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HCI How Did It Start?
Beginning of XX century - systematic study of human
Human-Computer
Interaction
Cezary Bolek
performance
Second World War impetus for studying the interaction

between humans and machines
1949 formation of Ergonomics Research Society

(ergonomics physical characteristics of machine and
systems, and how these affect user performance)
As computer became more widespread new terms: ManMachine Interaction and Human Computer Interaction
Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz
What is HCI ?
Human, Computer, Interaction

User (Human) an individual user, a group of users working
Interaction between people and computers, concerning

with physical, psychological and theoretical aspects of
this process
From designer point of view HCI involves the design,

implementation, and evaluation of interactive systems
in the context of the users task and work
together, a group of users in an organization,each dealing with

some part of the task or process.
Whoever trying to get job done using the technology
Computer technology ranging from the general desktop
computer to a large-scale computer system, a process control
system or embedded system
Interaction any communication between a user and computer,
be it direct or indirect
Direct interaction involves a dialog with feedback and control
throughout performance of the task
Indirect interaction may involve batch processing or intelligent
sensors controlling the environment
What is involved in HCI ?
What makes product successful ?
Psychology and cognitive science
to give knowledge of the users perceptual, cognitive and

problem-solving skills
Ergonomics
for the users physical capabilities
Sociology
to help understand the wider context of the interaction, human as
a part of society
Computer science and engineering
to be able to build necessary technology
Business
to be able to market it
Graphic design
to produce an effective interface presentation
Technical writing
to produce manuals
It must be:
USEFUL accomplish what is required: play music,

cook dinner, format a document
USABLE do it easily and naturally, without danger of

error, etc.
USED make people want to use it, be attractive,

engaging, fun, etc.
The human
Humans are limited on their capacity to process
The Human
information
Information is received and responses given via
number of input and output channels:
visual, auditory, haptic, movement
Information is stored in memory:

sensory, short-term (working), long-term
Information is processed and applied to:

reasoning, problem solving, skill acquisition, error
Emotion influences human capabilities

Each person is different
Information Processing
Vision
Attention
Two stages in vision

Senses
Sensory
Store
Perception
Decision &
Response
selection
Action
Effector
physical reception of stimulus

processing and interpretation of stimulus
Short
Term
Memory
Long
Term
Memory
The Eye - physical reception
Interpreting the signal

Size and depth
Retina
Cornea
Optic nerves
(blind spot)
Lens
Mechanism for
receiving light and
transforming it
into electrical
energy:
Pupil
visual angle indicates how

much of view object
occupies (relates to size and
Visual
angle
distance from eye)
Iris
visual acuity is ability to

perceive detail (limited)
Sclera
Muscles
light reflects from objects

images are focused upside-down on retina
retina contains rods for low light vision and cones for color vision
ganglion cells (brain!) detect pattern and movement
familiar objects perceived

as constant size
(in spite of changes in visual
angle when far away)
Visual
angle
cues like overlapping help

perception of size and
depth
Interpreting the signal (cont)

Brightness
subjective reaction to levels of light
affected by luminance of object
measured and described in terms of the amount of luminance
that gives just a noticeable difference
visual acuity increases with luminance as does flicker
Interpreting the signal (cont)

The visual system compensates for:
movement
changes in luminance.
Context is used to resolve ambiguity
Colour
made up of hue (wave length), intensity, saturation (share of
whiteness)
cones sensitive to colour wavelengths
blue acuity is lowest
8% males and 1% females colour blind
Optical Illusions
Reading
Several stages:
Optical illusions sometimes occur due to over

compensation
visual pattern perceived

decoded using internal representation of language
interpreted using knowledge of syntax, semantics, pragmatics
Reading involves saccades and fixations (including
the Ponzo illusion
the Muller Lyer illusion
regressions)
Perception occurs during fixation periods (94% of
reading time)
Word shape is important to recognition (removing the
word shape clues, e.g. by capitalization, is detrimental
to reading speed and accuracy)
Negative contrast improves reading from computer screen

(higher luminance, increased acuity)
Hearing
Provides information about environment:
distances, directions, objects etc.
Physical apparatus:
outer ear protects inner and amplifies sound
middle ear transmits sound waves as
Hearing (cont)
Humans can hear frequencies from 20Hz to 15kHz
can distinguish frequency changes of less than 1.5Hz at low
frequencies
less accurate distinguishing high frequencies than low.
vibrations to inner ear
inner ear
chemical transmitters are released

and cause impulses in auditory nerve
Sound
pitch
loudness
timbre
sound frequency
amplitude
type or quality
Auditory system filters sounds

can attend to sounds over background noise.
for example, the cocktail party phenomenon.
Touch
Provides important feedback about environment.
Movement
Time taken to respond to stimulus:
reaction time + movement time
May be key sense for someone who is visually impaired.

Stimulus received via receptors in the skin:
thermoreceptors
nociceptors
mechanoreceptors
heat and cold

pain
pressure
(some instant, some continuous)
Some areas more sensitive than others e.g. fingers.
Movement time dependent on age, fitness etc.

Reaction time - dependent on stimulus type:
visual
auditory
pain
~ 200ms
~ 150 ms
~ 700ms
Kinesthesis - awareness of body position (due to receptors in

joints)
affects comfort and performance.
Increasing reaction time decreases accuracy in the

unskilled operator but not in the skilled operator.
Movement (cont)
Speed and accuracy of movement are important
considerations in the design of interactive systems.
Memory
There are three types of memory function:
Fitts' Law describes the time taken to hit a screen target:

Mt = a + b log2(D/S + 1)
where:
a and b are empirically determined constants

Mt is movement time
D is Distance
S is Size of target
SENSORY
Memory
Iconic
Echoic
Haptic
Attention
SHORT-TERM
Memory
(working)
Rehearsal
LONG-TERM
Memory
Information received by sensors can get stuck on one

of the levels
Conclusions:
targets as large as possible
distances as small as possible

Sensory memory
Buffers for stimuli received through senses
iconic memory: visual stimuli
echoic memory: aural stimuli
haptic memory: tactile stimuli
Example
stereo sound (sounds reach the ears with different delays and
stored in sensory memory what allows to detect the direction
of the source)
Short-term memory (STM)
Scratch-pad for temporary recall

rapid access ~ 70ms
rapid decay ~ 1000ms
limited capacity:
7 2 symbols
7 2 chunks
Continuously overwritten
STM - Examples
Multiply 35 x 6
(6x5, memory, 6x30, memory, add results)
(2x3=6, so 2x35=70, so 3x70 -> result)
Weve used short term memory.
Capacity 72 characters
212348278493202
Chunking increases efficiency
Long-term memory (LTM)

Repository for all our knowledge
slow access ~ 1/10 second
slow decay, if any
huge or unlimited capacity
Two types
episodic
semantic
serial memory of events

structured memory of facts, concepts, skills
48 601 654 432
Context increases efficiency
Semantic LTM derived from episodic LTM what allows to build

new concepts based on previous experiences
HEC ATR UNU PTH ETR EET

Long-term memory (cont.)
LTM - semantic network
Semantic memory structure

provides efficient access to information
represents relationships between bits of information
supports inference mechanism
Model: semantic network

inheritance child nodes inherit properties of parent
nodes
relationships between bits of information explicit
supports inference through inheritance
Models of LTM - Frames
Models of LTM - Scripts
Information organized in data structures

Slots in structure instantiated with values for instance of
Model of stereotypical information required to interpret
data
Typesubtype relationships
Script has elements that can be instantiated with

values for context
DOG
COLLIE
Fixed
legs: 4
Default
diet: carniverous
sound: bark
Variable
size
colour
Fixed
breed of: DOG
type: sheepdog
Default
size: 65 cm
Variable
colour
Models of LTM - Scripts
Result:
Props:
Entry conditions
Result
Props
Roles
Scenes
Tracks
Roles:
dog better
owner poorer
vet richer
examination table
medicine
instruments
Entry conditions conditions that must be satisfied for the script to be

activated
Result
conditions that will be true after the script is terminated
Props
objects involved in the events described in the script
Roles
actions performed by particular participants
Scenes
the sequences of events that occur
Tracks
a variation on the general pattern representing an
alternative scenario
Models of LTM - Production rules

Representation of procedural knowledge.
Script for a visit to the vet

Entry conditions:dog ill
vet open
owner has money
situation
vet examines
diagnoses
treats
owner brings dog in
pays
takes dog out
Scenes:
arriving at reception
waiting in room
examination
paying
Tracks:
dog needs medicine

dog needs operation
conditions that must be satisfied for the script to be activated

conditions that will be true after the script is terminated
objects involved in the events described in the script
actions performed by particular participants
the sequences of events that occur
a variation on the general pattern representing an alternative scenario
Condition/action rules
if condition is matched
then use rule to determine action.
IF dog is wagging tail

THEN pat dog
IF dog is growling
THEN run away
LTM - Operations
LTM - Storage of information

Storing information is done bye rehearsal
There are three main activities related to long-term

memory :
information storing (remembering)

information forgetting
information retrieval (recall)
(multiple exposition of information or stimulus)

information moves from STM to LTM
Total Time Hypothesis

amount of retained information is proportional to rehearsal
time
Distribution of Practice effect

Memorizing can be optimized by spreading learning over time
Structured, meaningful and familiar information

easier and faster to remember
LTM - Forgetting
Two phenomena:
Decay
Information is lost gradually but very slowly
Interference
New information replaces old: retroactive interference
Old may interfere with new: proactive inhibition
so may not forget at all, but memory is selective
LTM - retrieval
Recall
information reproduced from memory can be
assisted by cues, e.g. categories, imagery
Recognition
information gives knowledge that it has been seen
before
less complex than recall - information is cue
affected by emotion can subconsciously `choose' to forget
Deductive Reasoning
Thinking
Deduction:
Derive logically necessary conclusion from given premises.
e.g.
If it is Friday then she will go to work

It is Friday
Therefore she will go to work.
Reasoning
deduction, induction, abduction
Problem solving
Logical conclusion not necessarily true

(if premises are not true):
e.g.
If it is raining then the ground is dry

It is raining
Therefore the ground is dry
Deduction (cont.)
Sometimes deduction is used incorrectly

When truth and logical validity clash
e.g.
Some people are babies

Some babies cry
Inference - Some people cry
Correct?
Invalid deduction we are not told that all babies are

people, so it is therefore logically possible that the
babies who cry are those who are not people
Inductive Reasoning
Induction:
Generalize: from cases seen to cases unseen
e.g.
All elephants we have seen have trunks,
Therefore all elephants have trunks.
These grains come from this sack.
They are white.
All grains in sack are white
Unreliable:
Can only prove false not true
but useful!
Humans not good at using negative evidence (better in positive)

e.g. Wason's cards.
10
Wason's cards
7 E 4 K
Abductive reasoning
Reasoning from event to cause

(if B is true and if A causes B, then A is true)
e.g.
If a card has a vowel on one side it has an even number on the other
Is this true?
How many cards do you need to turn over to find out?
. and which cards?
Common response: E i 4.
This uses only positive evidence.
Negative evidence: if we can find a card which has an odd number on one side
and vowel on the other, we have disproved the statement.
Sam drives fast when drunk.

If I see Sam driving fast, assume drunk.
These grains are white.
Grains in the sack are white.
These grains come from this sack.
Unreliable:
Can lead to false explanations
Therefore: E i 7.
Problem solving
Process of finding solution to unfamiliar task using
knowledge.
Several theories.
Gestalt theory

Created be behaviourists
Based on idea of duplicating known reactions (tries, mistakes)
Problem solving both productive and reproductive
Productive draws on insight and restructuring of problem
Attractive but not enough evidence to explain `insight' etc.
Move away from behaviourism and led towards information
processing theories
Problem solving (cont.)

Problem space theory
Problem space comprises problem states
Problem solving involves generating states using legal
operators (actions, activities)
Heuristics may be employed to select operators
e.g. means-ends analysis
Operates must be defined within human information
processing system
e.g. STM limits etc.
Largely applied to problem solving in well-defined areas
e.g. puzzles rather than knowledge intensive areas
11
Problem solving (cont.)

Analogy
Errors
Types of error
Analogical mapping:
novel problems in new domain?
use knowledge of similar problem from similar domain
Analogical mapping difficult if domains are semantically different
Skill acquisition
Skilled activity (experience) bases on chunking and categorization
solutions
Chunked (grouped) information results in optimizing of STM usage
Conceptual rather than superficial grouping of problems

Information is structured more effectively
Slips
Right intention, but failed to do it right
Causes: poor physical skill, inattention etc.
Change to aspect of skilled behaviour can cause slip
Mistakes
wrong intention
Cause: incorrect understanding
Humans create mental models to explain behaviour.
If wrong model (different from actual system) errors can occur
Emotion
Various theories of how emotion works
James-Lange: emotion is our interpretation of a physiological
response to a stimuli
Cannon: emotion is a psychological response to a stimuli
Schacter-Singer: emotion is the result of our evaluation of our
physiological responses, in the light of the whole situation we
are in
Emotion clearly involves both cognitive and physical

responses to stimuli
Emotion (cont.)
The biological response to physical stimuli is called
affect
Affect influences how we respond to situations

positive creative problem solving
negative narrow thinking
Negative affect can make it harder to do even easy

tasks; positive affect can make it easier to do difficult
tasks
(Donald Norman)
12
Emotion (cont.)
Implications for interface design

Stress will increase the difficulty of problem
solving
relaxed users will be more forgiving of
shortcomings in design
aesthetically pleasing and rewarding
interfaces will increase positive affect
13

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HCI How Did It Start?

Beginning of XX century - systematic study of human

Second World War impetus for studying the interaction

1949 formation of Ergonomics Research Society

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Human, Computer, Interaction

Interaction between people and computers, concerning

From designer point of view HCI involves the design,

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

together, a group of users in an organization,each dealing with

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

What is involved in HCI ?

What makes product successful ?

Psychology and cognitive science

to give knowledge of the users perceptual, cognitive and

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

USEFUL accomplish what is required: play music,

USABLE do it easily and naturally, without danger of

USED make people want to use it, be attractive,

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Information is stored in memory:

Information is processed and applied to:

Emotion influences human capabilities

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Two stages in vision

physical reception of stimulus

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

The Eye - physical reception

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Interpreting the signal

visual angle indicates how

distance from eye)

visual acuity is ability to

light reflects from objects

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

familiar objects perceived

cues like overlapping help

Interpreting the signal (cont)

Interpreting the signal (cont)

Context is used to resolve ambiguity

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Optical illusions sometimes occur due to over

visual pattern perceived

Reading involves saccades and fixations (including

the Ponzo illusion

the Muller Lyer illusion

Negative contrast improves reading from computer screen

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

vibrations to inner ear

chemical transmitters are released

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Auditory system filters sounds

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

May be key sense for someone who is visually impaired.

heat and cold

Some areas more sensitive than others e.g. fingers.

Movement time dependent on age, fitness etc.

Kinesthesis - awareness of body position (due to receptors in

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz

Increasing reaction time decreases accuracy in the

Cezary Bolek. Department of Computer Science. University of Lodz