.html
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/glucose.html
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/reactors.html
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http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/reactors.html
BRENDA Enzyme Database - http://www.brenda.uni-koeln.de
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Chapter 4 (MB)
Uhl and Gray Mixing: theory and practice vol. 1
Uhl and Gray Mixing: theory and practice vol. 2
Heat Transfer; Alan J Chapman
Heat Transfer; J. P. Holman
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McCabe, W. Smith, J. Harriott, P. (2001) Unit Operations of Chemical
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Holman, J. (1990) Heat Transfer, (Seventh Edition): McGraw-Hill.
Perry, R. Green, D. (1984) Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, (Sixth
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Coulson, J. Richardson, J. (1991) Chemical Engineering Vol2- Particle
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Articles or Books
Title
E. Boullanger
G.H. Koops and C.A.
Smolders
Hartmut Bruschke
Coulson & Richardsons
Chemical Engineering
Volume 6
Author
Distillerie Agricole et
Industrielle
Pervaportaion in
Biotechnology
Industrial Application of
membrane separation
processes
Coluson and Richardsan
Publisher
Balliere (Paris), 1924
Elsevier (1991)
1995
Websites
Wikipedia
http://www.ucc.ie/ucc/depts/chem
http://www.frtr.gov/matrix/section4/4_54.html
US department of Health Website
www.erkol.com/eng/characteristics.htm
Multimap.com
Petroleum Industry
Brochures
Kuhni (Swiss based pervaporation module construction company)
Azeo-Sep
Used for Research:
Articles or Books
Title
Global potential bioethanol production
from wasted crops and
crop residues
Drastic improvement of
bio-ethanol recovery
using a pervaporation
separation technique
employing a silicone
rubber-coated silicate
membrane
Author
Sevngdo Kim, Bruce E.
Dale
Publisher
Biomass and Bioenergy
(Elsevier (2003))
Toru Ikegami,
Dolkitamoto
Journal of Chemical
technology and
Biotechnology (Feb
2003)
143
Bibliography
Recent Progress in
pervaporation
membranes for water
or ethanol separation
Elsevier (1991)
Websites:
http://www.emab.biocentrum.dtu.dk/English/Research/Research3.aspx
www.wri.org/wr-98-99/autos2.htm
BBC news
National Statistics Online
Chapter 7 (MW)
The Turbine Steam Consumption Calculator Version 2.1 (2002) Katmar
Software (available online at http://www.katmarsoftware.com/turbine.htm)
http://www3.toshiba.co.jp/power/english/thermal/products/turbines/ind2.ht
m
U.S. Dept of Energy; Energy Tips Steam booklet, Jan 2006-04-23
Siemens Steam Turbines; SST-700 steam turbine for economical production of
heat and power booklet, 2005
Thermodynamics lecture notes Dr P.D. McFadden (Oxford) HT 2005
Chapter 9 (MW)
Biz/ed Gas Prices Report All Gas and Profits? (available online at
http://www.bized.ac.uk/current/mind/2005_6/200306.htm)
UK Offshore Operators Association, Economic Report 2005 (available online at
http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/issues/economic/econ05/index.htm)
HM Revenue & Customs HYDROCARBON OILS: DUTY RATES 22 March 2006
What Price?- Petrol Prices (available online at
http://www.whatprice.co.uk/car/petrol-prices.php)
Chemical Engineering Design Project: A Case Study Approach; Production of
Phthalic Anhydride, M Ray et Al, ISBN 9056991361
Plant Design & Economics for Chemical Engineers (5th Ed); Max S Peters Et Al;
ISBN 0072392665
144
Bibliography
Chapter 11 (JW)
Kletz. (1992) Hazop and Hazan, IChemE
A7 Safety and risk notes
http://www.hse.gov.uk/
145
Substance
Molecular
Boiling Melting Point Density
(C)
(kg/m3)
Weight Point (C)
Ethanol
46.070
-112.0
78.4
1000.00
Water
18.016
0.0
100.0
789.34
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
98
99
II
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
SLOW FLOW The material does not exit quickly enough for the next stage of
the process.
INCOMPLETE EMPTYING Some material remains stuck inside when all the rest
has been discharged.
III
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
= arctan( )
F = N
(eqA2.1)
where
(eqA2.2)
PERMEABILITY
COMPRESSIBILITY
A2.4 - Stresses
In order to assess the stresses which are present within a hopper we can look at the
equilibrium of forces in an elemental element dz (see figA2.4) in the steady state.
IV
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
100
VI
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
mass flow hopper. He named this the flow factor (eqA2.3) and published charts
from which values of ff can be determined.
CompactingStress
=
(eqA2.3)
ff =
ApppliedShearStress AS
The chart for a conical outlet hopper is shown in figA2.8.
VIII
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
Dg
(eqA2.4)
= ( D2 )
4
4 tan( )
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
To allow a preliminary design I will use the results from tests on an arbitrary
powder along with the bulk density of wheat.
Now use this information along with figA2.13 to determine the other material
properties:
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
figA.14 can be used to determine the CAS value for the powder, CAS = 0.81 kPa
So the minimum outlet diameter is 20.5cm. It is important to check that this allows
an appropriate rate of discharge:
For the tempering bins we require 27kgs-1 so this is too slow, therefore it is
necessary to increase the included angle slightly, this has the added benefit of
ensuring mass flow. Let =25
XII
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
Radius (m)
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
Height (m)
XIII
Appendix 02 M. Wallace
vmax t = [ S0 ] X K m ln(1 X )
(eqA3.1)101
= Maximum rate of reaction (kmol/m/s)
vmax
t
[ S0 ]
X
Km
= Fractional conversion
= Michaelis constant (kmol/m)
X = 1
[S ]
[ S0 ]
(eqA3.2)
[S ]
[ E0 ]
kcat
(eqA3.3)
For glucoamylase102:
kcat = 3.2s-1
K m = 59mM
Molecular Weight = 63000
Specific Activity = 11.7 mol/min/mg
For a glucoamylase activity of 150U/kg, the enzyme concentration used in the
saccharification process is:
150 1138
= 2.316 107 M
(1M = 1kmol/m)
[ E0 ] =
6
11.7 10 63000
101
102
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/biology/enztech/reactors.html
BRENDA Enzyme Database - http://www.brenda.uni-koeln.de
XV
Appendix 3 W Treharne
Gelatinisation
The fermenter requires over 52000kg/hr of glucose to produce the desired ethanol
output. This value has been rounded up to 53000kg/hr to account for losses and
imperfections in the system. The following spreadsheet was created to calculate
the required starch, water and steam inputs to produce the required glucose:
Glucose Requirement (kg/hr)
Starch Conversion Efficiency (kg glucose/kg starch)
Starch Requirement (kg/hr)
Slurry Starch Composition (w/w)
Water Requirement (kg/hr)
Water Density (kg/m)
Starch Density (kg/m)
Input Flow Rates
Slurry Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
Slurry Volume Flow Rate (m/hr)
Jet Cooker
Starch Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Water Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Slurry Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Input Temperature (C)
Output Temperature (C)
Heating Requirement (W)
Steam Latent heat of vaporisation (J/kg)
Steam cooling enthalpy change (J/kg)
Steam flow required (kg/s)
Output Flow Rates
Slurry Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
Slurry Volume Flow Rate (m/hr)
53000
1.078
49165.121
0.35
76816.194
1000
1530
125981.315
108.950
1250
4180
3154.5
20
105
9032385.541
2244000
0
4.025
140471.773
123.441
XVI
Appendix 3 W Treharne
Slurry Density
1137.970
5
10.287
Pipe Specification
Pipe Inner Diameter (m)
Pipe Inner Cross-sectional Area (m)
Pipe Length (m)
Average Flow Velocity (m/s)
0.5
0.196
52.390
0.175
The mass flow rate of steam was obtained from the following equation:
(eqA3.4)
Q& = h fg m& s
h fg
m& s
283.9 7.15m
123.441 74
= 913.5m3
10
For a cylindrical vessel with a height equal to its diameter, this capacity gives a
diameter (rounded up to the nearest 50mm) of:
3
913.5 10.55m
Appendix 3 W Treharne
Nuv =
hDv
k
(eqA3.6)
The Reynolds number based on the agitator speed and diameter is given by:
NDi
2
Re a =
(eqA3.7)
The constants in equation x.5 and recommended vessel geometries are given by
table A3.1
Impeller
Type
Flat Blade
Turbine
45 Axial
Flow
Turbine
Propeller
Flat Blade
Turbine
45 Axial
Flow
Turbine
Propeller
Heat
Transfer
Surface
Vessel Wall
Di / Dv
Li / Dv
N bl
1/3
1/5
0.74
Vessel Wall
1/3
1/5
0.74
2/
3
2/
3
1/
3
1/
3
Vessel Wall
1/3
0.5
Heating Coil
1/3
1/5
0.03
Heating Coil
1/3
1/5
0.03
2/
3
0.6
7
0.6
7
1/
3
1/
3
1/
3
Heating Coil
1/3
0.01
6
0.6
7
0.3
7
Geometric
correction
factor
1
0.841
1
1
0.841
1
Dv
=
=
=
=
=
Di
Li
N
N bl
h
k
103
104
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p945
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 pp946-947
XVIII
Appendix 3 W Treharne
1137.97
3036.55
4.40E-03
0.61
0.1
1.47E+05
21.92
Impeller Type
HT Surface Correction Factor Nu
h (W/m/K)
Flat Blade Turbine
Vessel Wall
1 5.76E+03 4.916E+02
Axial Flow Turbine (45) Vessel Wall
0.841 4.84E+03 4.134E+02
Propeller
Vessel Wall
1 3.89E+03 3.321E+02
Flat Blade Turbine
Helical Coils
Axial Flow Turbine (45) Helical Coils
Propeller
Helical Coils
1 2.43E+02
0.841 2.04E+02
1 1.45E+02
2.073E+01
1.744E+01
1.238E+01
0.1
3.20E+05
22.77
Impeller Type
HT Surface Correction Factor Nu
h (W/m/K)
Flat Blade Turbine
Vessel Wall
1 9.81E+03
5.67E+02
Axial Flow Turbine (45) Vessel Wall
0.841 8.25E+03
4.77E+02
Propeller
Vessel Wall
1 6.63E+03
3.83E+02
Flat Blade Turbine
Helical Coils
Axial Flow Turbine (45) Helical Coils
Propeller
Helical Coils
1 4.15E+02
0.841 3.49E+02
1 2.48E+02
2.40E+01
2.02E+01
1.43E+01
XIX
Appendix 3 W Treharne
Q& =
Q&
Tin
(Tin To )2L
2(Tin To )rin2
+
1
ln(ro rin ) ln(1 + tl ro )
1 1 (ro rin ) tl
1
+
+
+
+
+ +
kw
kl
ro ho hin
kw
kl ho
rin hin
(eqA3.8)
To
L
rin
ro
hin
ho
tl
= Lagging thickness
kw
kl
The first term gives heat loss through the curved cylinder sides and the second
term gives the heat loss through the two circular ends. hin can be found from
equation x.1 and ho can be calculated by treating the vessel as a cylinder in cross
flow for which:
Nu = 0.0208 Re 0.814
(eqA3.9)
The Nusselt and Reynolds numbers are based on the vessel total diameter.
XX
Appendix 3 W Treharne
Density (kg/m)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Dynamic Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Characteristic Length (m)
Velocity (m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m/K)
Vessel Wall Thickness (m)
Vessel Wall Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Lagging Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Tank Inner Radius (m)
Tank Outer Radius (m)
Inside Temperature (C)
Outside Temperature (C)
Substrate Air
1156.5
1.293
3154.5
1004
4.40E-03 1.81E-05
0.61 2.41E-02
7.15
3.0
1.47E+05 1.53E+06
2.28E+01 7.54E-01
4.98E+02 7.60E+00
0.020
16
0.0245
3.573
3.593
95
0
XXI
Appendix 3 W Treharne
Density (kg/m)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Dynamic Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Characteristic Length (m)
Velocity (m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m/K)
Vessel Wall Thickness (m)
Vessel Wall Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Lagging Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Tank Inner Radius (m)
Tank Outer Radius (m)
Inside Temperature (C)
Outside Temperature (C)
Substrate Air
1156.5
1.293
3154.5
1004
4.40E-03 1.81E-05
0.61 2.41E-02
10.55
3.0
3.20E+05 2.26E+06
2.28E+01 7.54E-01
5.67E+02 7.07E+00
0.020
50
0.025
5.275
5.295
60
0
XXII
Appendix 3 W Treharne
h fg
m& s
(eqA3.10)
Heat transfer through the wall of the heating coil pipe is given by:
Q& =
Ain F (Ts TR )
1 rin ln(ro rin ) rin
+
+
kw
ro ho
hin
Ts
TR
Ain
rin
ro
hin
ho
kw
F
(eqA3.11)
= Fouling factor
XXIII
Appendix 3 W Treharne
Saccharification Vessels
Steam Pressure (bar)
4
Steam Temperature (C)
143.63
hfg (J/kg)
2132900
Heating Requirement (W)
14768.69
Required Mass Flow Rate (kg/s) 0.00692
Reaction Temperature (C)
60
T (K)
83.63
hin (W/m/K)
17000
hout (W/m/K)
23.929
Wall Thickness
0.002
Conductivity (W/m/K)
390
Inner Diameter (m)
0.100
U (W/m/K)
23.894
Fouling Factor
0.5
Area (m)
14.782
Length (m)
47.052
Impeller Diameter (m)
3.517
Coil Diameter (m)
4.000
Coil Turns
3.744
XXIV
Th,out
Tc,out
FigA4.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger with two tube side passes
m& h
ch
Th ,in
Th ,out
(eqA4.2)
cc
Tc ,in
Tc ,out
Q& = UAFTM
Where:
U
A
F
TM
(eqA4.1)
=
=
=
=
(eqA4.3)
(eqA4.4)
XXV
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
P R2 + 1
2 P(( R + 1) R 2 + 1)
ln
2
2 P (( R + 1) + R + 1)
(eqA4.5)105
P=
Tc ,out Tc ,in
Th ,in Tc ,in
(eqA4.6)
R=
Th,in Th,out
Tc ,out Tc ,in
(eqA4.7)
The overall heat transfer coefficient referenced to the inner surface of the tubes is
given by:
1
1 rin ln(ro / rin ) rin
=
+
+
U in hin
kw
ro ho
(eqA4.8)
Where:
= Tube inner surface heat transfer coefficient (W/m/K)
hin
ho
rin
ro
kw
VD c
hin Din
= 0.023 in
k
k
106
(eqA4.9)
Where:
Din
V
k
c
105
106
0.4
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p956
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p105
XXVI
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
D m&
ho De
= 0.36 e s
k
107
(eqA4.10)
0.55
1/ 3
c
k
Where:
= Equivalent diameter (m)
De
= Shell side mass flux density (kg/m)
m& s
The equivalent diameter is given by:
(eqA4.11)
Do
PT
2 D 2
4 PT o
4
De =
Do
(eqA4.12)
Where:
= Tube pitch (m)
PT
= Outer tube diameter (m)
Do
107
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p271
XXVII
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
(eqA4.13)
Ss =
Ds CLb
PT
(eqA4.14)
Where:
Ds = Shell diameter (m)
Lb
Ds
NT
2
PT
(eqA4.15)
Baffle Window
Ds
Baffle
0.75 Ds
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
The baffle area for segmental baffle as shown in figure A4.3 is given by:
2
D
AB = s ( 12 sin 2 )
2
(eqA4.16)
0.25 Ds
= 2.094 rad
+ sin 1
2
0.5 Ds
(egA4.17)
D
AB = 0.8045 s
2
(eqA4.18)
Therefore the number of holes which need to be drilled in each baffle is given
approximately by:
N H 0.8045 N T
(eqA4.19)
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p267
XXIX
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
Tube Length
Longer tubes generally result in a cheaper exchanger for a given heat transfer
surface area. This is because a longer design results in a smaller shell diameter,
thinner tube sheets, fewer tubes and components, and fewer holes to drill in the
baffles to support the tubes. For best all round performance, the usual tube length
to shell diameter ratio is around 5 to 10109.
Tube Layout and Pitch
The arrangement of tubes and their spacing (pitch) can have a great effect on the
thermohydraulic performance of the heat exchanger. A triangular arrangement
results in robust tube sheets but a square arrangement will simplify some
maintenance operations such as shell side cleaning. It is good practice to have a
tube pitch of at least 1.25 times the outer tube diameter110.
Baffle Spacing
The shell cross baffles are used to direct the flow across the tube bundle but also
mechanically support the tubes against sagging and possible vibration. The most
common baffle type is the segmental baffle in which a segment is removed from a
disc to produce a window. The ratio of baffle cut to baffle spacing is important to
maximise heat transfer. The spacing between baffles should not be less than 1/5 of
the shell inner diameter and should not be so great as to exceed the maximum
unsupported tube length as recommended by the Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association111.
A4.7 - The Effect of Design Variables on the Required Tube Length
Cooling Stream Outlet Temperature
400
25
360
20
340
320
15
300
280
10
260
5
Number Of Tubes
380
Length
Volume
Tubes
240
220
200
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
Tc,out (C)
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p267
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p267
Process Heat Transfer G.F. Hewitt, G.L. Shires, T.R. Bott CRC Press, 1994 p269
XXX
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
For a fixed shell diameter, tube diameter and pitch, and baffle spacing, increasing
the cooling stream outlet temperature increases the required tube length but
lowers the fluid velocity in the tubes.
1200
350
1000
300
250
800
200
600
150
400
100
200
0
0.01
Number Of Tubes
Length
Volume
Tubes
50
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0
0.09
450
1000
400
900
350
800
700
300
600
250
500
200
400
150
300
100
200
50
100
0
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
Number Of Tubes
Length
Volume
Tubes
0
0.15
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
Increasing the tube diameter decreases the required length for a fixed tube pitch.
Therefore, a good design would have a tube pitch close to the tube diameter.
Shell Diameter
70
1800
1600
1400
50
1200
40
1000
30
800
600
20
Number Of Tubes
60
Length
Volume
Tubes
400
10
200
3
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
0
1.1
0
Shell Diameter (m)
55
800
50
700
45
600
40
35
500
30
400
25
300
20
200
15
Length
Volume
Tubes
100
10
5
0.25
Number Of Tubes
Baffle Spacing
0
0.5
0.75
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.25
2.5
2.75
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
Increasing the baffle spacing with all other design variables fixed increases the
cross flow area which decreases the shell side mass flux density reducing the heat
transferred and so the required tube length increases. The smallest possible baffle
spacing is therefore favourable.
XXXIII
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
100 tubes
Hot Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Volume Flow Rate (m/hr)
Substrate Density (kg/m)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Required Heat Transfer (W)
95
95
95
95
95
60
60
60
60
60
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97
316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026
3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50
4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07
95
60
1000
1137.97
316.1026
3154.50
4.40E-03
0.61
3.49E+07
Cold Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Water Density (kg/m)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Tm (K)
20
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
40
40
417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
4180
4180
4180
4180
4180
1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759
20
40
417.4653
1000
4180
1.00E-03
0.61
44.49759
0.800
0.038
0.001
0.040
0.050
0.010
0.040
100
15
0.160
0.900
0.043
0.001
0.045
0.056
0.011
0.045
100
15
0.180
1.000
0.048
0.001
0.050
0.063
0.013
0.050
100
15
0.200
1.100
0.053
0.001
0.055
0.069
0.014
0.055
100
15
0.220
1.200
0.058
0.001
0.060
0.075
0.015
0.060
100
15
0.240
1.300
0.063
0.001
0.065
0.081
0.016
0.064
100
15
0.260
Tube Side
Total Pipe Cross Sectional Area (m)
Average Water Velocity (m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h in (W/m/K)
0.114
3.661
1.39E+05
6.85E+00
6.48E+02
1.04E+04
0.146
2.859
1.23E+05
6.85E+00
5.87E+02
8.31E+03
0.182
2.294
1.10E+05
6.85E+00
5.38E+02
6.81E+03
0.222
1.882
1.00E+05
6.85E+00
4.97E+02
5.70E+03
0.266
1.571
9.14E+04
6.85E+00
4.62E+02
4.85E+03
0.313
1.332
8.41E+04
6.85E+00
4.33E+02
4.18E+03
Shell Side
Cross Flow Area (m)
Mass Flux Density (kg/m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h out (W/m/K)
0.0256
12347.76
1.11E+05
2.28E+01
6.09E+02
9.35E+03
0.0324
9756.254
9.89E+04
2.28E+01
5.70E+02
7.79E+03
0.04
7902.566
8.90E+04
2.28E+01
5.38E+02
6.62E+03
0.0484
6531.046
8.09E+04
2.28E+01
5.11E+02
5.71E+03
0.0576
5487.893
7.42E+04
2.28E+01
4.87E+02
4.99E+03
0.0676
4676.075
6.85E+04
2.28E+01
4.66E+02
4.41E+03
16
16
3.29E+03 2.83E+03
1.1
1.1
2.62E+02 3.05E+02
9.684
10.071
10.76025 10.07125
6.160838 7.909941
53
50
8527
8045
16
2.47E+03
1.1
3.50E+02
10.478
9.525002
9.957103
47
7562
16
2.17E+03
1.1
3.98E+02
10.896
9.079814
12.32283
45
7240
16
1.92E+03
1.1
4.49E+02
11.321
8.708746
15.02711
43
6918
16
3.86E+03
1.1
2.23E+02
9.328
11.65981
4.688689
58
9332
XXXIV
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
200 tubes
Hot Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Volume Flow Rate (m/hr)
Substrate Density (kg/m)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Required Heat Transfer (W)
95
95
95
95
95
95
60
60
60
60
60
60
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97
316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026
3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50
4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07
Cold Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Water Density (kg/m)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Tm (K)
20
20
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
40
40
40
417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
4180
4180
4180
4180
4180
4180
1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759
0.800
0.026
0.001
0.028
0.035
0.007
0.028
200
0.160
0.900
0.030
0.001
0.032
0.040
0.008
0.032
200
0.180
1.000
0.033
0.001
0.035
0.044
0.009
0.035
200
0.200
1.100
0.037
0.001
0.039
0.049
0.010
0.039
200
0.220
1.200
0.041
0.001
0.043
0.053
0.011
0.042
200
0.240
1.300
0.044
0.001
0.046
0.058
0.012
0.046
200
0.260
Tube Side
Total Pipe Cross Sectional Area (m)
Average Water Velocity (m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h in (W/m/K)
0.109
3.825
1.01E+05
6.85E+00
5.00E+02
1.16E+04
0.140
2.972
8.89E+04
6.85E+00
4.52E+02
9.22E+03
0.176
2.375
7.95E+04
6.85E+00
4.13E+02
7.54E+03
0.215
1.942
7.18E+04
6.85E+00
3.81E+02
6.29E+03
0.258
1.617
6.56E+04
6.85E+00
3.54E+02
5.33E+03
0.305
1.368
6.03E+04
6.85E+00
3.31E+02
4.58E+03
Shell Side
Cross Flow Area (m)
Mass Flux Density (kg/m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h out (W/m/K)
0.0256
12347.76
7.87E+04
2.28E+01
5.03E+02
1.09E+04
0.0324
9756.254
6.99E+04
2.28E+01
4.71E+02
9.11E+03
0.04
7902.566
6.29E+04
2.28E+01
4.45E+02
7.74E+03
0.0484
6531.046
5.72E+04
2.28E+01
4.22E+02
6.67E+03
0.0576
5487.893
5.24E+04
2.28E+01
4.02E+02
5.83E+03
0.0676
4676.075
4.84E+04
2.28E+01
3.85E+02
5.15E+03
16
4.32E+03
1.1
2.00E+02
6.035
3.033345
7.54331
37
11906
16
16
16
16
16
3.68E+03 3.17E+03 2.76E+03 2.43E+03 2.15E+03
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.35E+02 2.72E+02 3.12E+02 3.55E+02 4.01E+02
6.242
6.473
6.720
6.977
7.241
3.970886 5.084094 6.386502 7.891267 9.611214
6.935376 6.47327 6.109352 5.81451 5.57004
34
32
30
29
27
10941
10297
9654
9332
8688
XXXV
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
300 tubes
Hot Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Volume Flow Rate (m/hr)
Substrate Density (kg/m)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Required Heat Transfer (W)
95
95
95
95
95
95
60
60
60
60
60
60
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97
316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026
3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50
4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07
Cold Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Water Density (kg/m)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Tm (K)
20
20
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
40
40
40
417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
4180
4180
4180
4180
4180
4180
1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759
0.800
0.021
0.001
0.023
0.029
0.006
0.023
300
27
0.160
0.900
0.024
0.001
0.026
0.033
0.007
0.026
300
27
0.180
1.000
0.027
0.001
0.029
0.036
0.007
0.029
300
27
0.200
1.100
0.030
0.001
0.032
0.040
0.008
0.032
300
27
0.220
1.200
0.033
0.001
0.035
0.043
0.009
0.034
300
27
0.240
1.300
0.036
0.001
0.038
0.047
0.009
0.037
300
27
0.260
Tube Side
Total Pipe Cross Sectional Area (m)
Average Water Velocity (m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h in (W/m/K)
0.105
3.959
8.38E+04
6.85E+00
4.31E+02
1.24E+04
0.136
3.063
7.37E+04
6.85E+00
3.89E+02
9.87E+03
0.171
2.441
6.58E+04
6.85E+00
3.55E+02
8.04E+03
0.210
1.990
5.94E+04
6.85E+00
3.27E+02
6.69E+03
0.252
1.654
5.41E+04
6.85E+00
3.04E+02
5.66E+03
0.299
1.396
4.97E+04
6.85E+00
2.84E+02
4.86E+03
Shell Side
Cross Flow Area (m)
Mass Flux Density (kg/m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h out (W/m/K)
0.0256
12347.76
6.42E+04
2.28E+01
4.50E+02
1.20E+04
0.0324
9756.254
5.71E+04
2.28E+01
4.22E+02
9.98E+03
0.04
7902.566
5.14E+04
2.28E+01
3.98E+02
8.48E+03
0.0484
6531.046
4.67E+04
2.28E+01
3.78E+02
7.31E+03
0.0576
5487.893
4.28E+04
2.28E+01
3.60E+02
6.39E+03
0.0676
4676.075
3.95E+04
2.28E+01
3.44E+02
5.64E+03
16
16
16
16
16
4.62E+03 3.94E+03 3.40E+03 2.96E+03 2.60E+03
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.87E+02 2.19E+02 2.54E+02 2.92E+02 3.32E+02
4.683
4.832
5.003
5.187
5.379
2.354124 3.074272 3.929067 4.928947 6.08407
5.854226 5.36939 5.002643 4.715049 4.482916
29
26
25
23
22
13998
12550
12067
11102
10619
16
2.30E+03
1.1
3.75E+02
5.578
7.404337
4.291076
21
10136
XXXVI
Appendix 04 W. Treharne
400 tubes
Hot Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Volume Flow Rate (m/hr)
Substrate Density (kg/m)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Required Heat Transfer (W)
95
95
95
95
95
95
60
60
60
60
60
60
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97 1137.97
316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026 316.1026
3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50 3154.50
4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03 4.40E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07 3.49E+07
Cold Stream
Inlet Temperature (C)
Outlet Temperature (C)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Water Density (kg/m)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg/K)
Viscosity (Pa s)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m/K)
Tm (K)
20
20
20
20
20
20
40
40
40
40
40
40
417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653 417.4653
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
4180
4180
4180
4180
4180
4180
1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03 1.00E-03
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
0.61
44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759 44.49759
0.800
0.018
0.001
0.020
0.025
0.005
0.020
400
31
0.160
0.900
0.021
0.001
0.023
0.028
0.006
0.022
400
31
0.180
1.000
0.023
0.001
0.025
0.031
0.006
0.025
400
31
0.200
1.100
0.026
0.001
0.028
0.034
0.007
0.027
400
31
0.220
1.200
0.028
0.001
0.030
0.038
0.008
0.030
400
31
0.240
1.300
0.031
0.001
0.033
0.041
0.008
0.032
400
31
0.260
Tube Side
Total Pipe Cross Sectional Area (m)
Average Water Velocity (m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h in (W/m/K)
0.102
4.077
7.36E+04
6.85E+00
3.89E+02
1.31E+04
0.133
3.144
6.46E+04
6.85E+00
3.50E+02
1.04E+04
0.167
2.498
5.76E+04
6.85E+00
3.19E+02
8.45E+03
0.205
2.032
5.20E+04
6.85E+00
2.94E+02
7.02E+03
0.248
1.685
4.73E+04
6.85E+00
2.73E+02
5.93E+03
0.294
1.420
4.34E+04
6.85E+00
2.55E+02
5.08E+03
Shell Side
Cross Flow Area (m)
Mass Flux Density (kg/m/s)
Reynolds Number
Prandtl Number
Nusselt Number
h out (W/m/K)
0.0256
12347.76
5.56E+04
2.28E+01
4.16E+02
1.28E+04
0.0324
9756.254
4.94E+04
2.28E+01
3.90E+02
1.06E+04
0.04
7902.566
4.45E+04
2.28E+01
3.68E+02
9.04E+03
0.0484
6531.046
4.05E+04
2.28E+01
3.49E+02
7.80E+03
0.0576
5487.893
3.71E+04
2.28E+01
3.33E+02
6.82E+03
0.0676
4676.075
3.42E+04
2.28E+01
3.18E+02
6.02E+03
16
4.86E+03
1.1
1.78E+02
3.915
1.967673
4.8932
24
15446
16
4.14E+03
1.1
2.08E+02
4.032
2.564843
4.479642
22
14159
16
3.57E+03
1.1
2.42E+02
4.168
3.273517
4.167972
20
12872
16
3.11E+03
1.1
2.77E+02
4.317
4.102384
3.924356
19
12228
16
2.73E+03
1.1
3.16E+02
4.474
5.059897
3.728276
18
11584
16
2.42E+03
1.1
3.56E+02
4.637
6.154301
3.566636
17
10941
XXXVII
XXXVIII
XXXIX
Appendix 06 M. Braisher
The remaining analysis has been broken into discrete stages to form a recipe for
heat exchanger design in the hope of making the analysis easier to follow
I. The first step is to calculate the heating or cooling required. This is
either known outright or can be found from an enthalpy balance across
the stream to be cooled or heated. It is possible to apply the same
equation to find the mass flow rate required for the cooling stream;
Q = mCpT
II. Knowing the diameter and therefore the cross-sectional area (CSA), the
number of tubes and feed flow rate, m, it is now possible to calculate
the velocity of the flow through the pipes (see equation below). The
number of tubes should be varied until an acceptable velocity is given
(around 2-3 ms-1).
V = m/(water x total CSA of all pipes)
III. It is now possible to calculate Reynolds number for the flow in the
pipe, knowing the velocity through the pipe:
Re = waterDV/(water)
IV. Prandtl number can also be calculated:
Pr = Cp/kwater
V. Now a relevant correlation must be selected to calculate the heat
transfer coefficients. See under each section for relevant correlation.
VI. To calculate the heat transfer coefficient from the tube wall to the
fluid flowing over the tubes, the analysis is similar to steps I-V. above.
For the shell and tube heat exchanger, an enthalpy balance can be
done for the cooling water flowing over the tubes (see step I.) giving
the mass flow rate of the cooling water. Specifying the diameter of the
shell and therefore knowing the CSA, it is possible to calculate the
velocity of the water over the tubes by subtracting the total CSA of all
the tubes from the shell CSA and then finding the velocity. The usual
Re and Pr can be calculated and another empirical correlation used to
evaluate ho. See the relevant sections in the text for the relations.
VII. Having obtained both heat transfer coefficients, it is now possible to
calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient:
1/U = 1/hinner + 1/houter
VIII. The temperature driving force for a standard shell and tube heat
exchanger is given by the log mean temperature difference. However,
in this case, a simple single pass design will result in a very long heat
XLI
Appendix 06 M. Braisher
The analysis so far has not allowed for fouling on the inner and
outer tube walls. Good design practice such as keeping the flow
velocities in the 2-3ms-1 range and keeping the substrate flow
around the outside of the tubes for easy cleaning helps retain
fouling at a minimum. However it is still wise to build a factor
into the overall heat transfer coefficient, say, by multiplying by a
factor of 0.9.
Baffles are included in heat exchangers and are simply circular
plates with a segment cut off. Although the above analysis has not
included the effect of baffles, adding them in increases the heat
transfer so the method employed above is a worst-case scenario.
The above analysis has focused on the design of a shell and U tube
heat exchanger. However, this analysis has also been followed for
fermenter cooling to give the specifications for cooling baffles
inside the fermenter. The relevant correlation is given in section
in section 4.
XLII
Appendix 06 M. Braisher
feed stream Ti
feed stream To
cooling stream Ti
cooling stream To
delta theta lm
pipe diameter (inches)
velocity of feed stream
No. of pipes required
Re inside pipe
Pr inside pipe
Nu inside pipe
h inside pipe
U
length of pipes
surface area of each pipe
Re outside pipe
Pr outside pipe
Nu outside pipe
h outside pipe
feed flow rate m^3/second
Diameter of shell
CSA of shell
Surface area for water to flow
through
velocity of cooling water
enthalpy balance across feed water
mass flow rate of cooling water
required
characteristic length for outside pipe
85
30
20
30
26.39686
1
3.597455
350
91375.35
6.852459
462.0933
11097.52
5880.966
8
0.638372
8306.85
6.852459
97.86062
15891.73
0.116
0.72
0.40715
0.052455
2.211412
26668400
638
0.003756
total SA required
SA we have
209.8463
223.4301
P
R
top
bottom
bottom
bottom
Theta new
0.153846
5.5
0.860026
1.860026
0.139974
2.58689
21.60961
XLIII
XLIV
XLV
Appendix 06 M. Braisher
tank side
diameter of impeller
10
0.116666667
11666666.67
6.852459016
6661.733426
406.365739
1
14000000
5
design matching
U
Area required
385.4717398
7263.82692
no of pipes
length of each pipe
total surface area
600
160
7660.459527
displaced volume
48.64391799
Motor power kW
turbine
propeller
tube side
pipe diameter inches
mass flow rate of cooling
water
Q
velocity of water
delta theta
Reynolds no
Prandtl no
Nu no
h
1
669.8565
14000000
2.203298
5
55963.76
6.852459
312.1706
7497.009
174.6759259
31.75925926
2700
2700
2700
2700
2700
2700
2700
0.5
9.031412956
8.019028
6.856172
6.165678
5.689434
5.332883
5.051671
4.515706478
8.019028
13.71234
18.49703
22.75773
26.66442
30.31003
13.54711943
16.03806
20.56852
24.66271
28.44717
31.9973
35.3617
1537.490795
1414.137
1329.094
1313.724
1322
1340.187
1362.915
0.569441035
0.523754
0.492257
0.486565
0.489629
0.496365
0.504783
0.016666667
0.016667
0.016667
0.016667
0.016667
0.016667
0.016667
0.104719755
0.10472
0.10472
0.10472
0.10472
0.10472
0.10472
0.945767353
0.839751
0.717977
0.645668
0.595796
0.558458
0.52901
5437761.333
4286987
3133807
2534372
2157977
1895976
1701292
6.852459016
6.852459
6.852459
6.852459
6.852459
6.852459
6.852459
12145.14009
10041.26
7814.913
6594.209
5798.343
5227.966
4793.906
1.00693E+13
7.05E+12
4.41E+12
3.2E+12
2.52E+12
2.07E+12
1.76E+12
410.1537317
381.9146
347.65
326.1983
310.8384
298.9995
289.4372
6.89993E+13
4.83E+13
3.02E+13
2.2E+13
1.72E+13
1.42E+13
1.21E+13
5332.018241
4734.32
4047.787
3640.129
3358.961
3148.459
2982.435
7.114149261
7.114149
7.114149
7.114149
7.114149
7.114149
7.114149
6.992857587
6.984053
6.971488
6.962306
6.954971
6.948815
6.943484
107514.5417
98764.05
92657.65
91465.5
91944.68
93127.09
94633.81
Points to note
The above analysis gives a worst case scenario based upon simple theory. It can be
seen that where the cylindrical shell meets the hemisphere, there is a difference in
stress (see figure above). This leads to unequal circumferential strains which
would cause bending. This would cause problems with the welding so the two
thicknesses would be different in order to cause equal circumferential strains. Also
depending on the support of the structure, there will be stress concentrations at
various points around the vessel. This has not been analysed and would be
required perhaps using finite elements.
XLVII
F = D+B
FX F = D X D + B X B
X B = 0 D =
XF
0.15
FD=
113.1 = 18.85te / hr
XD
0 .9
XLVIII
Appendix 10 J. Winterburn
Overall balance:
B=FD
B = 113.1 18.85 = 94.25te / hr
H F + QB = H D + H B + QC
Around Condenser to obtain QC: (Assuming heat losses from system are small i.e.
column and pipework well lagged).
L
= 3.85
D
L = RD = 3.85 18.85 = 72.57te / hr
R=
QC = H V H D H L
Assuming total condensation occurs in the condenser, reasonable as there are no
non-condensables present
CP = 2.46 kJ/kg K
XLIX
Appendix 10 J. Winterburn
Water:
CP = 4.20 kJ/kg K
Bottoms (assuming pure water): CPB = 4.20 kJ/kg K
Feed (15% ethanol by mass):
HV = 91 .42 1000 [(0.1 2640 + 0.9 838) + (78 88) 2.63)] = 90 .68 MJ / hr
Enthalpy of distillate and reflux are both zero as both streams are at the base
temperature of 78.0C.
QC = H V = 90.68MJ / hr 25189kW
This heat is removed by cooling water. Fixing the temperature rise of cooling water
at 70.0C gives:
Cooling water flow:
m=
m=
QC
CT
25189
3600 310te / hr
4.2 1000 70
Reboiler heat load is found from the heat balance for the whole system (neglecting
heat loss from column).
QB = H D + H B + QC H F
QB =
The heat required at the reboiler is supplied by site steam saturation temperature
at 4 bar i.e. hfg =2132 kJ/kg.
mS =
34272 3600
58te / hr
2132
FlV
L g
=
G l
0 .5
91306 1.632
=
131950 767
0.5
0.032
L and G are the maximum liquid and gas flow rates, found at the top of the
column, determined from the mass balance and Aspen results.
LI
= [P ]( L G )
Relationship:
Parachor
CH3
55.5
CH2
OH
40.0
29.8
Hence:
In this case L >> G (767kg/m3 >>1.632 kg/m3) hence the G term may be
neglected. Liquid phase density calculated at 78 C by interpolation of values from
data tables at 10 and 40 C. Vapour phase density calculated using ideal gas law.
Substituting numerical values the surface tension of ethanol is found:
0.739
o = 16.45dyn / cm
46.07
Note 105 dyn = 1N hence dyn/cm is equivalent to mN/m.
1
o 4 = 125.3
Surface Tension of Binary 10% Water 90% Ethanol mixture (top conditions):
Relationship113:
1
4
mix
1
4
w
= w + o
1
4
o
2
( x V ) q
q
q V 3
log w = log w w (x w Vw + x oVo )1q + 0.44 o o w Vw 3
1 w
T q
x o Vo
o = 1 w
Where o is the surface tension of the pure organic component and w that of the
pure water component of the mixture. V represents molar volume and x mole
112
Parachor values from Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill
Method of Tamura, Kurata and Odani from Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition,
McGraw-Hill
113
LII
Appendix 12 J. Winterburn
fraction of each component. The constant q depends on the size and type of the
organic component of the mixture. In this case the number of carbon atoms
present in the ethanol molecule gives q=2.
Water:
w = 71.40dyn / cm
Vw = 1.004 18.0152 = 18.09cm 3 / mol
x w = 0.221
Ethanol:
o = 16.45dyn / cm
46.07
= 62.31cm 3 / mol
0.739
x o = 0.779
Vo =
w log10
w2
0.882
= log10 [6.627 10 3 ] +
[258.55 492.02] 2.79
1 w
351
LIII
LIV
Appendix 13 J. Winterburn
LV
Feed
113100
20
88
Bottoms
94250
100
-
0.15
~0
Bottoms-
Tlm =
T1 T2 12 3.5
=
= 6.899
12
T
ln
ln 1
3
.
5
T2
Q
30.29 10 9
UA =
=
= 1219581 .0W / K
Tlm 6.899 3600
Taking a high U value of 1500 W/m2K114 gives a required surface area of 813.054
m2.
114
Value from Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering-Vol 6 Chemical Engineering Design
LVI
Sales
Variable Costs
Raw Materials
Wheat
(feedstock)
-31,847,200
Utilities
Fuel
-3,031,913
Water
-1,335,600
Electricity
0
-36,214,713
Fixed Costs
Labour /
Supervision
Personnel
-1,800,000
-720,000
Maintenance
-1,948,000
Insurance
-1,461,000
Local Taxes
-487,000
-6,416,000
Depreciation
Net
Interest
Pre-tax profit
Tax
-4,139,500
2,029,167
23,104,787
-6,931,436
Net Profit
16,173,351
Dividends
-4,043,338
Profit Reserves
12,130,013
LVII
Year (n)
Ccce
24,900,353
24,900,353
Cwc
1,705,229
Sales
COMd
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
10
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
69,875,000
42,630,713
11
12
1,705,229
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
4,139,500
Tax
51,505,934
Total
CF
CF
DCF
DCF
24,900,353
24,900,353
24,900,353
22,636,684
9,415,136
16,123,923
13,325,556
9,415,136
17,829,151
13,395,305
24,900,353
47,537,037
34,211,481
20,816,176
9,415,136
17,829,151
12,177,550
-8,638,626
1,981,520
9,415,136
17,829,151
11,070,500
2,431,874
19,810,671
9,415,136
17,829,151
10,064,091
12,495,965
37,639,822
9,415,136
17,829,151
9,149,174
21,645,139
55,468,973
9,415,136
17,829,151
8,317,431
29,962,569
73,298,124
9,415,136
17,829,151
7,561,300
37,523,870
91,127,275
9,415,136
17,829,151
6,873,910
44,397,780
108,956,426
9,415,136
17,829,151
6,249,009
50,646,788
126,785,577
9,415,136
19,534,380
6,224,255
56,871,044
146,319,956
NPV =
CTCI =
Total
-24,900,353
-49,800,705
-33,676,782
-15,847,631
56,871,044
(= Ccce + Cwc)
LEGEND
CTCI
n
Total capital investment, TCI = Ccce + Cwc, asssuming no royalties must be paid for process.
year since beginning of construction
Ccce
Cwc
Working Capital
Sales
COMd
Depreciation
CF
Cash Flow for that year = Sales - Cland - Ccce - Cstartup - Cwc - COMd - Tax
DCF
i
NPV
here i =
0.1
LVIII
C8H18
114
12.5 O2
32
8 CO2
44
9 H 2O
18
8 44
= 3.088kg CO2
114
Therefore, the combustion of 1 litre of petrol produces approximately
C2H5OH
46
3 O2
32
2 CO2
44
3 H 2O
18
2 44
= 1.913kg CO2
46
Therefore, the combustion of 1 litre of ethanol produces approximately
Appendix 17 W. Treharne
6 12
= 0.444
(6 12) + (10 1) + (5 16)
The amount of carbon dioxide captured by wheat to produce 1kg of starch is
therefore
0.444
44
= 1.630kg CO2
12
The plant requires 49165 kg/hr of starch to produce 22000 l/hr of ethanol. The
amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere to grow the starch to
produce 1 litre of ethanol is therefore
1.630 49165
= 3.642kg CO2
22000
A17.4 - Fermentation
The fermentation reaction is given by
C6H12O6 + 0.188NH3 0.59CH1.737N0.2O0.451 + 0.432C3H8O3 + 1.54CO2 + 1.3C2H5OH
+ 0.36H2O
53000
1.54 44
= 19952kg/hr CO2 = 0.910kg CO2 /l Ethanol
180
53000
(0.59 + 0.432 3) 12 44
A17.5 - Transportation
Depending on the conversion efficiency, the plant requires approximately 60-100
tonnes of wheat per hour to produce the required ethanol output. Assuming for the
worst case, a truck can hold 10 tonnes, the farms are 100 miles from the plant, a
truck has a fuel economy of 10 miles per gallon and has an average speed of
50mph, the amount of diesel required by the trucks is
Appendix 17 W. Treharne
Assuming diesel is composed of 100% cetane (C16H34) and its density is 0.827kg/l115,
the contribution to carbon dioxide emissions of transportation on producing 1 litre
of ethanol is
1820 0.827
16 12 44
1
= 0.213kg CO2
226
12 22000
2.276
1.5
115
http://www.fast-tek.com/TM104.pdf
LXI
Total available
UK market (l)
1,625,000,000
1,625,000,000
1,625,000,000
1,625,000,000
1,625,000,000
1,625,000,000
1,625,000,000
1,625,000,000
3,250,000,000
3,250,000,000
3,250,000,000
3,250,000,000
3,250,000,000
3,250,000,000
3,250,000,000
3,250,000,000
%age of UK
set-aside used
6
12
16
22
26
52
78
104
12
22
32
42
52
104
154
206
Produce for
% market
5
10
15
20
25
50
75
100
5
10
15
20
25
50
75
100
Cost of feedstock
(farmgate)
15,910,260
31,820,520
47,730,778
63,640,906
79,551,164
159,102,328
238,653,492
318,204,524
31,820,520
63,640,906
95,461,424
127,281,810
159,102,328
318,204,524
477,306,852
636,409,046
Pre profit
pump price
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.91
litres of
bio-ethanol / year
81,250,000
162,500,000
243,750,000
325,000,000
406,250,000
812,500,000
1,218,750,000
1,625,000,000
162,500,000
325,000,000
487,500,000
650,000,000
812,500,000
1,625,000,000
2,437,500,000
3,250,000,000
Wheat required
(tonnes)
241,816
483,632
725,448
967,262
1,209,078
2,418,156
3,627,234
4,836,310
483,632
967,262
1,450,894
1,934,524
2,418,156
4,836,310
7,254,466
9,672,620
Production cost
22,928,750
45,857,500
68,786,250
91,715,000
114,643,750
229,287,500
343,931,250
458,575,000
45,857,500
91,715,000
137,572,500
183,430,000
229,287,500
458,575,000
687,862,500
917,150,000
Total gross
cost / litre
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.48
Profit / litre
bio-ethanol
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
Pump price
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
Area of farmland
required (ha)
31,244
62,486
93,728
124,970
156,212
312,424
468,636
624,848
62,486
124,970
187,456
249,940
312,424
624,848
937,270
1,249,694
Net
Cost / litre
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
0.76
Annual Profit
8,125,000
16,250,000
24,375,000
32,500,000
40,625,000
81,250,000
121,875,000
162,500,000
16,250,000
32,500,000
48,750,000
65,000,000
81,250,000
162,500,000
243,750,000
325,000,000
LXII
Appendix 18 MB + MW
Wheat required
per week (t)
4,650
9,301
13,951
18,601
23,252
46,503
69,755
93,006
9,301
18,601
27,902
37,202
46,503
93,006
139,509
186,012
LXIII
This report aims to give an insight into biofuels and in particular bio-ethanol and
biodiesel. But what is a biofuel?
Biofuel is any fuel that derives from biomass recently living organisms or their
metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. It is a renewable energy source,
unlike other natural resources. The carbon in biofuels was recently extracted from
atmospheric carbon dioxide by growing plants, so burning it does not result in a net
increase of carbon dioxide.1
Bio-ethanol is produced from an energy crop such as sugar cane or corn from which
sugar is extracted and fermented to produce the fuel. In the context of biodiesel,
energy crops or waste cooking oils are reacted with alcohol to produce alkyl esters
(the fuel itself). These fuels can then be used to fuel cars either by mixing with oil
derived fuels or neat.
Recent weather events have highlighted the issue of global warming and the need to
search for alternatives to oil especially as oil is in finite supply. Both biodiesel and
bio-ethanol are tried and tested with Brazil running many of its cars on bio-ethanol.
These are just some of the benefits of using biofuels.
Production of Bio-ethanol
To produce ethanol from biomass there are three main production stages: extraction
or production of sugars from the feedstock, fermentation where the sugars are used
to produce ethanol, and recovery where the ethanol is separated from other byproducts.
The structural framework of plant cell walls is made up of lignin, cellulose and
hemicellulose. Hydrolysis breaks down the long cellulose chains into glucose, a six
carbon sugar molecule, and hemicellulose into a number of five carbon sugar
molecules2. There are a number of ways to hydrolyse lignocellulosic materials
including enzymes and dilute or concentrated acid solutions3. Sugars can be
extracted from some feedstocks such as sugar beet using diffusion processes rather
than breaking down plant cell components. Waste products can be used for animal
feed or, if suitable, as a fuel for plant boilers3.
The most widely used method for fermenting the sugars is adding yeast that is
heated with the sugar solution. However, conventional yeasts do not readily convert
the five carbon sugar molecules resulting from hydrolysis of hemicellulose. These
can account for a significant proportion of the feedstock. This can be overcome using
specially bred yeasts or alternatively through the use of particular bacterium which
feed preferentially on C5 sugars4.
LXIV
After the fermentation process, the ethanol must be separated from its solution and
other by-products using a distillation column.
Production of Biodiesel
Biodiesel and bio-ethanol may sound similar by name but they are produced by very
different methods and with different feedstocks. Bio-ethanol production generally
begins with the processing of a biomass such as wheat or sugar beet. This
processing is required to extract the sugar which is then fermented to produce a
weak ethanol solution. This is then distilled to obtain the fuel.
On the other hand biodiesel production uses vegetable oil that has already been
extracted from an oil crop. In some cases recycled cooking oil is even used! This is
then reacted with 12% alcohol and a catalyst to produce a weak alcohol that can then
be distilled.
Both processes have similar production costs with ethanol tending to be slightly
cheaper depending of feedstock used.
Another advantage of biofuel production is that each process has some useful
byproducts. For example the biodiesel process produces fertiliser and glycerine, see
Fig 1.15, which has many industrial uses. Similarly if wheat is used in the bio-ethanol
process then the waste husks can be burned and combined with waste heat from the
fermentation to produce steam and generate electricity. 6
Feedstocks and yields
There are a wide variety of feedstocks that can be converted to bio-ethanol. The
feedstock used dictates the exact nature of the process; for example corn has to be
either dry or wet milled before hydrolysis whereas sugar beet requires no hydrolysis
as the sugars are already present in the crop.
In the UK it is most viable to produce bio-ethanol from wheat or sugar beet due to the
availability of the crops. Table 1.1 compares the costs and yields of each crop. Land,
in terms of the yield of crop per hectare, is an important consideration because the
land used could have alternatively been used for foodstuffs for both human and
animal consumption.
Yield of
Crop
Yield of
Bio-ethanol
t/ha
l/ha
7.74
53.2
2600
5746
Crop
Wheat
Sugar Beet
Conversion
Efficiency
GJ Bioethanol/GJ
Feedstock
0.55
0.136
Feedstock
Cost
Feedstock
Cost
/GJ
Feedstock
/GJ Bioethanol
5.88
5.88
10.69
43.24
Feedstock
Cost
/tonne of
Bioethanol
429
1735
Feedstock
Cost
p/litre of
Bioethanol
33.8
136.9
Petrol vs Bio-ethanol
In 2004, 32.3 million cars were on the road, and 80% of these were held by private
individuals8. And in 2002, 27.9 billion litres of petrol were consumed8. From this we
can understand the serious implications on the environment, if petrol is used. The
demand for oil in the years to come is illustrated in the graph below, figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2.: Graph to show the share of transport in total oil consumption.9
LXVI
From the evidence above we can see that bio-ethanol is a good alternative.
Although at first bio-ethanol may seem a more expensive fuel relative to petrol, but
we need to appreciate that this much less damaging to the environment. From the
graph below, we can see the difference in price. We can make the assumption that
10% of all the people that have cars will choose to use petrol with bio-ethanol in it.
Product Cost (p/l)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bioethanol (Wheat)
Petrol - Unleaded
Petrol - Diesel
Fig. 1.3.: Graph to compare the pump price of bio-ethanol and petrol7.
Conclusion
Our discussion so far has lead us to say that to produce bio-ethanol in the UK the
two most appropriate methods are by wheat or sugar beet. In figure 1.5, the two
different process routes are shown. For sustainability reasons, the plant should be
located close to where the feedstocks are produced and the oil refinery to which the
bio-ethanol will be sent. This will minimise the distance both the feedstock and
product are transported, reducing both cost and emissions of greenhouse gases.
Other sustainability issues have been discussed above
LXVII
Figure 1.4: Flow diagrams to show the how bio-ethanol is produced when sugar beet
is the feed stock, and when wheat is the feed stock.
LXVIII
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
LXIX