6 Head losses in pipework and fittings

6.1 Head losses HJ in straight pipework

6.1.1 General
For pipes with circular cross-section, and which are completely filled, the head loss
HJ can be calculated according to DARCY-WEISBACH as follows:
l U²
HJ = O · —— · ———
D 2g
where O= coefficient of friction l = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe U = mean flow velocity
The coefficient if friction O is dependent on and determined by, the similarity law on
the dimensionless Reynolds number:
D·U
Re = ———
Q
For Re < 2320, i.e. laminar flow, the HAGEN-POISSEULLE law applies, regardless
of the roughness of the pipe bore:
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O = ——
Re
For Re > 2320, i.e. turbulent flow, which is generally the case in most conditions, the
value of the coefficient of friction O
x for the extreme case of a hydraulically smooth pipe, where O is only dependent on
Re and can be determined from:

1 Re · —O
—— = 2 · lg (————)
—O 2.51
The internal surface roughness of the pipe is within the boundary layer and has no
influence.
x for the extreme case of a hydraulically rough pipe, where O is only dependent on
the internal roughness and diameter of the pipe and can be determined from:

1 k
—— = 1.14 y 2.0 · lg ——
—O D
where k = internal surface roughness of the pipe
The surface roughness of the pipe penetrates the boundary layer to some extent
and affects the main flow.
For the usual pipe materials, diameters and flow velocities, there is a relationship
between hydraulically smooth and hydraulically rough. For this transition range, the
coefficient of friction O has the following equation according to PRANDTL-
COLEBROOK:

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 1 2.51 k 1
—— = – 2 · lg (———— – —— · ———)
—O Re · —O D 3.71

In this range, the Reynolds number Re and the condition of the pipe expressed as
absolute roughness k or relative roughness k/D, will affect the magnitude of the
coefficient of friction O.
For pipes with non-circular cross section, the diameter of an equivalent circular pipe
which would have the same head losses for the same flow velocity, roughness and
length can be calculated from:

4A
Dequivalent = ——— in mm
U
where A = cross sectional area in mm²
U = wetted circumference in mm
This equivalent formula is also valid for open channels, on the assumption that the
free surface of the liquid does not affect the resistance, (which is not entirely correct).
This diameter can also be used for calculating the Reynolds number Re.

6.1.2 Determination of head loss HJ

6.1.2.1 Reynolds number Re
The determination of the Reynolds number in order to establish whether laminar or
turbulent flow is present is only necessary for viscous liquids. In all other cases
turbulent flow can be assumed.
Given:
D = diameter of the pipe in mm
(the nominal bore DN can be used)
U = mean flow velocity in m/s
Q = flowrate in m³/h
Q = kinematic viscosity in mm²/s
the Reynolds number Re can be calculated from

D·U 354 · Q
Re = ——— · 10³ or Re = ————— · 10³
Q D · Q


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6.1.2.2 Head loss HJ for laminar flow (Re < 2320)

l U²
HJ = O —— · ——— · 10³ in m
D 2g
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where O = ——
Re
L = length of pipe in m
D = diameter of pipe in mm (= DN)
U = mean flow velocity in m/s

6.1.2.3 Head loss HJ for turbulent flow (Re > 2320)

The determination of O using the PRANDTL-COLEBROOK equation is very time
consuming. It is therefore more expedient to calculate the head loss HJ with the help
of table 6.03 derived from PRANDTL-COLEBROOK.
Table 6.03 was established using the following parameters
x an absolute inner surface roughness k = 0.1 mm (new cast pipe with internal
bitumen coating)
x a kinematic viscosity Q = 1.236 mm²/s. This is the value for pure water at 12°C.
The values obtained are sufficiently accurate for water and other liquids of similar
viscosities at normal ambient temperature.
x a pipe length of l = 100 m
If the absolute inner surface roughness of the pipe k differs greatly from the 0.1 mm
(guideline values see table 6.01), then the head loss value obtained from table 6.03
must be multiplied by a correction factor f as follows:
HJ = HJ (k = 0.1) · f HJ (k = 0.1) established from table 6.03
f established from table 6.02
The correction factors in table 6.02 also enable an estimate of the change in head loss
HJ which might be expected in a pipe after several years in service.
It should be noted that if the inner surface of a pipe becomes encrusted, then the
reduced diameter resulting from this, is important.
If the kinematic viscosity of the liquid Q differs greatly from 1.236 mm²/s, then the
head loss value HJ obtained from table 6.03 must be corrected as described in section
6.1.3.

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Material and type of pipe Condition of pipe k in mm
new (ductile) cast iron bitumen coated 0.1 to 0.15
not bitumen coated 0.25 to 0.15
cement lined 0.025
used (ductile) cast iron evenly corroded 1 to 1.5
slightly to heavily encrusted 1.5 to 3
cleaned after several years in service 1.5
new seamless steel rolled or drawn 0.02 to 0.05
new welded steel 0.04 to 0.1
new coated steel zinc plated 0.1 to 0.15
bitumen coated 0.05
cement lined 0.025
galvanised 0.01
used steel evenly corroded 0.15
slightly encrusted 0.15 to 0.4
medium encrusted 1.5
heavily encrusted 2 to 4
new concrete commercial grade smooth 0.3 to 0.8
commercial grade medium 1 to 2
commercial grade rough 2 to 3
used concrete after several years use 0.2 to 0.3
centrifugally spun concrete 0.25
drawn or extruded copper, new to 0.01
brass, aluminium, plastic used to 0.03
or glass

Table 6.01 Roughness values k for various materials and conditions of pipe

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Table 6.02 Correction factor for roughness value k z 0.1 mm
For k = 0.05 to 3mm, the difference in the correction values due to flow
velocity are negligible, so average values are shown. However for k =
0.01mm, the effect of flow velocity must be taken into account.

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Table 6.03a Head loss per 100m of pipe using PRANDTL-COLEBROOK for
k = 0.1mm and turbulent flow Q = 1.236 mm²/s.

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Table 6.03b Head loss per 100m of pipe using PRANDTL-COLEBROOK for
k = 0.1mm and turbulent flow Q = 1.236 mm²/s.

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Example:
Given: pure water with t = 10 °C (Q = 1.30 mm²/s), Q = 360 m³/h
new steel pipe bitumen coated DN 200, l = 400 m
Reynolds number:
354 · 360
Re = ————— · 10³ = 4.9 · 105 i.e. turbulent flow
200 · 1.30
From table 6.03 is given: HJ = 4.5 m/100 m, U = 3.2 m/s
From table 6.01 a roughness value for new steel pipe, bitumen coated k = 0.05 mm is
given and from table 6.02 a correction value f = 0.91 so the head loss is obtained
from:
HJ (k = 0.05) = 4.5 m · 0.91 = 4.1 m/100 m
or for the entire pipe length l = 400 m:

400 m
HJ = 4.1 m · ———— = 16.4 m
100 m

6.1.3 Correction of head loss HJ for liquids with a kinematic viscosity Q z

1.236 mm²/s
Assumption of turbulent flow with Re > 2320.
The correction is carried out in three steps a) to c). The subscript ‘x’ denotes the
values for the given kinematic viscosity.

1.236
a) Q = Qx · ——— in m³/h with Q in m³/h and Q in mm²/s
Q

b) from table 6.03, HJ is evaluated as described in section 6.1.2 for the flowrate Q
and the given nominal bore of pipe.
c) HJ x is then obtained from:
Q²
HJx = HJ · —— in m per 100 m pipe
1.236
with HJ in m per 100 m pipe and Q in mm²/s

Example:
Given: Liquid with Q = 20 mm²/s, Q = 150 m³/h
New cast pipe, bitumen coated (k = 0.1 mm), DN 100, l = 50 m
354 · 150
Re = ————— · 10³ = 2.65 · 104 = turbulent flow
100 · 20
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a): 1.236 mm²/s
Q = 150 m³/h · —————— = 9.3 m³/h
20 mm²/s
from table 6.03
HJ = 0.13 m per 100 m pipe
and the required value
20 mm²/s ²
HJx = 0.13 m · ————— = 34 m per 100 m pipe
1.236 mm²/s
or for the entire pipe length l = 50 m:
50 m
HJx = 34 m · ——— = 17 m
100 m

The flow velocity is obtained from table 6.03 for Q = 150 m³/h and DN100
as U = 5 m/s.

6.2 Head loss HJ in valves and fittings

U²
HJ = ] · ——— in m
2g
with U = average flow velocity across the reference section in m/s
] = friction coefficient of the fitting
U²
or. HJ = 6] · ——— in m,
2g
if the friction coefficients ]of all the fittings are summed, which is only correct if all
have the same nominal bore.
The following tables summarise the friction coefficients of the most commonly used
valves and fittings. Using known values for U and ], the value HJ can easily be
obtained from table 6.04.

Valves and fittings

Straight through valves - fully open
Globe valves vertical spindle
Cast body, DN 25 to 200 ] = 2.5
Forged body, DN 25 to 50 ] = 6.5

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Inclined seat, full flow valve with inclined stem
DN 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 to 200
] 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6
Angle valve - fully open DN 25 to 200: ] = 2.0
Non-return valve
Flat seat valve, DN 25 to 200 ] = 3.5
Inclined seat valve, DN 50 to 200 ] = 2.0
Foot valve with strainer
DN 50 to 80 100 to 350
U = 1 m/s ] = 4.1 ]=3
U = 2 m/s ] = 3.0 ] = 2.25
Combination of foot valves
DN 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1200
] 7.0 6.1 5.45 4.95 4.55 4.05 3.9
Butterfly and shut off valves - fully open
DN 400 600 800 1000 1200 1500
] for PN 2.5 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.13
PN 6 0.16 0.30 0.25 0.22
PN 10 0.48 0.33 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.37
PN 16 1.20 0.85 0.73 0.63
Non-return valves, without lever and weight
DN 200 300 500 600 700 800 1000 1200
] for U =1m/s 2.95 2.90 2.85 2.70 2.55 2.40 2.30 2.25
U =2m/s 1.30 1.20 1.15 1.05 0.95 0.85 0.80 0.75
U =3m/s 0.76 0.71 0.66 0.61 0.54 0.46 0.41 0.36
If the check valves are fitted with lever and weight, the loss coefficients can amount
to a multiple of the values given. A rough estimate can be obtained by application of
the following factors: for U = 1m/so f = 4, for U = 2m/so f = 3 and for U = 3m/so
f = 2.
Swing type non-return valves, with lever and weight
U 1 m/s 1.5 m/s 2 m/s t 2.5 m/s
] 8 3 1.3 0.7

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Flap valves
The coefficient of friction of flap valves depends on the flow velocity, the design and
the weight of the flap. For this reason reliable figures can only be given by the
manufacturer. For rough approximation, the following values can be used: ] = 1.0 to
1.5.
Back flow preventer (HYDRO - STOP)
DN 50 100 150 200 250 300 400
] for U=2 m/s 5 6 8 7.5 6.5 6 7
U=3m/s 1.8 4 4.5 4 4 1.8 3.4
U=4m/s 0.9 3 3 2.5 2.5 1.2 2.2
Gate valve, flat type fully open
DN 100 200 300 400 500 600 to 800 900 to 1200
] 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09
Gate valve, oval and round type fully open
DN 100 200 300 400 500 600 to 800 900 to 1200
] 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11
Needle valve, fully open
with reference to the smallest cross section ] = 0.5 to 0.8
Fittings
The reference cross section for the flow velocity is always denoted by

Inlet, also the outlet from a container into a pipe

sharp edged very sharp ] = 0.5

slight chamfer ] = 0.25
full chamfer ] = 0.2

rounded entry smoothness ] = 0.06 to 0.05

normal ] = 0.05

sharp edged D 45° 60° 75°

with angleD ] 0.8 0.7 0.6
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projecting sharp edged very sharp ]=3
slight chamfer ] = 0.6

Pump intake

bell mouthed ] = 0.05

conical ] = 0.20

Outlet, outlet loss ] = 1

The flow velocity in the outlet cross section is the determining parameter
Changes in cross section

d1 /d2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

] 0.56 0.46 0.24 0.13 0.04

d1 / d2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

] for D=8° 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.02
D=16° 0.19 0.14 0.09 0.05 0.02
D=25° 0.33 0.25 0.16 0.08 0.03

d1 /d2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

] 0.10 0.22 0.29 0.33 0.35

d1 /d2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

] 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.17 0.26

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Bends D 45° 60° 90°
swept surface smooth rough smooth rough smooth rough
] for R=d 0.14 0.34 0.19 0.46 0.21 0.51
R=2d 0.09 0.19 0.12 0.26 0.14 0.30
Rt5d 0.08 0.16 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.20

fabricated D 45° 60° 90°

Number of weld seams 2 3 3
] 0.15 0.2 0.25

90° bends in series

2 · ]90° 3 · ]-90° 4 · ]90°

Elbow bends D 45° 60° 90°

surface smooth rough smooth rough smooth rough
] 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.70 1.15 1.30

Combination with 90° elbows

] = 2.5 ]=3 ]=5

Expansion joints
Pipe expansion joints, with/without guide tube ] = 0.3 / 2.0
“Lyra” expansion section smooth ] = 0.7
“Lyra” expansion bellows ] = 1.4

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Tee-pieces, with flow separation

sharp edged rounded with spherical with spherical

straight base concave neck
] = 1;3 ] = 0.7 ] = 0.9 ] = 2.5 to 4.9

Branches, main line and branch of same nominal bore

Confluence

Qa = 0 Qa = 0.5 Q Qa =0.8 Q Qa = Q
D=90° ]d 0.04 0.35 0.5 -
]a - 0.3 0.7 0.9
D=45° ]d 0.04 0.2 0.1 -
]a - 0.15 0.35 0.4
Divergence
Qa = 0 Qa = 0.5 Q Qa =0.8 Q Qa = Q
D=90° ]d 0.04 0.01 0.2 -
]a - 0.9 1.1 1.3
D=45° ]d 0.04 0.02 0.2 -
]a - 0.4 0.35 0.5

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 U²
Table 6.04 Determination of the head loss HJ = ] · ——
2g
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