A BRIEF GRAMMAR

OF THE

HAMER LANGUAGE

First Draft

This Grammar booklet is a product of the DiscoverYour-Grammar workshop, which is a joint project
between:
Dilla University, Institute of Indigenous Studies and
SIL Ethiopia, P.O.Box 2576, Addis Ababa

Title:
English title: A Brief Grammar of the Hamer Language
Language: Hamer, spoken in Ethiopia
Year of publication: 2011
Writer: Andreas Joswig

ii

Table of Contents
0

Preface ............................................................................. iv

Introduction ..................................................................... 1

Noun.................................................................................. 6

Modifying the Noun Phrase ............................................ 8

Pronouns and Possessives ............................................. 14

Subjects and Predicates ................................................ 18

Verbs ............................................................................... 22

Transitive Verbs ............................................................ 26

Non-Final Verbs and Verbal Derivations ................... 29

Other Ways to Use Noun Phrases ................................ 33

10

Story: Donkey, Dog and Goat ...................................... 39

iii

0 Preface
This brief grammar was developed and written during a workshop held in August and September 2011 in Dilla. The purpose
of this book is to make the Hamer community aware of the
wealth and variation it inherited with the Hamer language. The
language possesses an intricate system of forms and rules,
which all speakers use in their daily lives, often without being
consciously aware of them. Many of these forms and rules are
presented in this little book. It also needs to be pointed out that
the purpose of this book is not to present a full and comprehensive description of the Hamer language. This would be beyond
the scope of this work, and it would require a different approach to the language. Many forms of the Hamer language are
not even mentioned in here, and some areas of the Hamer
grammar have been omitted from this work. Also this book attempts to use terminology which is understandable by a wide
audience. The hope is even that it can be translated into the
Hamer language to make it fully accessible to all Hamer speakers. Therefore this book will disappoint everybody who wants
to see a description of Hamer according to the latest linguistic
models and terminology.
We want to thank Ato Hussein Mohammed for teaching the
workshop in Amharic. We are especially grateful for the tremendous assistance rendered by Dilla University and the Institute of Indigenous Studies. Special thanks go to Tariku Degu,
who organized the whole workshop well in advance and responded to all our wishes before we even asked for them. The
Hamer speakers working on this booklet were Ato Alma Bali,
W/ro Betelhem Gele, Ato Berki Banko, Ato Garsho Sofar and
Ato Shada Guri.
Andreas Joswig, SIL Ethiopia
iv

1 Introduction
The Hamer language is spoken by the Hamer people in the
Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, in the
Hamer Wereda near the towns of Turmi, Irbore and Dimeka.
The number of speakers is approximately 50,000 according to
the 2007 census. The Hamer people are cattle herders and do
not farm the land. Jean Lydall wrote a very useful 45-page
grammar sketch of Hamer in 1976.

1.1 Orthography
The Hamer orthography has not been developed yet. For the
purposes of this book, the following orthography has been
adopted. It needs to be pointed out that this cannot serve as the
final orthography of the language, as it does not show important features such as length of vowels or consonants, or tone.
More work needs to happen before a good orthography for the
Hamer community can be provided. Also, because the orthography is not settled yet, the data in this booklet lacks consistency in the way it is presented, and often does not adequately
represent all the necessary distinctions found in the grammar.
1.1.1 Vowels:
Hamer has five vowels, which are shown in the orthography by
adding markers to the consonants, as shown in section 1.1.2.
The five vowels are:
,

low central vowel /a/

mid front vowel /e/
high front vowel /i/
mid back vowel /o/
high back vowel /u/

When shown in this form, the vowels are preceded by a glottal

stop //. All vowels can appear long and short.
1.1.2 Consonants:
The following consonants are present in Hamer. They are
shown in the Amharic order. The first form is usually not used
in Hamer (but in this booklet it may show up in places where
the fifth order may have been more appropriate). The sixth
form is used for consonants without a following vowel.
,,,,,,

glottal fricative /h/

,,,,,,

labial nasal /m/

,,,,,,

alveolar lateral /l/

meeting

answer
simply

,,,,,,

alveolar flap /r/

time

,,,,,,

alveolar fricative /s/

,,,,,,,

postalveolar fricative //

just like
that
sand

,,,,,,

velar ejective / /

goat

,,,,,,

voiced labial stop /b/

,,,,,,

voiceless alveolar stop /t/

he shouts
now

,,,,,,

voiceless postalveolar
affricate t/

hate

,,,,,,

alveolar nasal /n/

fire

,,,,,,

palatal nasal //

ostrich
feather

,,,,,,

voiceless velar stop /k/

her

,,,,,,

voiceless velar fricative

ox

,,,,,,

labial semivowel /w/

our

,,,,,,

voiced alveolar fricative /z/

,,,,,, postalveolar ejective / /

he
wanted
he
went
there
is
he
threw

green

refuse

darkness
sky

,,,,,,

labial ejective stop / /

up

,,,,,,

alveolar ejective affricate / /

black

,,,,,,

voiceless labial stop /p/

horse

,,,,,,
,,,,,,

voiced alveolar stop /d/

alveolar implosive stop //

,,,,,,

palatal voiced affricate

,,,,,,,

voiced velar stop //

,,,,,,

alveolar ejective stop / /

In addition to the segments shown above, tone also plays a

major role in Hamer. Tone is very little studied so far in the
language. Tone is not marked in this book and needs to be considered carefully in future publications.

1.2 Outline
This grammar sketch of Hamer is organized according to structure of the language. Section 2 will deal with the nouns, section
3

3 with modifiers of the noun phrase, section 4 with pronouns

and possessives, section 5 with subjects and predicates, section
6 with verbs and person markings, section 7 with transitive
verbs, section 8 with non-final verbs and verbal derivations,
and section 9 with other types of noun phrases and adverbs.
Finally, all aspects of the grammar will be illustrated by the
story The donkey, the dog and the goat (section 10).
For the purpose of this grammar sketch, we will use the
following basic linguistic terms:

noun
gender
o male female
number
o singular plural
definiteness
o definite indefinite
adjective
numeral
o cardinal number
o ordinal number
demonstrative
pronoun
o personal pronoun
o object pronoun
o possessive pronoun
person
o 1st person
o 2nd person
o 3rd person
Role of the Noun Phrase
o predicate

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
verb
o
o
o

subject
object
possessive
dative
locative
directional
ablative
comitative
instrumental
intransitive
transitive
derivation
causative
passive
reciprocal

adverb
All of these terms will be defined in later sections.

1.3 Kinds of Words

All sentences consist of several words. These words can be classified according to how they look (form) and what they do (function). Here are examples for different kinds of words in Hamer:
, , for verbs
, , for nouns
, , for adjectives
, , for numerals
Of these, nouns and verbs are most common. You will find
them in almost every sentence.

2 Noun
Nouns are words that refer to people and things; they often indicate countable and tangible objects. Nouns in Hamer distinguish the number (singular, plural), but they dont distinguish
the gender (male, female).

2.1 Gender
Gender is the grammatical distinction between male and female
of the thing or person the word indicates. Gender often correlates with the natural sex of a person or animal. In Hamer the
difference between male and female nouns is not expressed on
the as such, but on the words which accompany the noun.
Example 1

this woman

this man
The word for woman () has female gender, the word for
man () has male gender. This can be seen by the different
demonstratives preceding the two nouns, which are chosen
according to the gender of the noun.
Female nouns:
Example 2

girl
cow

woman
she-goat

boy
bull

man
billy goat

Male nouns:
Example 3

2.2 Number
Number is the distinction between singular and plural marked
on a word.
Example 4

A thief came.

Thieves came.

A bird came.

Birds came.

A goat came.

Goats came.

The difference between singular and plural for the noun is

usually expressed by the marker - for plural. Some nouns for
animals end on the vowel - for singular and -a for plural.
The following chart lists the Hamer number markers:
marker
singular -, -
plural
-, -

example
,
,

2.3 Definite and Indefinite

In Hamer there is no grammatical difference between definite
and indefinite nouns.
Example 5

A thief slept.

The thief slept.

Thieves slept.

The thieves slept.

3 Modifying the Noun Phrase

In Hamer, a lot of things can be done with a noun. If some
information is added to the noun, we call the result a noun
phrase. The following elements can be added to a noun phrase:
demonstratives, numerals, and adjectives. If things are added to
a noun in a noun phrase, then we call the noun the head noun
of the noun phrase.

3.1 Demonstratives
Demonstratives are words which can be added to a noun
phrase. Demonstratives help the speaker to show something;
they identify more clearly what the speaker refers to. They
signal nearness or distance. In Hamer, demonstratives show
number and gender.
Demonstratives = words that define a nouns reference
We can distinguish between near demonstratives and far demonstratives.
3.1.1 Near Demonstratives
Example 6

,
,

this stone
this thief

In Hamer, the near demonstrative word can be put in front of the

head noun or after the head noun. In these examples it is .
3.1.2 Far Demonstratives
Example 7

, that stone
, that thief
Also the far demonstrative word can be placed in front of or
after the head noun in these examples it is .
8

Near demonstratives define a noun as near to the speaker.

Far demonstratives define a noun as far from the speaker.
3.1.3 Gender Marking on the Demonstrative
Demonstratives are marked for gender:
Example 8

Near
Far

,
,
,
,

this woman
this man
that woman
that man

In Hamer, the demonstratives for male and female are

different. They are and for near demonstratives, and
and for far demonstratives.
3.1.4 Number Marking of Demonstratives
Demonstratives are marked for number.
Example 9

Near

,
,
,

Far

,
that house
, those houses
, those women

this house
these houses
these women

The form for plural near demonstratives is , for plural far

demonstratives it is .

3.2 Numerals
Numerals are words which can be added to a noun phrase.
They are used to indicate the exact number of the noun in a
noun phrase.
9

Numeral = a word that is employed for counting.

In Hamer, there are two types of numerals: cardinal numbers
and ordinal numbers.
Cardinal number = a numeral that indicates the number of objects (things or people)
Ordinal number = a numeral that indicates the order of appearance
3.2.1 Cardinal Numbers
Cardinal numbers are numerals which refer to a particular
number of items of the noun they refer to.
Example 10

one
four
seven
ten

two

five

eight

three

six

nine
twenty
hundred

In Hamer, the number twenty means literally one full person.

Multiples of twenty are then counted as full persons, like one
hundred as five full persons.
In most cases, cardinal numbers are used to count nouns. When
used in a noun phrase, they follow the noun. Numbers higher than
one are also marked for plural by the marker -.
Example 11

10

one tree
two trees
three trees

one house
two houses
three houses

3.2.2 Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers tell you the order of things, like the first, the
second, the third and so on. Mostly ordinal numbers are
counting a noun. Ordinal numbers are formed from cardinal
numbers by adding the marker - to the number word.
Example 12

the second tree

the third tree
The following chart is a summary of the cardinal and ordinal
numbers in Hamer, and the ways in which they are used.

one

one tree

the first tree

two

two trees

the second tree

three

three trees

the third tree

ten

ten trees

the tenth tree

3.3 Adjectives
Adjectives are another kind of word which can be added to a
noun phrase. They provide information on the quality of the
noun. In Hamer, adjectives can precede or follow the head
noun of the noun phrase.
Example 13

,
,
,
,
,

beautiful horse
black cloth
white tooth
red cow
fat boy
11

 ,
,
,
,

slim girl
heavy bag
fertile field
rich man

3.4 Plural Marking on Adjectives

The plural on the adjective is marked by adding the marker -
to the adjective. This means that in a noun phrase both the
noun and the adjective are marked for the plural.
Example 14

,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,

beautiful horses
black clothes
white teeth
red cows
fat boys
slim girls
heavy bags
black calves
black sheep (PL)

3.5 Gender Marking on Adjectives

The adjective shows also the gender of the noun, by adding the
marker - for feminine nouns.
Example 15

,
,
,
,

12

the short thief

the short woman
the fat ox
the fat cow

3.6 The Order of Elements in a Noun Phrase

As has been seen before, in Hamer the noun can be at the end
or the beginning of the noun phrase. The other elements need
to come in the fixed order demonstrative numeral adjective.
Therefore, the following two orders of the noun-phrase are
possible:
demonstrative numeral adjectives noun
noun demonstrative numeral adjectives
Example 16

NOUN

DEM

NUM

ADJ

DEM

NUM

ADJ

NOUN

these four long spears

NOUN NUM

ADJ

NUM

NOUN

ADJ

the third strong man

13

4 Pronouns and Possessives

In some cases a noun phrase may look different to the ones we
have seen so far. Instead of showing a real noun, they may be
filled by just a pronoun, or the noun may be accompanied by a
possessive noun or pronoun.

4.1 Pronouns
Pronouns are words that take the position of nouns. The meaning of a pronoun can only be determined by looking at the context.
4.1.1 Personal Pronouns
The personal pronoun shows who does something. Personal
pronouns usually make all the personal distinctions which are
important in the language. In Hamer this is person (1st, 2nd, 3rd),
gender (male, female), and number (singular, plural). The
speaker is called the 1st person, the person spoken to is called
the 2nd person, and the person spoken about is called the 3rd
person. In Hamer there are 7 different personal pronouns, 4 for
the singular, 3 for the plural.
SG

1.
2.S
3.M
3.F

PL

I ran
you ran
he ran
she ran
SG

we ran
you all ran
they ran
PL

2.

3.M

3.F

As can be seen, the forms for the 3rd person singular and plural
are the same in Hamer.
14
1.

4.2 Possessive Nouns

Often the speaker wants to indicate who owns the head noun in
a noun phrase. In this case it is necessary to employ possessive
nouns, which modify the head noun. The noun which is owned
and the possessive noun have to be used in the correct order:
In Hamer the noun which expresses the ownership precedes the
head noun and is marked by the marker -.
Example 17

bag of the thief

money of the trader
house of the father
tail of the horse
daughter of the farmer

4.3 Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns.
Example 18

Bekeles donkeys

his donkeys
The noun is replaced by a pronoun; in this case the possessive
pronoun replaces the noun referring to the owner. The
possessive pronoun is a form that looks similar to the personal
pronoun, but is accompanied by a marker which depends on
the number and gender of the head noun.
Example 19

my donkey
your donkey
15

his donkey
her donkey
our donkey
your (pl) donkey
their donkey

my she-donkey
your she-donkey
his she-donkey
her she-donkey
our she-donkey
your (pl) she-donkey
their she-donkey

my donkeys
your donkeys
his donkeys
her donkeys
our donkeys
your (pl) donkeys
their donkeys

The possessive pronouns for unspecified or masculine head

nouns end on -, those for feminine head nouns end on -,
and those for plural head nouns end on -. The following chart
contains the possessive pronouns of Hamer. Just as with the
personal pronouns, the forms for the 3rd person singular and
plural are identical for each of the three categories.

16

possessive pronouns
1S
2S
3M
3F
1P
2P
3P

SG (MASC)

FEM

PL

17

5 Subjects and Predicates

Each sentence in Hamer consists of a subject and a predicate.
The subject is the thing or person that the sentence talks about.
The predicate is what is being said about the subject. Other
elements may also belong to the sentence. Here are a few
examples of subjects with predicates in Hamer.
Example 20

Subject

Predicate

This man is a good thief.

The girl sleeps.
My brother is very clever.
You are my friend.

5.1 Subjects
A subject is the thing or person the sentence is all about.
Usually the subject is a noun phrase or a pronoun. Usually a
subject is found at the beginning of a sentence.
In Hamer, the subject cannot be left out in many sentences,
because often the predicate on its own shows no information
about who or what the subject is. In those cases, there is at least
a personal pronoun in the place of the subject. In some verb
forms, however, the identity of the subject already becomes
clear from looking at the verb. Then the subject does not have
to be expressed through a noun phrase or pronoun.

5.2 Predicates
Predicates are the most important thing in a sentence. The
predicate is the thing that is being said about the subject. It can
be that the subject does something; then the predicate is a verb.
We will look at verbs in chapter 6. In many sentences the pre18

dicate is not a verb. In Hamer the predicate usually is at the end

of the sentence.
5.2.1 Noun Phrases as Predicates
Often the speaker wants to say that the subject is the same as
something or someone. Then a noun phrase is used as the
predicate:
Subject

Predicate

This man is a good thief.

You are my friend.

In Hamer, a noun-phrase is marked by the marker -, when it is

used as predicate. This element is the same for all persons of
the subject. Therefore, the subject needs to be expressed separately by a subject noun phrase.
Example 21

I am a thief. (1ST PERSON SINGULAR)

You are a thief. (2ND PERSON SINGULAR)
He is a thief. (3RD PERSON MASCULINE)
She is a thief. (3RD PERSON FEMININE)
We are thieves. (1ST PERSON PLURAL)
You are thieves. (2ND PERSON PLURAL)
They are thieves. (3RD PERSON PLURAL)

5.2.2 Adjectives as Predicates

Also adjectives can be used as predicates, when the subject is
said to have a certain quality:
Example 22

Subject

Predicate

This leaf is green.

That man is very bad.
19

The predicate marker for adjectives is the same as for noun

phrases, .
5.2.3 Numerals as Predicates
Numerals can be used as predicates when the subject is said to
be of a certain number, or to be in a certain order.
Example 23

Subject

The predicate marker

noun phrases.

Predicate

They are three.

He was first.
for numerals is the same as the one for

5.2.4 Possessives as Predicates

When the subject is being said to belong to someone, the
predicate is either a possessive pronoun, or a possessive noun.
Example 24

Subject
Predicate

This is yours.

That donkey is the thiefs.
The predicate marker for possessives is the same as the one for
noun phrases, .
5.2.5 Modifications to the Predicate
In the Hamer language, the predicate can be positive or negative.
Example 25

Subject

20

Predicate

He is a thief.
He is not a thief.
The ox is red.
The ox is not red.

When a predicate without a verb is used in the negative, it is

marked by the marker -, which is used for all persons.
A predicate can also be used in different times.
Example 26

Subject
Predicate

He is a thief.

He was a thief.

The ox is red.

The ox was red.

If a predicate is put into the past, it is marked by the marker -,
which is used for all persons.

21

6 Verbs
The verb is the corner stone of most sentences in Hamer, because in many sentences the predicate is a verb. A verb usually
is used when something happens or gets done. Verbs describe
events, processes, states or actions. The verb shows the most
variation in its forms.
Example 27

Subject

Predicate

The water will flow.

The girl sleeps.
My brothers fight.
Your father died.

6.1 Person Marking on the Verb

In the Hamer language, the verb often agrees with the subject:
In non-past verbs a subject in the 1st person singular requires
the verb to show the marker for the 1st person singular, and so
on. The following verb shows the markers for all persons for
the non-past:
Example 28

I run.
you run.
he runs.
she runs
we run.
you run (PL)
they run.

As can be seen, the markers for the person appear between the
stem and the tense marker of the verb, which in this case is a
repetition of the verb stem.
22

6.2 Tense Marking on the Verb

The verb of Hamer can also be used with different time references. The above examples assume that the verb happens at
the time of speaking. But verbs in Hamer can also be used with
different tenses:
Tense = temporal reference indicated on the verb
Example 29

Yesterday, she ran.

Right now she runs.

Tomorrow she will run.
In Hamer, verbs can be used in the past tense, indicating a time
before the time of speaking:
Example 30

I ran.
you ran.
he ran.
she ran.
we ran.
you ran (PL)
they ran.

In the past tense, a form of the verb is used which does not
change according to the different subject persons. Therefore, a
subject noun-phrase or a personal pronoun needs to be present
to provide clarity about the subject. The verb is marked by -
followed by the same predicate marker - that we have seen in
chapter 5.2.1.
23

In Hamer, you can indicate that an event is ongoing at the time

of speaking (continuous tense):
Example 31

I am running.
you are running.
he is running.
she is running
we are running.
you are running (PL)
they are running.

For this form, the element - is added after the verb stem and
the various person markers.

6.3 Positive and Negative Verbs

Just like on other predicates, also for verbs Hamer can express
whether something is or is not the case.
Example 32

He is a thief.
He is not a thief.
I run.

I dont run.
The following chart shows the various negative forms of
Hamer for the verb run (two dots above a character indicate
differences in emphasis):

24

PAST

PRESENT

1S

2S

3M

3F

1P

2P

3P

25

7 Transitive Verbs
7.1 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
So far we have only looked at predicates which need to be
accompanied by a subject. Some predicates need other noun
phrases to be complete. Such predicates are called transitive
verbs. Verbs which only need a subject are called intransitive
verbs.
Transitivity is the ability of a verb to take an object.
Here are some examples of transitive and intransitive verbs in
Hamer.

cut
transitive

fall
intransitive

run
intransitive

give
transitive

know
transitive

be sick
intransitive

listen
transitive

die
intransitive

Some verbs are clearly transitive, some are clearly intransitive.

Some verbs, however, can be used in both ways.
7.1.1 Object Marking
The subject of the sentence is usually the person doing it, and
the object is usually the thing or person which is affected by
the action. About the subject you ask with who?(?)
about the object you ask with whom? ( ).
Example 33

The dog bit the cat.

26


The cat bit the dog.
In these examples, the subject is always in the first position of
the sentence, and the object always follows the subject. The
subject in Hamer is not marked and the object is marked by the
marker - . Alternatively, the object noun phrase can be
marked by the marker -, as in door (obj.).

7.2 Object Pronouns

Object pronouns stand instead of a noun in the object position.
The object pronouns in Hamer are formed by adding the object
marker - to the personal markers.
Example 34

Martha saw me.

Martha saw you (S).

Martha saw him.

Martha saw her.

Martha saw us.

Martha saw you (PL).

Martha saw them.

27

object pronouns

SG OBJ

2.
1.

3.M
3.F

28

PL OBJ

8 Non-Final Verbs and Verbal Derivations

8.1 Non-Final Verbs
In Hamer there are two kinds of verbs: Those which stand at
the end of the sentence, and those which are not at the end of
the sentence (non-final verbs). The verbs at the end of a
sentence are often fully marked with reference for subject and
time. The non-final verbs often express an action that happens
before the action expressed in the final verb.
Example 35

My father went to the market and bought bananas.

My father goes to the market and buys bananas.
Here the non-final verb is a form that does not change
for person or time. It will always look the same.
In Hamer there are more forms of non-final verbs. The
following is used to show that actions are taking place at the
same time:
Example 36

While she was running, he came.
For this form, the element - is added to the verb stem.
Another form of non-final verb is used to show the reason for
the main verb:
Example 37

Because the man went home, he was not at the market.
29

For this form, the element - is added to the verb stem.

Example 38

When he goes to the market, hell buy salt.
For this form, the element - is added to the verb stem.
Another form of added verbs is used to talk about the action
without giving information on person or tense. This form can
be called infinitive.
Example 39

It is very important for a baby to drink.
This form turns the verb into something like a noun, and is
called the infinitive. In the Hamer language, it is formed by
adding - to the verb stem.

8.2 Verbal Derivation

In Hamer, verbs come in two ways. Some consist of just the
verb root with its markers for person and time. Others are
called derived verbs: They are formed by taking verb roots and
adding other elements to them. The following sections show
how the Hamer language forms derived verbs.
8.2.1 Causative
Causative verbs express an action where a person is made to do
something by another person. Some of these are just different
words:
Example 40

30

run make run

die kill (make die)

Other causative verbs are formed by using elements following

the verb root.
Example 41

learn teach
be king make king
eat feed (make eat)
difficult make difficult
open make open
sleep make sleep
hear make hear
beat make beat

As can be seen, The causative in Hamer is marked in different

ways for each verb. Most often, a marker using a form of -
or - is added between the verb stem and the tense marker.
8.2.2 Reciprocal
Reciprocal is a verb that is used when the subjects do the action
to each other. The subject is always in the plural. In Hamer this
is accomplished by using the adverb before the verb, which
otherwise is the same as the underived verb.
Example 42

see see each other

respect respect each other
fight fight each other
marry marry each other

8.2.3 Passive
With passive verbs, usually the subject is the target of the
action. In Hamer the passive is formed by adding the
marker - between the verb stem and the tense marker:

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Example 43

he ate it was eaten

he beat it was beaten
he opened it was opened
he closed it was closed
he killed it was killed

8.2.4 Stative
The stative derivation expresses that the subject is in a
particular state after an action has been completed. The action
as such is not in the focus of the verb. It is formed by putting
the marker - at the end of the verb stem.
Example 44

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open be open
close be closed

9 Other Ways to Use Noun Phrases

So far we have seen noun phrases in three functions: As predicates, subjects and objects. Often they can be used in other ways.
9.1.1 Dative
A Dative noun phrase indicates the person receiving something, or benefitting from something. The dative is marked in
Hamer by the marker - attached to the noun. About the dative
you ask with to whom? or for whom?.
Example 45

My father gave meat to the dog.

My mother gave her a dress.
9.1.2 Locative
Locative expresses a general location. The noun phrase in the
locative is marked by the marker - attached to the noun.
About the locative you ask with where?
Example 46

My father sold tomatoes at the market.
9.1.3 Directional
Directional expresses a motion towards a location. The noun
phrase in the directional case is marked either by the
marker - or the marker -, both attached to the noun.
About the directional you ask with where to?
Example 47

( )
A girl went to my mother.
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9.1.4 Ablative
Ablative expresses a motion away from a location. The noun
phrase in the ablative is marked by the word following
the noun. About the ablative you ask with from where?
Example 48

A girl came from my mother.
If the noun is not a person, then the affix - is used to indicate
ablative:
Example 49

A girl came from my mother.
9.1.5 Instrumental
Instrumental indicates the instrument or means used to execute
an action. The noun phrase in the instrumental is marked by the
marker - attached to the noun. About the instrumental you ask
with with what?
Example 50

The market was destroyed by fire.

My father opened the door with a key.
9.1.6 Comitative
Comitative indicates a person accompanying another person. A
comitative noun phrase is marked by the word following
the noun. About the comitative you ask with with whom?

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Example 51

The thief opened the door.

My father opened the door together with the thief.
The following chart lists all the markers of Hamer noun phrases:
case
subject

dative
locative
directional

marker
first element in
sentence
second element
in sentence,
markers -
or -
-
before the head
noun with
marker -
-
-
- or -

ablative

object

predicate
possessive

instrumental -
comitative

example

the dog bit the cat

the cat bit the dog

he is a thief
bag of the
thief
to the dog
at the market
or to my
mother
from my
mother
by fire
with the thief

9.2 Adverbs
All kinds of words introduced so far have in common that they
can be inflected in various ways. There are, however, words in
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Hamer which do not get inflected. One class of such verbs are
the adverbs.
Adverbs = non-inflecting words that describe a predicate.
The adverb gives additional information about the predicate. It
answers questions about where, when, how or how much. Adverbs, in fact, can be of very different forms, and often they are
derived from other kinds of words, like nouns, demonstratives
or adjectives.
9.2.1 Local Adverbs
Local adverbs = adverbs that indicate the place of an event
Hamer has many locative adverbs. Some are underived, some
are made from nouns or demonstratives.
Example 52

The dog is here.

The ox is there.

The ox is far away.

The goats are down (in the valley).

The goat is up (on the mountain).

Garsho is in front of Alma.

Alma is on the left side of Garsho.
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the car was on the right side.

Betelhem is near Berki.
9.2.2 Temporal Adverbs
Temporal adverbs = adverbs that indicate the time of an event
Here is a sample of Hamer temporal adverbs:
Example 53

Shaada arrived now.

The guest come later.

Berki was in Turmi before.

Garsho will go to the countryside at once.

Bali comes today.

tomorrow
yesterday
this year
next year

9.2.3 Modal Adverbs, Manner Adverbs

Modal adverbs = adverbs that describe the manner of doing
something

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The following are modal adverbs of Hamer. very is a

special case of an adverb of degree.

38

quickly
slowly
powerfully
carefully
very

10 Story: Donkey, Dog and Goat

,
,











The following shows the text sentence by sentence, with the
English gloss indicated under each word.

time

one

NOUN

NUMERAL

,
donkey

dog

goat

funeral

NOUN

NOUN

NOUN

NOUN

their friend

house

to arrive

together

NOUN

NOUN

VERB

ADVERB

they started out
VERB

Once upon a time, Donkey, Dog and Goat began a journey to

arrive at a friends house for a funeral.

on the street going
taxi one

they found they got in

NOUN

VERB

VERB

NOUN

NUM

VERB

While they were walking on the street, they saw a taxi and got in.

39


after

of the taxi

taxi boy

money

they asked

ADVERB

NOUN

NOUN

NOUN

VERB

Then they asked the taxi-boy for the money.

donkey money paying taxi boy he received

NOUN

NOUN

VERB

NOUN

VERB

Donkey took out money, paid, and received his change.

taxi boy of the dog money change he gave simply

NOUN

NOUN

NOUN

NOUN

VERB

ADVERB

he said.
VERB

The taxi-boy simply did not return the change of the dog.

goat

money

nothing

she does not have

NOUN

NOUN

NUM

VERB

Goat did not have any money;

therefore

just like that

to pay

she did not want

CONJUNCTION

ADVERB

VERB

VERB

therefore she did not want to pay.

therefore

donkey of the dog

under

she hid

CONJUNCTION

NOUN

ADVERB

VERB

NOUN

Therefore she hid below Donkey and Dog.

40


funeral

house area arriving of the taxi getting off

NOUN

NOUN

NOUN

VERB

NOUN

VERB

they went
VERB

When they arrived at the funeral home they left the taxi.

therefore

at this time

on the street

when they go

CONJUNCTION

ADVERB

NOUN

VERB

idea

which they have

there is

NOUN

VERB

VERB

Therefore, when they go on the street nowadays, they

remember this:

donkey

money

because he paid

money change

to him

NOUN

NOUN

VERB

NOUN

PRON

he recieved street simply therefore without fear

he goes

VERB

VERB

NOUN

ADVERB

CONJ

NOUN

Donkey, because he paid the money and got his change, just
walks on the street without bothering.

the dog

also

of the change

because he did not get

NOUN

ADV

NOUN

VERB

because he went off

car

when he sees

always

VERB

NOUN

VERB

ADVERB

41


he barks
VERB

Dog, however, because he got off the taxi without his change,
barks whenever he sees a car.

goat

also

money nothing

because she did not pay

NOUN

ADV

NOUN

VERB

NUM

therefore

always

taxi when she sees

CONJ

ADVERB

NOUN

VERB

because she is afraid

she runs

VERB

VERB

But Goat, because she did not pay anything, whenever she sees
a car she gets afraid and runs away.

42